Manchester Historian Issue 19

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Issue 19: March 2015

Manchester Historian

Incan Sacrifice In Features

Dating Through the Ages Behind the Headlines

Motown & the Civil Rights Movement In Culture

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Issue 19: March 2015

What’s Inside

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• Page 3 - A Note from the Editors Women in History • Page 4 - Empress Dowager Cixi Undiscovered Heroes of History • Page 5 - John R. Fox History in Features • Page 6 - Children in the Workhouse & The Suicide of Mark Antony • Page 7 - The Motivation for Fasting • Page 8 - Incan Sacrifice • Page 9 - Sacrifice in the Tunnels and Seppuku • Page 10 - Liberian Cannibalism • Page 11 - The Battle of Thermopylae • Page 12 - The Witches’ Sabbath • Page 13 - Roop and the Glowworm History in 10 Photos • Pages 14-15 - 1945 in 10 Photos Battle of the Month • Page 16 - The Battle of Brentford History You Should Know • Page 17 - The Black Death • Page 18 - Concubinage & The Viking Siege of The Manchester Historian 2014/2015 Team Paris • Page 19 - The Mau Mau Uprising Editors Zoey Strzelecki History in the Headlines Xan Atkins • Page 20 - The History of the Oscars • Page 21 - The History of Greek Politics & Dating Head of Design Jamie Brannan through the Ages Head of Copy-Editing Hebe Thorne History in Culture Head of Marketing Stephanie Haszczyn • Page 22 - ‘Empire Made Me’ Book Review • Page 23 - Motown: Its True Impact on the Civil Head of Online James Schoonmaker Rights Movement History in Manchester Design Team Laura Robinson • Page 24 - Manchester Central Library Review & Laura Callard Melanie Fernandes Whitworth Art Gallery Review • Page 25 - Daniel Szechi Interview Copy-Editing Team Sophie Brownlee University Thomas Learmouth Helen Chapman • Page 26 - Half Time Team Talk & History Ball • Page 27 - Manchester Historian 2015/16 Team Natalie Sharpin Charlotte Munday Advertisement

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Issue 19: March 2015

A Note from the Editors The ritual of sacrifice has been an integral part of hundreds of cultures throughout the centuries. Many times this would involve the sacrifice of life, being a cow, a bull, or even a human being. But over the years sacrifice has manifested itself in other forms. Most notably, is the concept of self-sacrifice; the idea that a human being will give up something for a cause. In this issue we have tried to explore the concept of sacrifice in different ways, from the Incan ritual of sacrificing young children to please the gods, to those who give up food and fast for religious beliefs.

With award season on the front pages of all newspapers after Madonna’s Brits tumble, our ‘History Behind the Headlines’ explores the history of the Oscars, and in thinking about the recent Greek elections we investigated the history of Greek politics, the home of democracy.

Did you know that the Vikings attacked Paris in 885AD? Or that Chinese men could take concubines alongside their wives and father their children? Or that the British suppressed one of the most bloody rebellions in Kenya? No? Well read on to our history you should know to learn more about these key historical events.

With the reopening of the famous Whitworth Art Gallery, and the refurbishing of The Manchester Central library, our writers have explored the history and reviewed parts of our newly revamped city. We also look at the effect of Motown music on America’s civil rights movement, and review the famous book Empire Made Me, the experiences of an Englishman adrift in Shanghai.

Finally, we have our monthly interview, this time with renowned early modernist Daniel Szechi and our undiscovered hero of history this month is John R. Fox, whose unknown tale of self-sacrifice is inspiring to all who read it.

Also, after the Easter break we will start advertising for next year’s Historian team so have a look at the back for roles you could get involved with.

We hope you enjoy Issue 19, Xan and Zoey “Human progress is neither automatic nor inevitable... Every step toward the goal of justice requires sacrifice, suffering, and struggle; the tireless exertions and passionate concern of dedicated individuals.”

Martin Luther King, Jr.

Xan Atkins and Zoey Strzelecki

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Women In History

Issue 19: March 2015

Empress Dowager Cixi

By Chloe Wright Empress Dowager Cixi is a figure of Chinese history who is an incredibly interesting, influential and controversial woman. This controversy stems from the fact that in practice she ruled China for forty seven years until she died in 1908.

Chinese society from the Eastern Zhou Dynasty to the late Qing Dynasty was based upon the ideals of traditional Confucianism which was heavily made up of the idea of social hierarchies, including respect for those elder than yourself and especially important to the case of Empress Dowager Cixi, patriarchy. In this light, wives would walk behind husbands and girls would undertake various tasks such as foot binding to make themselves desirable wives. Because of the notion of patriarchy held firmly by Confucianism, Empress Dowager Cixi’s rule is even more exceptional.

Selected as an imperial concubine for the Xianfeng Emperor, Cixi was elevated up to the third rank of consorts making her only less in rank to the Empress.

Due to her ability to read and write Chinese, the Emperor often called upon her for help the day to day ruling of his empire. This in turn helped Cixi learn how to govern the state, which many attribute to her successes once in power.

Cixi gave birth to the Xianfeng Emperor’s only surviving son in 1856. On Xianfeng’s death, their son became Tonghzi Emperor in 1861, making her Empress Dowager and due to his tender age of just five years old, Empress Dowager Cixi became regent ruler of China.

She was met by fierce opposition from the regent ministers. To secure her political power on her return to the capital she allied with powerful figures including the Xianfeng Emperor’s wife and two imperial princes whom had been wronged by the regent ministers. On her return to the capital, she The Empress Dowager Cixi executed only three of the usurping regent ministers, thus maintaining the Credit: Wikimedia Commons. moral high ground on the issue by displaying both her morality and mercy.

In Chinese tradition it was stated that females should not engage in politics, but by ruling from behind the curtain on behalf of her son, Empress Dowager Cixi became the first woman to do so.

Empress Dowager Cixi ushered in reform from the beginning of her rule whilst putting down various rebellions which posed a threat to the unity and stability of China. She recognised that the traditionally Manchu dominated bureaucracy was tired and needed reshaping, placing many high level offices to Han Chinese. Furthermore, by promoting local officials to government position and honouring them with titles, she ensured their loyalties and in turn they worked incredibly hard under her rule.

With increasing pressures from the West, Empress Dowager Cixi issued and pushed forward the “Self Strengthening Movement.”

During the 1860s this entailed vast institutional reforms in areas such as arsenal, shipyard and navy strengthening. A foreign office and Foreign Language School were established. In the 1870s other reforms took place under her orders including government investment in alleys such as shipping, railways, mining and modern medicine to bring China in line with its Western counterparts.

Empress Dowager Cixi’s son died mysteriously in 1874, just as he came of age to rule China independently. She installed her four year old nephew, Guangxu as the next emperor and continued her rule behind the curtain.

When Guangxu came of age, Cixi retired and he gathered many reformer officials and scholars around him to aid him in his rule. After defeat in the First Sino-Japanese War, Guangxu announced 103 edicts calling for reforms which came to be known as the hundred day’s reform. These included replacing the education system, encouraging foreign investment, modernising the bureaucracy and rebuilding the military.

The conservative minded Cixi responded harshly, coming out of retirement and placing the emperor under house arrest for the remainder of his life. She publically executed the scholars who aided Guangxu with his reforms and placed her 3 year old grandnephew on the throne. After her return to power, Cixi sent Chinese officials to Europe and Japan to examine their systems.

Ironically, some of Cixi’s reforms were more radical than the hundred days reform with the most obvious being the dismantling of the examination system in 1905. In attempts to charm the foreigners, Cixi hosted their wives.

Empress Dowager Cixi was a figure of female authority and power in China, against some patriarchal Chinese traditions. She put down rebellion and ushered in reform. Considering the Qing dynasty collapsed four years after her death, maybe she was the one whom held it together?

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Undiscovered Heroes of History

Issue 19: March 2015

John R. Fox

By Matt Steadman Stories of heroism and self-sacrifice permeate our memories of the Second World War. We think of the heroic efforts of the American Rangers scaling the cliffs of the Pointe du Hoc, the Russian Army’s desperate last stand at Stalingrad, the Japanese forces’ determination not to cede a an inch of the barren, volcanic soil on Iwo Jima, and the courage of the encircled British forces under siege at Tobruk. These moments of heroism and sacrifice have been widely documented, celebrated and admired, and form an integral part of our memory of this conflict. However, some acts of valour and self-sacrifice have gone largely unnoticed, forgotten in the midst of the death and carnage as the Second World War tore the world apart. It is impossible, of course, to fully commemorate and honour every instance of heroic self-sacrifice that occurred in a conflict that lasted six years and spanned four continents; however it is through honouring and remembering these stories of courage that we can make sense of such a terrible period in human history. The story of Second Lieutenant John Robert Fox of the US Army’s 92nd Infantry Division, is one such story.

John Robert Fox, born in Cincinnati, Ohio, in 1915, graduated with a commission of second lieutenant in 1940 from the Reserve Officer Training Corps (ROTC) and was incorporated into the 92nd Infantry Division. The particularity of this division was that it was a segregated African-American one, proudly known as the Buffalo Soldiers, which served with distinction in Italy in the late 1940s. It was in the peninsula that Fox served, and died as a result of an act of incredible valour.

Fox was part of a small forward observer party that had volunteered to stay behind in the small Italian village of Sommocolonia, in the Serchio River Valley on 26th December 1944, after American forces had been forced to withdraw after it had been overrun by a surprise and powerful German counterattack. From his position on the second floor of a house, Fox directed defensive artillery fire as German troops swarmed through the streets and attacked, greatly outnumbering the small detachment from the 92nd Infantry Division. As they advanced, Fox radioed to have the artillery strikes adjusted closer and closer to his position to delay the Germans, and to give his troops the chance to retreat and reform. He then radioed again to have the fire moved even closer, to the stunned surprise of the soldier receiving the message. When he was informed that this was tantamount to suicide as the shells would land directly on his position, Fox simply replied “fire it”.

His actions severely delayed the Germans and permitted US forces to regroup and organize a counter attack which led to them repelling the German and regaining control of the village. Upon retaking the village, the units found Fox’s body surrounded by those of around one hundred Germans.

For his “gallant and courageous actions, at the supreme sacrifice of his own life”, John Robert Fox was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honour, which was received by his wife from President Bill Clinton in a White House Ceremony on January 13, 1997. This ceremony marked a turning point in United States military tradition as the medal was also awarded to six other African-American World War Two veterans, who had previously been neglected on account of their skin colour.

It took half a century for Lieutenant Fox’s incredible sacrifice and courage in the face of overwhelming odds to be recognised, which shows the importance of memory and remembering fallen and forgotten heroes who, as his citation put it, “reflect the upmost credit” on our armed forces.

Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

Children in the Workhouse

By Sophie Bullock When we think of children and the workhouse, Oliver Twist is the ubiquitous image that comes to the minds of many people. Whilst the fictional Oliver’s experience as an orphan in the workhouse was certainly the experience of some, it is sometimes forgotten that whole families often lived in the workhouse, albeit not together; mothers, fathers and children were all separated. As a result, growing up in the workhouse had a profound effect on these children, where they were deprived of a family life and the presence of their parents. The mentality behind separating children from their parents was to try and bring them up to be ‘useful’, unlike their parents, otherwise would not have entered the workhouse in the first place. However, this resulted in families only seeing each other at meal times or in the chapel, where they were not allowed to speak to one another.

By 1839, almost of half of the workhouse population- around 43,000 out of 98,000- were children. One of the largest consequences for poor children living in the workhouse was the lack of education. Though the Victorian era saw education become no longer a privilege of just the upper and middle-classes, legislative changes were slow to include the poorest in society. This is reflected in the fact that whilst schooling became mandatory in 1880, it did not become free until 1891. In any case, poor families could often not afford the extra expense of school; either they could not spare the children the time from work to attend school or were in such a position of poverty that their only option was the workhouse.

The standard of education given to children in the workhouse was extremely basic, with neither reading nor writing offered. Instead, the education the children did receive was vocational, and completely dependent on their gender, age and ability. Furthermore, children were made to work, often doing manual labour and occasionally ‘hired out’ to factories and mines. This in turn severely limited work prospects upon reaching adulthood, in which unskilled and illiterate workers were at a direct disadvantage in a society where reading and writing had become widely accessible to many. Living in the workhouse meant that the basic physical needs of the children at the time were accounted for but it also meant sacrificing a childhood through no fault of their own.

Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

The Suicide of Mark Antony

By El Mawer Mark Antony’s life spanned the last fifty years of the Roman Republic. Born in 83 BC into a family of ancient lineage and high distinction, Antony unsurprisingly lived a predominantly political and military existence. He held a respectable career as a Roman general and statesman; however his romantic position became of increasing interest and importance. Mark Antony, it is supposed, partook in the union of marriage with five separate women, although his relationship with Cleopatra is undoubtedly the most infamous. Whilst many will be acquainted with Shakespeare’s play Antony and Cleopatra, based on Plutarch’s Life of Antony, the tragedy presents a romantic and distorted view of events. However, it remains dismally accurate that the suicide of Mark Antony, provoked by the belief that Cleopatra had already ended her own life, marked the tragic end of their relationship.

41 BC marked the year that saw the commencement of Mark Antony’s affair with the Egyptian queen, Cleopatra, the woman who had been Caesar’s lover in the last years of his life. Antony was forced to return to Rome from Egypt, which ultimately resulted in his obligatory marriage to Octavia, Octavian’s sister. After this brief interlude, Antony and Cleopatra’s liaison resumed in 37 BC. Mark Antony and Cleopatra’s relationship did not only hold romantic significance, but also influenced Antony’s political standing in Rome. He became increasingly more entwined with the Egyptian kingdom and ultimately, his divorce from Octavia in 32 BC resulted in his complete alienation from the sympathies of his native people.

The declaration of war on Cleopatra by the embittered Octavia, and the subsequent Battle of Actium in 31 BC, signified the demise of Antony and Cleopatra’s marriage. The defeat of their combined forces impelled the pair to make a desperate flight back to Egypt, and Octavian’s invasion of Egypt in 30 BC exacerbated tensions further. Cleopatra’s escape to the sanctuary of her mausoleum provoked the dissolution of Antony and Cleopatra’s relationship in tragic circumstances. With no other refuge to escape to, Antony committed suicide by stabbing himself with his sword in the mistaken belief that Cleopatra had already done so, with many suggesting that this message was calculatedly sent in order to prompt Antony to kill himself. Antony’s wound was not immediately fatal, and upon being tragically informed that Cleopatra still lived, Antony had himself carried to Cleopatra’s retreat where he finally died in her arms.

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

The Motivation for Fasting

By Natalie Sharpin Now we are firmly past Pancake Day and into the run up to Easter, many of us have given up something for Lent, the most popular choice being chocolate and all things carby and sweet. Yet the motivation for this discipline is important – not just to get your bikini body ready in time for the blazing hot summer term in Manchester – but, paradoxically, to connect with yourself on a spiritual level.

Fasting is a tradition engrained in our biology from our time as hunter-gatherers. This was fundamental in a world reliant on nature where hunger and starvation were real aspects of life. The rhythm of hunger and fasting is ubiquitous in human culture. Either partial or complete abstinence from all food or from certain foods has existed from the early civilizations of Mesopotamia and Egypt, China and India, Palestine and Persia to name a few. For instance, Jainism encourages a focus of the mind and body on the virtues of the soul with the goal of self-purification and cleansing. Fasting has since been an important part of religious practice and continues to be so for Christians during Lent and Muslims during Ramadan.

Historically, religious fasting has provided dignity to both starvation and gluttony. The pace of history has been moved by hunger: pressure to find food from fresh sources has come from the need to feed. A ‘culture of hunger’ has prevailed revolving around fear of starvation. In early modern England, the ‘famine of living’ upset the price curve by rocketing the price of foodstuffs to an inaccessible level for urban artisans and labourers while the withered countryside saw its inhabitants migrating towards the safe haven of the cities in order to beg. Simultaneously, those ‘better’ sorts actively participated in the conspicous consumption of luxury food products and used food as a strategy for social pretention within a new material culture and emergence of a dining ritual. This was accompanied by a shift to Protestantism under Edward VI, which unleashed a puritanical spirit towards pleasures of the body.

Indeed, humans have always held a strange tension between greed and restraint. In the aftermath of the Plague, the takeover of most land was from death; therefore, the ‘capitalist sorts’ rose, not because of thrift and abstinence as economists have traditionally depicted, but from the dispossession of others. As such, religious ideas of frugality and dietary temperance covered up an appetite for land and fields. The painting His Battle between Carnival and Lent (1559) by Pieter Brueghel the Elder perfectly depicts the daily battle between bodily pleasure and temperance at this time. These extremes in diet are ones we still struggle with today.

Fasting, therefore, represents purification from gluttony and materialism. It becomes a therapeutic exercise and gives space to reflect on personal, professional and spiritual goals to ask: am I still satisfied with the principles which guide my actions? Rather than the physical act of abstinence it is a challenge to embody to deeper principles, such as sacrifice, penance, or meditation.

Sharing in these rituals, particularly ones that make you feel uncomfortable can force us to break down barriers of communication and conquer our fear of the other through empathy and cultural transaction. Notable annual fasts include famine events, such as the 30 Hour Famine, to bring awareness to world poverty and hunger. As such, fasting is not always religious in nature; increasingly, we are being made aware of the physical benefits, made popular by the 5:2 diet. It is claimed that fasting improves our health by increasing lifespan, increasing cognitive function and protection from disease.

Fasting can also be an expression of human wants, whether religious or not – indicating that what you are asking for is more important to you than the fundamental need to eat. For instance, a hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance in which fasting acts as a political protest to provoke change. Notable instances include Emmeline Pankhurst, Mahatma Gandhi, Bobby Sands and César Chávez. Many activists have lost their lives during hunger strikes in their quest for a better world and while there has been great social and political success through this type of protest, many ask if self-harm is necessary to achieve these ends.

Therefore, fasting cannot always be seen as something beneficial. Sikhism takes a unique stance: ‘torturing’ the body does nothing for the spirit. Indeed, it is worth remembering fasting is only ever promoted in moderation, whether your motivation is religious, spiritual, physical or political.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder The Fight Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

Incan Sacrifice

By Sophie Brownlee The Incas, though never numbering more than 100,000 as an ethnic group, succeeded in creating the largest native empire in the New World until 1533. ‘Capacocha’ was the Inca practice of human sacrifice and recent discoveries in 1995 and 1999 have prompted further questions into this culture. In 1995, a frozen girl was found on Mount Ampato, sacrificed more than 500 years ago on the 22,000ft volcano, and thought to be drugged with coca leaves and alcohol before being left to freeze to death. In 1999, three more Inca children were discovered, all now exhibited in Argentina. But why was a practice that sounds so brutal, carried out by the Incas?

The Inca emperor, Pachacutec, or ‘overturner of worlds’ began the subjugation of nearby provinces, continued by his successors.

They succeeded in building an empire that included taxpaying peasants, local governors and administrators, and a cooperative elite.

It is interesting to picture the contrast between the Incas seemingly advanced state structure and bureaucracy compared to what, today, we might consider the barbaric practice of sacrifice. Incas, of course, were not the first culture to turn to sacrifice; the Celts of Ireland and Britain, Mongols, Scythians, early Egyptians, and Mesoamerican groups all made human sacrifices for various reasons.

Interestingly, whilst sacrifice carries plenty of religious connotations, geography has a huge part to play. The Inca Empire straddled the Andes Mountains, a chain created by the Nazca tectonic plate slowly smashing into the South American plate. This area, known as the Pacific’s ‘ring of fire’ is extremely volatile, prone to frequent volcano eruptions and earthquakes. The empire was also wrecked by savage floods, disrupting food supplies and destroying cities.

Sacrifice was the Inca solution to these destructive natural disasters. The Incas believed the natural world was controlled by a hierarchy of Gods, whom they sought to create and maintain reciprocal and favorable relationships with. The primary god was the sun god, Inti, who made agriculture possible. Offerings to gods ranged from prayers, food and woven cloth all the way to animal and, ultimately, human sacrifice. The level of sacrifice corresponded to the uncertainty of the disaster; for example, when an emperor died, volcanoes erupted or famine struck, priests sacrificed captured warriors or Inca children.

The children involved were specially raised for sacrifice. Children were considered to be the purest of beings and therefore the best the people could present to the gods. Victims were generally aged between six and fifteen. Months before the sacrifice pilgrimage, the children were fattened up on animal meat and maize – the diet of the elite Incas. At Cuzco, the Inca capital, a feast was held in their honour and they were dressed in fine clothing and jewelry. Archaeological excavations turned up more than 100 precious ornaments buried with these children, illustrating the commitment of the Inca people to pleasing the gods.

The sacrificial pilgrimage took the priests and children to the mountain tops. Coca leaves were fed to the children to aid their breathing on the long and arduous journey. At the burial site, the children are thought to have been drugged to minimize pain, fear and resistance. The sacrificing act itself was usually carried out by strangulation, a blow to the head, or freezing to death.

Such brutality prompts us to ask how could people commit such acts. The answer can be found in religion once more; the Incas believed in an afterlife and that the children they sacrificed would be more abundantly provided for in a better world.

The Incas were doing their best to fathom what, to us, is now predictable via calculations, satallites and and a better geographical understanding of the natural world. They believed they were doing their best to ensure the survival of their people and empire.

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Image by Johan Reinhard, of the Llullaillaco Maiden founded in 1999 (credit: New Scientist).

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

Sacrifice in the Tunnels – The Secret War of WW1

By Stephanie Keyte There is one area of World War One trench warfare on which little light has been shed. Underneath the trenches lies the secret history of the Royal Engineer Tunneling companies. These men had the task of digging underneath the trenches into no-man’s-land and planting explosives under enemy territory.

Once these explosives were detonated, the infantry would charge towards enemy lines and take advantage of the confusion to make territorial advances.

This was an extremely dangerous but highly successful operation that lasted up until 1917. Somewhat strangely, most of the men in these secret regiments were not the well-trained operatives you would expect. They were generally civilians with practically no training. John Norton Griffiths was an engineer and MP for Wednesbury when he came up with the revolutionary plan of the tunneling regiments. He argued that the miners and clay kickers he had worked with digging out the Manchester sewers would be far superior at tunnel warfare compared to their German enemies. And thus Norton Griffiths was tasked with setting up the Royal Engineer Tunneling companies.

Tunnels Exit of the allied military tunnels in the Carriere Wellington. (Wikimedia Commons.)

These tunnellers constantly worked under extremely dangerous, potentially fatal conditions. Carbon monoxide poisoning, tunnel collapse and unplanned explosions of earlier mines were all major risks of this warfare. However, the most terrifying fear to these men was the hand-to-hand fight in the dark if they were to encounter enemy tunnellers. Listening devices were practically their only attempt to stop this fear from becoming a constant reality. The tunneling companies suffered many casualties throughout the war. Five British men were killed whilst tunneling in the Somme in 1915, including William Arthur Lloyd, an engineer from Wrexham. Although their cause of death is officially unknown, many of these men sacrificed themselves in a bid to defeat the enemy.

The tunnel regiments became increasingly successful throughout WW1. At the start of the Somme offensive, the British forces detonated 24 tonnes of explosives under enemy territory. Additionally, a mine weighing over 91000lbs. created a hole in Spanbroekmolen that is large enough to house a 40ft deep lake now known as the Pool of Peace. This mining warfare reached its zenith with the explosion of 19 mines under the Messines Ridge in 1917. The fluid movement of war rendered infantry siege tactics ineffective and therefore the work of the tunnellers became increasingly useless, as they could no longer keep up with the pace of war. The men from these tunneling companies were now tasked with digging dugouts and worked as infantrymen on the ground – their secret war was over.

Seppukua Suicidal Honour

By Zoey Strzelecki Seppuku was part of the honour code of Japanese samurai and could be performed for several reasons. Literally meaning, “stomach cutting”, samurai would sacrifice their own lives by method of disembowelment. Performed by the shorter of the two swords samurai carried, the wakizashi could be used to cut open the abdomen, and then upwards toward the naval; this method was called jumonji.

This method avoided the damaging of any vital organs and thus, the victim could sometimes wait hours before death. It was believed that one’s soul or spirit resided within the abdomen. Opening the abdomen meant laying bare one’s soul and showing resolution to expiate a crime, or to demonstrate innocence and honour. One of the most common reasons for performing seppuku was to avoid being captured by an enemy. It was custom to take the heads of fallen enemies on the battlefield. Wounded and helpless warriors left on the battlefield favoured death in a form of “honourable suicide” rather than being by mutilated by an enemy solider, especially if that enemy soldier was of a lower-ranking. For the Japanese, to be taken prisoner alive was a great dishonour, and those who survived battle through cowardice were ostracised. Seppuku later developed into a form of execution and punishment. A second person would stand behind the person about to perform seppuku (who would be sat in a cross-legged position), and the head would be struck off after the first incision. This was viewed as the only honourable way out of an impossible situation if someone of the samurai class had been accused of a crime. Once this act had begun in motion, it could not be interrupted for any reason, even if a pardon note were to arrive. The act was to be carried out with the utmost dignity by all who were present.

Other reasons for performing seppuku included if a samurai felt duty-bound to give his lord pragmatic but unwelcome advice. Seppukujunshi was commonly practised in the early Tokugawa period and literally meant ‘following the lord in death’. The most famous example of this is when General Nogi Maresuke, hero of the Russo-Japanese war, committed seppuku to follow the late Emperor Meiji in his death in 1912. Another form, hito-bashira, was less common but still encompassed the idea of honour. When the hole was being dug for the cornerstone of a new building, the person willing to become hito-bashira would climb into the hole and commit seppuku. It was believed that after foundation stones had been laid upon his corpse, his spirit would protect and guard the building.

For whatever reason seppuku was performed, honour and pride were strung within victim and anyone else present during the act.

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

Liberian Civil War Cannibalism

By Jen Birdsall In 1989 the First Liberian Civil War erupted. In 1980, Samuel Doe headed a coup d’état to overthrow the government. The war began in 1989 because Charles Taylor, a former government minister, moved from a neighbouring country with the intention of starting an uprising meant to topple the government headed by Doe. Those who supported Taylor were named the Armed Forces of Liberia. In 1990, these forces executed Doe in the capital Monrovia. It was an intense conflict and eventually the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) and the United Nations (UN) became involved.

They managed to secure a ceasefire in 1995, and although this was broken a year later, they helped negotiate a final peace agreement and new national elections in 1997. Taylor was elected President of Liberia in the July of that year. Nonetheless, the peace did not last for long and in 1999 the tensions resumed with the Second Liberian Civil War. The second war was triggered when a rebel group, the Liberians United for Reconciliation and Democracy (LURD), who were supported by Guinea emerged in the north of the country. Furthering this, another rebel group, the United Liberation Movement for Democracy in Liberia (ULIMO), emerged in the south of the country. Consequently, President Taylor only controlled one third of the nation. These different groups and ideologies led to a lot of conflict. Nevertheless, in August 2003 the Accra Comprehensive Peace Agreement was signed which signified the end of the conflict. The signing of the peace agreement also began the state’s transition to democracy under the National Transitional Government of Liberia. This government was maintained by President Gyude Bryant until the 2005 general election.

Civil Wars have been a common occurrence throughout history, but what makes the Liberian Civil Wars so notable is the presence of cannibalism. Cannibalism is usually the ritualistic eating of human flesh by another human being. During the 14-year civil war there were many cases of soldiers – which included child soldiers – indulging in the bodies, in particular the heart, of their victims.

The culture of cannibalism has led people labelling the barbaric events under the heading of the ‘Liberian uncivil war’. Along with cannibalism, the wars in Liberia were also extreme due to their extensive use of child soldiers. The use of children was present by all sides, regardless of the outlines against the use of them in warfare in the Geneva Convention.

By delving into the life of Joshua Milton Blahyi, otherwise known as General Butt Naked, we can truly see the barbarism that occurred during the wars. The General was a commander of forces (the Butt Naked Brigade) that were then under the control of Liberian warlord Roosevelt Johnson. Johnson supported ULIMO and thus went against Taylor. Blahyi got the name ‘General Butt Naked’ because he and his troops marched into action with nothing but shoes and a gun. He was under the belief that nakedness was a form of protection. Furthermore, he told the South African Star that before leading his troops into battle, he would ‘get drunk and drugged up, sacrifice a local teenager and then drink the blood’. This was due to the fact that Blahyi claimed to regularly meet and talk to Satan and sacrificing a victim for battle and the fresh blood as a result of this would satisfy the devil. Usually a small child’s blood was most agreeable. He admitted to the Seattle Post-Intelligencer that ‘he would enter the water where children were playing, grab one and break his neck. Sometimes accidentally, sometimes just to slaughter them’. In his confession to carrying out human sacrifices, after killing an innocent child they would pluck out the heart, divide it into pieces and share it amongst his troops. This ritual meant that in addition to war fatalities, they also produced a high death toll outside of battles.

Blahyi’s inhumane actions came to an end in 1996 when he converted to Christianity: he had a theophany in which Jesus Christ appeared and told him that he would die unless he repented his sins. In 1997, he travelled to a refugee camp in Ghana where he confessed his sins and turned his life around. He now insists that his actions were caused by satanic powers that possessed him and thus he cannot be held responsible. Nonetheless, he is willing to be tried for war crimes despite believing that he has justified his actions.

The flag of Liberia Credit: Wikimedia Commons

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

The Battle of Thermopylae

By Matthew Steadman In 480 BC, the pass of Thermopylae was the scene of one of the most famous last stands in military history. A Greek force outnumbered by over 100,000 men of the mighty Persian army held out for 3 days against overwhelming odds, sacrificing themselves to allow the evacuation of Athens and the regrouping of their rear-guard who eventually crushed the Persians at the Battle of Plataea the following year. Their story and sacrifice was immortalised by Zack Snyder’s 300 which propelled this battle into popular memory and made everyone an admirer of Greek fighting prowess and courage.

The Battle of Thermopylae was part of the second Persian invasion of Greece and was fought between alliances of Greek city-states, led by King Leonidas, and the Persian Empire of Xerxes I. This second invasion was a delayed response to Persian defeat at the Battle of Marathon by Athenian forces in 490 BC, and was part of Persian ambitions to expand their empire into the fractious world of Ancient Greece. Emissaries were sent to Greek city-states asking for gifts of earth and water as a sign of submission to Persia’s empire, following a demonstration of power that led to the capture of Thrace and the subjugation of the kingdom of Macedon. The majority of states obliged, fearful of retribution from the might of this growing empire. In Athens, however, ambassadors were executed by throwing them in a pit and in Sparta; they were simply thrown down a well.

Sparta and Athens were now effectively at war with Persia.

Ever since the defeat at Marathon Xerxes had been amassing an incredible army geared for the total Image credit: Wikimedia Commons. annihilation and subjugation of Greece. In the face of this, the Athenians realised they would be hopelessly outnumbered and, led by Themistocles, sought an alliance with other free city states, a remarkable endeavour within the disjointed Greek world especially given how many of the states were technically at war with each other. Allied through a common fear and hatred of Persian expansion and under the command of Themistocles, the Greeks realised the army of Xerxes would have to pass through the narrow pass of Thermopylae to get to southern Greece, which could easily be blocked by Greek forces and would partially cancel out the overwhelming Persian numbers. Equally, the allied navies would block the straits of Artemisium to ensure that the forces at Thermopylae could not be bypassed.

In the summer of 480 BC, an allied Greek force of roughly 7,000 men marched north to block the pass in the face of a Persian army numbering 150,000. Formed into a phalanx, where soldiers stood shoulder to shoulder with their shields overlapping and lances protruding towards the enemy, the Greeks repelled wave after wave of Persian fighters who attacked by groups of 10,000 men. Even the Persian “Immortals”, an elite fighting force of 10,000 men were “cut to ribbons” by the Greeks and especially Spartan forces, who feigned retreat before turning back and decimating the attackers. This story repeated itself for two days before a local resident named Ephialtes betrayed the Greeks by revealing the existence of a small path that led behind the Greek lines. Leonidas became aware that his force was being outflanked and dismissed the bulk of the Greek army to prevent their total annihilation and allowing them to reform. He remained to guard their retreat with 300 Spartans, 700 Thespians, 400 Thebans and a few hundred others, for one final stand. Here, in accordance with the ancient tradition of refusing to retreat, the Greek forces fought to the last man, before being crushed by the waves of Persian attacks.

The Persians pushed on into Greece but lost their naval support after Themistocles attacked them and defeated them at the Battle of Salamis, thanks to the actions of the hoplites at Thermopylae who had delayed Xerxes for so long, allowing the Greek navy to organise and attack. Cut off from his lines of supply, Xerxes was forced to retreat back to Asia, losing most of army through starvation and disease, before being crushed at the Battle of Plataea the following year.

The Battle of Thermopylae has been used throughout the ages as the perfect example of the power of a patriotic army defending its native soil against incredible odds. The performance of the defenders of Thermopylae has gone down in history as an incredible act

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

The Witches’ Sabbath

By Jamie Taylor Witchcraft was something which expanded greatly during the medieval period, particularly from the onset of the fifteenth century. It had been developed from a long tradition of ecclesiastical and secular persecution of the practice of illicit magic, an act deemed wildly heretical. However, by the 1400s a much more extreme and sinister conception of witchcraft had emerged, with one core element being the ritual gathering of witches at the Sabbath.

An understanding of the existence and reality of the Sabbath grew rapidly in the fifteenth century due to its wide appearance in a multitude of contemporary texts. These accounts were almost identical in their perception, speaking of a ritualistic and sinister gathering of witches in remote locations. Sabbath witches were summoned to attend a ceremony where Satan himself and other demons would be present in human or animal form. Each witch was required to profess their undying loyalty and service to the Devil and make a full renunciation and rejection of the Christian faith in return for being taught the ‘black arts’. In addition, Sabbath proceedings would involve the non-discriminatory sexual affairs of the witches, most of whom were female, with the Devil and his demons as they were engaged in a sinister relationship which consumed their body and their soul. The result of such ceremonies would train the witches to inflict harm on others by using the magical arts, such as inflicting infertility and sterilization, summoning storms and hail, and invoking pestilence.

Sacrifice became one of the core elements of the witches’ Sabbath initially through a sacrificial offering of the witches own body and soul to the Devil, forever. A witch would swear total allegiance to Satan, in addition to the offering of one limb after death, in return for the knowledge and ability to practice the dark magical arts.

A ritual sacrifice to the Devil in animal form.

The sacrifice of infants was also a common theme of the Sabbath; Image credit: Wikimedia Commons. babies were murdered, abducted and consumed in the name of Satan as a way to pledge allegiance. According to the account of Johannes Nider in his Formicarius, one witch at Bern admitted to the sacrifice of thirteen babies. A ritualistic killing was made, where the remains of the baby were then added to a witches’ broth. The contents would be boiled to separate flesh from bone, where the solid matter would be used for the purposes of practicing rites and transmutations. Liquid remains were put in to flasks made from human skin, to be drunk as a pledge of allegiance to the Devil. Consumers of this liquid matter would absorb the knowledge of the black arts.

Curses were also supposedly used as a method to induce death. The witch Stedelen of Lausanne confessed to the killing of seven unborn babies while in the womb of the mother in a particular house at his trial. His curse inflicted abortion on all pregnancies for numerous years, even stopping the reproduction of livestock. He claimed to have imposed this curse by placing a lizard underneath the front entrance of the house. Upon discovering this, the alleged lizard was not found for having turned to dust, but when all of the dirt underneath the front entrance was removed fertility miraculously returned to the household.

The publication of the Malleus Maleficarum, a witch-hunting manual, in 1435 cemented the medieval reality of witchcraft and the existence of the Sabbath. Written by theologians and inquisitors Kramer and Sprenger who dealt with the persecution of witches, it speaks of them as the most evil and vile form of magic and superstition. They were sinister individuals who had rejected the Catholic faith in the name of the Devil and embarked on a quest to instill horror unto others. The witches who gathered at the Sabbath were amongst the most powerful class of witches, known for their dark magical ways of inflicting harm and their ritual sacrifice of children.

Although modern interpretations may view witchcraft merely as a supernatural phenomenon, it was very much a real and legitimate source of fear and controversy in the Middle-Ages. Contemporary sources detail multiple accounts of witches and their gatherings at the Sabbath, demonstrating their legitimacy in an age with a firm belief in the arts of magic and sorcery. While some view this spectacle as an attempt of authorities to rationalize heretical matters they could not comprehend, in the age of witchcraft there was a very genuine and widespread understanding of magical practice and the Sabbath.

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History in Features

Issue 19: March 2015

Roope and the Glowworm

By Xan Atkins Amongst the many tales of self-sacrifice and mad courage in the face of overwhelming odds, one striking story is that of LieutenantCommander Gerard Roope. Roope was captain of the HMS Glowworm, a Royal Navy G-class destroyer operating off the coast of Norway during the early months of the Second World War. Having completed an escort mission for the battlecruiser HMS Renown, the Glowworm was detached from the rest of the squadron to search for a man lost overboard. It was while on this search, in heavy weather, that she lost touch with the British detachment and came across two German destroyers, both part of a naval detachment escorting the German heavy cruiser, Admiral Hipper.

Glowworm engaged both these vessels and, after taking a hit, both disengaged and retreated north. Roope knew that they were trying to lure him within range of the massive guns of the Admiral Hipper. However, he also knew the British required vital intelligence on German naval movements in the area and on what vessels they had available, so he decided to shadow the enemy, hoping to learn more.

Soon after, the Hipper came in sight. She was a 10,000 ton cruiser who vastly outgunned the Glowworm. However, the worsening conditions made shadowing her impossible and the Glowworm emerged in full view, sealing her fate.

Roope made it his sole aim to inflict as much damage as possible before being sunk. As the Glowworm slowly approached, waiting to get into range, the Hipper fired constantly, pouring shells all around the Glowworm and inflicting heavy damage. Smoke was billowing out of her as fire engulfed one of her guns and short circuited the siren, which began blaring out.

Within range, the Glowworm fired 8 torpedoes but all missed. Roope decided the only thing to do was to ram the cruiser in an all-ornothing showdown. As enemy shells continued to smash into Glowworm, she set a course straight for the Hipper and rammed her starboard side. The collision broke off Glowworm’s bow but made several huge holes in the German vessel, and as Glowworm drew away, she opened fire with her last operational gun and scored a hit.

With that last act, Roope ordered everyone to abandon ship. The Hipper came alongside and, in a chivalrous act, began helping survivors out of the water. Roope was last seen aiding his men out of the water but drowned before he could be rescued.

The actions of the crew of the Glowworm, though suicidal, had not been in vain and the Hipper was delayed long enough for a message to get to the HMS Renown, allowing her and her squadron to move into position.

Roope was awarded the Victoria Cross for his actions that day. His award is unique in that it is the only award ever given on the recommendation of an enemy, the captain of the Admiral Hipper.

HMS Glowworm.

Image Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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Issue 19: March 2015

January 20th– Franklin D. Roosevelt is inaugurated to a fourth term as President of the United States, the only President ever to exceed two terms.(Wikimedia Commons)

January 27th - the Soviet Red Army liberates the Auschwitz and Birkenau concentration camps.

Photograph of prisoners at Auschwitz-Birkenau during liberation. (Wikimedia Commons)

1945 in 1

By Zoey Strzelecki ENIAC (Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator), the first all-electronic computer is completed.

(Wikimedia Commons)

2nd September - Japan signs official surrender on V-J Day. Here Britain celebrates signing of the Peace with Japan. (Wikimedia Commons) Atomic bombing of Nagasaki. US drops atomic bombs on Japanese cities of Hiroshima 6th August, ad Nagasaki, 9th August. (Wikimedia Commons)

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Issue 19: March 2015

14th April - Bearers put the casket of President Franklin D. Roosevelt into a hearse during his funeral ceremony. (Wikimedia Commons)

April 30th - Hitler commits suicide (Wikimedia Commons)

10 Photos May 8th - Declaration of V-E Day. Military personnel and civilians celebrating V-E Day on Sparks Street, Ottawa, Canada. (Wikimedia Commons)

July-August - Potsdam Conference (Stalin, Truman, Churchill) establish basis of German reconstruction. (Wikimedia Commons)

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April-June - San Francisco Conference establishes the United Nations (Wikimedia Commons)

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Battle of the Month

Issue 19: March 2015

Battle of Brentford

By Joshua Woolas Brentford, a working-class suburb of West London, is best known in the 21st century for its aspirational football team and the world famous garage DJs of Kurrupt FM. But, in November 1642 it was the site of a small but significant battle in the First English Civil War. Located at the convergence of the River Thames, flowing up from Kingston in the South, and the River Brent, flowing down from Wembley in the north, Brentford became the bottleneck through which the Royalist and Parliamentarian forces raced into London.

As King Charles swept through Oxfordshire, capturing Banbury and Oxford, Prince Rupert led further forces down the Thames Valley, bringing Abingdon, Aylesbury and Maidenhead under Royalist control. Prince Rupert then tried to take Windsor but failed after encountering a well embedded Parliamentary resistance. The Royalists slowed their advances and considered opening peace negotiations with their opponents. The Parliamentarians, lead by the Earl of Essex, capitalised on this naive indecision and raced ahead into London, barricading the bridges at Kingston and Brentford. Seeing his peace negotiations fail and having lost ground to the Parliamentarians, King Charles marched his army further into London to an area that now makes up Heathrow Airport. Prince Rupert was ordered to continue marching and take Brentford for the Royalists.

Under the mist in the morning of November 12th, Rupert’s forces advanced into Brentford on horseback and attacked the two Parliamentary regiments of foot soldiers, led by Denzil Holles and Lord Brooke. The initial attack at a site to the west of Brentford was repelled by Holles’ men, but with Royalist reinforcements arriving on foot, the combined mounted and marching forces successfully drove Holles’ men back over Brentford Bridge and into the defences manned by Lord Brooke. After the initial surprise of the attack, and being outnumbered by four to one, the Parliamentarians suffered heavily and were forced out of Brentford and into the open fields to the east. Many of them died trying to swim across the Thames to safety. It was not until the arrival of a supporting division from the north that the Parliamentarians were able to safely disengage and flee Brentford, falling back to Turnham Green and Chelsea. Overall, the small battle involved some 6,000 troops and resulted in the death or imprisonment of 600 Parliamentarians, more than half of their forces involved.

Whilst the battle itself may have been small, its effects were vastly significant to the outcome of the First English Civil War. The Royalists, who saw victory in the town as a big piece of propaganda to offer up to their King, ransacked Brentford. Fuelled by alcohol and energised by the recent victory, they set fires, stole goods, assaulted locals and stole or killed livestock. News of this unjust destruction of the town travelled fast across London, as well as first hand reports of the Thames’ drownings, described as ‘most pitiful … to see how many poor men ended and lost their lives striving to save them.’ These two events sent ripples of dissent across the capital, and catalysed the growing sympathy for the Parliamentary forces. Indeed, the following days saw the widespread militarisation of many Londoners, as they joined the parliamentary forces in their thousands. Whilst these new soldiers were significantly under trained, their sheer number reinvigorated and re-legitimised the Parliamentarian strength. In numbers reaching 24,000 men, they assembled in Chelsea and marched towards the Royalist forces in Turnham Green. After demonstrating their significant strength in numbers at the Battle of Turnham Green, the Parliamentarians managed to drive the Royalists out of West London, as they fled back to the safety of Oxfordshire for the duration of the winter.

Despite its relative smallness in size, the Battle of Brentford proved very significant in the overall picture of the First English Civil War. Back in 2015, the only battling that takes place in the area is at Griffin Park as Brentford FC push to get promotion to the Premiership. Though, to this day, the Battle of Brentford remains present in the local collective consciousness, as residents preserve its memory with the peculiar little saying: ‘1642. Never Forget’.

1630s map of Brentford (now district of London) Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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History You Should Know

Issue 19: March 2015

The Black Death

By Jordan Booth The Black Death was one of the most devastating pandemics in human history. Its death toll ranged from between 70 and 200 million people across the globe. The significance of such a horrendous disease is extraordinary, it took around 150 years for the world’s population to recover, and was not fully eradicated until the 19th century. On top of this, the disease had a noticeable impact on religion, economy, and society as a whole. It therefore only seems right that we should explore what made the Black Death one of the most horrendous and historically famous pandemics in history.

The Black Death was caused by Yersinia Pestis (a bacteria known to infect humans and animals) commonly found to be carried by fleas and rodents. Symptoms included swelling under the armpits, groin and neck, fever and vomiting of blood. The disease is thought to have originated in Central Asia in the 1300s, but travelled fast. By 1346 reports claimed that the Black Death had reached the Middle East and Europe – the latter of which it would kill 30-60% of the population.

Jews being burnt to death in 1349 in Strasbourg as part of the Black Death persecutions Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

The Black Death was able to spread so quickly because of the poor hygiene that existed in the world during the 14th century. Rats, fleas and other dirty animals were common-place on the streets, all of which meant that the Black Death could be easily transmitted into the world’s population so it is hardly surprising that it infected and killed so many. While it is easy for us to see now why the disease was so devastating in the 14th century, a commonly accepted explanation for the Black Death was that this was God’s disease to take revenge for the sins committed around the world. As religion was a much more central force in the Middle-Ages it is not hard to see how this explanation gained weight and legitimacy.

The Black Death also had a huge impact in religious, economic, and social areas, which would all be dramatically altered due to the disease. The Black Death killed anywhere up to 200 million people meaning that social classes were destroyed in Europe.

Famines and new forms of the plague were a constant feature for many years following the Black Death. China, for instance, had its population halved by the late 14th Century. However, it was not all bad because the survivors, in particular the peasants, saw a positive transformation in their lives. This was due to the need for labour to produce crops and replace a lost workforce. Here, therefore, history must remember that although the Black Death is portrayed as being disastrous for everyone, this was not the case, a minority prospered from the Black Death pandemic.

One group that certainly did not profit from the Black Death was the Jewish community. This was because there was no explanation for what had caused the disease, so people started to blame each other. One group in particular that was blamed was the Jewish community, they were ridiculously accused of poisoning wells, and purposely causing the disease so they could prosper. As a result, in the late 14thcentury, many Jewish communities were attacked resulting in the deaths of many Jews. Other minority groups such as foreigners, beggars, and lepers were blamed and prosecuted as well. No one at that time was able to see that the very thing that caused the Black Death was painfully obvious, simply being poor hygiene.

The Black Death had dramatic effects on both culture and medicine. Following the Black Death, European culture became morbid and pessimistic and would take decades to return to its old ways. As for medicine, although a lack of medical understanding is what allowed the plague to spread, following the disease there were positive changes such as recognizing the importance of surgeons and anatomical investigations.

Overall, the Black Death rewrote history and proved to be one of the most devastating diseases in human history. It claimed hundreds of millions of lives and would take Europe centuries to recover from its impact. Whilst today it is easy to point to poor hygiene and lack of medical knowledge as the cause, back then it was a chance to victim-blame and point the finger, revealing just how cruel humans can be. Even though the Black Death was eradicated in the 19th century its legacy continues, and more importantly, should never be forgotten.

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History You Should Know

Issue 19: March 2015

Concubinage

By Nina Khan The concept of keeping a concubine is one that society today is unfamiliar with, yet this was a social norm for much of the ancient world and a common happening in China until it was outlawed following the establishment of Mao’s Chinese Communist Party in 1949. Concubinage is essentially the idea of maintaining an on-going sexual relationship with a woman or women with whom you are not married, more often than not due to social strictures.

Though on the most part the title of concubine is attributed to women otherwise known as a concubina, the term concubinusis is one that Ancient Romans would have been familiar with. Here, fitting with opinions on homosexual proclivities at the time, male sex slaves were kept as well as female ones. History has also shown that most of the time, the women frequently adopted the role as a concubina voluntarily as it proved as a means of attaining economic security for both herself and her family.

The nature of keeping a concubine has changed greatly throughout history. Though masses of physical documentation have struggled to make it into the history books, there are reoccurring cases that appear in Athenian history regarding the keeping of a slave. Whilst it is obvious the slave never graduated above her social standing, the children born from the relationship, even if they were male were never granted Atheninan citizenship either. There was also a common consensus that it was distasteful to keep both your wife and hataera under the same roof, whilst this was the case, it must not be assumed that an Athenian hataera was simply a prostitute, for her status was elevated above a simple sex slave.

Roman custom differed from Athenian custom in the sense that sexual abuse was permitted and more often than not the relationship relied on a greater existence of dominant and submissive personas. Yet, what remains apparent in the above two cases and for many of the cases in which concubinage was a prevalent part of society, is that lawful marriage remained of higher status and came first, and the concubine was fully aware of this setup.

Within China up until very recently, concubinage remained a widely accepted and a practiced principle within the higher strands of society. It is thought that Chinese Emperors accommodated thousands of concubines in their lifetimes and the favour they gained was dependant on whom they were engaged to and their footing in society.

The Viking Siege of Paris

By Xan Atkins The Vikings are traditionally assumed to be raiders who preyed along the coastlines, pillaging small villages and outposts. Nevertheless, the Vikings’ attacks on Paris showed they were more than this. The initial attack was in 845, when a Viking force of 120 ships and over 5000 men sailed up the Seine led by Reginherus or Ragnar. The Frankish King, Charles the Bald, met the attackers with an army divided into two parts on either side of the Seine. The Vikings defeated one section of the army and hanged any prisoners taken on an island in the middle of the Seine. They went on to sack Paris but were devastated by a plague whilst doing so.

The Vikings returned, however, in 885 with an even larger force consisting of hundreds of ships and thousands of men. They had returned several times in the years between but only to collect tribute, whilst each year, Paris continued to fortify itself and learn the necessarily skills to fight back. Upon hearing of the approaching Viking force, the Duke of Frankia, Odo, fortified the bridges with towers.

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

Yet, this was no usual Viking strike. The Danes arrived with siege equipment such as catapults, mangonels and ballistae. These initial attacks were repulsed, forcing the Vikings to expand. They attacked again, this time with mining, battering rams and fire but with no success. The Danes settled down, besieging Paris for the next two months. They tried to fill the shallower parts of the river with debris and launched fire ships at the bridge, but, to no avail. Shortly afterwards, heavy rains filled the river and one of the bridges collapsed, leaving a fortified tower stranded on the other side of the river with 12 guards inside who refused to surrender to the mass of Vikings at their base, and were all subsequently killed.

Petitions came from the people of Paris to Charles the Fat, who was in Italy. However, eventually the Viking leaders Sigfred and Sinric accepted silver and left whilst another leader, Rollo, stayed behind with his men to press the siege. At last, Charles appeared with the Imperial Army but made no attack and paid the rest of the Vikings to leave. By this time, morale in Paris was extremely low and the need for payment felt like no victory.

The attack is important, not only because it proved that the Vikings did not only stay on the coast, (there is evidence that they reached Baghdad) but, that they successfully used siege equipment in a very dissimilar way to the raiding-esque attack associated with the Vikings.

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History You Should Know

Issue 19: March 2015

The Mau Mau Uprising

By Jess Wilkes

The Mau Mau uprising was a key part of a series of revolts from colonial rule that engulfed Africa during the 1950’s and 1960’s.

The revolt took place in Kenya from 1952 to 1960 and was undertaken by the ethnic majority of Kikuyus in protest of British rule.

The Mau Mau’s significance can be deemed important on multiple levels; it showcased an early extension of guerilla models of warfare against the colonial powers of Africa displayed successfully by Afrikaans farmers against the British during the first and second Boer wars. This type of warfare was well-suited to African terrain and, given the semi-suicidal prospect of pitched battles it was the only way the numerically and technologically inferior Kikuyu tribesmen could hope for victory against military might of the British Empire. The Mau Mau warriors, lacking the equipment or training of their British or British-trained counterparts, operated in the savannah and the forests of Kenya and relying on their knowledge of the rugged terrain consistently performed lightening raids throughout all areas of the British chain of command, vanishing as soon as they came.

The Kikuyu tribes central role in the revolt stemmed out of their location in the rich agrarian hinterland of Kenya, which was seen as particularly attractive to the British, who had declared Kenya a colony in 1920. This resulted in many Kikuyu lands being forcibly opened up for British settlement towards the end of the 19th century and resulted in a multitude of atrocities being carried out towards the native population by British troops.

Not only was land confiscated from the natives, but also cheap labour was acquired from them through force by colonial government and white farmers. By the early 1920’s, there was estimated to be around 100,000 squatters and tens of thousands more wage laborers, but still this was not enough for European settlers and measures were tightened which forced more Kenyans to become low-paid wage laborers on settlers farms. Kenyan native labourers were often ill-treated by their European settlers and, with a poorly ran labour-legislation and a prejudiced legal-system; an uprising was on the horizon.

Unfortunately, British involvement in Kenya led to divides within the Kikuyu people themselves. There was a small class of Kikuyu landowners who consolidated Kikuyu lands and formed strong relationships with colonial administration: this resulted in economic rift. However, the Mau Mau uprising must be viewed as a militant culmination of decades of oppressive colonial rule and opposition to it. The colonials regarded the Mau Mau rebellion as a savage and violent tribal cult. Meanwhile, Mau Mau was the Kikuyu people’s way of returning Kenya to its old ways prior to the European nations scramble for Africa.

Mau Mau gang Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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History In The Headlines

Issue 19: March 2015

The History of the Oscars

By Lizzie Rule The first Academy Awards (later named the Oscars, after the famous statue presented to winners) took place on Thursday 16 May 1929 at the Hollywood Roosevelt Hotel, the brainchild of the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, formed in 1927.

For the first decade, the winner’s names were given to local newspapers for publication at 11pm on the night of the awards. This system was abandoned when the Los Angeles Times published the winners prior to the ceremony, forcing the academy to provide sealed envelopes. Members of the Academy- 5,783 as of 2012- are divided into branches of film-making and vote on nominations and winners.

Whilst the Academy actively attempts to avoid controversy, some awards cannot help but be controversial. Some believe that the awards are elitist and that Hollywood historical preference is applauded regardless of artistic merit. For example, in 2005, Brokeback Mountain was overlooked for Best Picture by a little-known movie, Crash, which many believe was a direct snub towards a film about a homosexual relationship, regarding Hollywood as inherently prejudice.

Equally, director of the Pianist, Roman Polanski was on the run at the time for sexually assaulting a minor, and so it was a surprise that the film was recognised at all (although it was overlooked for Best Picture by musical-picture Chicago, in keeping with Academy tradition in following the musical trend of the early 2000s) Historically, the Academy has had to develop strategies for overcoming certain inevitabilities and events; for example, the Oscar statuette itself had been cast in a mixture of tin and copper and gold-plated since its inception in 1928. However, in support of the American war effort during World War II, the statuette were made of plaster and could be traded in for gold ones after the war had ended.

Equally as interesting is certain cases which involved people who were ‘blacklisted’ by the American government as suspected Communist sympathisers. The Academy Awards were not immune from ant-Communist feeling at the time, and the Hollywood blacklist prevented writer Dalton Trumbo, and screenwriters Nedrick Young, Harold Jacob Smith, Carl Foreman and Michael Wilson from receiving credit for their work.

The Oscars were instead presented to other nominees, and in the case of Foreman, Wilson and Trumbo, the Academy has voted posthumously to reinstate them on the records as rightful winners.

The 31st Academy Awards, Pantages Theatre, 1959

Credit: Wikimedia Commons

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History In The Headlines

Issue 19: March 2015

The History of the Politics of Greece

By Alexander Byrom Far-left party Syriza’s victory in the recent election has heralded a new age of politics in Greece. It signals another enormous shift in the political landscape of the country. It signals the end of the customary, pragmatic, rational status-quo in existence since the transition to democracy in the 1970’s. But despite Syriza’s radical, far-left agenda, this isn’t the first fundamental political change to have hit the country.With the help of the colonial powers of Britain, France and Russia, Greece finally gained independence in the 19th century after severe nationalist uprisings against the ruling Ottoman Empire. However, it wasn’t all straightforward.

Political instability continued until the Bavarian Prince Otto was proclaimed King; and Greece was transformed into a constitutional monarchy on the founding of the first Liberal constitution, dated 1864.

The new state survived bankruptcy, corruption and poverty; plus a short war with the Ottomans.

Credit: Wikimedia Commons But over the next thirty years, through war, expansion and treaties, the Greece we know today began to form. This was primarily down to the Goudi coup of 1909. Here, a new liberal direction began under the rule of Eleftherios Venizelos. For twenty-five years his government would battle the Conservatives. This era was defined by a new political system, reforms to the military, and creation of state defences in case of attack. Domestically, his policies can be compared to those of the New Liberal government in Britain under Asquith and Lloyd-George.The Balkan wars and the Great War gave Greece leverage to claim back territory from the Ottomans, despite Greece’s request to maintain a neutral stance in the First World War. Whilst Prime Ministers wanted to help the allies in the war against the Ottomans, the King wanted neutrality to continue. The defeated Turks then bombarded Greece in 1919 as 800,000 were killed. At the Treaty of Lausanne, Greece gained the territories of Cyprus and Salonika: the Greece we know today finally had its modern borders.

Following Italian occupation and allied battles in the Second World War, Greece entered a civil war in 1946 following the Communists decision to boycott elections as they held the balance of power in Northern Greece. 100,000 people died in a war which eventually led to Nationalist success. In 1967, military juntas took power in a coup, establishing martial law and a military state. But with a nationalist uprising and a worsening economy, the regime lasted just six years before Greece began its long journey once more to democracy. This time a parliamentary republic was created and has until now been dominated by the centreleft and centre-right.

Dating through the Ages

By Aiswarya Kishor According to Greek mythology, the first humans were conjoined. They were completely selfsufficient and lived utopian lives. This greatly displeased the Gods, who conspired to part them with bright flashes of lightening. Ever since, men and women have been separated, eternally in search of their soulmate or their ‘better half’. Today we can find love from the comforts of our homes with a click of a button. However, it was not always this easy. In a time where transport was inaccessible and the internet non-existent, people were forced to resort to slightly bizarre methods to meet that ‘special someone’.

Courtship was the upper class Victorian equivalent of modern-day dating. It was the precursor to marriage and helped negotiate the rocky road from mere physical attraction to lasting love. In 19th century England, eligible youth would meet at chaperoned social events. As Disney movies and Jane Austen novels have taught us, dancing was almost always involved. Interested gentlemen would attempt to woo women with small tokens of affection, ultimately proposing marriage on Credit: Wikimedia Commons bended knee. In neighbouring Finland, knives played the part of Cinderella’s glass slipper and brought couples together. Prospective suitors would place a knife in an empty sheath on the girdle of the girl.

Across the seven seas, the scenario was quite different. According to ancient Chinese mythology, Yue Lao (literally, the old man in the moon) would tie an invisible red string around the ankles of those destined to be together. Once this was done, the fates were sealed and they would unite despite being strangers or archenemies. Modern-day Chinese matchmakers are self-proclaimed ‘love gurus’ who have extensive knowledge of the interests and temperaments of the duo. In the remote regions of Ghana, whole villages played Cupid and the story often took a more violent twist. Marriages were made by capture, not choice and warriors frequently raided villages for wives. Every so often, the men would even resort to magic, trying to enslave their beloved.

The advent of the internet propelled a metamorphosis in the way matches were made. Nevertheless, from buying a woman dinner to opening a door for her, many of today’s acts of chivalry live on from medieval times. To this day, people are willing to go extraordinary lengths just to live happily ever after.

@TheMcrHistorian

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History In Culture

Issue 19: March 2015

‘Empire Made Me’; Book Review

By George Odysseos ‘I too am a creature of the empire world.’ The opening sentence of the last chapter initially sounds like a reluctant admission by the author, yet is there anyone who could deny such a label? Certainly not this reviewer, born in the ex-colony of Cyprus to a British mother and ‘native’ father, both grandfathers - Irish and Cypriot - having served the British Army in some capacity. Doubtless, many readers will also have some direct connection but might understandably shy away from such a proclamation as ‘Empire made me’.

Indeed, the recent passing of the motion ‘This House Regrets the Legacy of the British Empire’ by the University’s Debating Union offers a partial confirmation of this.

An obsession that became a book, ‘Empire Made Me’ follows the story of one Briton, Richard M. Tinkler, from his birthplace of Grange-over-sands in 1898, through the trenches of WWI, his arrival in Shanghai in 1919, his employment with the Shanghai Municipal Police, and his controversial and ‘diplomatically noisy’ death twenty years later. Robert Bickers masterfully reconstructs this tale of a man (who would have otherwise remained a ‘nobody’, lost to posterity) through the letters saved by his sister Edith, the collections of photos taken by Mr. Tinkler himself, and the records in the Shanghai Municipal Archives.

More than a simple biography, Bickers offers ‘a window into an otherwise closed world’ by writing about those non-elite settlers who had been deemed insignificant. One might reasonably argue that it would be more justifiable to examine the lives of the colonized rather than the colonizer. Nevertheless, in a historical field that increasingly appreciates the need to examine the relationships that existed between people (including their dimensions of power), both the lives of the (financially-speaking) ‘poor whites’ and the colonized peoples can bring out the full ‘complexity of experience of those in all parts of the web of world empire’. Shanghai, never formally part of the British Empire, but greatly affected by its networks and influence, is a well-suited location to examine.

An additional value offered by the book is in considering the act of writing history. Beyond ruminating on the ‘silence’ left by the absence of source materials so familiar to social historians, Bickers explores the humanity behind the functionary and so goes some way towards giving historical life to someone who would have otherwise remained a narrative function - simply an ‘imperialist’ or a ‘policeman’. That is not to say that Tinkler deserves our unquestioning sympathy. What can at times be a heart-breaking narrative can also reveal the ugliest of prejudice and character. Perhaps that’s what makes the book so appealing and a must-read for students of both Britain and Empire, as well as general historians.

Credit: Wikimedia Commons.

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History In Culture

Issue 19: March 2015

Motown: Its True Impact on the Civil Rights Movement

By Holly Donald For almost 60 years Tamla Motown has proved that black soul and R&B is universally popular. In Britain, this was especially true with its re-emergence in the 1980s as the Northern Soul Youth Craze (so called due to its popularity in the North West of England). The label began in 1959 and a lone Berry Gordy armed only with ambition and an $800 family loan but by the end of the 1960s, Motown was one of the most popular record companies in America. 1960s America was defined by increasing racial tensions, which often culminated in race riots. Gordy’s self-made ‘rags to riches’ story is a positive example among the usual bleak and unjust stories of African-Americans.

Equally, his continual signing of black artists offered others a path out of such drudgery.

The images of empowered, talented black artists like Otis Redding, Aretha Franklin and Stevie Wonder, contradicted the culturally sustained inferior African-American.

Gordy’s main ambition was to produce the ‘Sound of Young America’, no matter what colour. The label’s releases gained popularity among both white and black Americans alike. Motown artists enjoyed top spots in the mainstream chart, toured worldwide and James Brown ‘Black and Proud’ began to define an era. It was the ability to transcend racial boundaries that highlighted Credit: Wikimedia Commons the label as so revolutionary. These race-transcending songs were popularly singled out among the other major record companies releases, leading to a social acknowledgment of the label’s distinct ‘Motown Sound’.

However, these initial songs were not overarching political anthems, no more than cliché, ‘doo-wop’ love songs. Some of the first releases; Marv Johnson’s ‘Come To Me’ and Barrett Strong’s ‘Money (That’s What I Want)’, were simple songs with simple lyrics. Throughout the next couple of decades Motown’s bestselling artists such as the Supremes, the Temptations and Smokey Robinson, generally only offered basic catchy tunes.

Most autobiographies and accounts depict Gordy as a ruthless businessman unwilling to risk sales with unpopular messages amongst his white audiences. Popular opinion suggests it wasn’t until Marvin Gaye’s ‘What’s Going On’ (1971) that the label was seen to support any overt activist song or artist. The famous story behind the making of this single tells of extreme opposition from within the label to its release. Eventually Gaye threatened to stop recording completely to overcome this. The single and album’s subsequent popularity actually suggests that Motown’s white audience would not be frightened by political messages. The single addressed various different social issues, not just racial inequality.There were earlier Motown records that drew attention to the racial inequalities of America. Aretha Franklin’s R.E.S.P.E.C.T (1967 – written by Otis Redding) echoed a vital Civil Rights demand.

The day of Martin Luther King’s assassination the Supremes performed ‘Somewhere’ on the Tonight Show and directly referenced the tragedy. Interestingly, Martin Luther King is technically a Motown recording artist. The label recorded him at the Detroit Freedom March in 1963 which they then released the day of the Washington March. ‘The Great March To Freedom’ included King’s infamous ‘I Have a Dream’ speech. To a cynic this venture could be seen as one the shrewdest business moves in twentieth-century history.

However, Gordy used his self-named sub-label to release the politically charged speech, perhaps showing his commitment to the project.

But, like the initial Motown releases, most 1970’s tracks were not the direct protest songs you would expect from a small black independent record label successful in the height of racial inequality. With the exception of a few, the labels love songs fell far short of political anthems. Other record companies proved were more dedicated to racial equality.

The most obvious political anthem of this period was James Brown’s (1968) hit ‘Say It Loud, I’m Black and I’m Proud’, but this was released on the King record label not Motown. Equally Bob and Marcia’s cover of Nina Simone’s ‘Young Gifted and Black’ (1970) completely encapsulates the spirit and desires of the Civil Rights Movement. Yet interestingly it was released by British based, reggae and ska, Trojan Records.

Being this far removed from the humble origins of Tamla Motown makes it easy for us to perceive it as extremely significant to the Civil Rights Movement. Its black musicians defied stereotypes, the music transcended class boundaries and sometimes the songs directly addressed social inequalities. However, Gordy’s vision for the enterprise and overarching control of the artists meant the label could not fulfil the potential it held in 1959. In fact, labels across the Atlantic did more to unite and inspire nations against racism and inequality.

Marvin Gaye performing, 1968 Credit: Wikimedia Commons

@TheMcrHistorian

Use this URL https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLUrNkyTwGoS00YvBYlril3D10OzQSx87 to listen to the most important music for the American Civil Rights Movement, including the artists and songs.

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History in Manchester

Issue 19: March 2015

Manchester Central Library Review

By Matthew Burden It is now nearly one year since the reopening of the Manchester Central Library to the public in March 2014, after three years of closure for renovation work. Perhaps the stated goal of the council prior to the opening, that the library would become ‘Manchester’s living room’, was a little too ambitious, but it remains an important resource for members of the public and students alike.

Despite being conveniently located just a few bus stops away from the University of Manchester (at the top of Oxford Road), this was my first visit to the central library, and I suspect that its facilities are used infrequently by university students. That’s understandable, given that on campus locations like the Main Library and Alan Gilbert Learning Commons are sufficient for everyday purposes. Nevertheless, the Central Library has extra resources that could be of particular interest to history students, such as an onsite BFI Mediatheque and an extensive collection of local archives. However, potentially the most useful area is the Great Hall, a reading Manchester Central Library room which has space for over 300 people to work in silence. When I went, there Credit: Wikimedia Commons was less than a tenth of that number present, and it could be a useful alternative to the university library as a reading area during busy times of the day or in the exam period.

Those who do make it to the Central Library will be amongst good company. Morrissey used the library as a schoolboy, as did the novelist Anthony Burgess. Burgess later recalled that during one of his visits, he met an older woman who lured him to a flat in Ardwick and seduced him. Aside from famous visitors of the past, the range of current library users is also appealing, and is representative of a much broader cross section of the city’s residents than might be found on the university campus. As a result, it is a true community facility, especially since it is now directly connected to the Town Hall. That makes for a welcoming atmosphere within the library, although I was a little disconcerted by the surprisingly heavy presence of highly visible security guards.

Having never visited the Central Library prior to its refurbishment, I can’t comment critically on the changes that have been made.

However, the facility as it currently stands has a pleasing and clean-cut interior and would be a good location to study or access archival materials.

Whitworth Art Gallery Review

By Helen Chapman Love is in the air since the Whitworth art gallery has returned, with a breath of fresh air and a flood of light to illuminate the senses and inspire. After a yearlong £15 million revamp the Whitworth has welcomed thousands of visitors, and hopefully will continue to attract the masses with its stylish yet subtle make over. The first exhibition room features Green: a range of the Whitworth’s diverse textile collection. One example featured is Susie Macmurray’s spherical arrangement of peacock features called ‘Caryatids’ (2004).

The natural Green exhibit encourages us to engage with ‘the rebirth of the Whitworth and its new relationship with the outdoors.’

This suggestion from the guide book appears forced from the gallery’s immediate dark entrance, but comes alive in the next exhibition corridor. Sunlight floods in from Whitworth Park into the new gallery space creating a calm yet invigorating environment.

The new architecture merges with the landscape, helping bridge the gap between the outside world and the insider art community.

The Whitworth contains a range of exhibit pieces ranging from portraits from the likes of Martin Maloney, Francis Bacon and Henry Moore, to instillation, sculpture, prints, painting, photography and film. One room is dedicated to watercolours by the well-known J.M.W. Turner as well as John Edward Taylor, the son of the founder of The Manchester Guardian (now known as The Guardian). This series shows the development of British watercolour from around 1750 to 1850.

From the modern era, there is a space dedicated to Cornelia Parker. A must see out of the collection is her work Cold Dark Matter: An Exploded View (1991). Blown up contents from a garden shed are suspended by wire surrounding a light bulb, wooden slats encasing the objects. This mysterious piece chimes with our very existence, the Big Bang, yet diminished to mere objects including a hot water bottle, bike tyre and toy dinosaurs.

All it takes is a free trip on our own campus to take a look at the Whitworth’s original and quirky collection. It’s just what you need as a form of escapism away from the daily grind of student life. Every Thursday the Whitworth is open until 9.30pm with music, performances, talks and screenings. For all other events, please have a look at their website: http://www.whitworth.manchester.ac.uk/.

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Credit: Helen Chapman

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History in Manchester

Issue 19: March 2015

Daniel Szechi Interview

By Thomas Barnett “I don’t actually know why you would want to interview me” Professor Szechi remarked, turning from his computer screen filled with the labour of hours of marking. Between us lay a table with a large bowl of oranges, “I suspect it’s because you are running out of people to interview” he said with a twinkle in his eye, a statement of modesty if ever one were heard. Indeed, for those of you unfamiliar with the eminent academic, Daniel Szechi has been the Professor of Early Modern History at the University of Manchester since 2006; a time when most of us were a ‘history-student twinkle’ in Professor Szechi’s academic eye. As for the Professor’s modesty, he has led an extremely interesting life.

Born in the midlands, Szechi moved around ten times before attending high school in Harrow. Professor Szechi had attended school in Coventry in the 1960’s, relating to me how he used ‘dip-pens’ in class – an interesting historical piece of paraphernalia in itself if you have five minutes to research them. Before settling upon History, Szechi explained that he had convinced himself that he had wanted to be a Scientist, having taken Chemistry and other science subjects along with History at A – level, “It wasn’t a waste really. It gives you a factual, analytical approach to History which is quite useful”.

Fast-forwarding to the end of his undergraduate degree in History at the University of Sheffield, I asked the Professor why he pursued an academic career in History, “Essentially, in a somewhat varied life, History was the only thing I did really well, so I decided I would carry on doing it”, the tremors of a laugh punctuated the very end of his sentence as they did with many. Testament to this was Szechi’s place on the University Challenge team for Sheffield, though he imparts that they were ‘absolutely smashed’ by Newcastle.

From here Professor Szechi attended St Anthony’s College to complete a Ph.D. as he explained “I had achieved a first-class degree, so I automatically gained the government grant which was available in those days for further study if I wished to do so” he continued, “they said to me at Sheffield, if you want a career in this business you have to attend Oxford or Cambridge. At pinch they would accept London. So they showed me the door!” another chuckle “no but they were incredibly supportive at Sheffield”. Szechi then completed his thesis on ‘Parliamentary Jacobitism and its influence in the Tory Party: 1710 – 1714’ and he admits he struggled –like many of us- to keep his work within the word count, however this was of course 100, 000 words! Jacobitism is a consistent topic in Professor Szechi’s work though he states he fell into the subject due to his lack of Arabic. Thus this deprived him of the ability to study his then first choice area of interest, surrounding terrorist organisations in Palestine during the 1940’s. However, it must be stated that the 1940’s loss is undoubtable the 18th century’s gain.

Szechi was then a research fellow for three years at Sheffield, teaching at Hull for year before returning to Oxford, teaching for around two and a half years. His career then took him across the Atlantic Ocean to the University of Auburn in Alabama where he taught for the considerable length of 18 years. Despite the occasional ‘Southernism’ slipping into his anecdotes, his stint in American seems to have left his accent -which his students there found ‘quaint’- unchanged, “my children do have wonderful Alabama accents now though” he laughed. With that, conversations about the warmer climate ensued, something he loved and so I asked why he returned, “I had reached a rut in my life, and we had always planned to return to England”. ‘Why Manchester?’ was the next obvious question “Well the position was attractive, the University has a great reputation and great people” Professor Szechi also offered some advice to current History students, “In focussing on deadlines I sometimes worry students are missing the joy of History. My advice is, take some time out, and get a History book out of the library that you wouldn’t have otherwise and just read it without taking notes” Kindly before I left he offered me an orange, “You can tell them about my orange habit!” he grinned while passing me and orange, “I can’t have them at home as my wife is allergic and I love ‘em. And I know for a fact you lot don’t get enough vitamins! I know because my son when he was a student basically lived on pizza and beer”.

A more nice or interesting man you will seldom meet. A credit to the University, I wish Professor Szechi the best of luck in his future work.

@TheMcrHistorian

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University

Issue 19: March 2015

Half Time Team Talk

By Nina Khan After a long Christmas break the history sports teams have been back in action since the start of the semester and the Netball team are back to their old winning form of late, one which we grew so accustomed to in semester one.

After a thrashing defeat to the StaffNet Pixies, the Netball team were able to pick up the pieces and collect three points from their most recent game after a close 10-9 victory over the Hulme Hall netball team. A most improved performance with tight man-to-man marking and short, sharp agile passes saw the team maintain their lead throughout the game. The team would have however fallen short, without the star performance put in by our goal shooter, Zoey Strzelecki, who scored all 10 of History’s goals on the night and walked away with her first and most well-deserved Player of the Match accolade. With a few weeks off now, the girls can continue working on these tactical plays that are proving so effective on the court.

Meanwhile History FC having cruised into the next round of the Campus League Cup, after the German Society’s Football team failed to show up, with a common feeling amongst the team it was out of fear of defeat, were recently knocked out after losing in the Quarter Finals. Despite the recent slump in the team’s form, Richard Pier has continued to prove his worth to History FC, constantly making key tackles without fear of the physical repercussions. All the while, Captain Will Kelly who wears his heart upon his sleeve for every game continues to throw himself at anything and everything on the pitch.

Good luck to both teams in their forthcoming and final games of the semester as the season begins to draw to a close.

History have joined with Classics & Ancient History for an end of year ball!

Venue: The Place Hotel, Ducie Street

Date: Friday 8th May 7:30pm-1:00am

Price: £35

Includes: Welcome drink on arrival Live band

Three course meal and wine Photographer and DJ

To buy a ticket you will need to register as a member of the History Society on the Students’ Union website and from there you can buy a ticket to the event.

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