Manchester Historian Issue 18

M H

Issue 18: February 2015

Manchester Historian

The Aztec Empire In Features

The Liberation of Auschwitz Behind the Headlines

Who Really Discovered America?

In Features

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Issue 18: February 2015

What’s Inside

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• Page 3 - A Note from the Editors Women in History • Page 4 - The First World War: A Sexy Affair?

Undiscovered Heroes of History • Page 5 - Charles “Chuck” Yeager History in Features • Page 6- A Brief History of Space Exploration • Page 7 - The Race to the South Pole • Page 8 - What Lies Beneath & Marco Polo • Page 9 - Ancient African Civilisations • Page 10 - Rediscovery of Petra & Zheng He’s Voyages • Page 11 - The Aztec Empire • Page 12 - The Importance of the Railway • Page 13 - The Panama Canal & Who Really Discovered America?

History in 10 Pictures • Pages 14-15 - Revolutionary Discoveries in 10 Pictures Battle of the Month • Page 16 - The Battle of Austerlitz History You Should Know The Manchester Historian 2014/2015 Team • Page 16 - The 1190 Massacre • Page 17 - Tiananmen Square: Investigate & The Editors Zoey Strzelecki Mayerling Incident Xan Atkins • Page 18 - Lincoln and the 13th Amendment • Page 19 - Boko Haram & Germs of Discovery: Head of Design Jamie Brannan Penicillin Head of Copy-Editing Hebe Thorne History in the Headlines Head of Marketing Stephanie Haszczyn • Page 20 - The Liberation of Auschwitz • Page 21 - Cunard: A Voyage Through History Head of Online James Schoonmaker • Page 22 - Who’s Supporting Who in the Middle East?

Design Team Laura Robinson History in Culture Laura Callard • Page 23 - How French Jazz Helped Defeat the Melanie Fernandes Nazis Copy-Editing Team Sophie Brownlee • Pages 24-25 - Interview with Tim Butcher Thomas Learmouth Helen Chapman • Page 26 - Book Review: ‘The Trigger’ by Tim Natalie Sharpin Butcher & Dim Sum Charlotte Munday History in Manchester Marketing Team Kate Ayling • Page 27 - Professor Tout & A Profile: Samuel Sabrina Kenth Alexander Caitlin Ovenden University Online Team Evie Hull • Page 28 - History Society Update & Heirtage Mandy Poon Guides

Manchester Historian

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Issue 18: February 2015

A Note from the Editors In 1869, Henry Morton Stanley went in search of the famous explorer, Dr. David Livingstone. Upon reaching the town of Ujiji, on the shores of Lake Tanganyika, Stanley encountered a white man and uttered one of the most famous sentences in the history of exploration: “Dr Livingstone I presume?” This fateful meeting captured the minds of 19th century explorers everywhere, and just as it did 150 years ago, exploration has captured our imaginations for this month’s issue of the Manchester Historian. Following on from Stanley’s adventurers we have looked into other great tales of exploration including the rediscovery of the Ancient city of Petra which was lost to the world for 2000 years, and the escapades of Marco Polo across the Middle Kingdom. We have not confined our historical reach to the earth however, we have journeyed from the moon and the planets, to the depths of the sea, considering how these discoveries have impacted history.

Looking beyond the headlines recently, we have dedicated an article to the 70 years anniversary since the liberation of Auschwitz, considering the importance of remembering such horrific events. We also turned our eye to recent events in Africa, looking into the radicalism that has inspired Boko Haram, the terrorist organisation committing atrocities in Northern Nigeria, and the origins of their aspiring caliphate. Outside the confinements of your course we are once again, trying to educate you in the history you should know, but might not. From the Tiananmen Square incident to the York suicide, our writers have documented the causes and events that took place in these cases. While you think you know about the abolition of African-American slavery in the US, the trials Lincoln overcame in passing the 13th Amendment are less known but laid the foundations for the end of slavery.

More locally, everyone recognises the head of Samuel Alexander sitting in the North Foyer of our beloved history building, so for this issue we thought we would look into the legend behind the man and why our building is named after him. Looking deeper in the history of the University, we explored Professor Tate; whose unique letters to student-soldiers fighting during the First World War have provided an important cornerstone of the University’s history.

We have also had the honour of interviewing renowned writer, Tim Butcher, whose books follow the adventures of famous historical characters whilst charting the recent history of the areas he traverses. To complement this, we have reviewed his latest book, The Trigger, which offers a unique insight into the mind of Gavrilo Princip, the catalyst of The Great War. Thank you to all our writers and our wonderful team for their contributions. We hope you enjoy your journey of exploration through issue 18 of the magazine.

If you are interested in writing for us please email manchesterhistorian@gmail.com or get in touch on our facebook page.

Xan and Zoey.

“I may not have proved a great explorer, but we have done the greatest march ever made and come very near to great success.”

Robert Falcon Scott

Xan Atkins and Zoey Strzelecki

@TheMcrHistorian

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Women In History

Issue 18: February 2015

The First World War: a Sexy Affair?

By Ben Goodair Using the term ‘sexy’ to describe the First World War is not only majorly outdated but a more literal mistake. War has often changed the relation between masculinity and femininity; positive impacts for women have occurred such as greater work and social opportunities with idols such as Florence Nightingale sparking feminist thought or women gaining work prospects during the First World War. However, as is perhaps more common, negative aspects of war expose a subjugated gender’s vulnerability not only highlighting their struggles but exploiting them at the hands of misogynistic values.

Examples of women abused and raped at war are endless; however it is the specific correlation between prostitution and war which is the focus of this article. Wars throughout history, situated in most continents of the world have experienced increased prostitution during wars for many reasons. The struggle for domestic survival in a patriarchal society absent of men led some to prostitution in the American civil war, opportunistic and economically driven prostitution was recorded in the Vietnam War and prostitution or sexual slavery was enforced by the Japanese army in the Second World War. The ‘Great War’ was no exception. Legal and state-endorsed brothels were set up in France called ‘maisons tolèrèes’ satisfying the demands of both Allied and German forces. While the exact number of visitors to the maisons tolèrèes is unknown, some single streets recorded hundreds of thousands of British soldiers utilising the available prostitutes. Equally we can use the heavy spread of STIs to show the extent of prostitution with 150,000 British soldiers being treated for venereal disease.

However, the largely ignored story is the way women were portrayed and impacted by the ruling male gender in this era. The French were largely disdainful of the individual prostitutes, claiming they had relaxed morals. Many of the military officials believed that these immoral women were ruining the regimented structure implemented in French soldiers. With little empathy, many at the time blamed alcohol for the women’s corrupting behaviour, disregarding one of the main reasons for their behaviour: male demand.

Across the channel in Britain, the vast majority of leading military personnel supported the availability of prostitution for the soldiers.

There was a widely accepted view that the men separated from their wives needed to satisfy their sexual desires in order to fight with concentration and vigour. This obviously entirely ignored the notion that the women in brothels had more utility than to sexually satisfy the male heroes. Sexual relief was the main justification for this exploitation of many women and maisons tolèrèes were viewed as the most hygienic and safest way to achieve this. ‘Cleanliness’ was another factor which led to increased misogynistic views. The spread of sexual diseases meant this class of women prostitutes were depicted as dirty. Propaganda was released warning of these ‘unclean women’ hence stereotypes and generalisations were formed, again undermining the great feats of women in the First World War. However, some don’t believe that prostitution in the First World War led to a declined social position of women. There is an argument that even though women were objectified, made scapegoats and portrayed as unclean, their very presence in the war was a cultural and social change for the better. Women were part of society in the First World War: mothers had to look after orphans and their homes, workers were utilised in the factories and in this case there was an evident dependency upon the women’s sexuality to benefit the allied forces. Prostitution in the First World War elevated women to a position where they were disdained and unfairly blamed for the failure of some men. However, perhaps they were also elevated to a position of importance which had not been achieved before in Britain and France.

One of the most interesting things about this topic is its historiography. To this day debates on male heterosexuality, male suffering from sexual diseases and male fighting ability despite unsatisfied sexual desire often takes precedence over the effect that war and wartime prostitution has on women. It is imperative that this patriarchal portrayal is opposed as strongly as possible; wars are often remembered to avoid repetition, this is an impossible task when large parts of society are ignored by our representation of history.

The overtly male dominated study of history represents this masculine dominated period of time with a vast lack of consideration for the changes in ideology that were caused by an era of objectified and abused women.

‘A group of filles de joie in Marseille, 1919’ (Wikimedia Commons)

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Undiscovered Heroes of History

Issue 18: February 2015

Undiscovered Heroes of History: Charles “Chuck” Yeager

By Jordan Booth

Breaking the sound barrier is a remarkable feat, yet when people are asked to list people who have achieved it most will likely say Felix Baumgartner or more recently Paul Allen of Google. Few people seem to have heard of Charles Yeager – the first man to successfully travel faster than the speed of sound in 1947. As the theme of this issue of the Manchester Historian is exploration, this article will look at who Charles Yeager was and why you should know about him.

Yeager was born in 1923 in Virginia, United States and after the outbreak of the Second World War, Yeager signed up to the US Air Force. During this time he demonstrated an outstanding ability as a pilot, despite admitting to not feeling too well on his first experiences of flying. Overall, Yeager flew 61 missions for America during the Second World War as well as being promoted to captain. After the war, he was chosen as the man to attempt and ultimately succeed in breaking the sound barrier.

Yeager’s achievement is made even more impressive because on October 12th 1947, two days before the scheduled attempt, Yeager fell off a horse; as a result, the first man to break the speed barrier did so with two broken ribs! He broke the speed barrier on October 14th 1947 flying a Bell X1 and travelling at an altitude of an eye-watering 45,000 feet. Yeager was awarded the Mackay trophy, awarded for the most meritorious flight of the year by the US Air Force, and the Collier Trophy, awarded to those who have made a significant contribution to aerospace development.

In 1953, Yeager was the wingman for Jackie Cochran who became the first woman to break the sound barrier. He continued to work with the US Air Force until his retirement in 1975, becoming Colonel and Brigadier General. Instead of relaxing during his retirement, in 2012 to celebrate 65 years since breaking the sound barrier, he did it again at the astonishing age of 89!

As a result of his achievements Yeager has accrued numerous accolades and awards, the main ones being: inducted to the National Aviation Hall of Fame and a silver non combat medal by former president Gerald Ford for his contributions to aerospace science. So overall, although many may not be aware who Charles Yeager is, he is described by many as one of the greatest pilots ever, he broke new grounds in aerospace technology and risked his life in achieving the monumental feat of breaking the sound barrier.

@TheMcrHistorian

Charles Yeager with Jackie Cochran (Wikimedia Commons)

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

A Brief History of Space Exploration

By Kane Booth Space Exploration begins with the Romans, who before telescopes, knew of seven bright objects in the sky, which they named after their most important gods (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn). They also called the sun and the moon, Apollo and Diana respectively.

The other planets in our solar system were not discovered until much later after the invention of telescopes. In 1608, Galileo looked at improving the magnification of the ‘spyglass’. Within a few years, he began making his own lenses and changing his arrays. Galileo pointed his telescope at the one thing people thought to be perfectly smooth and polished, the moon. What he actually found was a lunar surface that was “uneven, rough, full of cavities and prominences”. Galileo was first to discover the Milky Way and Galilean Moons. Uranus was discovered over a century later in 1781, then Neptune in 1846 and finally Pluto in 1930. However in 2006, astronomers had discovered other celestial objects such as Ceres and Eris (which are larger than Pluto) leading the International Astronomical Union (IAU), to reclassify Pluto as a dwarf planet and extensively define the term.

In 1942, the German V2 rocket was the first to reach the boundary of space (100 km). It then took 15 years until Sputnik 1 was launched by the soviets on 4 October 1957 and became the first Earth-orbiting artificial satellite (today there are over 500 working satellites in space).

The launch of this satellite ignited the 'space race’ with both the Americans and the Russians in direct competition to get a spacecraft to the moon; the Russians made it first in 1959 with space probe Luna 2.

Buzz Aldrin on the Moon (Wikimedia Commons)

It took 2 more years until, on the 12th April 1961, Russian Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space. Gagarin’s spacecraft the Vostok 1 completed an orbit of earth and crash-landed 2 hours after launch. Gagarin had to bail out and land by parachute as the Vostok 1 was designed to crash land. Two years later in 1963, the first woman in space was Russian cosmonaut Valentina Tereshkova (there have now been well over 50 women in space).

The Americans (NASA) took 3 weeks longer to get their first man into space, when on the 5 May 1961 Alan Shepard became the first American in space, on a suborbital flight lasting just 15 minutes and 28 seconds. 20 days after the successful landing of Shepard, President John F Kennedy publicly pledged to have a man on the moon before the turn of the decade.

In the following years NASA and the USSR sent many manned and unmanned crafts into space, until on the 20th July 1969, Apollo 11 landed on the moon with astronauts Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin on board, who became the first men on the moon.

Armstrong famously took “one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind” in front of over half a billion people watching live on TV, while also fulfilling JFK's goal of having a man on the moon by the end of the 60s.

Over the next decade, orbiting communications and navigation satellites were in everyday use, and several unmanned space crafts sent detailed images of many of the planets and their moons back to earth. By the 1980s satellite communications expanded to carry television programs, giving people TV in their own homes. They also pinpointed forest fires, gave us photos of Chernobyl and gave us a new view of the center of our galaxy. In 1990, the Hubble space telescope was launched and has since given us some of the most important discoveries in all of space exploration; including the age of the universe, the formation of stars and the prevalence of black holes. The Hubble also helped us map the far corners of the universe and study galaxies billions of light years away.

Space technology is continuously evolving and growing, and with every new discovery it seems we have hardly cracked the surface. From the advances in rockets and satellites to new information about distant celestial bodies, much new advancement is set to come from the study of the cosmos. This includes the launch of VirginGroup; taking fare-paying passengers into space, to the Hubble's scientific replacement the James Webb space telescope and George Bush’s 2004 announcement of work for a permanent moon base and a manned mission to Mars. It seems there is still so much more to explore and new discoveries might be coming sooner than you think.

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

The Race to the South Pole

By Tilly Embling In an era when six of the world’s continents had been traversed, conquered or mapped, there remained one area of which little was known. Known attempts to reach the southernmost point of our globe began with Captain Cook’s voyages in the eighteenth century. However, what is now termed ‘the heroic age of Antarctic exploration’ began in earnest more than a century later with three men in particular: Sir Ernest Shackleton, Robert Falcon Scott and Roald Amundsen.

Shackleton is best remembered for heroic leadership in the face of disaster. In his attempt to cross Antarctica in 1914-17, his ship was slowly crushed by pack ice, yet he and his men survived winter on the ice. Five of them, including Shackleton, also made the treacherous 1,300 km journey between Elephant Island and South Georgia to fetch help and ensured every member of his party survived.

Scott, despite his ignominious end, starving and frost ridden in the icy desert, has been immortalised as the quintessential British hero. His diaries depict a courageous leader, a noble man and the ideal of British Masculinity. His rival, Amundsen, however, is remembered by history as a cold-hearted rationalist, motivated by pride, greed and naked ambition. Each of these men spent much of their lives obsessed with reaching that point at which all lines meet but in the end it was Amundsen who, on 14th December 1911, succeeded in claiming the pole for Norway.

Their race began in 1901 with Captain Scott’s Discovery expedition. The crew was composed of sailors, naval officers, and scientists, among them, Scott’s future rival, Ernest Shackleton. The expedition was only partly a success. Scott brought his team closer to the pole than any previous explorers but was still over 400 miles from his goal when sickness and hunger forced them back. Early on in the expedition a seaman who would not obey orders was told to return to England but refused. In the end it was Shackleton not Scott who, using his fists persuaded the sailor that polar exploration was not for him. Discovery’s importance lies in that it cemented the distinct leadership styles that would define the later expeditions of the two great British Antarctic explorers.

Shackleton’s expedition, Nimrod (1907), brought him closer to the pole than five years earlier but again he was forced to turn back.

When Scott heard of his opponent’s failure he was prompted to try again and he did so in 1910, with £20,000 worth of equipment.

At the same time, another man was heading south. Previously an Artic explorer and the leader of the first group to sail the NorthWest passage, Roald Amundsen, upon hearing that America had claimed the North Pole, became increasingly interested in claiming the South for Norway. Ostensibly planning for an Arctic expedition, Amundsen put together a crew to challenge Scott in his mission.

While Scott relied on technology and manpower, Amundsen used his knowledge of the Inuit and Sammi tribes. Scott and his team had top of the range clothing and newly invented motorised sledges while the Norwegians wore lose reindeer skins and were transported by dogs. Although unfamiliar with the terrain, Amundsen was extremely comfortable in his environment. Scott’ overreliance on untested technology let him down early on.

The two men also had distinct personalities. Amundsen was a cutthroat leader, sending three of his eight-man team home after they bemoaned his ill-advised decision to set off before the end of the bitter Antarctic Winter. His decision to slaughter the dogs that had provided vital companionship was also ruthless. Scott refused to use animals in his final push believing manpower was nobler and less cruel. In addition, he added a person to his final expedition party meaning that rations were severely strained upon his return from the pole. His nobility, courage and defiance made Scott a national hero and yet these are the same reasons why Diana Preston terms the “First Rate Tragedy” that befell him.

Upon his return from the failed Nimrod expedition Shakleton said to his wife ‘a live donkey is better than a dead Lion isn’t it?’ It seems this is precisely what Scott failed to realise. Caroline Alexander writes, “In Norway there is very little tolerance for failure in expeditions… The British in contrast emphasised the struggle”. This is a common theme in the history of British masculinity, that of the courageous loser. Scott became a hero as he chose to die a lion but whether this is a trait to be valorised is questionable.

@TheMcrHistorian

Norwegian Party in the South Pole (Wikimedia Commons)

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

What Lies Beneath

By Rosie Wright Although most of the advances in underwater exploration have taken part in the last 400 to 500 years, it is important to note that the Vikings showed considerable interest in uncovering what lies beneath the sea. In the 700s they used sounding weights to obtain and collate samples of the sea bed as well as to calculate the depth of the sea. This was an important building block on which the continuation of this kind of exploration depended on. Fast forward to 17th century and the first submarine is built by Cornelius Drebbel. The test drive took place in the Thames in 1620; it was made from wood and animal skin. This shows that even before industrialisation humans were curious about what lies beneath our oceans and interested in reaching the seabed. Just a century later and the French scientist Pierre-Simon Laplace was building on the work of the Vikings by estimating the depth of the Atlantic Ocean. This was later proved to be very accurate.

The 18th century also saw the invention of a diving suit by Karl Klingert that was airtight and contained a metal tube. This showed the advancement of the science behind exploration – the 18th century acted as a catalyst for the development of underwater exploration as afterwards there was an explosion of many different submarine missions. France built the first human-powered submarine in 1800 and in the 1860s, the US Navy showed an interest in building submarines. By the end of the 19th century the first modern electric submarine called the Gymnote had been created in France.Submarine technology was constantly advancing – however, technology for the divers themselves only really advanced in 1943 with Jacques Cousteau and Emile Gagnan. They invented the aqua-lung which could regulate air according to what the diver required meaning divers could now easily breathe underwater. This was a huge advancement as it was now a lot safer for humans to explore oceans. Again, this was created by the French, showing the massive impact the French had on the development of underwater technology. Since then submarines have been developed further – the wreckage of the Titanic has been found and the Census of Marine Life has been completed. Without Cousteau, Drebbel, and many other inventors, this would not have been possible. We would not have been able to explore the ocean as in depth, if at all, without their creations and findings.

Marco Polo

By El Mawer Marco Polo, the infamous thirteenth century Venetian traveller, holds honour for being one of the first Europeans to travel Asia during the Middle Ages. While most may be familiar with the popular swimming pool game ‘Marco Polo’, few will be acquainted with the real Marco Polo’s adventures and attainments. Marco, born in 1254 into a wealthy, merchant family, travelled further than any of his predecessors during his twenty four year journey along the Silk Road. Alongside his father, uncle and two missionaries, Marco left Venice for Cathay (now known as China) in 1271 and returned to Venice in 1295, but just what did Marco’s adventures entail?

In 1269, the Mongol prince Kublai Khan sent Niccolo and Maffeo Polo – Marco’s father and uncle – to Rome as his messengers with a request that the Pope send one hundred Europeans to share their knowledge with him. Despite the failure of the Pope to grant this request, Niccolo and Maffeo set out to return to China in 1271 in search of adventure and profit.

Due to the passing of his mother, this return journey marked the debut of the seventeen year old Marco Polo as a traveller. This voyage, lasting just over three years, took the Polo’s primarily overland, allowing them to travel through places such as Persia and Afghanistan before cutting across the Gobi Desert to Beijing.

Kublai Khan welcomed their return and they spent the next seventeen years there. The Mongol prince was impressed with Marco and appointed him the position of Special Envoy.

Marco had not only demonstrated his ability to travel but also immersed himself in Chinese culture, quickly learning the language and adopting the customs. As Special Envoy, Marco could widen his exploration to the far reaches of Asia. This enabled him to travel to places such as Tibet and India, locations that Europeans had never before seen.

After leaving Asia in 1292 on a mission to Persia and subsequently Rome, then finally reaching Venice in 1295, Marco did not return again. Whilst serving in the Venetian navy in the war against Genoa, Marco was captured in 1298. During his imprisonment, he dictated his adventures to fellow prisoner Rustichello and the resulting book – ‘The Travels of Marco Polo’ – was immensely popular. Although contemporaries questioned the reliability of this account, with the popular Italian title for it being ‘Il Milione’ (short for ‘The Million Lies’), the information in his book proved vital to European geographical understanding and inspired countless explorers, notably Christopher Columbus.

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Marco dressed as a tartare (Wikimedia Commons)

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

Ancient African Civilisations

By Amna Shaddad Besides the Pharaonic era (more popularly known as the era of the Ancient Egyptians) many other Kingdoms also existed. However, very little is known about them. This article aims to provide a quick run through some of the many Kingdoms that rose and fell in Africa up till the end of the European Dark ages (an era of economic and intellectual decline in Europe).

For example, The Land of Punt, as it was called by the Pharaonics was a trading partner to them: Gold from Punt is recorded as having been in Egypt as early as 2500s BC. Although still under dispute, the Land of Punt is said to have occupied what is today Djibouti, Eritrea, Northeast Ethiopia, Somalia and the coast of Sudan. The Land of Punt produced and exported blackwood, ebony, gold, ivory and aromatic resins.

From 3800 BC, the Ta-Seti kingdom (later the Kingdom of Kerma or Kush) arose, exported precious goods and traded as far as SyroPalestine and was at points a serious rival to the Pharaonics. The Kingdom of Kush invaded the Pharaonic Kingdom in 730 BCE and so began the Nubian Empire which extended between Palestine and the Nile. Trade links were developed between Nubia and Greece.

Pharaoinc writing was replaced with the Meroitic alphabet but the rise of Aksumite Empire in 350 BC (which became one of the four international superpowers of the day) brought with it the Meroitic decline.

Although there is a wealth of information on the rise and fall of Carthage, Aksum, Somalia, Berbers and others in North East Africa, it may be just as interesting to explore West African and Sub-Saharan Empires. From 2000 BCE the Tichit and Oualata, located in present day Mauritania were the precursor to the Ghana Empire. There is evidence of iron-smelting dating as far back as 3000 to 25000 BCE Ancient African Civilisation Ruins (Wikimedia Commons) located in Cameroon and the Central African Republic, as well as cites and settlements dating back to the first millennium BCE in Chad and Zilum. Developments in agricultural methods and trade led to several early civilisations around West and Central Africa.

Between 500 and 1800 AD, post the Bantu expansion (the expansion of different peoples through Central and Sub Saharan Africa) several Empires flourished including the Aksum, Ghana, Mali, Songhai, Ethiopian, Mossi and Benin Empires whose eras expand from 100 AD to the 20th Century. The Ghana Empire which conquered West Africa between 750 and 1078 AD had sophisticated methods of taxation and administration as well as a great military power and incredible wealth acquired from gold and its transport of it via camels.The Mali Empire rose where the Ghana Empire fell; West Africa. The area became globally famous as a centre of trade, culture and learning with the Mali city of Timbuktu as the crux filled with Islamic libraries and universities and a meeting place of some of the most famous scholars of Africa and the Middle East. In 1235 the Kurukan Fuga was established and was one of the world’s first semi-democratic governments. Mali fleets are said to have reached South America as early as 1311 and later developed trade and warfare between the two lands.

The Songhai region broke away from the Mali Empire during its fall and became the largest state in African History covering 1.4 million square kilometres by 1500. Timbuktu under Songhai rule was still a trade and cultural centre attracting Arab, Jewish and Italian traders. The Ethiopian Empire (Abyssinia) lasted from 1270 until the 20th century. The Mossi Kingdoms took over Timbuktu and removed the trading centre of the Massina Empire. The Benin Empire was ruled by a King who, according to Dutch physician and writer, Olfert Dapper (1635-1689), had an incredible influence over his people with possession of “so many beautiful cities and towns”.

It is worth noting that African History was, until quite recently, submerged in Eurocentric racist suppression, distortion and propaganda, which many scholars have had to debunk. For example, the late Dr John Henirk Clarke (1915-1998), and African American pioneer in the organization of Africana studies was one of such scholars who had to assert: ”Nothing in Africa had any European influence before 332 B.C. If you have 10,000 years behind you before you even saw a European, then who gave you the idea that he moved from the ice-age, came all the way into Africa and built a great civilization and disappeared, when he had not built a shoe for himself or a house with a window?”

@TheMcrHistorian

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

The Rediscovery of Petra

By William Godfrey Over 2000 years ago, the city of Petra was founded as the capital of the Nabataean kingdom. Today, Al Khazneh (Petra’s Treasury) is recognisable all over the world. The ancient city of Petra has become Hollywood’s go-to location for Middle Eastern epics; the imposing sandstone façade famously served as the entrance to the resting place of the Holy Grail in Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade (1989). The mythical status of Petra is nothing new. For centuries it represented the hidden homeland of an extinct civilisation in the Western imagination. That was until the ruins were rediscovered in 1812 by Swiss explorer Johann Burckhardt.

A native French speaker, Burckhardt was born in Lausanne, Switzerland in November 1784. He spent much of his childhood in Germany and moved to England in 1806, where he was introduced to Sir Joseph Banks of the Royal Society. Fascinated by exploration and ‘Darkest Africa’, Banks elected to sponsor the young Swiss in a mission to discover the source of the River Niger. In preparation for his expedition, Burckhardt studied Arabic at Cambridge, before continuing his education at Aleppo in Syria. It was on his journey to Aleppo that Burckhardt was first inspired by tales of the lost city of Petra. After two years in Syria mastering Arabic and studying the Qur’an, Burckhardt assumed the alias of Sheikh Ibrahim Ibn Abdallah in an attempt to disguise himself as a native of the region. He wrote in his journal: ‘I thought it advisable to equip myself in the simplest manner.

I assumed the most common Bedouin dress [and] took no baggage with me’.

Inspired by stories of the lost city, Burckhardt travelled south from Nazareth where local tribespeople told him of ruins in a narrow mountain valley near the supposed tomb of Aaron, the brother of Moses. Claiming that he wished to sacrifice a goat to Aaron, Burckhardt convinced a local guide to take him to the ruins. In his journal Burckhardt describes the eighty-foot-high precipices and the great torrent that lead the way to Petra, and his amazement at finally setting his eyes upon the towering mausoleum ‘cut entirely out of the rock’.

Petra Jordan BW 43. (Wikimedia Commons).

The explorer died of dysentery in 1817 aged just 33. Though he failed in his original aim of locating the source of the Niger, he did succeed in rediscovering the ancient city of Petra. Quite amazingly, he did so in the guise of a Syrian pauper, never having his true identity discovered.

Zheng He’s Voyages

By Laura Callard When thinking of historical voyages, who comes to mind? Columbus? Marco Polo? They’re the ones we think of first but, before them, there was a series of important exploratory voyages early in the Ming dynasty. They made China the undisputed ruler of the seas, primarily the South China Sea and the Indian Ocean. The Ming dynasty faced relentless internal threats to their reign and the Yongle Emperor commissioned such voyages to divert the threats to Ming and, at the same time, to promote China’s dominance of the seas.

The man appointed to over-see these expeditions was Admiral Zheng He, hence why they are popularised as the Zheng He Voyages.

Seven times the size that Columbus’s would be and technologically more advanced, they endorsed China as a force to be reckoned with. Built upon the foundation of peasant rebellion, the Yongle Emperor adopted the voyages as a device to legitimise Ming rule and substantiate his occupation of the throne.

Forging trade links and re-establishing the tributary system, these voyages aided the boom in the Ming economy, of which maritime commerce proved paramount. Each expedition embarked on its journey laden with silver, gold, silk and the famous Ming porcelain.

In return they brought back to China such marvels as zebras, camels, ivory, and on one occasion a giraffe. There is no wonder they became known as the ‘Treasure Voyages’ which were to make a significant contribution to the thriving Ming economy. Visiting foreign islands and territories these voyages managed to cement China’s control over maritime trade, forcing the smaller entities under the control of the tributary system. Economically the successes of the voyages were monumental.

Clearly the Zheng He Voyages were fundamental to the development of China’s prosperous economy, so why are they forgotten when other explorers are so well known? It is simply the fact that the Chinese did not colonise. Belief in their own superiority led to what might be called sinocentrism: China at the centre of the earth. There was no reason to adopt other nations. The economic benefits were not the sole reason for the voyages. Diplomatically they symbolised China’s powerful stance in the East, reinforcing its stature of dominance and authority. Political power-shifts within China forced the voyages to come to an end and the ship-yards and ships were destroyed, leaving the seas without a ruling power. Several sporadic periods of isolationism followed, and whilst foreign trade was not completely banned, neither was it encouraged. Regardless of its aftermath, these voyages should not be held subordinate to any other voyage of discovery!

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

The Aztec Empire

By James Doyle The Aztec Empire was one of the most magnificent civilisations in the world, with their spectacular structures rivalling those of other great civilisations like the Greeks, Romans and Egyptians. The Aztec Empire stretched through most of Mexico and into what is now Guatemala, with its influence spreading further afield.

However, the Aztec Empire was to come to a quick and forceful end under the leadership of Hernan Cortes, a Spanish Conquistador who desecrated the last native civilisation in Central America. Tenochtitlan, the capital stronghold of the Aztecan Empire became the scene of a two-year siege. The Aztecs believed staunchly in a prophecy that said that a white bearded God was going to come and bring universal peace to the world.

Cortes’ appearance matched that of the prophecy, so the Aztec leader Montezuma came to trust Cortes, resulting in Montezuma’s imprisonment and execution in 1520.

In addition to the execution of the Aztec leader, Cortes had all the vital components to crush the Aztec empire. He had at his disposal a naval basis to attack Spanish Colonization of Mexico (Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Tenochtitlan from the sea, far superior weaponry and cavalry. Cortes’ omens looked good. However, this wasn’t to happen at Cortes’ first attempt. Montezuma’s brother and successor, Cuitlahuac, drove Cortes’ army back and remained as Aztec Emperor for eighty days, in which he tried to form a federation against the Spanish occupation of Central America. Due to divisions amongst tribes, this federation never occurred.

Cortes and his conquistadors returned with a vengeance. They subsequently besieged the city with the help of rival tribes of the Aztecs like the Texocans, Chalca and Tepanec who had all been brutally subdued at the hands of the Aztec Empire and forced to pay financial tribute to the Aztecs, of which they were understandably discontented about. Cortes used his political nuance to entice rival tribal groups onto his cause, which gained him invaluable knowledge of the land and possible Aztec weaknesses. However, it wasn’t Cortes’ military tactics that played the most vital role in the desecration of the Aztec Empire it was the spread of smallpox which caused havoc within Tenochtitlan, killing tens of thousands in its wake.

The introduction of the Spanish into Central America brought smallpox to the Aztecs and due to a lack of understanding of the disease and its subsequent cures, many fell victim to the epidemic. As a result the Aztecs were severely depleted both in terms of morale and soldiers. In addition to this, Cortes was also able to cut off food and water supplies into the city thus dealing another blow to the Aztecs who were already fighting the smallpox epidemic and the situation became dire.

200,000 people are thought to have died in the two-year siege and with that the civilisation died too. Out of the ruins of Tenochtitlan, the conquistadors rebuilt the foundations of the city and renamed it Mexico City, with Cortes the Governor and Captain-General of New Spain. With the introduction of European Colonialism into the Central Americas, Christianity too became the main religion within New Spain, with the previous indigenous religion being thwarted from existence. Cortes was at the helm of an expansive colonial policy, whereby new cities were built and the population evangelised through the building of churches and other Christian institutions.

Thus the Spanish colonial mission into what we now know as Mexico had a profound impact. The native culture and existence came under threat and many aspects of Aztec life were desecrated like their capital, Tenochtitlan. Christianity took over via the installation of churches and cathedrals and the population became indoctrinated into a religion that they had never heard of. Cortes also introduced sugar as a commodity into New Spain, and used the land to cultivate it for profit.

New Spain became a feeder for Spain’s imperial wealth, and this had a catastrophic effect on the old Aztec way of life. Through the introduction of Spanish policies, the Aztec way of life died out. In addition to the cultural changes with colonialism and exploration brought about, Smallpox played a detrimental effect of the native population killing many Aztecs. Smallpox, therefore, played a crucial impact in the success of the Spanish colonial mission under Cortes. Finally, Spanish exploration was the catalyst for the Aztec’s downfall and due to the introduction of Spanish life onto the Central American continent; the world lost one of the most civilised and advanced civilisations of their time, the Aztecs.

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

The Importance of the Railway

By Marcus Edwards Leading transport journalist Christian Wolmar has claimed that the railway was the most important invention of the second Millennium.

This statement is surrounded in as much as controversy as the bedroom tax, and one would be hard pressed to suggest what the definitive invention of the second millennium was, what with there being so much to choose from. However, it is undeniable that the railway has aided mankind in immeasurable ways, in both voyages of commerce and discovery.

In Britain, many people had experimented with steam locomotives from the beginning of the 19th Century, the first successful example being that built by William Hedley in Northumbria to aid coal transportation in 1813. The first rail network that relied purely on the power of steam was the Liverpool and Manchester railway that was completed in 1830. The building of this network was commercial in its conception, allowing for raw cotton to be transported from Merseyside to Manchester. The development of this rail link was of great benefit to Manchester, allowing for quick and efficient transportation of cotton. Manchester boomed in the period following the building of the rail link. Thanks to the cotton industry, Manchester was transformed from a small town into a city of great commerce and industry, quickly becoming known as ‘cottonopolis’.

Enhancing industry was also the motivation for the building of railways in India, which was also for the benefit of the cotton trade in Britain, allowing for cotton to be transported to the port in Bombay. The progress of the railway was not to offer travel to the masses, but in order to enhance industry. The building of railways in India became a symbolisation of Imperialism, attracting the wrath of Ghandi many years later.

Indeed, the only mass building of railways around the world that allowed for the mass transportation of people was done in the name of industry where they were needed to extract raw materials. These same lines could then be used to transport the raw materials back to the ports once they had been extracted by the workers. Of course, this was not for the benefit of the worker, but allowed for industry barons to increase profit margins. Far from being vessels to carry people in their voyages of discovery, the railways had a much more cynical value in allowing for increasing profit margins and re-enforcing colonial rule, challenging the romantic image portrayed in modern popular culture most recently by Michael Portillo.

Taking in Water at Parkside, from Bury’s Liverpool and Manchester Railway, 1831 (Source: Wikimedia Commons).

Whilst the building of the railways was industrial in its conception, they did of course become valuable sources of leisure. The prime example of this would be the Trans-Siberian Express.

Work began on the line, which travels through seven different time zones, in 1891 and is still being added on to up to the present day. Initially built to improve links across the vast area of Siberia, the network had great benefits for Russian Agriculture in spite of the industry itself being in dire need of mechanisation, as the Nazis discovered during the Second World War. Today, the Trans-Siberian express is viewed as one of the great railway journeys. The journey features on many bucket lists, and has most recently been exposed in popular culture by Karl Pilkington in An Idiot Abroad. Whilst failing to please the lovable travel-weary Manc, it still attracts tourists from all over the world. The railway equivalent of watching a Lord of The Rings of Trilogy, the quickest journey on the TransSiberian express from Moscow to Beijing takes 8 days which includes no stops. One can only hope that it is more entertaining than Peter Jackson’s yawn inducing dirge.

Whilst Karl Pilkington has done little to fuel desire for great voyages of discovery on the railways, Michael Portillo has done much to restore the romance of the locomotive. In his BBC series, Portillo has travelled the great railways of Britain and Europe. Accompanied

by Victorian guidebooks, Portillo demonstrates how the railways have changed in the past 150 years or so. Stopping off in several areas of beauty or intrigue, Poritllo’s documentaries also highlight the convenience, romance and intrigue of rail travel.

Today, the railways are still a popular form of transport. In Britain however, with rising ticket fares, poor services and debates over efficiency and running costs, one questions their sustainability. However, given their environmental benefits one would imagine they will be with us for many years to come.

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History in Features

Issue 18: February 2015

The Panama Canal

By Matt Steadman

SS Ancon transiting the Panama Canal 1939.

(Wikimedia Commons).

One of the largest and greatest engineering projects ever undertaken; the building of the Panama Canal is marred with controversy, death and diplomatic wrangling to secure the crucial economic artery which would make navigating the tricky waters of the Straits of Magellan a thing of the past. The idea of a canal cutting through Panama first emerged in 1543, 400 years before its construction, when the King of Spain ordered a survey of the area to ease the passing of his ships from Peru to Spain. A number of plans were elaborated but nothing was ever finalised despite Spain’s desire to gain a strategic advantage over Portugal and increase its global reach. The strategic significance of the narrow isthmus only grew over the years with many countries drawing up further plans for trade links in the area, but it was the French who eventually secured its construction in 1881, buoyed by their success in building the Suez Canal. However, it was to be an illfated endeavour with the tropical conditions and health risks costing the lives of 22,000 workers and bankrupting the company in 1894.

The US quickly seized upon this opportunity. By supporting Panamanian rebels in their struggle against Colombian rule and blocking the arrival of fresh Colombian troops, the US pulled off a political and economic masterstroke and guaranteed themselves the acquisition of the rights to the construction of the canal, from a grateful free Panamanian government. American takeover of the construction started in 1904 and would take a decade to build, finally being completed in 1914 at a cost of over 8 billion dollars.

Its completion marked a historic event, linking two great oceans and facilitating more efficient economic transactions between the Americas and Europe. However, US-Panamanian relations grew progressively tenser throughout the 20th century with calls for it to be handed over to the Panamanian people. In 1977, after decades of negotiations and skirmishes, the process of giving the Panama government free control of the canal began on the conditions that its waterway remained neutral; a process which was finally completed in 1999.

The canal’s effects on global maritime trade patterns have been colossal. World economic and commercial developments of the past century have been widely impacted by the canal linking two of the planet’s great bodies of water, reducing the transit distance for certain vessels by 8,000 km. Crucially, the canal is credited with having spurred the economic development of poorer and more remote countries across the globe and has allowed many of these to become active members of the global trade economy, with all the economic benefits this entails.

Who Really Discovered America?

By Jess Wilkes When discussing man’s discovery of the North American continent, one would normally associate its discovery with the Spanish explorer Christopher Columbus. His voyage across the Atlantic Ocean in the fifteenth century resulted in the establishment of permanent settlements on the Island Hispaniola, which initiated the Spanish colonization of the New World. Because of this, society has gone on to generally name Columbus as the ultimate discoverer of America. Conversely, evidence has recently surfaced suggesting alternative European civilizations reaching and inhabiting America prior to Columbus’s 1492 discovery. L’Anse aux Meadows, located in the Canadian province of Newfoundland and discovered in just 1960, is internationally the most famous site of Viking Settlement outside Greenland. This Viking Settlement dates back to the year 1000 and provides evidence of pre-Columbian American contact.

L’Anse aux Meadows was named a World Heritage site in 1978 and after further investigation of this settlement it is confirmed that it signifies the farthest exploration made by Europeans of the New World before the voyages of Christopher Columbus, which occurred nearly five hundred years later.

Archaeological investigation of the site provides evidence of life at this settlement. The remains of eight buildings have been discovered and identified as various dwellings and workshops. The discovery of spindles and needles suggests the presence of women and therefore more permanent living, rather than just temporary exploring inhabitants. The remains of food such as butternuts were also found, as well as evidence that suggests the inhabitants were hunting an array of animals including wolf, fox, deer and bear that used to live in the area. These discoveries show that earlier Europeans did not just discover America, but they lived and survived on this new continent for some time. However, evidence has also been discovered showing life existed in the area of L’Anse aux Meadows prior to the European Vikings. Particular evidence suggests that Aboriginal occupants lived in this Northern part of the USA dating back as far as 6,000 years ago. The Dorset people were one of the more prominent of these earlier occupants and they preceded the Vikings by 200 years.

Overall, it seems there is overwhelming proof that the continent of America was indeed inhabited centuries prior to Columbus’ famous voyage to the West in 1492. It would appear L’Anse aux Meadows provides strong verification that Columbus was not the first man to step foot on American Soil.

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Issue 18: February 2015

Throne Hall (Wikimedia Commons) Fire and energy (Morgan Hill Times)

Crate’s Terrestrial Sphere (Wikimedia Commons)

Revolutionary in 10 P

The Terracotta Warriors (Wikimedia Commons)

Pierre and Marie Curie (Wikimedia Commons)

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Issue 18: February 2015

The Problem Solvings of Archimedes (Wikimedia Commons)

y Discoveries Pictures

Statue of Tiberius (Wikimedia Commons)

Aryabhatacrp (Wikimedia Commons)

Alexander Flemming and Penicillin (Wikimedia Commons) Tutankhamun’s Tomb Opened (Wikimedia Commons)

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Battle of the Month

Issue 18: February 2015

Battle of the Month: The Battle of Austerlitz

By Mahfuza Kahn Napoleon’s military career is somewhat proliferated by the Battle of Austerlitz, also known as the Battle of the Three Emperors, in December 1805, in which Napoleon’s cunning and masterful allure saw the crushing defeat of Austria’s army and ultimately led to the end of the Third Coalition and the signing of the Treaty of Pressburg. Napoleon has often been considered a masterful military commander, due to his ability to command on the front line and make decisive decisions strategically. For Robert Goetz, in particular this title of him being one of history’s “foremost great captains” is rightfully attributed to him when studying the Battle of Austerlitz.

As alluded to in the title of the battle, it took place in modern day Czech territory and saw Napoleon strong-arm the leaders of the Holy Roman Empire: Francis II and the leader of Russian and Austrian Army: Tsar Alexander I. The burgeoning tensions in the lead up to the battle during the Napoleonic wars made the Battle of the Three Emperors all the more emphatic. The Battle sprang on the back of Britain’s declaration of war against France after the breakdown of the Peace accord made at Amiens in 1803. Britain began to fear Napoleon was increasingly striving to take personal control over much of Western Europe, which ironically is a criticism born out of the battle and so was obligated to declare war. James Arnold highlights a criticism of Napoleon, that following French victory at Austerlitz, French foreign policy seemingly morphed into Napoleonic policy.

After initially propelling his forces further forward in pursuit of the Allies having sieged Vienna a month earlier, Napoleon ordered the retreat of his forces as he seemingly feigned a military frailty. On the surface Napoleon successfully presented his French Army as an infirm body and to further aid this act he left the previously guarded post at Pratzen Heights abandoned. This, for the Austrians then appeared as a way in and means of attacking the French body in a vulnerable area. Having anticipated this, Napoleon overwhelmed the Austrians, heavily outflanking the Allies in numbers but also in fatalities and causalities suffering 75% less trauma to his army.

History You Should Know

The 1190 Massacre

By Lucy Rebecca Heyderman

Pogrom means ‘to destroy, to wreak havoc, to demolish violently’, a word often used to describe the acts of violence directed towards Jewish communities throughout history. In British history, one of the most famous examples of this is the 1190 massacre in York.After the Crusades, anti-Semitic sentiments had begun to grow in England. Rumours had begun to spiral that Richard I had ordered English Jews to be attacked. Indeed, in 1189 prominent Jews had been denied entry to the coronation of King Richard I, including Bandurch of York, a wealthy and very influential Jew who was later killed in the riots that broke out at Westminster. Riots then spread across England.

On the Sabbath eve before Passover, Jewish households were set on fire and looted. The local Jewish community fled and took refuge in Clifford’s Tower, led by Josce of York – the Jewish leader of York. Rioters attacked the tower for days, whilst the Jews hid in the wooden keep. Meanwhile, the warden of the castle left to discuss the situation. Fearing betrayal the Jews refused to let him back in. The warden appealed to the sheriff who responded by joining the siege with his men. On the 16 March, as it became clear that the castle would not provide protection for much longer, Rabbi Yomtob suggested that the Jews resort to collective suicide.

In total 150 Jews perished as a husbands killed their wives and children, and then burnt their bodies before killing themselves.

Although some surrendered to the mob, promising to convert to Christianity they were butchered rather than baptised.

Underlying this massacre and fuelling the flames of hate for the Jews were members of the gentry, most notably was Richard de Malbis. These men had extensive debts to Jewish members of the city and no feasible way of repaying them. Thus the massacre provided an opportunity to rid themselves of the debts. After the pogrom, these men burnt all records on the floor of a church and thus absconded from their financial ties to the murdered Jews as well as the King. An inquiry led to a heavy fine being imposed upon the town; yet no individuals were prosecuted. In fact they may have join Richard I on his crusade has he embarked on his journey to the Holy Land not long after. This was not an anomaly and this pattern of persecution towards the Jewish community has been seen across Europe since. Indeed just 100 years later King Edward I expelled all Jews from England. Only in 1657 did Oliver Cromwell arrange their return.

Cliffords Tower (Wikimedia Commons)

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History You Should Know

Issue 18: February 2015

Tiananmen Square: Investigate

By Natalie Sharpin

The 1989 protests in Tiananmen Square were arguably the greatest challenge to the Chinese Communist state since 1949.

During April and May 1989, Beijing witnessed an extraordinary series of demonstrations known as ‘the Beijing Spring’. Protesters demanded freedom, democracy and the end of corruption. An estimated 3,000 civilians were wounded and over 200 killed although there is no official death toll. Although initiated and dominated by students, the protest attracted widespread public support for the first time, most significantly from urban workers. Demonstrations reached a climax when Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev arrived in Beijing for what was supposed to be a dramatic end to the Sino-Soviet split, drawing journalists from all over the world.

Central leadership was divided in its response. This sent contradictory messages and caused mounting domestic tensions and global interest. Zhao Ziyang was sympathetic regarding economic reforms, including the privatisation of state-owned enterprises, placing him at odds with party members Premier Li Peng and paramount leader Deng Xiaoping. On 19th May, leading functionaries gathered to enforce martial law. Zhao did not attend and instead addressed the protestors in Tiananmen Square, demonstrating Party division for all to see. On 3-4th June, the People’s Liberation Army tanks ambushed protestors, with Zhao later being purged.

It has been claimed that top Party leaders approached Swiss diplomats to send ‘significant amounts of money’ to foreign bank accounts during the crisis, suggesting greater fears for stability than previously thought. Because of the open ferocity of the government’s response following the ‘beginning of the end’ of the Cold War, the Tiananmen massacre has proved a watershed moment in Western impressions of and responses to China. Tiananmen has become an icon of cultural-political difference: the violation of human rights by the repressive state. Acceptance of Locke’s principle of man’s concession of liberties to the state raised questions regarding how far the state could intervene in personal autonomy, especially when it is not democratically elected.

The Chinese argument was that only a strong state could protect the people. Nevertheless, we have tended to romanticise the events of 1989 because they idealise Western political themes. China was ‘an Oriental mirror image of its own hopes and dreams’ (George Hicks). The cultural issue of the European example is clear to see. In spite of China’s assertion that sovereignty of the state is the most important substance of human rights, the political regime has continued to cause contention. Today, the people of Hong Kong are venting their frustration at the increasingly impervious political domain, just as the students at Tiananmen Square did before them.

The Mayerling Incident

By Sophie Bullock

When studying the outbreak of the First World War, the death of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, is an established catalyst in starting the war that would engulf Europe and the rest of the world for four years. What is less well known, however, is the controversial circumstances surrounding the death of an heir to the Austro-Hungarian Empire 25 years prior; the manner of Crown Prince Rudolf’s demise would have lasting political significance and paved the way not only to the assassination of Franz Ferdinand, but also to the outbreak of the First World War. On the 30th of January 1889, the body of Crown Prince Rudolf was discovered at the Imperial hunting lodge at Mayerling, near Vienna. Whilst initially the cause and manner of the Prince’s death was uncertain, it became evident that the Prince had shot himself.

Alongside the married Prince was the 17 year old Baroness Mary Vetsera, with whom he had been having an affair, and who had been killed by a gunshot wound to the head. The news was met with horror and disbelief and whilst attempts were made to shield the public from the truth, the fact the pair had died in an apparent suicide pact became common knowledge. Whilst conspiracy theories raged both at the time as well as into the present day, the general consensus of historians is that Rudolf had had previous tendencies towards suicide and was unhappy with his father’s demand that Rudolf should end his relationship with the Baroness.

As the only son of Emperor Franz Joseph and Empress Elizabeth and without a son himself, Rudolf’s premature death posed a serious dynastic problem.

Franz Joseph’s brother Karl Ludwig became heir-presumptive, only for him to waive his succession rights in favour of his eldest son, Franz Ferdinand.

However, Rudolf’s death had large political ramifications. Rudolf was far more liberal than his father, and his death meant the conservative and reactionary policies of Franz Joseph were far easier to pursue without objections from his son. For this reason, Rudolf’s death endangered the growing reconciliation between the Austrian and Hungarian factions of the Empire, deepening tensions not just in Austria and Hungary but also in the Balkans. Whilst Rudolf’s death did not predestine the First World War or the collapse of the Habsburg dynasty, the aftermath of the Mayerling Incident certainly shaped and contributed to the events that occurred in 1914.

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Mayerling, 1889 (Wikimedia Commons)

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History You Should Know

Issue 18: February 2015

Lincoln and the 13th Amendment – The Difficulties He Faced

By Holly Donald

The 13th Amendment needs little, if any, introduction. Abraham Lincoln, often voted the most popular or inspirational President, has been preserved as the freer of slaves. Most recently immortalised in Stephen Spielberg’s film. However, popular accounts tend to smooth the nuances of Lincoln’s achievements. They continually ignore his overt racism and the limitations of his legislation. Whilst today it is revered as one of the finest hours of American history, Lincoln, and his abolitionist Amendment, was not so popular in the 1860’s.

Opposition to the 13th Amendment was perhaps its biggest obstacle. Unsurprisingly, the Democrats and Southern States were vehemently opposed. Indeed Lincoln realised he needed to support his Emancipation Proclamation promises with law or constitutional change to effect permanent change. Thus he pushed the 13th Amendment through in the 28th Congress and put it at the forefront of his electoral campaign.

Perhaps less known, though, is the significant disapproval from within Lincoln’s party. The Civil War had started with union as its goal but the (slightly impassionate) Emancipation Proclamation changed, for many, the course of the war. Emphasis shifted to abolition. Hugely welcomed by the thousands of African American slaves, especially in the south, now able to enjoy freedom (under the control of unionist states or forces) and legally fight for it. But Northern Republicans were less embracing. There was a sense that this had now become Ratification of the 13th Amendment (Wikimedia Commons) Lincoln’s war. The Republican’s negative stance on slavery shouldn’t be too exaggerated though. They weren’t throwing in their lot with the historically villainous Southern slave owners. Most were committed to the prohibition of slavery expansion. But few were devoted to Lincoln’s dreams of full-scale abolition.

Why there were such discrepancies between party leader and members has been hotly debated. Racism in 19th Century society was so entrenched it’s likely that politics would have been unable to escape it. But there was still opposed expansion in order to protect the balance of power between Slave and Free states. Others may have not wanted to push the Southern States too far; especially as they so desperately wanted to reunite. However, the original 13th Amendment (1861), originally intended to prevent abolition, suggested others still saw slavery as a bargaining tool for the sake of the Union. Moreover, others even suggest its promise was an excuse to recruit African Americans soldiers for the Unionist army. Such a resource of manpower proved vital in the waning latter years of the war. It has been estimated that over 200, 000 former slaves joined up immediately after Lincoln’s Emancipation Proclamation, 16 of which got the congressional medal of honour.

No matter the reason; it is certain that opposition from both Democrats and Republicans was a great obstacle in the passing of the13th Amendment. The Bill was approved by the Senate with 38 votes to 6, a landslide. But it was a year later in 1865, only after Lincoln’s re-election did it passed in the Representatives (with 119 to 56). The 1864 election saw the Republicans claim 50 more seats, securing a majority, and abolition promoted as the Republican Party campaign. It was only with these conditions that passing the amendment was made possible. Evidence of bribes and the abstention of many Southern States are commonly claimed as vital to this victory. It is quite ironic that one of America’s most important pieces of freedom and civil rights legislation was only made possible through corruption and an undemocratic vote.

Looking into the later period shows us just how hard this constitutional alteration was to achieve. Southern states were forced to ratify before they were allowed to re-join the union and be represented in congress. Clearly the idea of racial equality, even though bounded into the constitution now, was not catching on. Reconstruction’s Jim Crow Laws painted a similar picture of the South that was seen before the war. African Americans were no longer slaves but they were, only at best, Second Class Citizens.

Sharecropping especially maintained the economic and social inferiority of the free slaves. Ensuring in most instances they were occupied with the same work. Even Lincoln’s Predecessor, Andrew Johnson, was opposed to the 14th Amendment and did little to support Lincoln’s work.

This initially disappointing and bleak legacy of Lincoln’s Amendment is wrapped up in the Bill itself. Such a drastic change to society could not be achieved through constitutional change alone. Systematic and gradual changes to social and racial ideologies were necessary. What is more, such a dramatic shift in society needs decades or longer to take effect. In fact, the imprints of such legislation are still seen in American society today.

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History In The Headlines

Issue 18: February 2015

Boko Haram

By Matt Burden In April 2014, the kidnapping of 276 schoolgirls at Chibok brought global notoriety to the Nigerian Islamist organisation Boko Haram. The group has been active since at least 2002 and in many respects represents a continuation of Nigerian history. The usual translation of Boko Haram to "Western Education is Sin" obscures the fact that they oppose not just Western education, but more importantly the values and form of civilization with which it is associated. They seek instead the strict application of Sharia law and the abolition of Western-style political and economic structures.

Although Islam has been present in West Africa since the 11th century, the most significant recent development took place at the beginning of the 19th century. Led by Usman dan Fodio, a group of nomadic herders entered Northern Nigeria hoping to encourage greater devotion to Islam amongst the local population. The result was the establishment of the Sokoto Caliphate, which governed so effectively that even with the advent of colonial rule the British were compelled to respect it. Nevertheless, colonialism contributed to a long-lasting division between the Muslim North and the Christian South, as Christians became associated with administrative elites and the military.

Following independence in 1960, Nigeria has suffered a troubled history and the Western-influenced political and economic structures it adopted have failed repeatedly. In the early 1980s, an Islamic preacher nicknamed Maitatsine led a popular movement based in the North that protested the injustices of poverty and their dissatisfaction at contemporary Islamic teaching. Their activities became increasingly violent and they were eventually suppressed by the army in clashes that killed over 5000. Boko Haram has been seen as continuation of this movement. The following year a series of raids on police stations in Yobe State once again led to intervention by security forces. By 2009, Boko Haram had grown dramatically in membership and ambition, resulting in further attacks upon state institutions.

Last month, the African Union proposed a multinational intervention of 7500 troops to combat Boko Haram. However, it seems unlikely that this will see an end to violence in the region, especially given that this will be an election year in Nigeria. International links to other terrorist organisations and attacks in Cameroon and Niger indicate an increasing confidence and ambition amongst this terrorist group, and ultimately the development of stable political and economic institutions will be a prerequisite for a long-term solution.

Germs of Discovery: Penicillin

By Jennifer Birdsall The fear of antibiotic resistance is at the forefront of world headlines in 2015. But, to understand this fear, we need to delve into the history of antibiotics. The discovery of penicillin is arguably one of the most significant scientific discoveries in history. Penicillin turned out to be a powerful antibiotic that has saved, and will continue to save, many lives. It was Alexander Fleming who came across the substance on the 3rd of September 1928. However, the discovery was not intentional. Fleming was scouring through a selection of samples that he had previously coated with staphylococcus bacteria. One plate had mould that seemed to be free of staphylococcus bacteria. This mould was named penicillium notatum and it possessed the ability to kill off bacteria.

Although Fleming’s work was an amazing step forward in medicine, it would not have achieved the life-saving status it has now without the work of two other scientists - Howard Florey and Ernst Chain. They are credited with the extraction of penicillin from penicillium notatum. Their work at Oxford University was what enabled the drug to become mass-produced. Initially, the drug was tested on animals that showed no negative side effects of its use. The first human test was in 1941. Doctor Charles Fletcher was working at a hospital in Oxford when he heard news of Florey and Chain’s work. In his company, he had a patient on their death bed due to bacteria entering a wound. Penicillin was administered. The patient showed a remarkable recovery once the drug had entered their system. However, due to a limited amount of penicillin, the patient died shortly after.

Nonetheless, this test was a success. The only reason the patient did not survive was because the dose of the drug was too low. Following this, an American drugs company agreed to mass produce the drug. By June 6th 1944, there was a large enough quantity available to treat all the bacterial infections that were rife among troops during the Second World War.Penicillin was very rightly nicknamed ‘the wonder drug’. Without it, the death tolls of bacteria-induced issues would have, and would still be, much higher. In 1945 Alexander Fleming, Howard Florey and Ernst Chain were awarded the Nobel Prize for Medicine, an award that they were all very deserving of. Post-1945, their work acted as a catalyst for a time that became known as the ‘era of antibiotics’.

Alexander Fleming (Wikimedia Commons)

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History In The Headlines

Issue 18: February 2015

“Our Past Must Not Become the Future for Our Children”. The Liberation of Auschwitz – 70 years on

By Joe Heys

In November 1944, with the Red Army’s march looking more and more unstoppable, Heinrich Himmler ordered gassing operations to cease across the Third Reich. The Sonderkommando (death camp prisoners forced to work in gas chambers) were ordered to remove evidence of any killings and hide all the mass graves within which many victims were buried. Over 60,000 prisoners were forced to march west from the Auschwitz camp system, on what have been termed ‘death marches’. Thousands had been killed in the camps in the days before these death marches began. These death marches involved tens of thousands of prisoners, mostly Jews, marching to the city of Wodzislaw in the western part of Upper Silesia. SS guards shot anyone who fell behind or could not continue. Prisoners also suffered from cold weather and many starved. More than 15,000 died in the death marches.

Yet these efforts did not stop what happened in these camps leaving a permanent mark on history. Ivan Martynushkin was an officer with the Red Army mortar company and remembers that Auschwitz inmates looked at him ‘with gratitude in their eyes’. But he claimed that neither he nor his fellow Red Army soldiers were unduly moved by what they saw as they had already seen so much horror committed by the Nazis. “I had seen towns being destroyed and the destruction of villages” he said, “I had seen children maimed and the suffering of our own people. There was not one village which had not experienced this horror, this tragedy, and these killings.”

The entrance to Auschwitz (Wikimedia Commons)

January 27th 2015 marked 70 years since the liberation of the Auschwitz death camp. “I felt such turmoil, such anger seeing this place again” said survivor Susan Pollack on the night of the anniversary. She was sent on one of those final death marches and was found amongst the dead by a medic. The skeletal 14-year old was carried to the ambulance. She recounted the fact a soldier picked her up and carried her to his ambulance as an act of human kindness she had not experienced in some time: “Someone was actually caring for me again – it still brings out the tears”.

Auschwitz was one of many German concentration camps in which enemies of the Nazi state were sent to live out their final days in forced labour. Out of the estimated 1.1 million victims of Auschwitz, 1 million were Jews and were sent there as part of what Adolf Hitler called his ‘final solution’. During his campaign for power, Hitler told the German people it was the Jews who had held them back, weakened their resolve and cheated their country. They were made the enemies within Germany, and camps such as Auschwitz were designed as a way to cleanse the Third Reich of the Jewish people. Auschwitz was the site of the largest mass murder in history.

The events of Auschwitz teach us a very important lesson about history. Just because it happened before, does not mean it will not happen again. In the words of Michael Rosen: ‘I sometimes fear that people might think that fascism arrives in fancy dress worn by grotesques and monsters as played out in endless re-runs of the Nazis. Fascism arrives as your friend. It will restore your honour, make you feel proud, protect your house, give you a job, clean up the neighbourhood, remind you of how great you once were, clear out the venal and corrupt, remove anything you feel is unlike you. It doesn’t walk in saying “Our programme means militias, mass imprisonments, transportations, war and persecution”.

We must be careful not to look at history through the lens of what has already happened. As awful and tragic as these events were, many atrocities, with the same justifications are currently happening across the world. Boko Haram’s recent actions in Nigeria alongside the horrific acts of Islamic State show us that lessons still have not been learnt from that day in January 1945. In the words of one of the survivors at the 70th anniversary ceremony at Auschwitz a few weeks ago, “Our past must not become the future for our children”; lessons must be learned.

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History In The Headlines

Issue 18: February 2015

Cunard: A Voyage Through History

By Alex Gradwell Spencer

One hundred and seventy-five years ago a small steam powered paddle ship set sail from the River Mersey, Liverpool, on a journey. This is a story that is woven into the fabric of the narrative of the transatlantic special relationship. That small ship ‘Britannia’ is still remembered today, indeed her current ocean liner niece will recreate that first voyage this summer, on the very day that Britannia set out in 1840. Many a toast will no doubt be drunk to her in her namesake on restaurants aboard the current fleet. Never has one company had so much influence on the transatlantic bond, as the Cunard Line did. The company began in response to an advert placed by the British Admiralty to carry the Royal Mail across the Atlantic. Samuel Cunard a native of Nova Scotia tendered for the contract and won. His hometown of Halifax would feature heavily in the most famous maritime disaster of all time, alongside one of his ships. His small liner Carpathia was the saviour of 705 passengers saved from the Titanic, and Halifax was where the recovery ships set out from and where unclaimed bodies were laid to rest.

The Titanic belonged to the Cunard’s main rival the White Star Line. Both Cunard and White Star were the dominant forces not just in the British merchant marine, but in the European battle for transatlantic dominance; a North Atlantic liner held not just its company’s reputation at stake, but its nation’s as well. The prize for the fastest, and therefore the greatest, ship was the Hales trophy aka the ‘Blue Riband of the Atlantic’. Cunard held this record time and again. Ironically, Cunard would end up not just saving passengers of the White Star Line, but (due to a forced merger in the 1930’s) also end up saving the name which lives on today as the strapline of the service Cunard provides its modern day passengers.

Cunard’s history has also been embroiled in the most famous conflicts of this nation. In the Charge of the Light Brigade, it was the Cunard ship ‘Arabia’ which carried those horses. The sinking of ‘Lusitania’ in May 1915 is credited with expediting the American entry to World War One; that tragedy was also exploited in the UK to drive recruitment to the armed forces such was the strength of the brand presence. World War Two saw the line play a vital role in the conflict, the twin queens Mary and Elizabeth were credited

by Churchill as having helped reduce the duration of the war by a year. Able to move 15,000 troops each at a time these great liners moved manpower from all corners of the globe to the European theatres of war.

After the war they moved GI brides back across the Atlantic, repeating the journeys of so many huddled masses before them.

Reparations after World War One accidentally began the tradition of Cunard ‘queens’ with the previously named ‘Imperator’ becoming ‘Berengaria’. She was followed by the Queen’s ‘Mary’ and ‘Elizabeth’, the most famous ships of their age. Post World War Two saw the golden age of the Liner, regularly pictured on the decks of the Queens were the stars of screen, stage and royalty, to travel in their footsteps was seen as the height of sophistication. Ocean travel was intensely glamorous and Cunard’s slogan “getting there is half the fun” encapsulated the experience. This era though, was destined not to last and the dawn of the jet age signalled the end of the liner. Why cross in four days when you could cross in 6 hours?

Responding to this threat the line changed tack and built what was to become arguably the most famous ship in the world. The Queen Elizabeth 2 (1969) carried shadows of her famous predecessors, but she was a space age ship for new generation, built not just for crossing but for cruising. She also carried the rich and famous, and was taken up to carry out trooping duties during the Falklands conflict. Her construction was at the same yard that her namesake had been built, however she would be the last great liner built there. Queen Elizabeth 2 was thought to be the last of her breed.

That was until the line, bought by the massive American shipping conglomerate Carnival, ordered a brand new ocean liner.

Queen Mary 2, a liner for the 21st century, entered service in January 2004. She continues the legacy and traditions of 175 years.

Celebrations begin in Liverpool over the Whitsun bank holiday.

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The QM2 Britania (Wikimedia Commons)

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History In The Headlines

Issue 18: February 2015

Who’s Supporting Who in the Middle East?

By Patrick Allen

Since the Arab Spring that started late in 2010, the Middle East has seen a surge towards democratization, but not without escalating conflicts and continuing tension between the regions geopolitical powers. Furthermore, as the US has found out, it is increasingly difficult to draw clear lines of allegiance between the Arab states – allies in one conflict may find themselves to have competing interests in another conflict’s outcome, and consequently find themselves opposed. The realisation of this may damage relations between groups, whilst allowing others to profit from the power vacuums. Syria, the war-torn country the UN special envoy Lakhdar Brahimi described as at risk of becoming “another Somalia”, saw over 190,000 dead between March 2011 and April 2014 as Bashar al-Assad sought, and still seeks, to suppress the popular uprising.

A Free Syrian Amy Soldier (Wikimedia Commons)

Assad is backed by Iran, the most significant Shia power in the region, who sees the country as its only consistent ally since Iran’s revolution in 1979 and vital route to Lebanon’s Hezbollah. Hezbollah, a Shia Islamist militant group and political party, are closely linked to Iran and have provided soldiers in the fight for Syria – in February 2013 Hezbollah fighters are purported to have attacked Syrian villages near the Lebanese border. These three countries form the ‘Shiite crescent’ – the region stretching from the Mediterranean to the Arabian Sea strongly under the influence of Shiite groups – and thus naturally Iran has a vested interest in propping up Assad. Another supporter of the regime is Russia, who sells arms and munitions to the regime and allows the only Russian naval base outside of the former Soviet Union’s sphere of influence.

Russia’s position in the United Nations council has allowed it to veto UN resolutions to the conflict. The Syrian rebels who oppose the Assad regime are not a united force and are composed of various militias such as the Islamic Front (not to be confused with Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi’s Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant), the Free Syrian Army and Al Nusra, (an Al-Qaeda affiliated group).

The Islamic Front and the Free Syrian Army are widely believed to be backed by Saudi Arabia and the oil-rich Gulf states which provide American-made arms and munitions with the help of Turkey.

Furthermore, Hamas, the Palestinian Islamic organisation in Gaza whose military wing is considered a terrorist organisation by the United Kingdom and the US, announced its support for the rebels at the civil war’s outbreak despite its strong ties to Iran.

Nevertheless, all these factions are opposed to the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL), the radical Sunni Islamist group infamous in the West for the decapitations of Steven Sotloff (Israeli-American), James Foley (American), Alan Henning (UK) and more recently Keni Goto (Japanese).

The group has managed to exploit the turmoil in Syria and Iraq to declare a self-proclaimed ‘Caliphate’ (a form of Islamic government led by a caliph), leading to a US-led coalition with the Gulf states in suppressing ISIL’s rapid military expansion in Syria, whilst Iran has provided support in Iraq. US-Iran relations have been difficult since Iran’s 1979 revolution and the controversy surrounding Iran’s nuclear programme, but it now seems they have aligned interests in Syria and Iraq. Turning to the Gaza conflict, Turkey, Iran and Hezbollah support Hamas, whilst the EU and US have shown support for Israel by condoning its right to defend itself from incoming rockets. Thus, despite cooperation in Iraq and traditionally good relations with Turkey, the US finds itself opposed to them in Gaza.

To add to complexities, former military man Abdel Fattah el-Sisi, Egypt’s leader, has brought about normalization of relations with Israel, even destroying the smuggling tunnels used to smuggle goods into Gaza on the Egyptian border. This would suggest that Egypt and the US might be allies, but Obama’s administration had supported the democratically-elected Morsi of the Muslim Brotherhood, and Sisi’s coup represented an obstacle to democractisation in Egypt. Thus despite both showing support Israel in its conflict over the Gaza strip, the two nations are opposed over the Muslim Brotherhood. And on top of this, Hamas also supports the Muslim Brotherhood, whilst Assad loathes them.

This article has barely scratched the surface of the multifaceted nature of the region’s diverse array of conflicts, but hopefully it has provided an appreciation of the difficulty the various powers are having in their search for Middle Eastern stability.

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History In Culture

Issue 18: February 2015

How French Jazz Helped Defeat the Nazis

By Don Forbes In Munich, 1937, Adolf Hitler unveiled the Nazi’s ‘Degenerate Art Exhibition’ with a speech declaring a merciless war on the degradation of traditional German culture.

While the exhibition itself focused its critique on surrealist artwork, Hitler’s speech evoked a general distaste for the widespread popularisation of modernist, avant-garde culture throughout the western world, naturally bringing Jazz music directly into the scope of assault.Indeed, as a genre, there’s not a lot about Jazz that didn’t make old Adolf’s tidy little moustache tremble with disapproval.

Jazz initially erupted in Europe during the 1920s, as the continent, and France in particular, became a refuge for African-Americans fleeing the violent racial antagonisms within American society, bringing with them the fruits of the blooming American Jazz movement. Grounded in African ethnicity, Jazz was to the Nazis a direct affront to what they considered the clear superiority of Eurocentric culture. Nazi desires for global Aryan purification made objections to Jazz almost inevitable, and the expulsion of many people of African ethnicity from the Nazi-state made its composition near impossible. The Nazi regime regarded any mode of culture not considered ‘racially pure’, as decadent and even infantile.

The untameable nature of Jazz music, steeped in ideals of non-conformity, raw sensuality and aggressive spontaneity, drew blanks in the eyes of a dictator wedded to traditional composition. Hitler’s personal preference resided in classical music of German origin, notably Richard Strauss and Wilhelm Wagner. For him, perfection of form was crucial; spontaneity was absurd. This nature of Jazz conflicted sharply with Nazi ideals of ruthless efficiency. Naturally, impulsivity poses a direct threat to the rigid hierarchical structure of a fascist organisation. Nonetheless, during their Nazi Jazz Propaganda (The Society Pages) occupation of France, the Nazis had no choice but to comply with the genre’s cultural prowess. By 1940, particularly in Paris, the influx of Jazz culture had taken on infectious qualities. Even the most conservative of Parisians were charmed by the ecstatic atmosphere of Jazz clubs. Wanting to maintain order and exploit France’s cultural capital, the Nazis instituted a policy of toleration towards the genre, allowing Jazz culture to thrive, and at times even made use of it as propaganda to enhance their popularity.

But the Nazis extortion of Jazz to improve their rapport with French society extended only as far as the overground. Submerged in the depths of French culture, hidden away down shadowy alcoves and candle-lit cellars, lingered a hotbed of Jazz-freaks and countercultural radicals, whose interpretation of Jazz culture materialised in a lifestyle which rejected everything the Nazis stood for.

During the German occupation of France, Jazz became a symbol synonymous with ideals of resistance to Nazism. Popular Jazz records actively inspired the rejection of Nazi rule, Django Reinhardt’s ‘Nuages’ becoming an anthem of the French Resistance.

Jazz clubs were commonly used to harbour the organisational activities of the Resistance, driven underground by relentless Gestapo investigation. In Paris, The Hot Club operated as a base for the diffusion of intelligence throughout various networks of resistance within France, and also supplemented collaboration with English troops. Jacques Bureau, the Club’s co-founder, eventually became a prominent actor in the Resistance itself, involved in the guerrilla operations of the Marquis.

The Zazous, a widespread, informally organised group of French youths, perhaps most loudly exemplified the radicalisation of Jazz culture in occupied France. The lifestyle of the Zazous revolved intimately around this culture, meeting in Jazz cafes and cellarclubs along the Champs Elysees and around the Sorbonne. Visually, the Zazous promoted an iconic, distinctly Jazz-inspired fashion of non-conformity, donning long chequered blazers, thin trousers and swede shoes, similar to the Zoot-Suiters of Jazz-Age America. The influence of Jazz culture in radicalising the Zazous ultimately encouraged even more overt methods of resistance.

The Zazous’ Yellow Star Campaign challenged the Nazis enforcement of Jewish identification, wearing their own yellow stars inscribed with satirical slogans such as “Victory” and “Swing”. Their obsession with English culture, commonly using English phrases and carrying umbrellas (even when it wasn’t raining), subtly translated as alignment with the Allies.

Even after being forced underground, predominantly by fascist youth organisations trawling the streets of Paris proclaiming “Scalp the Zazous!”, the youngsters organised at night to engage in armed combat during the Liberation of Paris. Ultimately, Jazz both inspired and facilitated acts of resistance to Nazism in France. While its radical nature promoted a powerful philosophy of nonconformity, the culture it fashioned also acted as a significant base for activities of resistance, which in August 1944 helped the Allies liberate France from the tyranny of Nazism.

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History In Culture

Issue 18: February 2015

Interview with Tim Butcher

By Xan Atkins Although his credentials relate to journalism, there is certainly a historian at the heart of Tim Butcher. His travel adventures chronicled in Blood River and Chasing The Devil, explore the journeys of famous characters whilst delving into the recent histories of the surrounding areas. The combination of historical research and the sense of danger that accompanies his journeys combine to create a unique and successful style. The Manchester Historian was lucky enough to be able to talk to Tim about his life, his work and his passion.

Had you always wanted to delve into the world of journalism?

I am insufferably nosey. Journalism was one way of indulging that.

I understand you studied PPE at university. Considering a lot of your work is historically based, was there a part of you that wanted to do purehistory? Are you a historian at heart?

All ‘PPEists’ are would-be historians not clever enough to win a place in the history faculty. History is so rich and multi-dimensional that P, P and E tackles only three of the more numerous streams.

Your first book, Blood River, followed Stanley’s journey down the Congo River. When you decided to make that journey did you think it would be so dangerous? Did you ever think you would not complete it? What was the most frightening moment of the whole adventure?

Yes I was fully aware crossing the Congo in the 21st century was potentially off-the-graph risky. As a journalist I had nibbled at the edges of the Congo, metaphorically and literally, covering stories in the capital close to the western limit and the wilds of the east, but I had never tackled the heart of the place. And as a human I was as aware as anyone that Congo is a synonym for something heartlike, dark and dangerous.

Your second book, Chasing The Devil, followed Graham Greene's footsteps in West Africa. What made you decide to undertake that journey? Would youdo it now?

The Liberia trip was about closure. I had run away from Sierra Leone and Liberia after journalist friends were killed there and I crossed swords with the warlord Charles Taylor. It was unsettling to leave a place so `un’understood. So the journey was about putting that right. It was a tough journey but not an overly dangerous one. Ebola had not manifested itself and though it involved weeks of walking through what is now the ebola hot zone, the health issues when I did it were much more manageable: lassa fever, guinea worm, malaria, cholera etc. The war was dundun, as they said in the Krio of Sierra Leone, and it was hard physically not psychologically.

The Trigger, about the short life of Princip, was very well researched, with several original primary sources. What made you want to investigate this man so thoroughly?

The hook was that in 1994 in Sarajevo I found his tomb. This was at the height of a conflict known as the Bosnian war which was baffling in its complexities, be they nationalist, ethnic, historic, political whatever. Pretty much the single thing I knew about Sarajevo was that it hosted the trigger event for WWI and the young gunman was a local hero. So why was his tomb being used as a loo when I got there in 1994? It was that disconnect with the standard narrative that made me curious, nosey if I am being honest, so I wanted to know more.

Then I found that standard histories of him are plain wrong; whether Luigi Albertini in the 1940s or AJP Taylor on the 1960s or Max Hastings in the modern blizzard of WWI writing. They all get salient points wrong. So this intrigued me. How could a historical figure be such a shape-shifter, how could his story be so traduced, massaged and worked over by those that came later? The challenge then became: find out what is verifiably true about him and compare/contrast with the standard narrative. The results were remarkable. An assassin from a hundred years ago has a story so rich it still gives. It was great.

In The Trigger you question conventional thinking that Princip was acting for the Serbs, in that you say he was acting for the greater Slav nation. How has your theory been received in academic circles?

I am not alone in making this point. Some did back in the 1920s. Others, perhaps the most famous of whom was Vladimir Dedijer, made it in the 1960s. But what is striking is how much more strident, unsourced and polemical are the other claims- that he was a Serb nationalist.

The attraction is obvious. If he was a Serb thug then the causal chain of WWI makes some sort of sense: the Austrians did at least have casus belli to attack Belgrade etc, etc. But if, as I argue, this is not the case, that Princip was a Slav nationalist, a utopian, a naïve dreamer, then the origins of WWI become much more interesting. Vienna’s actions are not justified retaliation; they are something much more interesting – face saving, imperial hubris etc. And the actions of the empires that followed Vienna are equally more interesting.

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History In Culture

Issue 18: February 2015

What criteria, if any, do you use when deciding on suitable subjects to write about (in books rather than articles)?

Does it interest me? I am going to be working on this blessed thing for several years so it had better grip me.

What is your next project?

Reluctant to say. Sorry.

Finally, do you have a favourite historical time period?

History comes alive for me when difficult choices are made for reasons that I can recognise: depending on the sourcing and material, that period can be pretty much anytime since Herodotus. It’s a rich old field.

Tim Butcher’s latest book, The Trigger: Hunting the Assassin who Brought the World to War, is available for purchase and is published by Chatto and Windus.

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Tim Butcher (Wikimedia Commons)

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History In Culture

Issue 18: February 2015

Book Review: The Trigger: Hunting the Assassin Who Brought the World to War

By Xan Atkins

Of all the dangerous places Tim Butcher has travelled while working on his travel books, his trip to Bosnia in 2012 does not, at first glance, rank highly. His first book – Blood River – following Henry Morton Stanley’s route down the Congo River through war torn Congo, contains danger and death at every step. In another work: Chasing The Devil, Butcher describes his 350 mile trek through West Africa; following in the footsteps of writer Graham Greene 70 years before. However, right from the start of The Trigger, there is a sense that this trip could be just as dangerous as his African ventures: the memories of the Bosnian War are still fresh across the country – from the physical landmines to the anguish of a people still coming to terms with what happened.

The essence of The Trigger lies in Butcher’s quest to investigate the motives of Gavrilo Princip; Assassin of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in June 1914 and the man who lit the match on the First World War. He wants to find out why Princip is regarded by some Serbs as a hero while others desecrate his name. And most importantly, he wants to know whether Princip was acting in the name of Serbs only (as popular history would have it) or of South Slavs - an important question considering the recent divided history of the area.

Butcher sets out to follow the journey of a young Princip from his village in northwest Bosnia to Belgrade, and finally to Sarajevo – where the fateful shooting took place. Along the way, he explores the recent history of the country, balancing the stories of those he hears with his own interpretations of the Bosnian War from covering it as a young journalist Switching between history and the modern context is something that has been present in Butcher’s previous books. But his own insight from his personal experiences of the Bosnian War give the book a more personal streak. Despite the title of the book, the story is more broadly focused on a country that has lived under occupation for centuries. This resulted in a divided populace; a factor that caused a nation to tear itself apart.

Whether you are a First World War entrepreneur or a modern day adventurer, The Trigger has all the elements that make for an intelligent and gripping read.

Dim Sum- the Original Brunch

By Zoey Strzelecki Har gau (steamed shrimp dumplings), lo baak gou (turnip cake), pai gwut (steamed ribs); these are a few examples of the much loved dim sum that has become recognised, and eaten across the globe. Eaten now as a meal at any time of the day, the origins of this style of eating have much deeper, historical roots.

Dim sum was originally a Cantonese custom and was traditionally referred to in Cantonese as yum cha (drinking tea), as tea is typically served alongside dim sum. This old tradition of yum cha is believed to have come about as a response to weary travellers along the ancient Silk Road needing a place to rest and eat. In recognition of the opportunity to profit from these travellers, teahouses gradually appeared along the roadside. As they became more established, rural farmers exhausted from a day’s labouring would also make the journey to the local teahouse to engage in relaxed conversation and food.

The imperial physician, Hua To, in 3B.C. spread the belief that combining tea with food would lead to excessive weight gain. Later it was discovered however, that tea actually Dim Sum Dumplings aided the digestion process and cleansed the palate, and as a result, teahouse owners (www.flavourandfortune.com) along the Silk Road began investing in various snack-foods, and here is where the tradition of dim sum is born. As this style of eating reached popularity, the original calming respite offered by these teahouses was transformed into a noisy and cheerful dining experience among friends and family. Dim Sum literally translates as “to touch your heart”.

These small bite-size foods served in baskets or on little plates were designed merely to touch your heart, and not sate your appetite.

Dim sum in the West came about as a natural result of 19th century immigrants, many of who were from the Canton region. Among the 23 provinces of China, each one has a distinct cooking style. Incidentally, due to this large influx of emigrants from Canton, when Westerners speak of “Chinese food”, more often than not they are actually referring to Cantonese cuisine. Many gourmands believe that dim sum inspired the idea of “brunch”- combining breakfast and lunch into one large mid-morning meal. This style of eating has reached such popularity that many restaurants now serve dim sum through to evening meals. The art of dim sum has evolved to have different characteristics in different cultures, but its purpose remains the same: to enjoy and share food around the people you love.

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History in Manchester

Issue 18: February 2015

Professor Tout

By Safiyya Bobat Pioneer of the Manchester History School, renowned medievalist, creator of modern historical techniques, friend; Professor Thomas Frederick Tout was all of the above and had a profound impact on his students. Students serving in WWI conversed with Tout through letters, allowing them to keep in touch with the city they had grown to love and the university they were so fond of. It is often forgotten that 300 University of Manchester students fought in WWI. Imagining leaving the ‘bubble’ of Oxford Road is incomprehensible but for these boys it was reality.

Tout managed to get the boys to open up to him within the letters, whether they were written on official paper, squared paper or postcards. The letters from the trenches, the ambulance corps, the army offices and the navy all give a glimpse into those at the front. To imagine these people walking the paths we now occupy makes it all the more shocking; those who may have studied the same medieval history that we now study, before having their lives turned into a history book. There are hints of forgotten university aspirations; John Gregory Edwards requested leave to attend a graduation ceremony as he feared it would be last chance to see the students together. Mark Hovell talks of the book he was writing, ‘The Chartist Movement’, requesting that Tout finish the edition if he could no longer do so.

Second Lieutenant Hovell, now described as a remarkable talent, was killed in action 12th August, 1916. It is easy to stress over an assignment deadline or exam but how would the stress of a dodging a grenade or trying to save someone’s life compare? How would a university student be prepared to handle such trauma? It is tragic that only 12 out of 30 students who wrote Professor Tout to Tout returned home. For the lucky few who survived, such as Buckley and John Gregory (Wikimedia Commons) Edwards, correspondence with Tout remained a source of comfort in their post-war lives. Many lessons can be learnt through these letters. The first is undoubtedly pride. These alumni raised the prestige of Manchester by making the ultimate sacrifice in order to protect our country. The second is a sense of duty that this should instil upon us all, not to enlist in the army, but to network and maintain relationships with professors and students alike and actively ensure that these students’ talent was not sacrificed in vain.

A Profile: Samuel Alexander

By Harriet Boland

Samuel Alexander’s major presence at the University of Manchester gave shape to his lasting legacy. This was permanently instated in 2007, when the arts building, once known as Lime Grove, was renamed the Samuel Alexander Building. Born in Sydney in 1859, he excelled in his academic life in Melbourne and consequently was granted a scholarship at Balliol College in Oxford in 1877. It was not until 1893 he moved to Manchester and became the Chair of Philosophy. He taught at our University for thirty years and remained here until his death in 1938. During his time at Manchester he broke away from the dominant form of idealism of the time and developed a new philosophical realism.

Combining philosophical ideas with common sense, he became one of the greatest speculative thinkers of his time. His magnum opus was Space, Time and Diety published in 1920, which explained the world in terms of creative tendencies that are composed of space and time. His papers and correspondence are held at John Rylands Library and remain an extremely important archive. Dr. Anthony Fisher, a current philosopher at our University is an expert on Alexander.

Dr. Fisher believes that Alexander’s work deserves more attention and is determined to show this through his research.

Samuel Alexander 1929 (Wikimedia Commons)

He regards Alexander’s ideals with great respect and thinks Alexander’s actions were

an embodiment of a progressive University in a city that was at the heart of the industrial revolution.

Alexander was also deeply involved in the life of the city. He played a key role in making the University an independent institution and shaping it into the University that we know today. He had an appreciative understanding for women and was a firm believer in equality. This allowed him to become a strong campaigner for women’s rights. His commitment to equality and fairness allowed him to procure better facilities for women by setting up a women’s only residence hall: Ashburne Hall on Fallowfield campus. He also campaigned for rights outside the University. In 1908, he inspired hundreds of Manchester women by speaking at a Women’s Suffrage march. He was honored by the University for his work and was presented with his bust by Jacob Epstein in 1925. It was placed in the center hall of the arts building where it remains today. He was a dominant figure in philosophy, an inspiring teacher and an ardent feminist. His life will continue to be recognized by his permanent imprint on our University.

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University

History Society Update

By Jennifer Birdsall Hi everyone, Welcome back! We hope that everyone had a refreshing Christmas break and any January exams went well!

The History Society has a few updates since our last column. Firstly, our final social before Christmas was a big success. It was great to see so many people there and we look forward to seeing you at the next one (keep your eyes peeled for details).

Secondly, the annual society trip took place during the final weekend of January.

This year the trip is Dublin. Previous trip destinations have been Berlin, Prague and Amsterdam.

Finally, talks are in the works for a History and Ancient History end of year ball.

The details of which are currently being finalised. Please keep a look out for further information!

The History Society

The society is working really hard to ensure that this semester is great for everyone. Please do not hesitate to contact our President (Zoey Strzelecki) or Vice President (Xan Atkins) if there is anything you want to see the society partake in.

Good luck with semester two!

University

of Manchester Heritage Guides

The University of Manchester is recruiting students to provide guided historical tours around campus. The tours cover our major buildings, landmarks and sites of discovery as well as notable individuals from the University’s past. The tours run on a regular basis and last approximately an hour.

Our University Heritage Guides represent the University and convey our important and prestigious past to visitors. Guides need to be enthusiastic, approachable and confident.

The University is seeking to recruit first or second year undergraduate students or postgraduate students to join a new team of Guides. These sought after positions are an excellent opportunity to enhance your CV, gain valuable communication skills and earn extra income. You should be enthusiastic about the history of the University and Manchester, but a detailed knowledge is not required as full training will be provided.

Pay: ÂŁ10 per hour.

For more information on the University of Manchester History and Heritage, please visit www.manchester.ac.uk/heritage If you are interested in becoming a University Heritage Guide please email heritage@manchester.ac.uk for an application form.

manchesterhistorian@gmail.com

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