Process – oriented syllabuses

Curricula where the focus was on the grammatical, functional and conceptual building blocks from which courses of various types can be built were analysed. Initially, it seemed that functional-notional principles would lead to radically different curricula from those based on grammatical principles. In practice, however, the new curricula were quite similar to those they were intended to replace. In both cases, the focus tended to be on the final products or results of the teaching/learning process.

It was observed that the curricula in which the selection and gradation of the elements was carried out in a grammatical way fell into disuse because they did not adequately reflect the changing views on the nature of language. Furthermore, there was sometimes a discrepancy between what was taught and what was learned. Some second language learning (SLA) researchers have argued that this discrepancy is likely to occur whensyllabuscontentisgraded accordingtogrammaticalrather than psycholinguistic principles, while others suggest that the simple act of selecting and Linguistically grading the content can lead to distortions.

Proposals that focus on learning processes rather than the end products oftheseprocesseswereexplored.Thisis notto saythat all of these curricula do not at some point include a specification of what students should be able to do as a result of the instruction. However, when grammatical, functional and conceptual elements are considered, this occurs as a second order activity.

Objectives

It may come as some surprise to those familiar with the theory and practice of syllabus planning to find that we are only now getting around to discussing objectives. I have postponed consideration of objectives until after the discussion of processoriented and product-oriented syllabuses because the issues raised in those discussions are of particular relevance here. This does not mean that I am advocating the specification of content before the specification of objectives. Whether one moves from a specification of objectives to content and activities or the other way round will depend on the type of syllabus being developed, and the role which the objectives are made to play. In the socalled ‘rational’ curriculum process (Tyler 1949), objectives are specified before content and activities because their principal role is to act as a guide to the selection of the other elements in the curriculum. As we shall see, in the more interactive approaches to curriculum and syllabus design which have replaced the ‘rational’ approach, objectives can be useful, not only to guide the selection of structures, functions, notions, tasks, and so on, but also to provide a sharper focus for teachers, to give learners a clear idea of what they can expect from a language programme, to help in developing means of assessment and evaluation, and so on. In 2, we looked at some of the starting points in syllabus design and at the relationship between learner purpose and syllabusgoals. Goal statements are relatively imprecise. While they can act as general signposts, they need to be fleshed out in order to provide information for course and programme planners. This can be achieved through the specification of objectives. In 5, we shall see that there is no conflict or opposition between objectives, linguistic and experiential content, and learning activities. In fact, objectives are really nothing more than a particular way of formulating or stating content and activities.

Selecting and grading content

We will explore some of the different ways in which the ideas discussed have been applied. We will examine several different curriculaandexplorethewaysinwhichgrammatical,functional and conceptual elements are selected, graded and interrelated. The goal is to familiarize yourself with how these elements are conventionally treated. This will provide you with the skills and knowledge to analyze the selection and grading of content in your own curricula, a task that you will be required to perform.

So far we have examined the selection, grading, and integration of structural, functional, and conceptual content. The aim was to explore the ways in which content selection and grading is conventionally treated, and to provide you with the skills to examine and critique content selection and grading in your own curricula.

Selecting and grading learning tasks

It is important to establish a clear connection between the goals and objectives of the curriculum, the content and the learning activities to ensure that the methodological approach promotes the achievement of the desired communicative and linguistic goals.

Procedural syllabuses aretask- and procedure-based approaches to curriculum design that are believed to promote second language acquisition. These approaches can be useful in contexts where there are no specific communicative goals or where students have limited language learning goals.

Selecting and grading objectives

Product-oriented objectives describe the things that a student will be able to do as a result of the instruction. These objectives, also known as performance objectives, can be expressed in different terms. For example, they can refer to grammatical, functional, thematic or content skills and knowledge.

Examples and applications of product-oriented goals are provided in the section. An excerpt from the Washington State Refugee Adult ESL Master Plan is included, illustrating how objectives are formulated and expressed in a specific context.

In summary, "Selecting and grading objectives" addresses the process of selecting and grading objectives for the curriculum. Product-oriented goals are discussed and concrete examples are provided to understand how these goals are defined and expressed in different educational contexts.