MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities | Volume 11

OF

careers + Opportunities

VOL. 11 Annual Edition.

MCMASTER MEDICINE HEALTH & SOCIETY

22-1202

J0URNAL HEALTHCARE

DISCLAIMER Information in this journal has been compiled and verified by the MMHS Executives.

Our goal is to provide the most updated and accurate information to our readers.

Readers should keep in mind that program requirements are continually changing, and as such, we highly recommend you contact your programs of interest or browse their websites to confirm your eligibility.

The advertisements and views expressed in this publication reflect only the views of the authors and organizations that wrote it, and do not necessarily reflect the views of the McMaster Medicine and Health Society.

The information contained in this journal may not be reproduced or distributed by any means without full and formal reference to the McMaster Medicine and Health Society or to the original source of the information, where applicable. Any infringement to this policy will result in consequences that may involve legal affairs.

Please contact the Co-Presidents of the McMaster Medicine and Health Society if you wish to directly use information from this journal publication.

Published in September 2021, MCMASTER MEDICINE AND HEALTH SOCIETY

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ABOUT THE MMHS Since 1992, the McMaster Medicine and Health Society has been striving to inform and educate our members by acting as a resource for exploring various healthcare professions. Our goal is to act as a liaison and a voice for all students in the McMaster community, who envision a career in the medical or other health-related fields.

The MMHS holds a wide variety of services for McMaster students. In the past few years, we have hosted professional school symposiums and invited keynote speakers to talk about admissions (e.g. medicine, dentistry and optometry). We have also hosted debates and discussion forums on the Canadian healthcare system or career planning. Other events occurring throughout the year have included our annual Research and Healthcare Conference, mock interviews, and volunteering or research counselling.

Over the years we have grown to be one of the largest McMaster student-run clubs. Still, we continue to grow in order to ensure we cover all new opportunities in the medical and other health-related fields in both breadth and depth.

ABOUT THIS JOURNAL Every year, the MMHS sells an annual publication to McMaster students who are interested in pursuing a medical or healthcare-related field. The MMHS Journal of Health Careers and Opportunities contains a wide variety of resources for admission information from various professional schools, writing the application, and practicing interviews.

We wish to share our wealth of information to students across different Canadian schools like YOU! In this edition, you will find more information on professional schools, both in and out of your province. We have also included schools in the USA, and international schools for those who wish to apply abroad. As well, we restructure the book and ensure the information is updated each year for your convenience.

We hope you find this guidebook resourceful in your career planning or choosing of a professional school, just as it helped previous McMaster students. If you want to contact us directly, please visit our social media pages or website.

mmhs@mcmaster.ca |

mac.mhs |

www.macmhs.com

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VOLUME

OPENING REMARKS The McMaster Medicine and Health Society (MMHS) is pleased to present the eleventh annual Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities. Since the club’s conception in 1992, the MMHS executive team has been doing their very best to help guide students who are looking into careers in healthcare. From the variety of events we hold, to all of the workshops and seminars, this journal encompasses what the MMHS stands for. We aim to provide the most up-to-date and comprehensive information on a variety of healthcare fields and professional schools, hoping to give our readers the knowledge they need to form their own path.

Our team has worked tirelessly to conduct research and write this journal. In it, you will find information regarding the application processes for medical, dental, optometry, and other schools. We will provide you with the latest admissions information, statistics, application processes, as well as provide you with an overview of life in these careers. If you have a specific goal in mind or are reading this journal to see what options you have, our goal is to guide you through the process and make you a competitive and holistic applicant.

When you become a member of the MMHS, you become a part of the largest student- run healthcare organization on campus. We give our members the opportunities to connect with like-minded peers and healthcare professionals. Some of our events include information sessions from professional schools, research and volunteer symposiums, a variety of skills workshops, and dialogues on current healthcare topics, to name a few.

Our team is always on hand to help you with any questions you may have. You can find us on our website (macmhs.com) or on our Facebook (McMaster Medicine and Health Society). Feel free to send us an email with any questions you may have.

We are excited to embark on this journey with you. The Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities is only the first step towards achieving your goals.

Welcome to the MMHS!

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TABLE OF

C CONTENTS Disclaimer About the MMHS About this Journal Opening Remarks Table of Contents

i ii ii iii iv

Medicine How Do You Fit into the Medical Field?

Applying to Medical School Confidential Assessment Forms Medical School Interviews Sample Interview Questions Canadian Medical Schools Canadian Medical Schools Summary Chart Ontario Medical School Requirements The OMSAS Application (Medical Schools in Ontario) McMaster University Northern Ontario School of Medicine University of Ottawa Queen’s University University of Toronto Western University Canadian Medical Schools University of Alberta University of British Columbia University of Calgary Dalhousie University University of Manitoba McGill University Memorial University of Newfoundland University of Saskatchewan International Medical Schools Summary Chart American Medical Schools Caribbean Medical Schools

1 1 2 12 13 15 16 17 19 20 21 24 26 28 30 32 34 35 38 40 42 44 46 48 49 51 53 56

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TABLE OF

C CONTENTS Austrailian Medicial Schools Irish Medical Schools Medical School: What to Expect Financing Residency Specialties and Specialization Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart Alternatives to Clinical Medicine MD/PhD Programs

58 60 62 64 66 67 68 75 76

Dentistry How Do You Fit into the Field Of Dentistry?

Canadian Dental Schools Canadian Dental Schools Summary Chart DAT: Dental Aptitude Test Dental Schools in Ontario University of Toronto Western University Financing Dental Schools Outside of Canada Dental Specialties Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Periodontics Paedodontics/Pediatric Dentistry Alternatives to Dental Surgery Dental Laboratory Technician Dental Assistant Dental Hygienist

80 80 80 81 83 84 85 86 87 87 88 88 88 88 88 89 89 89 89

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TABLE OF

C CONTENTS Optometry University of Waterloo Optometry and Vision Science The Optometry Admission Test (OAT) After Graduation

Other Health-Related Careers Biomedical Engineering Chiropractic Dietitians Naturopathy Nursing Occupational Therapy and Physical Therapy Pharmacy Physician Assistant Public and Global Health Speech-Language Pathology Veterinary Medicine

90 90 91 9

94 94 97 99 103 106 108 111 113 115 117 120

Closing Remarks

122

Recommend Readings and Links

123

Appendix

125

Special Acknowledgements

133

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MEDICINE This section is written with the intention to inform readers about what to expect in the pursuit of a medical degree, from the initial preparation for applying to medical school to postgraduate specialization. All the information presented here will be constantly updated by our executive team. One should bear in mind that information of this nature will continually change. It is essential that interested medical school applicants do their own additional investigation into the data outlined below.

How Do You Fit into the Medical Field?

“Is medicine right for me?” is a question that many students ask when considering a career in healthcare.

If you are interested in how the body works, passionate about helping others through healthcare and using medicine to make a difference in their lives, then being a doctor may appeal to you. A career as a physician is one that is intellectually challenging, focuses on serving others first, involves lifelong learning to stay up to date with the literature and clinical guidelines, as well as collaborating with colleagues on the healthcare team, and more. Moreover, being a doctor allows you to specialize in your area of interest among the wide range of possible careers and specialties in medicine, while also directly making an impact in the lives of patients through clinical work, research, and more. Some key qualities of being a physician include compassion, empathy, strong interpersonal skills, effective communication skills, being a great listener, and having a strong work ethic.

When considering a career in medicine, it is also important to factor in the demands of being a physician.

Among the many career choices, medicine is perhaps one of the most demanding. Much of your life during your undergraduate years will likely be devoted to pursuits and extracurriculars which are related to healthcare and can make you a more qualified applicant for medical school; however often at the expense of your leisure time and other pastimes. Medical school itself can also be one of the most rigorous experiences of your life, involving great amounts of material to learn, continued competition from your peers, and few to little time for other non-academic related endeavours. From the start of one’s university education to the point when one becomes a practicing physician, pursuing a career in medicine is an extremely long road. On average, an undergraduate student will normally be in school for at least six years before graduating from medical school, followed by anywhere from 2 to 9 years of residency training, and perhaps additional years for fellowship, in order to reach a terminal specialization. With this in mind, it is important that you have the patience and commitment to stay dedicated to your medical education throughout all the years of training, as well as being okay with waiting until later in life to start your career. Another factor to consider when thinking of whether medicine is right for you is the lifestyle of a physician. Being a doctor entails spending all your working hours, and often even more than the standard working hours, caring for the sick – which can amount to a lot of pressure on oneself, take away from personal and family time, and consequently, the incidence of personal and family problems among doctors are one of the highest among all professions.

If you are thinking of applying for medical school and pursuing a career in medicine, it is essential that you ask yourself why you want to be a physician. Are you interested in being a physician because you want to help individuals and are passionate about healthcare? Are you attracted to the prestige, respect, and wealth that comes with being a doctor? While the latter are all valid considerations when thinking of one’s future, other careers in healthcare or in different professions may be better for you instead. At the end of the day, only you will know if medicine is right for yourself, so be sure to reflect on what attracts you to the field of medicine and consider both the rewards and demands of being a physician.

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Applying to Medical School So, you decided that you want to apply to medical school? That’s awesome! You may already be thinking of questions such as: How do I apply to medical school? How hard is the MCAT and when should I take it? What kind of marks do I need to have? Which courses should I take? You are not the only one thinking about this! Think of this application process as a great opportunity for you to self-reflect on your skills, character traits, and what makes you a unique applicant for medical school. At the same time, this process will allow you to confirm whether or not medicine is the career that you wish to pursue in the long run. This Journal is all about guiding you through your queries and providing thorough and detailed information to support you along the way. If you still have questions, contact any of our MMHS executive team members, and we would be more than happy to address them for you!

1.1 Where should I begin?

Becoming a doctor, as you are probably aware, takes years of dedicated preparation beginning from high school to undergrad. Well-roundedness is a key quality. This means that you don’t just need good grades and a solid understanding of science, but you also have to show commitment to one’s personal development and contribution to the community. In addition to extracurricular activities and a competitive GPA, you need to meet the pre-requisite courses for each school you wish to apply to. You will also have to take the MCAT and meet each schools’ cutoff scores. Finally, letters of reference from individuals who can comment on qualities that would make you an excellent physician are also required. To achieve all these tasks requires a strong work ethic, time management skills, constant self-evaluation, and most importantly, passion. In the following subsections, we will be going over some frequently asked questions about medical school. If the FAQs do not answer your queries, feel free to contact any of the MMHS executives for more information.

1.2 What GPA range do I need for medical school?

The cutoff GPA varies each year, so please check the respective section in this Journal for information on the school of interest. Currently, the chances of admissions in Ontario can rangefrom 2% to 8%, which means you need as high of a GPA as possible to be competitive. This could mean a cumulative GPA of 3.804.00 on the OMSAS scale.

However, if you have a couple of low grades or if your marks in first year were not the highest, don’t give up just yet (but also don’t let this trend continue!). Some schools may drop your lowest grades, while some weigh more on your two best years. Nevertheless, you must try to keep your GPA as high as possible. If your GPA does not meet the minimum academic cutoffs, your extracurricular activities, letters of reference, or supplementary achievements will be of little use.

Additionally, it is VERY important to look into the admissions requirements for each medical school you wish to apply to and make a chart of their pre-requisites, how they calculate your GPA, and the cutoff average for GPA. Most of this information is already contained in this Journal, but in many cases, your circumstances might be different from another applicant’s. It is highly suggested for you to send an email to respective admissions offices to confirm whether or not you are eligible for weighting, or if your course meets a pre-requisite requirement, and so on.

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1.3 What about the courses that are extremely difficult to do well in?

One approach is to take more “difficult” pre-requisite courses during the summer, where some schools may not count it as part of your GPA calculation. For instance, the University of Ottawa1 and University of Toronto2 medical schools won’t count your summer school grades in the calculation of your weighted GPA; however, the McMaster Michael DeGroote School of Medicine3 will include marks from supplementary and summer courses in the GPA calculation. Nonetheless, the key to this is to try your best regardless! Although a course may seem to be quite difficult, you may be surprised what you can accomplish by working your hardest. In addition, a superb GPA is one of the essentials to a great application so make sure you understand what each school requires and write it down. Tacking it to your wall not only provides motivation for times of studying, but you will also be proud of yourself when you apply with a high GPA that you worked hard for and earned!

1.4 Should I be taking a full course load?

It is recommended to maintain a full course load during your undergraduate degree. Many medical schools provide weighting formulas that allow you to drop a couple of your lowest grades from the GPA calculation if you have met this requirement, as it demonstrates your ability to stay focused and handle multiple areas of study at once (which is an essential skill in medicine). For example, if you have completed every year of your undergraduate studies as a full-time student with a full-course load, the weighted GPA formula at the University of Toronto will remove one of your lowest grades for each year of undergrad (i.e. 3 lowest grades will be dropped if you are in third year)2. This formula can definitely help boost your GPA to make your application even more competitive. If you don’t have a full course load at the moment, make sure you check the weighted GPA formula the schools you applying to use, so that you know how they calculate your GPA and whether they take certain academic years into consideration.

MCAT 2.1 What is the MCAT? You’ve probably heard of it before – maybe along with some terrifying stories too. Developed and administered by the Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), the MCAT (Medical College Admission Test) is a standardized, six-hour long exam that covers the topics of biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, verbal reasoning, psychology, and sociology. The MCAT is comprised of four multiplechoice test sections: Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Systems Psychological, Social, and Biological Foundations of Behavior Critical Analysis and Reasoning Skills (CARS)

References 1. University of Ottawa Faculty of Medicine. Eligibility [Internet]. Available from: https://med.uottawa.ca/undergraduate/admissions/application-process/eligibility-requirements 2. University of Toronto MD Program. GPA and GPA weighting [Internet]. Available from: https://md.utoronto.ca/gpa-and-gpa-weighting 3. McMaster University MD Program. Academic Requirements and Criteria of Evaluation [Internet]. Available from: https://mdprogram.mcmaster.ca/md-program-admissions/who-should-apply/additional-notes-on-academic-requirements

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Here is how your test day will be broken down:

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2.1 How do I register for the MCAT?

To register, go to https://students-residents.aamc.org/applying-medical-school/taking-mcat-exam/ and sign up for an AAMC ID (you cannot sign up for more than one ID). Make sure that you sign up as soon as the registration window opens for your desired test date, as spots are limited. The AAMC offers Gold, Silver and Bronze registration “Zones” which designate how early you can sign up, the costs of taking the MCAT and cancellation flexibility. For example, Gold Zone members may register 29 days prior to the date of the exam, at a fee of $315 USD, while Bronze Zone members may register 8 days beforehand at $370 USD.

For all 2021 MCAT test dates in Canada, see: https://students-residents.aamc.org/register-mcat-exam/canadian-mcat-calendar-schedulingdeadlines-and-score-release-dates

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2.2 How is the MCAT scored?

Each section of the MCAT is given a number score based on the number of questions you answer correctly. Your number score is then converted to a scaled score, minimizing the variability in test scores and providing a more stable and accurate assessment of the examinee’s abilities. Each section on the MCAT will be scored from a low of 118 to a high of 132, with a midpoint of 125. The sum of the four individual section scores is taken to determine the total score, which will range from 472 to 528. The midpoint total score will be 500. When exam scores are released, you will be able to see your score for each section and the total score, as well as the percentile rank accompanying each score to indicate the percentages of test takers who received the same or lower scores than you did.

Make sure you read and understand the specific MCAT cut-offs for each school found in this Journal to aim for an appropriate score. For the 2018-19 cycle, the overall mean MCAT score for all applicants to U.S. medical schools was 505.6. The 2018-19 average scores for each section were:

Association of American Medical Colleges. MCAT Scores and GPAs for Applicants and Matriculants to U.S. Medical Schools, 2017-2018 through 2020-2021 [Internet]. Washington DC, USA. Available from: https://www.aamc.org/media/6056/download

2.3 What material is tested on the MCAT? Each section of the MCAT is based upon multiple Fundamental Concepts and/or various skills that would be needed for a physician. There are three Fundamental Concepts underlying the Biological and Biochemical Foundations of Living Section, two Foundational Concepts underlying the Chemical and Physical Foundations of Biological Systems section, and ten Fundamental Concepts underlying the Psychological, Social and Biological Foundations of Behaviors section. All three of these sections also contain five skills related to Scientific Inquiry and Reasoning Skills: Knowledge of Scientific Principles, Scientific Reasoning and Problem Solving, Reasoning about the Design and Execution of Research, Data-based Statistical Reasoning, and General Mathematical Concepts and Techniques. Finally, the CARS section includes material that tests the following skills: Foundations of Comprehension, Reasoning within the Text, and Reasoning beyond the Text. The CARS section also includes Passage types from a variety of humanities and social sciences disciplines. Please take the time to review the information provided by the AAMC at the following link for a better understanding of what you will be tested on:

https://students-residents.aamc.org/prepare-mcat-exam/whats-mcat-exam#bb

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The table below provides an overview of the specific format and content tested in each of the four sections.

2.4 How should I study for the MCAT? There are many different choices regarding MCAT preparation; the two most common being self- study or taking an MCAT prep course. The Princeton Review and Kaplan are examples of some companies that offer comprehensive preparation courses that will help you to become familiar with the exam, as well as offer many resources to help you attain the highest score possible. Visit the websites of these courses for more information.

If you do choose to self-study, there are a variety of preparatory books available from many companies, including the Princeton Review. For many, Critical Analysis and Reasoning tends to be the section that students score lowest on. Unlike the other sections, CARS requires lots of practice to see improvement.

So, postponing your practice for this section may cost you greatly when it comes to feeling prepared for the MCAT. Overall, make sure that you stick to a study schedule that allows you to cover all the topics and practice, practice, practice!

2.5 Does taking organic chemistry help with the MCAT? This depends on whether chemistry is your forte. If it is, you can write the MCAT with or with- out taking a course for organic chemistry. For many others, organic chemistry may be tough, and extra practices from a class would help improve their understanding. Before considering taking a course, look at the comprehensive review books by The Princeton Review, Kaplan, etc. and see if you can get a grasp of some of the concepts.

These books are designed to cover all topics tested on the MCAT. However, if you plan on taking a course, consider whether it would affect your GPA. You may want to consider taking this course in the summer, unless you are confident you can perform well in it during the year.

References Association of American Medical Colleges. The MCAT Essentials for Testing Year 2021 [Internet]. Washington DC, USA. Available from: https://students-residents.aamc.org/media/11711/download

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Extracurriculars 3.1 What sort of extracurriculars, volunteering, or research do I need for medical school?

Your GPA and MCAT score alone are not enough to gain you entry into medical school. You need to have extracurricular activities (notice the plural!) that help provide a better picture of who you are, your interests, and what you are passionate about outside of academics. As mentioned before, remember that an outstanding set of extracurricular activities cannot compensate for a GPA or MCAT that doesn’t meet the cutoff - all three of these components are absolutely necessary to paint a holistic view of who you are as an applicant.

3.2 What sort of extracurricular activities look good to ad-mission committees?

Make sure that you have extracurriculars that you are genuinely passionate about and which demonstrate commitment. Because the application process is so competitive, you need to distinguish yourself amongst all the different applicants in the pool. However, don’t come down with “pre-med syndrome” by committing hours of your time to an activity that you don’t enjoy. That’s not productive at all! You are a unique individual and the activities you dedicate yourself to will reflect that. After all, not every doctor was the captain of a varsity team. Not every medical student traveled to a developing country or served as the president of their student body. However, most of these individuals participated in a variety of long-term commitments that demonstrated their personal growth, personality, and interests. Remember: don’t ask yourself, “What does the admissions committee want to see?”. Instead ask yourself: “What have I learned and how have I grown from this activity?”

3.3 What about volunteering?

Volunteering is a great way to give back to the community, on top of developing communication skills, empathy, and possibly working with others from diverse backgrounds. There are many different volunteer organizations that actively recruit students to help with their programs. However, remember that volunteering is not limited to a health care setting! Volunteering should ultimately come from your personal interests, in addition to demonstrating a long-term commitment. In other words, don’t volunteer at a hospital just because you think that’s what medical schools are looking for. In fact, medical schools are looking for the exact opposite – they want to see what you are genuinely passionate about! Whether you are helping to promote art by performing in Hamilton on weekends or helping set up blood donation clinics, neither is superior to the other, but both exemplify unique interests and skills. Make sure to also take advantage of the resources available to you through clubs and university services to learn more about volunteer opportunities and ways that you can get involved with the community.

3.4 How about volunteering overseas?

Overseas volunteering provides an applicant unique opportunities to gain more knowledge about different cultures, environments and perhaps provide a new perspective on the world around you. Many of you have perhaps considered going on a two-week medical service trip in an under-developed country where you’ll learn some procedures, perhaps work in a clinic, and get to tour the exquisite countryside. However, there are also some shortcomings that need to be taken into consideration, such as the cost of these trips as well as the risk of disease. Another issue worth considering is whether this is an endeavor you can commit to long-term or if it is a one-time thing – will you be able to go back every summer and help out with the trip?

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Lastly, reflect on why you want to volunteer abroad and what you hope to gain from this experience. Are you passionate about providing sustainable services through a non-governmental organization, or are you simply trying to “meet” medical schools admission committee’s expectations? Remember, passion and consistency in your extracurricular activities is key.

3.5 Does employment help?

Similar to volunteering, employment helps to demonstrate strong time management and commitment.

However, it can also open up many doors for other benefits. As the cost of tuition increases for most postsecondary students, admission committees realize that students seek employment to fund their studies and gain working experience. As an applicant, don’t limit yourself to employers in healthcare related fields.

Instead, look for opportunities that will help you develop skills in an area that interests you. For instance, working as a lifeguard demonstrates leadership and care for the lives of others, as well as an educational role in teaching others about safety. You will also most likely be spending a lot of time with your employer and he/she can write a great reference letter about your character, skills and responsibility in work.

Employment also means that you have the chance to do something really unique. For example, you could try starting your own small business if you’re entrepreneurial. Another idea is spending a few months abroad teaching English instead of simply volunteering. You could provide tours in science centers, or even work in arctic exploration!

3.6 What about research?

Research is a great way to explore more about a particular field of academia, while also immersing yourself in the scientific community. Remember that you do not need to limit yourself to research in the field of medicine, nor is research a necessity in your application. Before stepping into research, first ask yourself – what kind of research do I want to go into? Am I even interested in research? What do I want to get out of my research experience? Is there a specific topic or question I want to explore through the scientific research process? Your answer to these questions will allow you to identify relevant opportunities that you are interested in pursuing and will help you to demonstrate your passion to potential supervisors.

3.7 How should I approach a researcher?

A good and simple guide to contacting researchers is as follows: Send an email to a prospective researcher introducing yourself, your area of study (university program and year), and highlight your interest in their area of research. Bring up any relevant experiences that you have. Think of this introductory email as a brief, reader-friendly version of a cover letter – keep your email to a few short paragraphs max, because they likely will not want to or have the time to read a long email.

Attach your CV so that they can look into your CV if they are interested in getting to know you more, and ask if there are any opportunities to volunteer or work in their lab or department.

When you hear back from them, the researcher will probably want to meet with you for an interview.

Book an appointment with them at a time that works for both of you.

If you don’t get a reply or perhaps they don’t have a spot this year, send them a kind thank you message and try emailing a few other researchers. Like job hunting, this takes time and perseverance. Eventually, you will get the spot you are looking for!

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When first starting out in a lab, you might be only washing test tubes, doing simple assays, or sorting documents. However, be proactive in the lab/department. Come to the research meetings and share your ideas with your supervisor afterwards. This relationship may lead you to an upper year thesis project, or even open a few conferences that you can attend. Be diligent, productive, and passionate in your research – that may earn you another letter of reference that can set you apart from the competition!

Application Tips 4.1 I’m ready to apply to medical school – what do I do next?

For Ontario, OMSAS (Ontario Medical School Application Service) is the application website through which you will be entering a record of all your extracurriculars, volunteering, and research. Make sure to keep track of everything you’ve done so far in the form of a Curriculum Vitae which can be re-used for other job applications or potential research opportunities. Make sure to read the OMSAS Application Guide found on their website when you set up your account during the summer: https://www.ouac.on.ca/omsas/ For all other Canadian medical schools, you will need to check on their school websites for individual application processes. For American medical schools, you can apply through AMCAS (American Medical College Application Service), which is the centralized application processing service for the USA: https://students-residents.aamc.org/applying-medical-school/applying-medical-school process/applying-medical-school-amcas/

4.2 The Autobiographical Submission When submitting a personal statement to either a Canadian or American school, this is the vital opportunity to let the admissions committee know who you are and why you would make an excellent physician. The key to any personal statement is to always make it personal! Your application should be written to the best of your abilities, so that it can stand out from the hundreds of answers that may describe similar activities and achievements. Here are some tips to help you on your way:

Tip # 1: Start Early!

Writing the statement may take more time than completing your OMSAS application. It is important to start your draft early as to leave time for editing, re-drafting, and making sure that it is the best possible personal statement it can be.

Tip # 2: Understand the question CAREFULLY. Every year, applicants try to make their own answer fit with the personal essay question, instead of actually addressing what the question is asking for. To an admissions officer, it’s easy to slide a poor essay that doesn’t answer the question into the “rejection” folder. READ THE QUESTION. Make sure that you understand and follow all instructions. If they want to know about how your university experiences have influenced your decision to pursue medicine, do not start talking about how your parents are both doctors and how you have wanted to be a physician since you were a child. It’s not worth losing points for!

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Tip # 3: Don't Address the wrong school.

If you are using the same or similar essay more than once, DO NOT blindly copy and paste it. If you are applying to the University of Toronto Medical School, do not write, “More than anything, wish to attend the University of Ottawa Medical School.” Make sure to proofread your work many times while editing, and it may also be worthwhile asking someone you trust to read over your essay for these kinds of mistakes! Careless mistakes like these are easily avoidable.

Tip # 4: Grammar and punctuation.

Make sure that you follow all the rules of proper syntax and grammar and avoid any spelling errors. Use the active voice and avoid qualifiers such as “quite” or “probably”. You can consult services provided at the Student Success Center if you feel your writing skill needs honing.

Tip # 5: Be variable with your vocabulary, but don't over do it.

Make sure you’re not repeating the same word(s) in your essay over and over again. For example, instead of saying “I volunteered at …”, you could say “I dedicated my time over the weekends to …”. However, don’t use too many words that might break the flow between sentences in order to sound “smart”. Your essay should be succinct, comprehensive, and give a very clear picture of who you are and your interest in medicine.

Tip # 5: Maintain professionalism.

When writing about personal experiences and anecdotes, don’t brag or put other people down in your examples. This essay is supposed to focus on you and your abilities – not how you compare with others. Also, make sure that you don’t lie about your accomplishments, because if they do find out – you can guarantee that you won’t be considered for their medical school nor will you be able to apply again any time soon!

Tip # 5: Finally: EDIT, EDIT, EDIT! Editing is the most important part of your personal statement. Make sure you have different people read and critique your essay, and review their feedback. Book an appointment with the Student Success Centre or your faculty’s Academic Office to get feedback on your application from an academic advisor. You can try asking your TAs or even professors (if they have the time) to look over and give you their initial impressions. However, make sure that throughout editing you don’t lose the original message you wish to convey in the essay. The saying “too many chefs can spoil the soup” applies here; use feedback with discretion, both positive and negative. Only you can tell if the essay expresses who you are!

We wish you all the best of luck with your application!

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Confidential Assessment Forms All applicants for Ontario medical schools must ask three different individuals to provide a reference supporting your application – at least one of which should be a non-academic referee.1 Confidential assessment forms have replaced letters of reference in the OMSAS process. These are standardized forms that your references fill in to describe your abilities. They are submitted directly to OMSAS by the referees, and the applicant is never allowed to see them. Therefore, make sure you pick your references wisely.

When choosing your three referees, it is important to choose a diverse set of individuals who can attest to different aspects of your application. There are two schools of thought on this.

The first one says that your academic abilities can be spoken for by your MCAT scores and GPA, and that your letters of reference should come from people who can speak for your character, such as the people for whom you volunteer.

The second says that since you submit an autobiographical sketch in which you highlight your volunteer service, and given the emphasis placed on academics in medical school, you are better off if you have a professor speak about your intelligence.

The best approach is probably to take the middle ground. OMSAS requires three confidential assessment forms per applicant, so you need not limit yourself solely to academic or personal references, and can come up with a mix of both. In choosing your references, keep in mind not only who will be the most flattering, but also who will be the most eloquent and convincing while doing so. Do your best to select people who know you well. The idea that a reference from someone whose name ends in “MD” carries more weight is a fallacy.

No preference or prejudice is given by medical schools in reading the confidential assessment forms, and admissions officers would rather read a knowledgeable assessment from an ordinary citizen than one from a prestigious person who hardly knows you.

References 1. OUAC. Ontario Medical School Application Service – Referee Requirements [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ouac.on.ca/guide/omsas-referees/

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Medical School Interviews Medical school interviews come in a variety of shapes and sizes. The most common forms of interviews are the standard one-on-one (panel) interview and the MMI (multiple-mini interviews). Most medical schools use a combination of both interview styles. Interviews are an important part of the process to gaining admission to medical school and occur after the application deadline. An invitation to a medical school interview shows that you have met the preliminary requirements and they are interested in meeting you to get to know you better as an applicant.

Fundamentally, the interview is an exchange of information between you and the interviewer(s). It is an opportunity for them to assess your interest in and suitability for medicine. To make this assessment, the interview committee will work to learn more about your skill set, values, moral compass, personality, and interests/hobbies. Interviewers may be interested in your maturity, compassion, integrity, creativity, intelligence, confidence, perseverance, communication skills, and ability to relate to others. Above all, admission committees are assessing to see whether you are a good fit for their medical school.

6.1 Preparing for the interview Make sure to practice, practice, practice before your interview! You must be well prepared and well versed in the skills and experiences you have to offer. A good way to start is by reviewing your autobiographical sketch, volunteer experiences, employment, application, personal statement and CV. It is crucial that you also have concrete examples of anecdotes in mind to support your claims. Some interviewers will want you to address failures, mistakes, and lessons you have learned, while others will focus on your successes and proudest achievements. Ensure that your responses are sufficiently detailed as committee members are not privy to the details of your experiences.

Seeking help from mentors, students who have had previous interview experience, or even interview prep companies, can be a very valuable adjunct during your interview preparation in order to build fundamental interview skills and to practice before the big day

6.2 Inteview formats Standard Panel Interview For medical school interviews, it is common for there to be a panel of interviewers. Often, panels are composed of faculty members, medical students, and/or community members who are involved with the medical program. Each interviewer will be assessing you differently and from a different perspective. Keep this in mind during your interview!

Skype Interviews (Medical Schools Abroad) In this type of interview, interviewers use video technology to conduct interviews at a distance. This is most common for interviews to international medical schools, including: Australia, Poland, and the UK. All of the same strategies would be employed as if the interview was in-person. Depending on the sophistication of the technology, you may experience short transmission delays. Make eye contact with the camera, which to the interviewer, appears as direct “eye contact.”

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MMI (Multiple Mini Interview) The MMI is used for many health-related admission interviews and is a very popular interview format for medical school admissions. The MMI typically consists of 6 to 10 stations, each with a separate interview revolving around a specific scenario. There has been evidence demonstrating that the MMI format is a more reliable way to assess interviewees because it eliminates first-impression bias. Furthermore, some feel that it offers a more thorough way of assessing core competencies related to a career in healthcare. Some of these skills include: communication, critical thinking, ethical decision-making, integrity, responsibility, teamwork, and stress management.

MMI FORMAT A set of 6 to 10 interviews are conducted over a period of approximately two hours. Each candidate rotates through a series of stations. At some stations, there will be another candidate or an actor. Each room has an interviewer and/or an observer. The scenario stem is typically posted on the exterior of the exam room door.

At each station, candidates have two minutes to read the question or scenario. Sometimes the length of the question can add stress to the situation, making it challenging to absorb all related components. An audio indicator will sound when the interviewee can move into the interview room.

The question is also available in the interview room for reference. After the candidate is done answering the question oR performing the station, the interviewer may ask follow-up questions.

Possible interview stations: Scenarios involving interactions with an actor or a medical school’s standardized patient An essay writing station; this station may take longer than the others A standard interview station A teamwork station where candidates must work together to complete a task An ethical scenario involving questions about social and policy implications A “rest” station to help students catch their breath and relax See below for MMI format variability among different medical schools: Number of stations: varies between 6-12 Station Duration: typically 6-9 minutes Note Taking: sometimes permissible Time to Read Question: typically 2 minutes End of Station Notification: occasionally, there is a 1-minute warning to wrap-up answer EVALUATION OF MMIS Applicants are ranked at each station by the interviewer. Interviewers do not discuss their rankings amongst each other; thus consider each station as independent from one another. As well, the evaluation criterion varies each year. The interviewer is provided with a list of criteria that the school is looking for in a candidate. Depending on the school, you may be given marks for general impression. You will also be rewarded for being articulate and well organized. Interviewers want to see how you process information, not just the end result.

References Association of American Medical Colleges. What it’s Like to Participate in Multiple Mini Interviews (MMIs) [Internet]. Washington, DC, USA: Association of American Medical Colleges; 2021. Available from: https://students-residents.aamc.org/applying-medical-school/what-it-s-participate-multiple-mini-interviews-mmis

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6.1 Preparing for the interview Questions about Your Education Why did you choose your undergraduate major?

How have you tried to achieve breadth in your undergraduate curriculum?

How do you envision using your medical education?

Traditional Personal Questions What was the biggest mistake you ever made?

As a pre-med, what skills have you learned to help manage your time and relieve stress?

What is “success” in your opinion? After 20 years as a physician, what kind of “success” would you hope to have achieved? Please explain Tell me something you wanted to achieve but did not, or something you’ve failed at.

How do you cope with failure?

Who is the person in the world to whom you are closest?

Give one word that a friend would use to describe you.

Have you taught yourself to do anything, and if so, what?

Who is your hero?

If you could invite three role models to dinner, who would they be and why, and what would you serve them?

Questions Specific to Medicine What excites you about medicine in general?

What volunteer work contributed to your commitment to become a doctor?

How does your hobby relate to being a doctor?

If you made a mistake as a physician, how would you handle it?

What are some of the greatest problems medicine is facing today from a professional standpoint?

If you had to choose between academic and clinical medicine as a profession, which one would you choose and why?

Ethical Questions What are your views on euthanasia (medically assited suicide)?

Is altruism ever pure, without some kind of motive?

Is healthcare a right or a privilege?

How would you feel about treating a patient who has tested positive for HIV? Are you aware of any current controversies in the area of medical ethics?

Should we spend so much time and effort trying to keep premature infants alive?

What would you do as a physician if you were asked to do something contrary to your stand on abortion?

Medical School Related Questions What kind of medical schools are you applying to, and why?

What skills would you hope an ideal medical school experience would equip you with?

What makes the medical school you are interviewing for particularly desirable to you?

Questions about Your Motivation How have you tested your motivation to become an MD? Please explain.

References Stoll M, Davis A, Braswell L. Best 168 medical schools: the interview. New York: The Princeton Review, Inc.; 2008. p. 83-93.

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Canadian Medical Schools The Ontario Medical School Application Service (OMSAS) provides important information on Ontario medical schools. All medical school applications must be submitted through OMSAS and will not be accepted if sent directly to respective schools. Schools outside of Ontario function independently and should be investigated on an individual basis. Links to OMSAS and to individual medical schools can be found at the end of this Journal. Additionally, many schools have different criteria and definitions of courses which satisfy their pre-requisite requirements. For example, aBiology requirement can be fulfilled by a course in physiology, anatomy, or either one, depending onthe specific school. In general, a “1 year” requirement can be met by two semester-long courses, or bya single full-year course. Still, it is important that students refer both to OMSAS and the individualuniversities for additional details on application and admission requirements.

The following is a chart listing all the undergraduate medical programs offered in Canada, bothinside and outside of Ontario, that teach in English. Please note that Laval, Sherbrooke, and Montréal all have undergraduate medical programs, but that they instruct in the French language, and restrictnearly all positions to residents of Québec. Additionally, the potential applicant must realize that eachyear, application procedures change, so we recommend that you investigate each university of interest more thoroughly.

Ontario Medical Schools

References OMSAS – Program Requirements Overview [Internet]. Guelph, Ontario, Canada: Ontario Universities’ Application Centre. https://www.ouac.on.ca/guide/omsas-program-requirements/

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Canadian Medical Schools Outside of Ontario

References 1.University of Alberta Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry [Internet]. Edmonton: University of Alberta. Available from: https://www.ualberta.ca/medicine/programs/md/applying-to-medicine 2.University of British Columbia Faculty of Medicine [Internet]. Vancouver: University of British Columbia. Available from: http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/admissions/welcome-message/ 3.University of Calgary Medicine [Internet]. Calgary: University of Calgary. Available from: http://www.ucalgary.ca/mdprogram/admissions 4.Dalhousie University Faculty of Medicine Admissions Office [Internet]. Halifax: Dalhousie University. Available from: http://admissions.medicine.dal.ca/admissions.html 5.University of Manitoba Faculty of Medicine [Internet]. Winnipeg: University of Manitoba. Available from: https://umanitoba.ca/explore/programs-of-study/medicine-md 6.McGill Faculty of Medicine Office of Admissions [Internet]. Montreal: McGill University. Available from: https://www.mcgill.ca/medadmissions/applying 7.Memorial University Faculty of Medicine [Internet]. St. John’s: Memorial University. Available from: http://www.med.mun.ca/Admissions/Home.aspx 8.University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine [Internet]. Saskatoon: University of Saskatchewan. Available from: https://medicine.usask.ca/admission-to-the-md-program/how-to-apply.php

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The OMSAS Application (Medical Schools in Ontario) As mentioned, all applications to Ontario’s medical schools flow through the Ontario Medical School Application Service (OMSAS), which is accessible through its website. Each applicant is assigned a user account to access the program. Once the applicant has logged on, he/she can begin to fill out or edit information in the various sections of the application. Upon completion, the updated information can be saved so that he/she can resume filling out the application the next time he/she logs on. All sections of the application must be completed by the applicant, except for the Confidential Assessment Forms. These forms must be completed by the referees.

All applications are due at exactly the same time: no later than 4:30 pm Eastern Daylight Time on October 1, 2021. Furthermore, all applicants must create an OMSAS account before September 15, 2021 (4:30 pm EDT). These are hard deadlines. All Confidential Assessment Forms and transcripts are also requested by October 1, 2021. Applicants should review the deadline dates from the website. As Ontario’s formal medical school application center, applicants can rely on OMSAS to provide all necessary information on application procedures, payment, academic transcripts and documents.

Although initial application procedures are the same for all medical schools in the province of Ontario, each school treats applicants differently and has different expectations. Applicants may find that they are better suited to the requirements at one school than those of another. The following is a brief description of each of Ontario’s six medical schools.

References Ontario Universities’ Application Centre. Important dates [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ouac.on.ca/guide/omsas-dates/

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MCMASTER UNIVERSITY

Background McMaster University established its School of Medicine in 1966 and initiated the Undergraduate Medical Program in 1969, with its first graduating class in May 1972. Once renamed to be the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine in 2004, the program takes pride in its unique way of teaching through early exposure to the clinical setting, and a problem-based learning (PBL) system. PBL is quite unique compared to the traditional undergraduate academic experience of lecture-based knowledge acquisition. Instead, this system focuses on learning in small tutorial sessions through problem-based and self-directed learning. Furthermore, McMaster is the only medical school in Ontario that offers a three-year program. 1 Geographically, the Michael G. DeGroote School of Medicine is based in three locations: the main campus in Hamilton and two satellite campuses in the Waterloo and Niagara regions. According to collected admission statistics, more than 4,500 applications are received each year. 2 Similar to other application cycles, 203 spots were offered in 2019: 147 from the main campus, and 28 from each satellite campus. 3 Of these spots, 90% will be offered to Ontario residents (i.e., an individual who has lived in Ontario for at least three years since the age of 14 and is either a Canadian Citizen or Permanent Resident) and 10% to all other Canadian and International applicants. 2 McMaster also assesses applicants using its Computer-based Assessment of Sampling Personal characteristics system, known as CASPer for short. CASPer is a 90-minute computer-based test that assesses an individual’s interpersonal and decision-making skills. There are multiple test dates from October to November for the 2021 cycle. Please visit www.takecasper.com to view dates and register.

The admission committee varies the percentage weighting of CASPer each year. In the coming cycle, to secure an interview spot, 32% will be based on GPA, 32% on MCAT CARS score, 32% on CASPer and up to 4% on graduate degrees. 4 About 500 applicants are invited for an interview in March or April every year. At this point, an offer of admission will be based on the following ranking: 70% Multiple Mini Interview (MMI) score, 15% undergraduate GPA, 15% CARS score. 4

Admission Requirements As with any Ontario medical school, the application must be submitted through the Ontario Medical Schools Application Service (OMSAS) by October 1, 2021, 4:30 pm. EDT. Check the OMSAS site at http://www.ouac.on.ca/omsas/ for the most updated information and take note of the “Important Dates” section. The admission requirements for the McMaster School of Medicine are as follows:

A minimum of three completed years of an undergraduate degree by May of the year of entry.

An overall OMSAS converted average of 3.00 on the 4.00-point scale, including all summer and supplementary courses by October 1 of year of entry. Third year applicants are given

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MCMASTER UNIVERSITY

A minimum of three completed years of an undergraduate degree by May of the year of entry.

The applicant must have written the MCAT by the application deadline with a minimum score of 123 on the CARS section. If the applicant has completed the test multiple times, the most recent score will be used.

The applicant must have completed the CASPer during the cycle of the application year.

Curriculum In September 2005, McMaster introduced the COMPASS curriculum. It is structured to integrate the fundamental concept of medicine while providing students with the opportunity to practice applying these concepts to clinical situations. McMaster’s curriculum consists of two stages: pre-clinical and clinical. In the pre-clinical segment, students learn the five Medical Foundations, which address the major concept themes of Medicine.

A new addition to the pre-clinical curriculum is a Professional Competencies section that deals with the complexities of clinical practice, which include ethics, communication skills, self- reflection, health systems, and interprofessional teamwork.

The Clinical stage is a 63-week program that consists of active student participation in patient care. Students rotate between various areas of medicine, including geriatrics, surgery, family medicine, anesthesia, psychiatry, pediatrics, obstetrics, gynecology, emergency medicine, and one elective.

These rotations are carried out in teaching hospitals in the Hamilton region, as well as community hospitals in St. Catharine’s, Guelph, Brantford, Burlington, Niagara Falls and the Kitchener-Waterloo region. Students are also encouraged to travel outside Hamilton for clinical rotations

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Curriculum Map - Sample Schedule

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MEDICINE

NORTHERN ONTARIO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE Background The Northern Ontario School of Medicine (NOSM) is composed of two main campuses in Thunder Bay and Sudbury, with various other teaching and research sites across Northern Ontario. 1 NOSM is a joint initiative between Laurentian University and Lakehead University, the inception of which was for the improvement of health care in Northern Ontario, a relatively underserviced region. Thus, NOSM strives to educate their students on the illnesses, clinical challenges, and rewards associated with the delivery of healthcare services to northern urban and rural communities.

Admission Requirements In order to be considered for admission, the applicant must be: A Canadian citizen or a permanent resident.

They must have completed a four-year undergraduate degree (or a three-year degree, if 25 years or older).

The minimum overall OMSAS converted GPA is 3.0 on the 4.0 scale, which takes into account all completed undergraduate courses, including those that were taken in the summer. Specific courses are not required for admission.

Applicants are required to submit an autobiographical sketch, responses to supplementary questions, and three Confidential Assessment Forms and letters of reference.

The MCAT is not required.

Non-academic qualities of competitive applicants will also be considered, and these include selfmotivation, self-direction, and comfort in small group work and case-based learning. Applicants should also show strong, genuine interest in living and working with underserviced populations, preferably in Northern Ontario. Selection into NOSM favors those who are comfortable with the challenge that comes with practicing in northern rural learning environments. Northern Ontario, rural, Aboriginal, and Francophone applicants are given particular consideration in order to reflect the demographics of Northern Ontario citizens.

Curriculum NOSM’s four-year curriculum features case-based learning, a research program focused on northern populations, and a mandatory term of study spent in Aboriginal or northern regions. During Phase 1 (years 1 and 2), students will have a sequence of 11 Case Based Modules (CBMs), each

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NORTHERN ONTARIO SCHOOL OF MEDICINE

covering a major body system. Each CBM will also have a remote, regional, Aboriginal, or rural focus.

Students are taught in a mix of small and large group sessions, labs, and community-based clinical experiences. Students will have a four-week Indigenous community placement in year 1 and two fourweek rural and remote community placements in year 2. Phase 2 (year 3) of the program focuses on a Comprehensive Community Clerkship (CCC) that takes place in medium-sized communities across Northern Ontario. Students will experience a wide range of clinical learning activities in the community and within group teaching sessions. All the students will also partake in a reflective research project focused on the needs of their host communities. Phase 3 (year 4) will take place in academic health centers in Thunder Bay and Sudbury. This phase focuses on a series of specialized clerkship rotations: Surgery, Internal Medicine, Children’s Health, Women’s Health, Mental Health, Emergency Medicine, and Family Medicine. Aside from these exposures to various specialties, students will also have opportunities to explore medicine in different settings through electives.

Although graduates of NOSM are able to take postgraduate studies anywhere in Canada, they will likely be inclined to train and practice in northern urban, rural, and remote communities.

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MEDICINE

OTTAWA UNIVERSITY

Background The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Ottawa is located at Roger-Guindon Hall, separate from the university’s main campus. The University of Ottawa’s MD program offers bilingual instruction in English and French. This four-year program emphasizes self-learning and teaches students the principles of clinical problems. Additionally, basic concepts, which provide an overview of fundamental biomedical science knowledge, are presented in whole-class lectures and seminars. The goal of Ottawa’s medical program is to foster trust, compassion, communication skills, ethical conduct, and patient advocacy.

In 2017, the number of successful applicants was 164. However, this number varies from year to year. Admission requirements are unique in that the University of Ottawa does not require any components of the MCAT. Instead, Ottawa’s admission process focuses on the applicant’s weighted GPA (wGPA), autobiographical sketch, the CASPer test, and a traditional interview. Moreover, Ottawa does not admit students by regional or provincial quota.

The wGPA cut-off for Ottawa is 3.50/4.00. The wGPA is a calculation in which the GPA value of each year of study is multiplied by a weighting factor, and the total sum is averaged. The wGPA is calculated based on the most recent two to three years of full-time study, not including the student’s current year.

For example, if a student applies during his third year of undergraduate studies, his or her wGPA will be calculated as follows:

NOTE: Summer courses are not included in the wGPA calculation.

However, for a student applying in their fourth year, the first three full years of undergraduate study will be included in the wGPA:

NOTE: If a student has completed more than four years, only the most recent three years will be considered and calculated accordingly. Students may consider re-applying with a higher wGPA if they are returning for a fifth year. Only full-time undergraduate studies will be considered, which may differ from other schools across Canada.

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OTTAWA UNIVERSITY Admission Requirements To apply to all Ontario medical schools, the application begins in OMSAS (Ontario Medical Schools Application Service) at http://www.ouac.on.ca/omsas/. Applications are available starting from mid-July and the deadline for completion/submission for the 2020 application cycle is October 1, 2020. Check the OMSAS site for the most updated information and take note of the “Important Dates” section.

The following are the admission requirements for the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Ottawa: To be considered, applicants must have completed:

A minimum of three undergraduate years of study by June prior to entry.

One full year (6 units) in Humanities or Social Sciences.

One full year (6 units) in Biology or Physiology.

One semester (3 units) in Organic Chemistry.

One semester (3 units) in Chemistry.

One semester (3 units) in Biochemistry.

One semester (3 units) in Statistics.

Curriculum The University of Ottawa’s medical program is divided into 147 weeks of instruction, which include 72 weeks of clinical work. In pre-clerkship, students are taught essential biomedical principles along with health care-related topics. Examples include health advocacy, ethics, hematology, musculoskeletal system, and cardiology. In clerkship, students have core rotations in Internal Medicine, Surgery, Pediatrics, Obstetrics & Gynecology, Psychiatry, Family Medicine, acute care, and a mandatory onemonth training in a rural setting. Year 2 will include the Mandatory Clinical Elective Week elective that must be at least 20 hours in duration. For more information regarding the MD undergraduate curriculum and program requirements, please visit www.med.uottawa.ca.

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Curriculum Map The University of Ottawa School of Medicine MD Program’s curriculum content is organized in the figure below:

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MEDICINE

QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY

Background Established in 1854, the School of Medicine at Queen’s University aims to develop leaders in the healthcare field through the spirit of inquiry, interdisciplinary approaches, and innovation in education.

This teaching approach focuses on hands-on clinical experience and personal interactions with faculty members.

Located in Kingston, Ontario, the School of Medicine at Queen’s University is affiliated with three hospitals that serve over a total of 500,000 residents in the area: Kingston General Hospital, Hotel Dieu Hospital, and Providence Care. Together, these health care centers provide students with learning opportunities in a range of programs including oncology, trauma, rehabilitation, nephrology, mental health, cardiology, stroke, pediatrics, obstetrics, and more.

Admission Requirements The application process for Queen’s School of Medicine incorporates the following criteria.

Applicant’s Grade Point Average (GPA) MCAT scores for each of the four sections as well as the overall score Autobiographical sketch Multiple Mini Interview (MMI) and Panel Interview Letters of reference GPA and MCAT scores are used to filter applicants on an academic basis. Cut-offs fluctuate annually depending on the pool of applicants; however, the school does not release this information. In addition, an applicant’s best MCAT results are used for his or her assessment, provided that the test was written within the last five years. There are no restrictions on the number of times that the test may be written. As of May 2017, they no longer accept MCAT scores from tests written prior to the 2015 MCAT. The autobiographical sketch requires applicants to highlight their experiences in up to 32 different activities in the following areas: formal education, employment, volunteer activities, extracurricular activities, awards and accomplishments, publications and research, and ‘other’.

The MMI was instituted at Queen’s University in 2011 and is used in conjunction with a panel interview to assess qualities such as empathy, decision-making, ethics and communication skills. The MMI format uses multiple eight-minute sessions during which the applicant interacts with or is observed by the examiner. For further information, consult the Appendix on MMI.

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QUEEN'S UNIVERSITY

Applicants must fulfill a total of 90 course credits, or three years of full time study, towards any university program. However, no specific courses are required as prerequisites.

Admission Statistics For the 2021 year, 101 positions were made available for 5,781 applicants.

Curriculum The Queen’s School of Medicine has a four-year curriculum that is divided into two phases: preclerkship and clerkship. The program follows the Foundations Curriculum, which emphasizes the patient and patient needs, while helping students to develop skills in a variety of necessary fields. This curriculum is summarized schematically in the programs’ Curriculum.

In pre-clerkship, students receive instruction in basic sciences, fundamental language, concepts of medical science, and communication and clinical skills.

On the other hand, clerkship consists of several services in which students are exposed to areas such as Family Medicine, Surgery, Psychiatry, Obstetrics/Gynecology, Pediatrics, Geriatrics, Emergency Medicine, and medical electives.

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Curriculum Map

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MEDICINE

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Background Based in two locations – St. George (downtown Toronto) and Mississauga – the Faculty of Medicine at the University of Toronto offers one of Canada’s largest medical programs. This Undergraduate Medical Program aims to foster the ideal medical professional through core competencies of collaboration, communication and decision-making.1 The Faculty of Medicine at the University of Toronto operates with 28 departments and the second largest academic health science network in North America, providing students with the opportunity to exercise their competencies through clinical experience and cutting edge research.2 See http://md.utoronto.ca/our-partners for more information regarding the affiliated organizations that collaborate with the University of Toronto.

The University of Toronto has played a historical role in the advancement of medical research. In addition to being home to the first MD/PhD program in Canada3, it has also been the site of Dr. Frederick Banting and John MacLeod’s Nobel Prize-winning discovery of insulin.4

Admission Requirements Both academic and non-academic criteria are considered in the admission process.

A minimum of three years of study, or 15 Full-Course Equivalents (FCEs) toward any university bachelor’s degree must be fulfilled.5 A minimum GPA of 3.6 on the OMSAS scale is also required. The calculation of an applicant’s GPA does not include the year of study in which application is received. And in an effort to encourage rigorous course loads, some low course marks can be dropped.6 For instance, a student who completed full-course loads for three years may drop either his or her three lowest full year-courses, six lowest semester-long course marks, or any combination of the two.

Likewise, a student who completed full-course loads for all four years may drop the marks of four full-year courses, or eight semester-long courses.

A minimum MCAT score of 125 is required for three of the four sections and a score of 124 is allowed for any one of the sections.5 If an applicant scores slightly below the minimum, but is competitive in all other areas, consideration may still occur.6 Only MCATs taken in the past five years are reviewed, and if taken multiple times, the most recent one is assessed.6 Academic prerequisites for admission include two FCEs in the life sciences – this does not include chemistry or physics, which are designated as physical sciences. One FCE is also necessary in the social sciences, humanities or languages.5

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MEDICINE

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Non-academic qualifications are assessed by brief personal essays, autobiographical sketch, and letters of recommendation. Since the application cycle of September 2012, four original brief personal essays are required instead of one. The limit is 250 words for each, answering specific questions related to the Faculty’s Missions and Values. The key is to write your essays based on the nature and outcome of the activity, not where it was done. To supplement your autobiographical sketch (e.g. employment, volunteering, awards, research), you must write three brief statements (250-word limit) to describe three activities and/or achievements from your sketch that best represents the attributes which are reflected in the educational goals of University of Toronto. Like the four personal essays above, what you have learned from the activity is more important to mention than whether it was completed from a developing country or in the research lab. Lastly, three letters of reference, with accompanying standardized Confidential Assessment Forms, are required from non-family members.7 Indigenous students are recognized separately but are nonetheless subjected to the same requirements. Indigenous students can apply through the Indigenous Student Application Program (ISAP).8

Admission Statistics For the 2019/2020 scholastic year, 259 positions were offered (205 at the St. George campus, and 54 at the Mississauga campus), including up to 7 for foreign students and up to 10 for applicants to the joint MD/PhD program.9 Of the 3,940 applicants in 2020, 631 received interviews.10 The average GPA of successful candidates in 2020 was 3.95 on the OMSAS scale.10

Curriculum The University of Toronto’s MD program is four years in length. Academically, it is divided into the pre-clerkship (first two years) and clerkship phase (last two years). The first two years are called the Foundations Curriculum, which aims to prepare students to practice medicine in accordance with the current and continuously evolving healthcare field. There are three major components to the Foundations Curriculum: courses, components, and themes. The courses, of which there are five, include: Introduction to Medicine; Concepts, Patients and Communities I and II; Life Cycle; and Complexity and Chronicity. Please visit the following link for more information regarding the courses: https://md.utoronto.ca/foundations-curriculum-courses-components-themes.

Throughout each course, there are four components through which the content is delivered. These include: Toronto Patient-Centered Integrated Curriculum (TOPIC), Integrated Clinical Experience (ICE), Portfolio, and Health Science Research (HSR).

The themes that run throughout the Foundations Curriculum are organized into three categories and can be read more about at the website given above. There are themes related to priority population groups, themes related to CanMEDS roles, and themes related to specific content areas.

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WESTERN UNIVERSITY

Background The Schulich School of Medicine is located at two campuses in Ontario: one in London, and the other in Windsor. Its research-intensive curriculum spans various areas of medicine and dentistry, including biomedical imaging, cancer, respiratory health, and neuroscience. The curriculum emphasizes the importance of patient-centered care, as well as an extensive focus in rural medicine. Its learning community also spans 40 communities across Southwestern Ontario, collectively named the Southwestern Ontario Medical Education Network (SWOMEN). The Schulich School of Medicine takes pride in its state-of-the-art teaching technology that connects the main campuses and SWOMEN teaching sites. In addition to enabling local and remote group learning, Western also houses computer learning centers and a Virtual Anatomy Lab, where students attend small lectures and have access to models, skeletons, and DVDs that facilitate their learning. The school also offers MD joint programs, including MD/PhD, MD/ Bachelor of Engineering Science, and Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery/MD/MSc (please see Section “Helpful Contacts and Links” under Appendix for more details).

Admission Requirements The application process for the Schulich School of Medicine incorporates the following criteria:

Applicants must have completed or be in their last year of a four-year undergraduate honors program, with a full course load. There are no course requirements to apply to the Schulich School of Medicine. In terms of GPA, the minimum average for 2019/2020 applicants’ two best years was set at 3.70 out of 4.00.

Minimum MCAT scores are dependent on where the applicant attended secondary school. For 2019/2020 applicants who attended high schools in select Southwestern Ontario communities (i.e. Grey, Bruce, Huron, Perth, Oxford, Middlesex, Lambton, Chatham-Kent, Elgin, Norfolk, or Essex Counties), the minimum combined MCAT score for the BS, PB and CARS was 380 (125 for BBFLS, CPFBS, and CARS). However, applicants who attended high schools outside Southwestern Ontario had different minimum scores for each MCAT section: at least a 126 for BBFLS, 127 for CPFBS, and 127 for CARS. Applicants must be Canadian citizens/residents and be proficient in English. First aid training, CPR Level C, Police Record Check, and Vulnerable Sector Screening must be done prior to enrolment.

Application to the Schulich School of Medicine is based primarily on the applicant’s undergraduate record, GPA, MCAT scores, three references, an abbreviated autobiographical sketch, and an interview. Interviews are 45 minutes in length and consist of three interviewers: a senior medical student, a physician, and a community member.

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WESTERN UNIVERSITY

Applicants from select Southwestern Ontario and/or Indigenous areas are given special consideration. Please refer the link given here for additional information on this matter: https://www.schulich.uwo.ca/med_dent_admissions/medicine/southwestern_ontario_ap plicants.html

Application Process Students need to register on OMSAS by September 15, 2021, and submit their application

by October 1, 2021.

Confidential assessment forms due to OMSAS by December 1, 2021.

Interview notification emails are usually sent in February.

Interviews will be held in March. First round of admission offers will be sent out on May 12, 2021.

Curriculum Within the four-year program at the Schulich School of Medicine, students develop a thorough understanding of the biological, behavioral and population sciences — to understand how to treat patients in the context of their environments. To gain exposure in rural and regional medicine, all students have the opportunity to take on medical placements within the SWOMEN communities.

Students begin their first and second years with their pre-clerkship. Their curriculum consists of courses on human biological systems, clinical methods, and community health. These courses are taught through a variety of learning styles, ranging from lectures and labs, to case studies and group work. As well, students develop an understanding on how to promote successful doctor-patient interactions, which is achieved through Clinical Skills learning suites and practice with standardized patients.

The third year of medical school, or clerkship, assigns students to rotations in different medical specialties. In addition, it is recommended that students complete their core electives in order to provide space for electives of interest in the following year. Students are given increased involvement in patient management and interaction, compared with the pre-clerkship years.

In their final year at the Schulich School of Medicine, students are able to take up to eight electives.

This provides them the flexibility to prepare for licensing exams and prospective medical specialties.

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Canadian Medical Schools with Independent Admission Process

Applying to medical schools outside of Ontario is more difficult than applying to those within the province, because no centralized application center like OMSAS exists for these particular schools. This means that each individual school must be contacted for their application package. Additionally, medical schools in other provinces place tight restrictions on the number of acceptances they send to residents outside of their respective provinces. Typically, undergraduate academic average requirements range from five to ten percent higher for residents of other provinces. Requirements for residency status vary by school, but three years of continuous residency or employment within the province is usually expected. Course equivalencies are also a factor, and applicants should make sure their courses will be acceptable to fulfill requirements outside of Ontario.

References Ontario Universities’ Application Centre. Important dates [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ouac.on.ca/guide/omsas-dates/

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UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

Background The Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Alberta has had a history of world-class research, education and patient care since it was established in 1913. It is known as one of Canada’s premier health sciences institutes and its recent collaborative relationship with Alberta Health Services has attracted some of the top medical minds in the world and has created an atmosphere of continual discovery for its students.1 The Office of Undergraduate Medical Education (UME) offers a four-year Doctor of Medicine (MD) program that strives to educate medical students to become knowledgeable, compassionate, collaborative, reflective and professional physicians that are committed to quality health care and lifelong learning. The University of Alberta provides an integrated curriculum focused on education, research and patient care taught through a balance of traditional and innovative teaching methods including: lectures and laboratory instruction, small-group case studies, problem-based learning, Internet- based tutorials, and preceptor-guided clinical skill sessions.2 Students are encouraged to pursue research during their undergraduate degree and are also given the opportunity to pursue the MD with a Special Training in Research Designation program that more formally recognizes their additional research training.3 In addition, a combined MD/PhD program is offered, along with a MD/MBA.4,5

Admission Requirements Applications for the Fall 2022 academic year began on July 1, 2021, with the release of the Online Undergraduate and Secondary Medicine Applications, and must be completed by October 1, 2021.6 The admission requirements for the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the University of Alberta are as follows:

Prospective students are required to provide two official transcripts, two letters of reference, a personal activities section, CASPer test results, MCAT results, and successful completion of at minimum two full years of undergraduate work and all applicable pre-requisite courses.7,8 A minimum requirement of 124 in the BC, CP and PS sections and 128 in the CARS section of the MCAT is required for consideration. Applicants should take note that only the 2015 and onwards version of the MCAT is acceptable.8 If the applicant is qualified for the MMI-style interview, it will take place throughout March and the final decision will be announced in May.7 Students should also consider that only 25 spots (15%) are available for those applying from outside of the province.9

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UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA Curriculum During the first two years, medical students learn about the organ-systems in defined blocks that progress from the basic sciences to clinical application. These blocks include: infection, immunity and inflammation; endocrine system; cardiovascular, pulmonary and renal systems; gastroenterology and nutrition; reproductive medicine and urology; musculoskeletal system; neuroscience and oncology.2 In the later years, students begin their clinical training through mandatory rotations and electives that allow them to develop a deeper understanding of several subspecialties.2 Notably, students are offered the opportunity to take part in an Integrated Community Clerkship program in their third year.2 The faculty encourages students to seek out research opportunities and to work towards obtaining their Special Training in Research designation. Following graduation, the faculty offers over 50 residency programs accredited by the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (RCPSC) and the College of Family Physicians of Canada (CFPC).3

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UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA

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UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA

Background The Faculty of Medicine at the University of British Columbia (UBC) aims to provide an environment that is conducive to effective knowledge acquisition and clinical skill development.1 There are 288 accepted students each year, and they are distributed into four geographically distinct sites: the Island Medical Program (IMP), Northern Medical Program (NMP), Vancouver Fraser Medical Program (VFMP), and the Southern Medical Program (SMP). The IMP, NMP, and SMP each consist of 32 students, and the VFMP consists of 192 students.2 One of the goals of the UBC MD program is to increase opportunities for all Canadians, especially rural and aboriginal students, who wish to pursue medicine, by allowing them to train in underserved communities. Students receive medical education and training at more than 80 hospitals and clinical sites located in British Columbia, along with placements at UBC, the University of Victoria, and the University of Northern British Columbia.3 Like most medical school programs, the UBC MD Undergraduate program is four years in length.

While there are traditional lectures and laboratory sessions, UBC offers preclinical education mainly through small-group problem-based learning. Thus, UBC expect students to be efficient self-directed learners and collaborators.

Admission Requirements The minimum overall academic average required for applicants from British Columbia is 75% and 85% for out-of-province applicants.4 The overall GPA average from the 2020/2021 cycle of all interviewed candidates was 88.30%. Out of a total of 2869 applicants, 950 were out-of-province and 90 of them were invited for an interview.5

There is a minimum credit requirement of 90 university transferable credits taken at a postsecondary institution (equivalent to 3 years of undergraduate study with a full course load). AP or IB credits cannot count towards the 90 minimum credits, although they can be used to satisfy the prerequisite requirements in the applicable subject areas if minimum grades are met.4 The MCAT is required, and test results for the last five years are considered valid. The minimum MCAT requirement is a score of no less than 124 in each of the 4 sections.4 In addition, the University of British Columbia Faculty Of Medicine believes that a strong nonacademic background is equally important to demonstrate an applicant’s suitability to be a physician: applicants are also assessed based on non-academic experiences. UBC does not accept international students (proof of Canadian Citizenship is required).4

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UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA Course Requirements In order to be considered for admission by the UBC Faculty of Medicine, a minimum of 6 credits in English must be completed. For more information on course equivalents see: http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/admissions/admission-requirements/.

Application Process It is important to note online applications opened early mid-June 2021.

The last accepted MCAT test date for the 2021/2022 cycle is September 11, 2021.

The final deadline for submission of applications is September 15, 2021 at noon Pacific Time, while MCAT scores must be submitted by October 15, 2021. The exact dates fluctuate slightly every year.

Applicants will create an account on the website that has been linked here and will submit documentation: https://www.oas.med.ubc.ca/security/login.aspx?ReturnUrl=/default.aspx.

FAQs regarding the application process and other related questions can be found in the following link: http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/admissions/frequently-asked-questions/.

Details on application timeline can be found at the following link: https://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/admissions/application-timelines/.

Curriculum The MD Undergraduate curriculum is taught through four integrated years. During the first year, students will be introduced to the basic principles of Human Biology and the Foundations of medicine.

In second year, additional themes related to the foundations of medicine are explored to give students the knowledge needed to succeed in the field. The curriculum also involves three longitudinal courses which run throughout the first two years of the program. These include: Doctor and Patient Society (DPAS 420), Clinical Skills (INDE 420), and Family Practice Continuum (FMPR 420). Clerkship begins during the third year and students act as clinical clerks in Anesthesia, Dermatology, Emergency Medicine, Internal Medicine, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Orthopedics, Ophthalmology, Pediatrics, Psychiatry and Surgery. In fourth year, students are given the opportunity to take electives along with more clinical work.

Please visit the following link for further information: https://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/about/curriculum/

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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY

Background The Undergraduate Medical Education Program at the University of Calgary distinguishes itself by offering ground-breaking research opportunities and education. The program follows a “SystemsBased” model, which aims to organize teaching around the numerous ways a disease can present and is constantly being modified through student input. Its unique three-year curriculum, seen in only one other North American institution (McMaster University), emphasizes small group and clinical correlation (bedside) sessions in which students solve clinical problems and reinforce features surrounding the clinical presentation of various health conditions. A schematic representation of the pre-clerkship years at the school of medicine is presented below (see Learning Sequence).

Learning Sequence There are seven blocks (courses) consisting of integrated clinical presentations relating to the body’s systems. Foci of learning in them are the diagnosis, investigation and management of these presentations. The block courses run concurrently with longitudinal ones in Medical Skills, Population Health, Family Medicine, Clinical Experience and Applied Evidence-Based Medicine.

Please visit the following link for more information: https://www.ucalgary.ca/mdprogram/currentstudents/pre-clerkship-years-1-2/introduction-curriculum.

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UNIVERSITY OF CALGARY Admission Requirements The Class of 2023 (i.e. the class starting July 2020) consisted of 157 positions available to Canadian students at the University of Calgary medical school. Priority is given to residents of Alberta. However, the faculty also invites applications from residents of other provinces.

The admission requirements for the Undergraduate Medical Education Program at the University of Calgary are as follows:

Students must have completed a minimum of two full years of university-level courses at the time of application.

The university does not require that students undertake a formal premedical program, nor are there specific courses required for admission. However, the admissions committee has chosen a list of courses they believe will prepare prospective students for medical school. This list includes one year (6 units) of: General Biology, General Chemistry, Physics, Organic Chemistry, English, and Physiology. One semester (3 units) of statistics/calculus and psychology/sociology/anthropology are also recommended.

In order to be eligible, all applicants must write the Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT)

by September of the admissions cycle in which they wish to apply. Non-Alberta residents require a minimum CARS score of 128 for consideration. The last eligible MCAT sitting date for this year’s 2021/2022 application cycle is September 11, 2021.

Admission Statistics Approximately 85% of the available positions are reserved for residents of Alberta, while 15% are given to out-of-province applicants. A minimum GPA of 3.20 is required for residents of Alberta, while the minimum for out-of-province residents is 3.80 (out of 4.0). The Faculty of Medicine has also instituted a requirement for non-Albertan applicants, where they must have a minimum score of 128 on the CARS section of the MCAT in order to be considered. The mean GPA for successful candidates in 2017 was 3.86. In the 2018-19 cycle, a total of 576 applicants were invited to interview, with 456 being residents of Alberta and 120 being out-of-province students. Interviews are conducted through Multiple Mini Interviews (MMIs).

Application Process All applicants interested in entering in Fall 2022 must apply through the University of Calgary’s UCAN online system before October 1st, 2021.

Completed applications should include an official transcript, Medical College Admissions Test (MCAT) scores, a history of employment and any publications or awards, three letters of reference, and detailed description and statements on the applicant’s top ten experiences.

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DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY

Background Founded in 1868, the Dalhousie Faculty of Medicine plays an integral role in providing prospective Maritime students with the opportunity to study medicine in their planned communities of service.1 Other than their Doctor of Medicine (MD) degree, the Faculty enables excellence in health care through medical education and research program partnerships with the government, health authorities and local University-affiliated hospitals in Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island and New Brunswick.2 The Dalhousie Medical School entering class consists of 110 individuals that are divided mainly between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia campus, with 30 and 67 students respectively.3 Physicians are trained to be accomplished clinicians, compassionate caregivers, good communicators and balanced individuals that enjoy research and aim to progress their work from the bench to bedside as quickly as possible. First-year medical students interested in research are given the opportunity to pursue a BSc (Med) degree during their medical education, which requires the completion of two summers of research and a successful thesis defense. Further, prospective clinician-scientists may also consider concurrently enrolling in graduate degrees with the Faculty of Graduate Studies to pursue a combined MD/MSc or MD/PhD in Anatomy, Biochemistry, Microbiology, Pharmacology, or Physiology and Biophysics.4

Admission Requirements Admission into the Dalhousie Faculty of Medicine’s MD program can be extremely competitive if the prospective applicant falls outside of the Maritime Province applicant pools (New Brunswick, Nova Scotia and Prince Edward Island). Students residing in all other Canadian provinces, the United States or internationally are placed in a non-Maritime pool, and compete for 9 of the total 109 seats available.3” section.

The admission requirements for the Dalhousie Faculty of Medicine’s MD program are as follows:

Eligible Maritime candidates are required to achieve a cGPA of 3.3 while carrying a full course load in their two most recent consecutive years of study and must have obtained a total MCAT of 499 with a minimum score of 124 in each section.5 Given the reduced seats available for non-Maritime residents, the academic requirements are higher requiring a minimum cGPA of 3.7 and a total MCAT of 503, with a minimum score of 124 in each section.5 The admissions committee considers both academic and non-academic factors and has no set quotas on any demographic factor, regularly accepting individuals that have had other careers

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DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY

and have decided to pursue medicine later in life. Although there are no prerequisite courses required of a candidate, all prospective students will be assessed based on having pursued a broad academic background, having developed a sound understanding of a particular area, having completed a four-year degree and on their effective communication ability.5 Students are required to successfully complete a mandatory 90-minute computer-based CASPer test on which they must meet a minimum score of greater than 1.5 standard deviations below the mean of the applicant category.6

Application Process The application process begins on June 15 every year, with an online application that must be submitted by July 31, 2021, culminating with the supplemental application form and a 1500word essay, completed by September 3, 2021.7 Applicants are also required to submit their MCAT scores, official transcripts and two letters of reference by the same date.

All Maritime students meeting the requirements mentioned above and the top 60 non-maritime applicants based on the scores from the GPA, MCAT, supplementary information and the letters of reference will be invited for an MMI interview.

Final decisions are mailed in early March to all interviewed applicants.7

Curriculum The curriculum of the Faculty of Medicine aims to train its medical students to be successful future physicians that are caring, resourceful, and are able to work with patients, families and colleagues to provide excellent care in diverse contexts and in complex situations. Each physician will have the knowledge, skills and attitudes to be competent as a professional, as a community contributor, as a lifelong learner and as a skilled clinician. During the first two years of medical school, students acquire a fundamental knowledge of medical sciences and the human body systems through a mixture of lectures, small group tutorials, laboratories and patient-centered clinical cases. Students are quickly exposed to patients and clinical medicine with volunteer patients in year 1 and more advanced clinical cases with real or simulated patients in year 2. There is also the opportunity to work clinically during electives during these pre-clerkship years. The following two clerkship years are spent in core rotations throughout the Maritime Provinces, nationally or internationally as part of a student’s electives.

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UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA

Background The University of Manitoba, located in Winnipeg, Manitoba, has been at the heart of creating opportunities for people in the Prairies to pursue their studies in Western Canada.1 The University of Manitoba Medical School strives to educate future physicians to become medical experts, communicators, collaborators, managers, health advocates, scholars, and professionals. Most of all, the University of Manitoba Medical school encourages students to develop into competent, caring, and ethical physicians who are critical thinkers.2 The University of Manitoba encourages students to undergo research projects during their summer months ranging from clinical to basic science.3 This is made possible through a multitude of research groups such as the Aboriginal Health Research Group, Cell Signaling, Health Economics Research Group, Medicinal Foods & Bioactives Research Group, and Mood & Anxiety Disorder Research Group.4

Admission Requirements The admission requirements for the University of Manitoba Medical School are as follows:

The application requires two copies of transcripts, three references, an autobiographical sketch, MCAT and AGPA. A minimum score of 515 on the MCAT as well as an AGPA of at least 3.94 out of 4.5 is highly recommended for a chance of receiving an invitation to interview.6 However, the entering class of 2019 had an average MCAT score of 523 and an AGPA of 4.43 out of 4.5 for out-of-province students.7 Applicants are also required take the CASPer test on which they must score greater than 1.5 standard deviations below the mean for their respective applicant pool.6 Applicants must be a Canadian citizen or Permanent Resident and entering their final year of a Bachelor’s degree program at the time of application.6

Application Process The application process for the 2021-2022 academic year commences in late-August and must be completed by October 1, 2021.5

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MEDICINE

UNIVERSITY OF MANITOBA

The MMI style interview will take place at the end of February to the beginning of March and the final decision will be announced in May to June.

The applicant’s final ranking score is based 10% on AGPA, 40% on MCAT, 35% MMI and 10% CASPer.6 Few spots are available for out-of-province students, while only 5% of the total applicants are from the out of province applicant pool for the 2021-2022 application cycle.

Curriculum The Curriculum for Max Rady College of Medicine is separated into eight modules; four for preclerkship and four for clerkship. The principles followed by the curriculum involve a progressive increase in interactive and self-directed learning with the purpose of giving students the opportunity to prepare themselves for thriving with a career in the healthcare field. The focus of pre-clerkship through modules 0-3 is Human Biology Disease. There are nine systems-based units with two separate courses each. Longitudinal courses in pre-clerkship highlight the principles of professionalism, social accountability, and responsibility while helping to contextualize health issues and provide exposure to the community. During clerkship, students complete modules 4-7. Please visit the following link for a complete breakdown of the modules: http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/health_sciences/medicine/education /undergraduate/media/CLERKSHIP_CHART-PORTRAIT-FINAL.pdf

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MCGILL UNIVERSITY

Background As a leading medical school, McGill University offers a variety of joint programs, including a 4-year Doctor of Medicine and Master of Surgery program (MD, CM), a 5-year MD, CM & MBA program (Master of Business Administration), a 7-year MD, CM & Ph.D. program (Philosophy), a 2-year MD, CM for International Medical Graduates, and a Med-P (Preparatory) Program. Since September 2013, the MD, CM program has adopted a new curriculum in place of the traditional teaching methods of lectures, small-group settings, laboratory, etc. The new program components consist of the information outlined below and also can be found as a schematic representation at the following link: https://www.mcgill.ca/ugme/files/ugme/curriculum_schema_en.pdf.

Fundamentals of Medicine and Dentistry (Year 1 and half of Year 2): uses an integrated systems’-based approach to teach students about normal function, disease and therapeutics.

Students participate in the Longitudinal Family Medicine Experience (LFME) to receive early exposure to family medicine.

Transition to Clinical Practice (Second half of Year 2): transition from a primarily class-based learning environment to a self-directed learning environment in the clinical setting. Clinical disciplines of focus include: Internal Medicine, Neurology, Family Medicine, Pediatrics, Surgery, Anesthesia, Radiology, and Ophthalmology.

Clerkship (Year 3 & 4): Students actively participate in patient care as part of healthcare teams.

Students must complete courses in Internal Medicine, Surgery, Family Medicine, Psychiatry, Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pediatrics, Geriatric Medicine, and Emergency Medicine.

Physicianship: This Physician Apprenticeship longitudinal program is from the old curriculum and remains part of the new curriculum. It serves to support students’ transition to the work environment as physicians.

The anticipated number of positions available in the program for 2019/2020 was approximately 185, of which 10% are available for Canadian citizens outside of Quebec.3,4

Basic Science Requirements

Minimum six (6) credits of introductory biology with lab Minimum six (6) credits of general chemistry with lab Minimum three (3) credits of organic chemistry with lab Minimum six (6) credits of introductory physics with lab *Minimum credits do not include compulsory laboratory or practical work. Grades of a Pass/Fail nature are not acceptable in coursework; numerical or letter-class grades are required. All pre-requisite courses listed above must be completed prior to the relevant application deadline.

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MCGILL UNIVERSITY Admission Requirements The admission requirements for the McGill Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences are as follows:

A 120-credit (four years) or equivalent Bachelor’s Degree of any discipline from a recognized institution must be completed in order to apply. The program must have been completed on a full-time basis with full course loads (15 credits per session) and should be done by July 31st of the year of entry to the first year of medical studies.6 Generally, applicants who are granted an interview (which is MMI style) have a GPA of 3.5 or higher.7 The average GPA of interviewed candidates in 2020/2021 was 3.89 (3.97 for out-ofprovince candidates).8 MCAT results are optional for applicants in the Quebec University, out-of-province Canadian university and international categories whose degree for the basis of admission is from a Canadian University. MCAT scores, if submitted when optional, will be used only if they increase the competitiveness of the applicant. Competitive applicants tend to not have written the MCAT more than twice. Applicants need total score of 508-509 or higher for the 2015 MCAT version, or a total score in the 80th percentile to be competitive.9 In addition to MCAT results if necessary, applicants are required to submit official transcripts, CASPer test results, CV and a Lift of Verifiers.10

Application Process All applications are processed through McGill’s web-based application system, Minerva.

Applicants are required to upload official transcripts, a personal statement (original writing explaining how the applicant’s various experiences qualify him/her to be a good physician in the future), curriculum vitae, and proof of citizenship/residency via Minerva.11 For more information regarding selection process and how McGill weighs each component of the application (e.g., 10% CV; 20% CASPer, 70% academic), please see the link below: http://www.mcgill.ca/medadmissions/applying/selection-process

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MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND Background Founded in 1967, the Memorial University of Newfoundland (MUN) Faculty of Medicine is housed within the Health Science Centre in St. John’s, Newfoundland. The faculty consists of the adult and women’s hospital, the Janeway Children’s Hospital, the H. Bliss Murphy Cancer Centre, along with the Centre of Offshore and Remote Medicine (MEDICOR). Not only does MUN take pride in educating young physicians, but it is also known for its research. The main research laboratories include the Terry Fox Cancer Research Laboratories and the hyperbaric medicine research facility.1 Each year around 84 students are accepted into the MD program; 57 of the seats are reserved for residents of Newfoundland and Labrador, while 14 seats are reserved for residents of New Brunswick and PEI. Having such a small class size enables early interactions with patients and an emphasis on problembased learning.2

Admission Requirements Admission into MUN medical school is highly competitive with 750 applications for 80 spots with applicants who are residents of Newfoundland and Labrador.

The admission requirements for MUN medical school are as follows:

To be an eligible candidate, one must have completed their bachelor’s degree along with 6 units of English.

Typically, accepted students have MCAT scores of 10 in each section for the old MCAT or a 127 on each section of the 2015 version along with a 3.70 GPA. Apart from grades, the Admissions Committee evaluates: personal qualities, reference reports, and conducts a traditional panel interview.

Desirable personal qualities include integrity, respect for others’ choices and rights, compassion, empathy, personal insight, communication, maturity, and motivation. These can be displayed through work and extracurricular activities as well as in the autobiographical sketch.

Applicants must also be assessed using a Situational Judgement Test on interview day.

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MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND Application Process The application process begins in July on the CaRMS Online Admissions Application Service.

The final deadline for August 2022 entry is on September 2, 2021.

Interviews are then conducted in November, with the admissions being given out at the end of May for out of province students.

Curriculum In the first year of medical school, students are taught basic medical sciences specifically focusing on the human body systems. This is followed by the interdisciplinary study of disease in second year. In addition to science courses, students learn clinical skills, community engagement, and physician competencies in their first two years of study. The next two years are the clerkship years where students shadow doctors in clinics and hospitals. During these clerkship years, students can take electives such as: Anesthesiology Community health practice Emergency medicine Family medicine Urban family medicine Laboratory medicine Obstetrics and gynecology Pediatrics Psychiatry Radiology General medicine and subspecialties General surgery and subspecialties

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UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN

Background Originally founded as the School of Medical Sciences in 1926, the College of Medicine at the University of Saskatchewan offers a full range of academic programs including the Master of Physical Therapy and the Certificate in Global Health programs.1,2 Students interested in pursuing a Medical Doctor (MD) degree may enroll in the standard 4-year program or may pursue a combined graduate MD/MSc or MD/PhD degree.3 The College of Medicine contains two campus locations in Saskatoon and Regina, and allows its students to enjoy the benefits of an intimate learning environment with an entering class of just 100 students.4 These individuals will be trained to exhibit excellence in education, research and clinical care as they serve the people of Saskatchewan, Canada and beyond.

Admission Requirements Admission into the University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine is extremely competitive with over 307 in-province and 513 out-of-province students competing for just 100 seats in 2018.5 Of those, 95% are reserved for local Saskatchewan residents and applicants of Canadian Aboriginal descent, with the remainder available for citizens that have resided for a minimum of three years in Canada prior to application.4 Understandably, the application requirements vary by an applicant’s place of residence.

Prospective students should inquire with the College of Medicine for specific course codes equivalents with their own institutions.

The admission requirements for the University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine are as follows:

Generally speaking, full-year introductory courses in Biology, Chemistry, Physics, Biochemistry, Statistics, Sociology and Psychology are strongly recommended.6 For the 2021-2022 application cycle, no minimum MCAT section scores or total score will be required for any applicants.7 However, the Admissions Committee has removed applicants in the past if their overall score was lower than the 24th percentile.

Students must have completed four full undergraduate years of study obtaining a minimum 85% average. Students may also improve their chances by undertaking graduate work whereby the average of all of the courses taken will be combined with their best two undergraduate years. Graduate studies will not be considered for out of province students.6 All applicants are required to provide one official transcript, three letters of reference (pass/fail grading) and MCAT scores (if applicable) to be ranked in order of competitiveness.6

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UNIVERSITY OF SASKATCHEWAN Application Process The earliest out-of-province students could apply will be during the final year of their undergraduate degree, in addition to a minimum cumulative average of 85% - although a much higher average is generally needed to interview.

The top 288 students will be invited for an MMI interview during mid-March.6 The MMI interview is used to assess the essential skills and abilities required for studying medicine (e.g., observation; communication; motor ability; intellectual-conceptual, integrative and quantitative abilities; and behavioral and social attributes).7 In-province students will be assessed by composite score of 20% MCAT score, 30% undergraduate average and 50% MMI, while out-province students are assessed 100% by their MMI score and be notified of their decision by mid-late May.6

Curriculum Medical students at the University of Saskatchewan College of Medicine are equipped with the necessary skill set required to identify, analyze and manage clinical problems in a way that provides efficient and humane patient care. Their training will allow them to fill the multiple roles expected of physicians today, such as the physician as a medical expert/decision maker, as a communicator/educator/humanist/healer, as a health advocate, as a lecturer/scholar/scientist, and as a collaborator. The MD program appoints a 2+2 curriculum, meaning two years are designated to preclerkship and another two to clerkship in the four-year program. The 2+2 curriculum is learner centered, CASE-based (Cooperative, Active, Self-directed and/or Experimental Learning), uses integrated case studies to link basic and clinical science learning, and is reflective of CanMed roles, FMEC recommendations, MCC objectives and accreditation standards.

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International Medical Schools Summary Chart

Note: N/L refers to the fact that the school does not have official averages, minimums or cut-offs for that section.

References 1.University of Queensland Faculty of Medicine. Doctor of Medicine [Internet]. Available from: https://future-students.uq.edu.au/study/program/Doctor-of-Medicine-5578 2.Sydney Medical School. Doctor of Medicine (MD) [Internet]. Available from: http://sydney.edu.au/medicine/study/md/index.php 3.The University of Melbourne Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health and Sciences. Doctor of Medicine [Internet]. Available from: http://mdhs-study.unimelb.edu.au/degrees/doctor-of-medicine/overview 4.University of Oxford Medical Sciences Division. Medicine [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ox.ac.uk/admissions/undergraduate/courses-listing/medicine?wssl=1 5.University of Cambridge School of Clinical Medicine. Medicine [Internet]. Available from: http://www.undergraduate.study.cam.ac.uk/courses/medicine 6.The University of Edinburgh College of Medicine and Veterinary Medicine. Undergraduate Study – 2020 Entry [Internet].

Available from: http://www.ed.ac.uk/studying/undergraduate/degrees/index.php?action=view&code=A100 7.UCL Medical School. UCL Medical School Undergraduate Programmes [Internet]. Available from: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/medicalschool/undergraduate 8.Melbourne Medical School. Melbourne Medical School Doctor of Medicine Selection Guidelines [Internet]. Available from: http://bespokeproduction.s3.amazonaws.com/mdhs/assets/d9/2e430065c111e6a1b3ef16a505f7b7/MMS_MD_Selection_Guidelines_v2.0.pdf

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American Medical Schools

Admission to medical school in Canada, and especially Ontario, is incredibly competitive. According to the Ontario Universities’ Application Centre,1 in 2017 there were over 6,596 candidates competing for a mere 955 spots! Unfortunately, the reality of the situation is that there are too many skilled candidates and too few spots in entering medical school classes. One viable alternative is applying internationally to the roughly twenty medical schools in the United States that accept Canadian students. American medical schools have considerably higher tuition fees per year, but take a more holistic approach in selecting students and often have lower MCAT and GPA cut-offs than similar institutions in Canada.

However, they have more stringent prerequisite requirements, which in general, includes one full year of: Biology (with lab), General/Inorganic Chemistry (with lab), Organic Chemistry (with lab), Physics (with lab) and English.

Applications to American medical schools follow a three-step process.

The primary application begins with prospective students creating an account with the centralized American Medical College Application Service (AMCAS).2 Prospective students can begin creating their account and working on their application starting in early May, but cannot submit it for consideration until early June. Once logged-in, students will be asked to fill in their identifying information, schools attended, biographic information, course work, work/activities, letters of evaluation, medical schools applying for, personal essay and standardized test scores sections.

Of particular importance are the work/activities section, a 15-slot autobiographical sketch, and the personal essay, which is required by all medical schools. Unlike the OMSAS autobiographical sketch, each slot contains a 700-character text box for the activity’s description with the option to designate three activities as being most significant. Once designated, an additional 1325 character text box is provided to describe why that activity was chosen as being most significant. Lastly, a 5300 character personal essay is required - an excellent opportunity for an applicant to distinguish themselves from other applicants.

AMCAS provides a free instruction manual to help guide students through writing the personal essay and through completing and submitting the primary application.3 Once submitted, the application must be verified by AMCAS staff to ensure all grades have been entered correctly and this process may take anywhere from one week in June, to six weeks in late July to early August.

Letters of evaluation need not be submitted at the same time as the primary application, but should be submitted with the secondary application in order to not delay processing of the complete application.

A secondary application is the next stage of the process, where an applicant is usually asked to write additional essays to provide further insight into their personal character. Certain schools will ask all students to complete a secondary application, while others will screen applicants and only invite a select few.

The third step in the application process for American medical schools is the interview, after which admissions decisions are made and sent to the applicant. One very important consideration when applying to American medical schools is that applications are accepted and processed on a rolling admissions basis. This means that competitive applicants may be offered interviews and accepted early in the application process, thereby limiting the number of available seats for students applying later in the cycle. A student applying late may need higher statistics to be considered for an interview, then if s/he had applied early. Therefore, it is strongly recommended that you apply early!

References

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General Information Regarding Medical Schools in the United States of America

Note: N/L refers to the fact that the school does not have official averages, minimums or cut-offs for that section.

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Additional American Medical Schools A few other “Canadian-friendly” medical schools or educational institutions that simply consider all applicants, either Canadian or American, in the same applicant pool, regardless of their citizenship status, are as follows:

1

Yale School of Medicine

2

Baylor College of Medicine

3

Brown University Warren Alpert Medical School

4

Howard University College of Medicine

5

Meharry Medical College

6

New York Medical College

7

Northwestern University Feinberg School of Medicine

8

Rutgers New Jersey Medical School

9

Tufts University School of Medicine

10

University of Chicago Pritzker School of Medicine

11

University of Colorado School of Medicine

12

University of Connecticut School of Medicine

13

University of Illinois College of Medicine

14

University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine

15

University of Utah School of Medicine

16

University of Virginia School of Medicine

17

Vanderbilt University School of Medicine

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Caribbean Medical Schools

Students interested in living in a warmer climate for the next four years of their education should consider some of the many accredited Caribbean medical schools accepting Canadian applicants. These schools offer 4-year MD programs and enable students to complete their residency at select hospitals throughout the United States. However, it is more difficult to compete for these residency spots as an international medical graduate (IMG). For this reason, along with the costs associated, North American residents tend to consider Caribbean medical schools less favorably than medical schools in the United States or Canada.

Once you have decided to pursue medicine in the Caribbean, there are many options; therefore, it is crucial to do the research needed to choose the appropriate school for you. To help with this stage, we have summarized the characteristics of the seven most popular Caribbean medical schools in the table below.1-7 Despite slight differences in their admission requirements, they share a common application procedure. To apply, students must complete an online application form, available directly from each school’s website, and provide a personal statement, transcripts, MCAT scores, a CV or resume, and a minimum of two letters of reference. Applicants are required to have completed the required prerequisites courses and demonstrate that they possess the non-academic requirements for a career in medicine, including: observational, communication, motor and intellectual-conceptual skills; integrative and quantitative abilities; and behavioral and social attributes. They must also show a commitment to learning, a sense of intellectual curiosity, a sense of responsibility, a moral outlook, a commitment to service, and a very sincere interest in health care.

Caribbean medical schools select applicants based on a holistic approach. Although some schools provide the average GPA and MCAT scores of successful applicants, others assess students on a caseby-case basis and have no defined cut-offs. Prospective students must also be cognizant of the semester they hope to enroll in, as medical schools offer entering classes beginning in September or January.

Applications are assessed on a rolling admissions basis; successful applicants are given a seat in the entering class until the semester is filled, with additional students carried over into the next semester.

Therefore, there are no official deadlines for application.

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General Information Regarding Medical Schools in the Caribbean

Note: N/L refers to the fact that the school does not have official averages, minimums or cutoffs for that particular section. * The entering class size varies by semester with 100 students accepted in the January and May semesters and 200 in the September semester.

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Studying Medicine In Australia

Studying medicine in Australia is another very popular option for prospective Canadian medical students. As an international student, there are two undergraduate medicine,1-2 and four graduate-entry medicine3-6 options available through the OzTREKK application and information center. In general, the former ranges from 5-6 years in duration and requires the completion of a high school degree and the necessary course prerequisites, while the latter requires a post-secondary degree and the MCAT. A complete summary of each school’s academic requirements can be found in the tables below. As always, it is strongly recommended that students exceed the stated minimums in order to receive an invitation for an interview. Furthermore, application deadlines and policies can fluctuate from year to year and thus, it is highly advisable for prospective students to do their research prior to applying.

Each medical school in Australia specializes in a unique aspect of medical training. Students interested in practicing tropical medicine or serving rural, remote and indigenous populations would best benefit from the curriculum at James Cook University. Applications for February intake are due at the end of September of the previous year.

Similarly, Monash School of Medicine provides students the opportunity to spend a significant amount of time in rural areas as part of a healthcare team. Applications for the February intake are due in mid-May of the previous year, for both undergraduate and graduate-entry programs offered.

The University of Melbourne prides itself on research excellence and incorporates a six-month fulltime research portion into its four-year medical curriculum. Prospective clinician-scientists should apply mid-June of the previous year for the February intake.

The University of Queensland stresses self-directed learning and offers students the opportunity to learn through problem-based learning in clinical contexts. Applications are accepted on a rollingadmissions basis until the entering class of January is filled, so it’s important to apply early.

Lastly, The University of Sydney offers students the opportunity to learn from medical researchers who are at the forefront of their field through a research-led style of teaching. Students also benefit from having access to more than 40 clinical teaching facilities in the university’s extensive network of hospitals nationwide. The deadline for the entering class is in mid-July of the previous year.

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Undergraduate Medicine Programs in Australia

Graduate Medicine Programs in Australia

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Studying Medicine In Ireland

Canadian students interested in studying medicine internationally may consider the Republic of Ireland, where the Atlantic Bridge Program allows prospective students to apply to six medical schools offering a range of 4, 5, or 6-year medical programs.1-6 To apply, a student must request an application form directly from the Atlantic Bridge7 and submit the completed application by due dates, which are typically in mid-November. If this deadline is missed, a later deadline in December is available, but at a higher cost.

As part of the application, students must provide: Personal essay Extracurricular activities list Resume Transcripts MCAT (where applicable) Minimum of two letters of reference (one of which must comment on academic proficiency) The selection factors used by Irish medical schools are holistic, taking into account the undergraduate program difficulty, the course load and external factors; for this reason, no school has listed a competitive GPA or MCAT range. In speaking with the admissions officer from the Atlantic Bridge, every applicant is assessed on a case-by-case basis taking into account a multitude of factors prior to granting admittance.

Each entering class contains just 12-20 international students. Prospective students can apply to either the undergraduate-entry or the graduate-entry medical program streams. The former is usually longer in duration, approximately 6 years, and requires high school level prerequisite courses, while the latter are 4 to 5 year programs and usually requires an undergraduate degree and an MCAT. The exact prerequisite requirements can be found in the table below, along with an annual cost of attending each school.

Applicants are also expected to show that they have made a mature decision to pursue medicine based on previous exposure to and a genuine interest in, the medical profession.

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General Information Regarding Medical Schools in Ireland

Note: N/L refers to not listed. * refers to something that is not required

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Medical School: What to Expect Although certain similarities exist in the various medical schools (e.g., educational material covered), the methods of instruction vary. Some schools take a “systems based” approach which looks at the sciences in the context of a particular biological system, while some take a “traditional” approach, giving many science-heavy lectures, and then coming back in later years to relate them to biological systems. In general, all schools offer an introductory period to lead students through classroom learning. This introduces them to the basic medical sciences and the principles of medicine. This phase is widely referred to as the preclerkship phase.† During pre-clerkship, medical students are given the opportunity to meet with patients and learn how to take histories, as well as perform some physical examination maneuvers. † The length of this period depends on each school’s curriculum. At problem-based schools such as McMaster, the pre-clerkship period is relatively short compared to other schools like Queen’s University, the University of Western Ontario, the University of Toronto, and the University of Ottawa. McMaster University’s pre-clerkship is approximately 1 year out of its 3-year program,1 while UWO’s,2 U of T’s,3 and University of Ottawa’s4,5,6 uses 2 out of 4 years for pre-clerkship. Queen’s University has the longest pre-clerkship out of these schools mentioned, which lasts 2.5 years out of its 4-year program.7,8 Of course, individuals should bear in mind that McMaster University’s medical program is intensely compressed to only 3 years, with little room for vacation.

Afterwards, students continue on to clerkship, where they begin rotating through a series of medical specialties, under the supervision of experienced doctors and staff 4,7,9. After their initial rotations, more specific electives are taken in order for students to refine the skills learned in previous rotations, visit other schools, and/or explore areas that they have not been exposed to yet. These electives allow students to set themselves up towards their future residencies. This culminates in a return to classes for a final phase, where course material is reviewed and integrated with clerkship experience.11 Academic material covered in medical school is extensive. In addition to a solid foundation in the basic sciences, physicians are expected to have a deep understanding of anatomy and physiology, differential diagnosis, and treatment. In a systems-based or regional approach, sequential blocks are taught, like “the thorax”, “the abdomen”, and “the head and neck”. In the traditional approach, the difficult sciencebased courses are taught first, and then related back to application-oriented courses like “Structure and Function”, “Determinants of Community Health”, and “Pathobiology of Disease”. According to recent information from current medical students at the University of Toronto, the “pathobiology” course will be changed to “Mechanisms, Manifestations & Managements of Disease”.12, Some students may decide to take undergraduate courses that ease their transition to medical school, such as anatomy or other health-related subjects, but this is not necessary. It will increase your fundamental knowledge and help you to transition smoothly into medical school, but beyond a few undergraduate courses, the medical school curriculum is unlike anything offered in undergrad. This difficult curriculum is the reason for which medical schools emphasize the minimum academic requirements for incoming students.

References 1. McMaster University. Curriculum plan: COMPASS curriculum [Internet]. Available from: http://registrar.mcmaster.ca/CALENDAR/current/pg1274.html 2. The University of Western Ontario. Curriculum philosophy: years one and two [Internet]. Available from: http://www.schulich.uwo.ca/medicine/undergraduate/index.php?page=CurriculumOverview 3. University of Toronto. Preclerkship curriculum [Internet]. Available from: http://www. md.utoronto.ca/program/preclerkship.htm 4. University of Ottawa. MD program [Internet]. Available from: http://med.uottawa.ca/undergraduate/education/electives/ottawa-students-guidelines/pre-clerkship 5. University of Ottawa. MD Program [Internet]. Available from: http://med.uottawa.ca/undergraduate/education/electives/ottawa-students-guidelines/clerkship 6. University of Ottawa. Revised curriculum [Internet]. Available from: http://www.med. uottawa.ca/Students/MD/eng/# 7. Queen’s University. School of medicine calendar [Internet]. Available from: http://www. queensu.ca/calendars/medicine/Courses.html 8. Queen’s University. About the program [Internet]. Available from: http://meds.queensu.ca/ undergraduate/prospective_students/about_the_program 9. University of Toronto. Clerkship [Internet]. Available from: http://www.md.utoronto. ca/program/clerkship/year3.htm 10. University of Toronto. Clerkship courses [Internet]. Available from: http://www.md.utoronto.ca/courses-0 11. University of Toronto. Foundations Curriculum [Internet]. Available from: http://www.md.utoronto.ca/foundations-curriculum † Fernando E, Kennedy M. University of Toronto. eshan.fernando@utoronto.ca, matt.kennedy@utoronto.ca

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Financing So, you’ve finally been accepted to your dream medical school. Congratulations! Your admissions offer package, however, will underscore the expensive nature of financing medical school education. Few undergraduates can expect to become physicians without having at least some debt upon graduation. The first year tuition bill will be approximately $20,000 for Ontario schools.2,3 Living expenses vary widely across the country, but average around $10,000 per year.4-6 Instruments, miscellaneous fees, and books typically add $2,000 to the total.6 In all, a typical student can expect to incur at least $80,000 in expenses before they receive their MD.3-6 While these expenses are certainly justifiable based on a doctor’s expected future income, it will be years before medical students become staff physicians.

Your lending agencies, in most cases, understand this, and will still loan to you on the understanding that you will eventually receive a certain income and have financial security. Scholarships, financial aid packages from institutions themselves, your personal contributions, and those of your family must all combine to meet these financial challenges. It is imperative that you begin looking for ways to finance your education early, so that you are aware of the financing options available.

To begin with, you can enjoy a few benefits from Canadian banks as a medical student. Generally, a rather large line of credit can be extended to you for your 3 or 4 years at medical school. For example, TD Canada Trust can provide up to $200,000 in loans at a variable rate mostly without a cosigner.7 They also defer payments on the principal until after graduation, or after you have completed your residency.8 Ask your preferred financial institutions for more information.

Just like your undergraduate career, there are scholarships available to Canadian medical students. Most schools have a scholarship program for its medical candidates. Also look through www.scholarshipscanada.com and www.studentawards.com for possible scholarships. Beyond that, institutions like the Royal Bank of Canada also offer scholarships—particularly for medical students.9 Aside from the sources already mentioned, there are two major programs which will fund your education, in exchange for your services after graduation. The Canadian Forces administers the Medical Officer Training Program (MOTP), which will fund up to three years of medical school and two years of internship, including tuition, books and fees, and will pay you a monthly salary.10 After completion of your training, you will be commissioned as an officer and obligated to serve for a period of a few years in a branch of the Canadian Forces. Individuals interested in surgery may be particularly interested in this option, because it will provide you with extensive training in that field. MOTP applicants must already have been accepted into a medical school and can then speak to a Canadian Forces recruiter for more information.10 The second program is offered by provincial governments. For example, the Government of Ontario provides incentives for doctors who practice in underserviced or Northern regions.11 By providing grants, the Ontario government will essentially finance part of your educational costs if you are willing to serve in a region of their choosing. After your period of service is complete, you are free to work wherever you choose.

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Residency After graduating from medical school, your training is not entirely completed. Following your last exam at your institution, those who study in Ontario must then obtain a Postgraduate Education Certificate from the College of Physicians and Surgeons of Ontario, which permits one to practice as a resident. Upon receiving this certificate, one is eligible to enter residency training to become a family physician (CFPC) or specialize in another area (RCPSC).1 This process differs between provinces, territories and their respective universities across Canada.

Residency is the postgraduate training program which prepares physicians for independent practice.

Upon completion of residency, graduates are eligible to take a certified examination in Family Medicine (certification given by the College of Family Physicians of Canada upon receiving a passing grade in the College certification examination) or in a specialty examination of the Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada (upon receiving a passing grade in the specialty-specific certification examination).1 Almost all residencies in Canada are assigned by the Canadian Residency Matching Service (CaRMS).

CaRMS is a centralization service that coordinates residency throughout all medical schools in Canada.

Applicants apply in their final year of medical school.2 All Canadian medical school graduates are already registered with CaRMS and are e-mailed their login information. Once matched to a program, you are legally obligated to attend since the match functions as a binding contract. The matching process consists of two iterations or matching sessions, where the second round is a match for positions that remain unfilled after the first session.2 Applicants are required to fill out an application form, submit all mandatory documents (such as a transcript, medical school performance record, letters of reference etc.), select specific programs to apply to, assign various documents and rank programs in a rank order list.3 A computer program then matches the applicants to their residencies. Visit the CaRMS website for additional information on the application process.2 Residency itself can often be challenging for new doctors, due to the many stressful situations and long hours. Be prepared to spend many nights sleeping at the hospital, being roused from your bed to deal with emergencies as they arise, and understand that residents may have “on call” shifts where you can go home but need to return to the hospital immediately when called.

References 1. Medical Council of Canada. Educational Commission for Foreign Medical Graduates (ECFMG) | Medical Council of Canada | Le Conseil médical du Canada [Internet]. Available from: 2. Canadian Resident Matching Service. About CaRMS [Internet]. Available from: http://www. carms.ca/eng/index.shtml 3. Canadian Resident Matching Service. R-1 Main Residency Match | CaRMS [Internet]. Available from: https://www.carms.ca/en/r-1-main-residency

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Specialties & Specializations When thinking of specialization, graduates of the MD program have many options available to them.1 A new doctor may choose from any number of immediate residencies following graduation, and his or her specialization may continue for years before they reach their terminal field.

On the next page is a comparison of some major specialties in terms of expected hours per week, followed by a chart listing the residency specializations. The chart does not reflect all the possible postgraduate avenues available, but as many as possible have been listed in the “subspecialties” field. All these postgraduate programs have further areas of specialization, which have not been included here.

Salaries are very approximate, and come from little data that has been published.2,3 Location, private-sector or academic work, and other factors can influence these figures greatly.

Additionally, some specialties are not administered through CaRMS, especially some surgical specialties such as vascular surgery. An important update is that CaRMS currently administers the medical subspecialty match to programs like nephrology, as it was not implemented a few years before.† For further information on these specialties, visit a teaching hospital’s website.

References 1. Royal College of Physicians and Surgeons of Canada. Information by Discipline [Internet]. Available from: http://www.royalcollege.ca/rc/faces/oracle/webcenter/portalapp/pages/ibd.jspx?lang=en&_afrLoop=2919947881308346&_afrWindowMode=0&_afrWindowId=null 2. Studentdoc. Physician Salaries - Salary Survey Results [Internet]. Studentdoc.com. Available from: http://www.studentdoc.com/salaries.html 3. Canadian Medical Association. Average payment per physician report, fee-for-service physicians in Canada, 2004- 2005 [Internet]. Available from: https://secure.cihi.ca/free_products/app_average_pay- ment_per_physician_report_2004_e.pdf †Fernando E, Kennedy M. University of Toronto. eshan.fernando@utoronto.ca, matt.kennedy@utoronto.ca

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

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Post-Graduate Medicine Specialties Chart

References 1.Canadian Medical Association - Specialities [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cma.ca/En/Pages/specialty-profiles.aspx 2. Salary.com [internet]. Available from: https://www1.salary.com/Physician-Pathology-Salary.html 3. Efstratiadis, G et al. Interventional nephrology: A new subspecialty of nephrology. Hippokratia. 2007 Jan.; 11(1): 22-24.

4. Health Communities. What is a nephrologist? [Internet]. Available from: http://www.healthcommunities.com/kidney-stones/what-is-a-nephrologist.shtml 5. BMJ Careers. A career in neurosurgery [Internet]. Available from: http://careers.bmj.com/careers/advice/view-article.html?id=20000117 6. Canadian Association of Neuropathologists. What is neuropathology? [Internet]. Available from: http://www.canp.ca/WhatisNP.html 7. University of Utah Health Centre. Otolaryngology—ENT [Internet]. Available from: http://healthcare.utah.edu/healthlibrary/related/doc.php?type=85&id=P00462 8. Spineuniverise. Physiatrist education and training [Internet]. Available from: http://www.spineuniverse.com/treatments/physiatrist-education-training 9. American Board of Urology. Subspecialty certification [Internet]. Available from: http://www.abu.org/subspecialtyCertification.aspx 10. BMJ. Introduction to urology [Internet]. Available from: http://www.bmj.com/content/312/7031/623 11. The Canadian Resident Matching Service: 2018 R-1 Match First Iteration; Table 27: Match Results of CMGs by School of Residency & Discipline. [Internet]. Available from: https://www.carms.ca/data-reports/r1-data-reports/

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Alternatives to Clinical Medicine People enter medicine for many reasons, and everyone has different goals and aspirations to achieve by being a physician. Academia and medical research are two popular choices among others, but people with medical degrees can end up working in environments very different from the traditional physician’s workplace in a clinic.

If you are becoming a physician in order to enter academic medicine and teach medicine, you may consider the combined MD/PhD programs. The length of the programs depends on the quality and intensity of your PhD research, but the programs usually require 7 years in total. Remember that medical school professors, just like the ones you encountered during your undergraduate years, are in a competitive field. They usually need a terminal degree in their field (a PhD) in addition to expertise in the application of their discipline, as well as good teaching skills. Academic medicine provides doctors with a chance to practice medicine while pursuing their teaching career and research. However, people in academia earn significantly less than their clinician counterparts.

Medical research often takes place in academia, with most teaching hospitals having strong research departments. If you truly wish to avoid clinical practice altogether, going into industry will provide a number of avenues for applying the skills you learned in medical school. The pharmaceutical, biotechnology, and other industries all have openings for people with medical degrees but may also require training from additional graduate studies. If pure research excites you, consider pursuing a graduate degree in a discipline more closely related to your area of interest. For example, a degree in Biopharmacology may serve you better than a medical degree if you want to be a research scientist in the pharmaceutical industry.

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MD/PhD Programs

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MD/PhD Programs

*Refer to Appendix for school specific contact information.

References 1.The University of British Columbia. MD/PhD Program [Internet]. Available from: http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/mdphd/ 2.McGill University. MD/PhD Program Overview [Internet]. Available from: http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/mdphd/ 3.McMaster University. MD/PhD program [Internet]. Available from: http://www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/mdphd/ 4.University of Ottawa. Combined program for Degrees in Medicine and Philosophy (MD/PhD) [Internet]. Available from: http://www.med.uottawa.ca/md-phd/eng/index.html 5.University of Toronto. MD/PhD Program [Internet]. Available from: http://mdphd.utoronto.ca/ 6. Western University. MD/PhD Program [Internet]. Available from: http://www.schulich.uwo.ca/medicine/md_phd/

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Contacts

McGill University (MD/PhD) http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/mdphd/ (514) 398-1603

McMaster University (MD/PhD) www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/mdphd/index.html (905) 525-9140 ext. 22982

Ottawa University (MD/PhD) www.med.uottawa.ca/md-phd/eng (613) 562-5800 ext. 8344

University of British Columbia (MD/PhD) http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/mdphd/ (604) 822-7198

University of Toronto (MD/PhD) http://mdphd.utoronto.ca/ (416) 978-3277

Western University (MD/PhD) www.schulich.uwo.ca/medicine/md_phd (519) 661-2111 ext. 87908

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DENTISTRY This section of the publication is dedicated to providing information on the process of admission to dental schools, the Dental Admission Test (DAT), and the general requirements for each of the Canadian dental schools. Similar to the information provided in the Medicine segment of this journal, all the information pertaining to dentistry presented here has been professionally written and very recently updated. However, such information can be subject to change. Therefore, interested candidates should also research relevant materials online.

How Do You Fit into the Field of Dentistry?

Dentistry is a profession dealing with the prevention, diagnosis, and treatment of oral diseases and disorders, with a primary emphasis on the health of teeth and gums. The dental profession provides people of talent and dedication with an opportunity for a lifetime of personal satisfaction. Some of the positive aspects of this profession are that it: Provides a strong sense of satisfaction derived from the knowledge that one is contributing to the physical well-being of patients Provides a personal feeling of achievement that comes from the successful application of one’s judgmental and manual skills in resolving problems Provides an opportunity for group leadership and management as the head of a dental care team, making use of one’s managerial and organizational skills If the following aspects of dentistry listed above appeal to your interest and fit your ideal description of a career, then this profession may be the right choice for you!

Canadian Dental Schools Presented below is a chart with the undergraduate dental programs that are offered at English-speaking universities. Laval and Montréal also offer dental programs, but since these Universities only offer the programs in French, they are restricted to French-speaking applicants. To facilitate further investigation of these universities, links to each of the their websites are located at the back of this publication.

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Canadian Dental Schools Summary Chart

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DAT: Dental Aptitude Test The DAT is the main instrument used to evaluate the capabilities of all applicants from various universities. Unlike the MCAT, Canada and the United States offer a separate DAT that varies in both the format and the tested materials.

1.1 The Canadian Dental Aptitude Test contains four sections: Manual Dexterity Test: Requires the carving of a specific model from a bar of soap. The University of British Columbia, Western University, the University of Saskatchewan, Dalhousie University, University of Toronto, and McGill University do not require a score from the manual dexterity test.1 Survey of Natural Sciences: Multiple choice questions on Biology and General Chemistry.1 The section on biology spans a knowledge base that is similar in content to first-year biology courses. An understanding of human anatomy and physiology is also required.1 The section on general chemistry spans a knowledge base that is similar in content to first-year chemistry courses. No knowledge of organic chemistry is necessary.1 Perceptual Ability Test: Various multiple-choice questions that test perceptual skills, such as angle discrimination and form development.1 This section consists of six subtests: apertures, view recognition, angle discrimination, paper folding, cube counting, and 3D form development.

Reading Comprehension Test: Requires the analysis (through answering multiple-choice questions) of 3 scientific passages that are similar in content to those encountered in the first year of dental school. No prior understanding of the material is required, but an understanding of the natural sciences is necessary.1

The overall scoring range is from 1 to 30 for each section. The scoring system is not based on the number of correct/incorrect answers, but instead reflects a standardized ranking based on your standing compared to others who wrote the test. A score of 15 equates to the national average performance.1

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The Canadian DAT is held twice every year, once in February and then again in November.1 To be considered a valid applicant for the current application year, the DAT must be written by the November test date.1 For example, if you are attending the fourth year of your undergraduate studies in the 2021/2022 school year and wish to apply to dentistry for the 2022/2023 school year, the November 2019 test is the last valid test you can take. Taking the February 2021 test date would instead make you a valid applicant for the 2021/2022 school year. Another point to note is that test scores are often only valid for a certain period of time. For example, the University of Toronto does not accept tests taken more than two years prior to the application deadline.1 The Canadian DAT costs $365 ($295 for the written portion, and $70 for the optional manual dexterity test).1 This fee includes registration costs and 5 official transcripts that will be mailed directly to the dental schools. These five dental schools must be selected at the time of registration.1 The American Dental Aptitude Test is fairly similar to its Canadian counterpart, the main differences being: An additional quantitative reasoning section (40 questions, 45 minutes) that deals with basic mathematical problems.2 No Manual Dexterity Test.2 30 questions within the Survey of Natural Sciences that pertain to Organic Chemistry.2 The Canadian DAT does not contain organic chemistry.1 The national average of the American DAT is standardized to a score of 17.2 The national average of the Canadian DAT is standardized to a score of 15.1 Across the 4 sections, the American DAT spans 255 minutes.2 The Canadian DAT spans 200 minutes.1 The American DAT is computerized 2 whereas the Canadian DAT is written.1 Thus, the American DAT is offered year-round, while the Canadian DAT is only offered twice a year.

Many Canadian schools do not accept the American DAT and some American schools do not accept the Canadian DAT2; this depends on the school itself.

Dental Schools in Ontario In Ontario, the only universities that offer a Doctor of Dental Surgery Program (DDS) are the University of Toronto and Western University. No centralized application center (such as OM- SAS for medical schools) is available, and thus applicants must obtain individual application forms for both universities by either contacting the universities or accessing the form electronically through the universities’ websites.

Although all dental schools use the same sources (DAT, academic scores, interviews) to evaluate all applicants, each university weighs each component differently. The following is a description of the DDS programs at the University of Toronto and Western University.

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DENTISTRY

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

Background The dental program at the University of Toronto is as prestigious as its medical program. Annually, the University of Toronto has more applicants than any other dental school in Canada. The University of Toronto’s recruitment program includes consideration of academic achievement, DAT scores and an interview section. Applicants must have completed at least 3 years in a university program by the year of entry. If the applicant has completed 4 or more years of university education by May 31st of the year of entry, the worst academic year will be excluded from the calculation of the applicant’s cumulative GPA provided that it is not in the applicant’s most recently completed year of study.

GPA For entry in the 2020/2021 year, the University of Toronto had set a minimum GPA at 3.0, but generally, applicants who were invited for an interview had a GPA of at least 3.85. Please note that scores from the academic year in which you are applying for the dental program will not be included in the calculation of your cumulative GPA. Any offer of admission is contingent upon maintaining at least a 3.0 GPA average. Concerning the DAT, all sections of the test must be completed except Manual Dexterity. The academic average score and the perceptual ability test score are used for admission.

Out of an applicant pool that ranges from 400 to 500 applicants, 200 are invited for an interview.

Applicants to the University of Toronto require one year (or two semesters) of general biochemistry, one year of general mammalian physiology, two additional years of any life sciences courses and one year of humanities and/or social science. The application deadline for each year is December 1st.

Tuition Once admitted into the University of Toronto, entrants can expect total annual fees around $39,240 (overall total may vary from year to year). This value includes tuition, non-academic incidental fees and dental instruments. Books, supplies and accommodation are not included in this value. As for OOP students, requirements and fees are identical to Ontario applicants provided the candidate is within

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DENTISTRY

UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO

domestic boundaries (Canada). However, international students are expected to provide their own source of funding for annual tuition fees, which are up to $86,760. For more information, please consult the UofT admission requirements for its dentistry program.

What to Expect Within the four-year program, students can expect to begin with a focus on the sciences and switch to a more clinical focus as the years progress.

In the first year of studies, the foundations of clinical dentistry are introduced and laid out, with a focus on biomaterials and the fundamentals of restorative dentistry.

The second year focuses on combined teaching in the practical arts of dentistry, including a greater emphasis on dental disease and its treatment.

Clinical study begins in the third year, as students begin to work with patients. By the end of the third year, the student is expected to be able to conduct basic procedures effortlessly.

Clinical study is continued in the fourth year, preparing the student for entry into the dental professions, such as general practitioners. Many students go into either public or private practice. A one-year dental residency is offered where residents work with supervisors in a hospital setting if students wish to gain more clinical experience. Students can also go on to graduate specialty programs such as dental anesthesia and endodontics, or while also pursuing graduate research programs in the field of dentistry.

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DENTISTRY

WESTERN UNIVERSITY

Background The Western University’s recruitment program includes consideration of academic achievement (given a 60% weight), DAT scores (15% weight) and an interview section (25% weight). Successful completion of a 4-year undergraduate degree is required for admission, though applicants can apply in the final year of their undergraduate degree. Applicants should generally have achieved at least 80% or higher in at least two of their undergraduate years. Other years will only be judged for consistency in scoring. Applicants with an “Honours” undergraduate degree as well as those with a graduate degree may be favored in the selection process; however, having such degrees does not compensate for grades that are not competitive.4

Requirements Students need a variety of undergraduate courses that provide a scientific background necessary for the study of dentistry. While a full year of physics, biology, and general chemistry is heavily recommended, the three courses that are mandatory for all applicants include: half a year of biochemistry half a year of organic chemistry full year of physiology.4 Please check that your courses are equivalent to Western dentistry’s requirements on their website.

Spring/Summer courses can be used to fulfill prerequisites, however, they will not be considered as part of one’s academic average.

Only DATs taken within two years prior to the December 1 application deadline are considered.4 The last test written in the eligible time period is considered for application. To fulfill Schulich Dentistry admission requirements, students must have the reading comprehension section completed, as it will be used to determine interview invites. The Reading Comprehension, Biology and Chemistry sections of the DAT test are incorporated for the final selection of successful interviewees.

Applicants must submit to OUAC a completed online application form (link to the form is found on Schulich Dentistry admissions page in early October) for a processing fee of $275. The applications do not require a reference letter or personal statements. The application dead-line for each year is December 1st.4

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DENTISTRY

WESTERN UNIVERSITY GPA Of all the applicants that were admitted in the 2019/2020 year, there were 56 spots reserved for Canadian applicants (0 spots for international applicants) out of a total applicant pool of 536 students.

Students should aim to achieve an average grade of 80% or higher to be considered competitive for interviews. The average percentage grade for the best two years of an admitted applicant was 88.41%.

Generally, a minimum score of 18 is required for both the reading comprehension portion and the academic average of the DAT. The average of the accepted applicant has a score of 21 in Reading Comprehension and 20 in Academic Average.4 Once admitted into Western University, entrants in the 2016/2017 year paid $35,619 for the first year of their education. This value included tuition as well as dental instruments.

What to Expect Within the four-year program, students will be exposed to a pre-clinical simulation clinic as early as first year. This simulated clinical setting allows students to conduct dental procedures within an environment that mirrors the actual clinical experience. The program shifts from an academic to a clinical focus and is primarily clinical by the third year of education.4 The requirements for OOP (out-of-province) students interested in applying to Western University’s Dentistry program are very much identical to the ones for Ontario applicants. As for international students, it is required that such candidates complete an English language proficiency test by March for entry in September. For more specific admission requirements, please consult the Schulich School of Dentistry webpage.

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Financing When you have been accepted into a dental school, the next challenge will involve finding ways to pay tuition for the next four years. The Ontario Student Assistance Program (OSAP) is the primary source of funding for Ontario residents seeking financial aid. The process of the OSAP application is identical to the one provided to university students declaring financial need. However, because of the great expense of a dental education, OSAP allowance for dental students is the highest the Ontario government will issue to students.5 Financial Assistance Programs at various universities (such as scholarships, bursaries etc.) are also other sources of tuition for dental students.5 Students who do not qualify for Ontario residency (i.e., Out-of-province students) would need to apply for government student financial assistance from their home province. However, University of Toronto is an exception as it offers a UTAPS (University of Toronto Advance Planning for Students) program for non-Ontario students to apply for financial assistance.5

Dental Schools Outside of Canada It is often that many Canadian applicants seek dental schools in the United States as their alternative choice due to the fact that there are only a small number of dental schools that are available in Ontario, and Canada for that matter. Common American dental schools considered by Canadians include Boston University, New York University and the University of Pittsburgh amongst others. The admission process in American dental schools is similar to Canadian dental schools in that the DAT is required by most dental educational institutions. Although a majority of these schools consider the Canadian DAT to be an equivalent to the American DAT, a few select ones in the U.S. only accept the American DAT version and do not consider the completion of the Canadian DAT as a fulfilled requirement. Such schools include Western University of Health Sciences in Pomona, California and the University of California, Los Angeles.

The competition among non-U.S. applicants to any of the dental schools in the United States is quite high.

Many foreign applicants who are accepted into U.S. dental schools have obtained superior scores in all components compared to U.S applicants.

The application process for U.S. dental schools is centralized through the Associated American Dental Schools Application Service, which will distribute the submitted applications to their respective universities.

There are two application formats available; online or paper application. The paper application can be downloaded from the American Dental Education Association website. The online application provides each applicant with a user account to submit all necessary information.

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Dental Specialties With advances in a variety of dental techniques and with the current focus on preventive and restorative dentistry, the need for special expertise in the various branches of dentistry has significantly increased.

These dentists have had one to four years of additional training after dental school, during which time their diagnostic and operative skills were further developed to achieve a superior degree of competence. The following is a list of the roles of some of the most common specialties in dentistry.

6.1 Orthodontics and Dentofacial Orthopedics This specialty is concerned with correcting irregular and abnormal dental development. The goal of Orthodontics is not only to improve appearance, but also to correct the functioning of the teeth by altering the patient’s bite. Correcting a bad bite or malocclusion will prevent eventual loosening or even loss of teeth, in addition to having a positive cosmetic effect. Since teeth are moved to improper positions by forces that are out of balance in the mouth, they can be moved back by opposing forces. This is done by the use of various fixed orthodontic appliances such as metal braces, rubber bands, or plastic brackets.

6.2 Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Oral surgeons use surgical procedures to deal with defects and diseases of the entire maxillofacial region – the middle and lower face. Their work encompasses the jaws, cheekbones, and other skeletal elements and their surrounding structures. In addition, the oral surgeon diagnosis and treat injuries, deformities, and growths in and around the jaw. Another common surgical procedure frequently performed by these specialists is an apicoectomy, or the surgical removal of a tooth’s root tip. Re-implanting teeth knocked out in an accident and treating simple or compound jaw fractures are types of traumatic injury treatments requiring an oral surgeon’s skills.

6.3 Periodontics This specialization is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of diseases affecting the periodontal tissues that support the teeth; the gum, periodontal membrane, and surrounding bone. These diseases are very insidious and become increasingly prevalent with age. Periodontal diseases are diagnosed by several procedures: probing the depth of the space around a tooth, comparing bone level as reflected in X-rays, and examining for tooth mobility. In severe cases, surgical intervention to expose teeth, or even bone grafting, may be necessary. Various splinting techniques that join loose teeth to firm ones are also utilized.

6.4 Paedodontics/Pediatric Dentistry8 This specialty is concerned with the treatment of children, adolescents, and young adults exclusively, similar to pediatricians in the medical field. The role of the paedodontist is to establish in the child, a positive attitude towards dentistry and a disposition to develop good oral hygiene habits.

6.5 Other Specialties to Explore Include: Dental Public Health Endodontics Oral Medicine and Pathology

Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology Prosthodontics

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Alternatives to Dental Surgery A Doctor of Dental Surgery degree requires a lengthy time commitment for training. However, if one is still interested in working within the dental field, the following are descriptions of some of the alternative careers that are available. Most of these alternatives require a college degree in the discipline. Links to trade schools are provided in the Appendix.

7.1 Dental Laboratory Technician The dental laboratory technician takes on significant responsibility as a member of the dental health care team. Dental technicians make dental prostheses – replacements for natural teeth to help people who have lost some or all of their teeth. Qualified technicians develop skills in using small hand instruments, accuracy, artistic ability and attention to minute detail. Although the career of dental lab technicians offers a wide range of challenges and these individuals are valuable members of the dental care team, they seldom work directly with patients. The majority of their time is dedicated into working with dentists by following detailed written instructions and using impressions of the patient’s teeth or oral soft tissues to create: full dentures for patients, removable partial dentures, or crowns – which are caps for teeth that are designed to restore their original size and shape. Also, technicians also fabricate veneers that enhance the aesthetics and function of the patient, as well as orthodontic appliances and splints to help straighten and protect teeth.

The average salary of a dental laboratory technician is $38,443, with up to four years spent in school, depending on the level of training one wishes to receive.

7.2 Dental Assistant The role of a dental assistant is to greatly increase the efficiency of the dentist in the delivery of quality oral health care. This occupation is suitable for those who have strong communication skills, enjoy challenges, and have great organizational skills. The duties of a dental assistant are numerous. Many of the tasks require both interpersonal and technical skills. A dental assistant’s duties include: assisting the dentist during a variety of treatment procedures, developing dental radiographs and taking impressions of patients’ teeth for study casts.

The average salary of a dental assistant is $36,459, with one to two years spent in school.

7.3 Dental Hygienist The Dental Hygienist is a person who instructs and performs dental procedures on patients to prevent oral disease and to maintain oral health. Depending on regulations imposed by the government, the responsibilities and services performed by one hygienist may differ from one place to another. Some general duties of a hygienist include: the assessment of oral health conditions, removing plaque/calculus from surfaces of the teeth, applying preventive materials to teeth, and teaching patients appropriate oral hygiene strategies to maintain oral health.

The average salary of a dental hygienist is $72,049, with two to six years spent in school.

References 1. The Canadian Dental Association. Dental Aptitude Test Program [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cda-adc.ca/en/becoming/dat/information/ 2. American Dental Association. Dental Admission Test (DAT) 2015 Program Guide [Internet]. Available from: http://www.ada.org/~/media/ADA/Education%20and%20Careers/Files/dat_examinee_guide.ashx 3. University of Toronto, Faculty of Dentistry. Doctor of Dental Surgery Program [Internet]. Available from: http://www.dentistry.utoronto.ca/system/files/dds_guidelines_2015.pdf 4. Schulich School of Medicine and Dentistry. Dentistry [Internet]. Available from: http://www. schulich.uwo.ca/dentistry/future_students/doctor_of_dental_surgery_dds/admission_requirements/admissions_over- view.html 5. Ontario Ministry of Training, Colleges, and Universities. OSAP Aid Programs [Internet]. Available from: www.osap.gov.on.ca/OSAPPortal/en/A-ZListofAid/index.htm 6. University of Toronto. University of Toronto Advance Planning for Students (UTAPS) [Internet]. Available from: http://www.adm.utoronto.ca/financial-aid/u-of-t-advance-planning-for-students-utaps/ 7. American Dental Education Association. ADEA AADSAS applicants [Internet]. Available from: http://www.adea.org/dental_education_pathways/aadsas/Applicants/Pages/default.aspx 8. The Canadian Dental Association. Dental Specialties [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cda-adc.ca/en/becoming/becoming/specialties 9. Payscale. Dental Hygienist Salary [Internet]. Available from: https://www.payscale.com/research/CA/Job=Dental_Hygienist/Hourly_Rate

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OPTOMETRY As the Canadian population ages, optometry is a field with promising employment prospects, in spite of labor shortages elsewhere. Optometrists are licensed health professionals who examine, diagnose, treat and/or prevent diseases and disorders of the human visual system.1 Becoming an optometrist requires 7 to 8 years of post-secondary education. This includes a minimum of 3 years of undergraduate studies and a 4 to 5-year optometry program. Commonly, students pursue an additional year of residency training following the completion of the Doctor of Optometry (OD) program.1 There are 22 schools of optometry accredited and recognized by the Canadian Association of Optometrists, two of which are located in Canada and 20 in the United States.2 The University of Waterloo (Waterloo, Ontario) and the University of Montreal (Montreal, Quebec) are the two Canadian schools that offer an optometry program. The information in this section will focus on the program at the University of Waterloo, as the language of instruction is English. Students who are interested in the University of Montreal are encouraged to visit the program’s website (refer to the Appendix at the end of this article).

The Optometry Admissions Test (OAT) The Optometry Admissions Test (OAT) is sponsored by the Association of Schools and Colleges of Optometry (ASCO). It is a standardized examination aimed to test applicants’ academic knowledge. The OAT may be taken numerous times. However, applicants must wait at least 90 days before taking the next OAT. Note that the total number of attempts and the four most recent scores are reported to optometry schools.

The OAT consists of the following sections: Survey of the Natural Sciences: Testing materials is limited to the areas covered by an entire first year course in biology, general chemistry, and organic chemistry. There are 40 biology questions, 30 general chemistry questions, and 30 organic chemistry questions. The duration of this portion of the test is 90 minutes.

Reading Comprehension Test: This section contains three passages and a total of 40 questions that are related to the passages. The level of material is similar to that encountered in the first year of optometry school. Applicants have 50 minutes to complete this section.

Physics Test: The content of this section is limited to the areas covered in a two-semester physics course. Applicants need to complete 40 questions within 50 minutes.

Quantitative Reasoning Test: This section measures applicants’ abilities to work with numbers, quantitative materials, and numerical relationships. A total of 45 minute are given to complete 40 questions in this section. However, calculators are not permitted.

The entire OAT takes 4 hours and 40 minutes, which includes an optional tutorial, break, and posttest surve.4 For further information on the standard score calculation, please refer to the OAT sample test link provided below in the Appendix.

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OPTOMETRY

UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE Background The University of Waterloo’s School of Optometry and Vision Science offers a 4-year Doctor of Optometry (OD) program using English as the instructional language. Before applying, all applicants must have completed at least three years of full-time (five courses per four-month term) Bachelor of Science studies from any recognized university. Students in other programs who are interested in applying should directly contact the school to find out which credits could be used to fulfill the outlined requirements.

Requirements The required optometry prerequisite courses include: one term of English, Introductory Ethics, Introductory Psychology, Microbiology, General Chemistry (with lab), Biochemistry, Organic Chemistry, Calculus, and Statistics. As well, two terms of General Biology (with lab), Physiology, and Physics (with lab) are also required. More detailed information regarding course eligibility is provided on the Waterloo School of Optometry and Vision Science Website.

Furthermore, a minimum average of 75% (3.0 GPA on the OMSAS scale) is required to apply.

However, the actual averages of acceptance in recent years have ranged from 79% to 92% (3.3 to 4.0 GPA). The overall average calculation includes all courses that the applicants have taken in their three or four years of B.Sc. studies, including those taken in summer school (except for summer courses that are taken immediately prior to the application).

In addition to fulfilling all of the academic requirements, applicants should score a minimum of 300 on the Optometry Admissions Test (OAT). For applicants in 2021, the average OAT score was 383.

Applicants for September 2021 admission must have written the OAT anytime from August 31st, 2019 to October 15th, 2021.

As of September 2021, all applicants into the Optometry program in Waterloo would be required to complete an online assessment known as CASPer. CASPer stands for Computer Based Assessment for Sampling Personal Characteristics. It is a tool that is designed to evaluate personal and professional characteristics which would aid in the selection process for the Optometry program.

CASPer is also utilized in the application processes of Medical Schools and Nursing programs. Some schools that utilize this online tool include: Michael G. Degroot School of Medicine at McMaster University, University of Ottawa, New York Medical College and Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School.

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OPTOMETRY

UNIVERSITY OF WATERLOO OPTOMETRY AND VISION SCIENCE All applicants must complete an Admission Information Form (AIF) to the School of Optometry, along with supporting material.

The application contains the following four sections: Personal ID: Basic contact and citizenship information, etc.

Academic Record: A list of all prerequisite courses along with course information, year taken, grades, and course descriptions Autobiographic Sketch: A non-academic profile that details extracurricular activities, nonacademic awards, athletic involvement, hobbies and interests, work and volunteer experience, leadership, etc.

Confidential Assessment Forms: Two reference letters are required, one from an optometrist and the other from a character reference (for example, an employer or a professor) For a sample application form, please refer to the link in the Appendix.

Selected applicants will be invited for an interview with faculty members. The interview consists of multi mini interviews (MMIs) with faculty and members of the profession, a round table discussion with current students, as well as a tour of the facilities. Each year, the school selects 90 students from approximately 300 applicants.

The four-year OD program at Waterloo focuses on building students’ knowledge on the basic visual sciences, and training students in clinical settings. The fourth year of the program consists of three four-month terms. Two of these terms include rotations through clinics within the school, and a rotation in a private practice or in a vision care project situated in a developing country.3 Students spend a term outside of the university, typically in the US, during which they are exposed to ocular pharmaceutics and disease management.

After Graduation Graduates must pass the licensing board exams and jurisprudence exams before starting practices of their own. To practice in Canada, candidates must pass the Canadian Assessment of Competence in Optometry (CACO) exam and the jurisprudence exam for their geographic area of interest.2,4 Optometrists may have their own practices or involve in group practices. Specializations in areas such as pediatrics are also an option. Some optometry students continue their studies to obtain a MSc. or PhD degree. The employment rate upon graduation is about 100% within six months. The average practicing optometrist in Canada earns from $61,000 to $151,000, not including benefits.5

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OTHER

HEALTH-RELATED CAREERS We strive to respond to the feedback we receive and have created this following section to broaden our readers’ perspectives on health-related careers. Health care will always be a field that can be integrated with other existing and emerging fields, so we have tried to encompass broader categories of other health-related fields in the following section. You are also given the privilege as a reader to contact our research director and presidents for more information on the careers outlined in this section, or for ones not outlined. In addition, we highly recommend that you contact specific schools outlined for careers of your interest, because that will help you find out more details to give you better judgment on a career pursuit.

Biomedical Engineering

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1.1 Description Biomedical engineering focuses on improving patient care via new approaches that emphasize the integration and collaboration of traditional research areas. Whether it be the development of novel artificial organs, enhancing the design of current medical devices or introducing the latest 3D tissue printing technology, biomedical engineers are responsible for the innovations that play a vital role in today’s healthcare.

Biomedical Engineering is an interdisciplinary field that involves the application of engineering principles, design concepts, methods, physical sciences and mathematics to tackle problems in the medical and life sciences. By its nature, research is an important component to this discipline. Common research themes include neural and sensory systems, molecular imaging, nanotechnology, biomaterials, rehabilitation engineering, cellular and tissue engineering, re- generative medicine proteomics, and bioinformatics.

Biomedical engineers are able to conduct experimental, theoretical research, or a combination of both, along with additional opportunities that are present in hospitals. Students who are excited by interdisciplinary and collaborative research should strongly consider pursuing this path.

1.2 Expected Salary The current average salary of a biomedical engineer in Canada is $113,496, or $55/hr. Out of this average, 45% of those earning the average salary have a Bachelor’s degree. In addition to the average salary, on average, biomedical engineers receive a $3,835 annual bonus.

1.3 Academic/Application Requirements and Prerequisites The admission requirements and prerequisites vary across schools, considering that students interested in this field can either apply to the aforementioned colleges or universities on the previous page. Hence, it is strongly recommended that interested students continue to research the institution of choice regarding their biomedical engineering program.

For quick reference, the entrance requirements for McMaster University and the University of Toronto will be examined. Students with completion of a four-year undergraduate degree in either engineering/physical sciences or health/life science backgrounds are invited to apply for both of these graduate programs.

Students will receive a Master of Applied Sciences (MASc), but can continue to pursue a Doctor of Philosophy degree (PhD). With regards to academic requirements, McMaster University requires a minimum average of B+ (77%) for the final two years of undergraduate studies whereas the University of Toronto requires an A- average.6,7 It should be noted that satisfying minimum requirements does not necessarily guarantee admission due to the prevalent competition for entry to these programs.

There are three academic terms at McMaster University, and each term has a different dead- line for applications. However, for the University of Toronto, all applications for both MSc and PhD are due in February. The application checklist for McMaster includes: an online application to the School of Graduate studies, certified copy of transcript, English language proficiency certification, 1-2 pages statement of interest, area of interest form, resume, application fee, and two confidential letters of recommendation. For students that have completed post- secondary education at a North American University, the English

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language proficiency requirement is waived. Application requirements for McMaster can be viewed here: https://www.eng.mcmaster.ca/msbe/programs/degree-options/masc/biomedical-engineering#admissionrequirements.8

1.4 Standardized Testing The University of Toronto and McMaster University do not require the GRE (Graduate Record Examination) results for Canadian applicants. However, international students require successful completion of the English Facility Test to demonstrate the linguistic competency required for these competitive programs.

As several schools do not require the GRE for Canadian applicants, it is important to determine whether or not it will be in your best interest to complete it. For McMaster University and the University of Toronto, the minimum English proficiency requirements for candidates are shown below:

The University of Toronto will also accept test scores from COPE (the Certification of Proficiency in English), the Academic Preparation Course, and the Graduate International Foundation Program (Grad IFP).

For required scores and more information on these tests, refer to https://www.future.utoronto.ca/apply/english-language-requirements.

Please note once again: Students who have completed post-secondary education at a North American university will have these requirements waived upon receiving their official transcripts.8

1.4 Non-academic Requirements Non-academic requirements vary between schools. It is strongly encouraged to contact individual schools prior to and during application season to ensure all criteria are met.

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Chiropractic Canadian Chiropractic Schools 1-3 Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College (CMCC) in Toronto (English) Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières (UQTR) in Trois-Rivières (French only)

2.1 Description Chiropractic is an alternative medicine and health care profession that focuses its approach on the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of neuromusculoskeletal disorders, and their effects. There are only two schools that offer chiropractic degrees (DC or Doctor of Chiropractic) in Canada: CMCC (Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College) and UQTR (Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières). The CMCC receives around 750 applications each year and admits 200 students. Applications are completed directly though the CMCC website at www.cmcc.ca. Applications are due every year on November 15.

The UQTR accepts 47 students each year. However, only five of those spots are reserved for francophone applicants from outside of Quebec (N.B. UQTR only offers this program in French). For more information on their application process and requirements, visit the UQTR website at www.uqtr.ca.

2.2 Admission Requirements In order to be considered for an interview at the CMCC, applicants must have completed three full years of study in any university program, with a cumulative GPA of 2.50 on a 4.00 scale. If one or more courses have been repeated, all grades are included in the GPA calculation. Although there are no prerequisite courses, it is highly recommended that applicants have a science degree-based background and have taken courses such as organic chemistry, organic biology, introductory psychology, as well as courses in humanities and/or social sciences. If planning on applying this year, note that all academic requirements must be completed no later than May 31 of the year of registration at CMCC. The UQTR requires that applicants complete courses in: Biology, Chemistry, Mathematics, and Physics.

For more details about equivalent courses at other institutions and specific course prerequisites, contact the university’s registrar’s office at (819) 376-5011 or 1-800-365-0922.

2.3 Non-academic Requirements The CMCC will offer interviews to applicants who meet the minimum required GPA. Applicants are recommended to have relevant experience in the field; this may include volunteering or job shadowing. The personal interview lasts approximately 20-30 minutes and assesses aspects such as the candidate’s motivation, problem-solving ability and past chiropractic experience.

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2.4 Curriculum In the CMCC, students partake in a four-year program: the first two years focusing on fundamentals in the basic sciences and chiropractic diagnosis. Some of the areas that are explored include: anatomy, biochemistry, clinical diagnosis, physiology, neurology, embryology, radiology, immunology, microbiology, pathology and nutrition. Beginning in Year III, implementation of case-based material along with focus on diagnostic imaging provide students the tools to prepare as a student intern in their final year, where they take part in two six-month internships under the supervision of clinical faculty.

The UQTR program is five years in length. During these five years, students learn about diagnosis, therapeutic approaches, and various treatment executions. In total, students spend at least 2,382 hours learning theory, and 2,587 hours in clinical practice.

2.5 Tuition For the CMCC, the total tuition for four years is estimated to be $107,162 for Canadian students and $130,130 for International students. Books and supplies are estimated to cost $3,000 and annual living expenses may total up to $12,000. For more specific information regarding tuition, please refer to the website for your school of interest (e.g. www.cmcc.ca orwww.uqtr.ca).

2.6 Similar Careers Students interested in this profession may also consider athletic trainers, massage therapists, occupational therapists, physical therapists, physicians and surgeons, podiatrists, and veterinarians.

2.7 After Graduation In order to become a certified chiropractor, students must pass the Canadian Chiropractic Examining Board (CCEB) examinations to be qualified to practice in this field. The applicant must also apply to the regulatory boards in his or her specific province and provide letters of reference. Successful completion of the legislation and ethics exam is also required, along with criminal screening and an interview.

2.8 Expected Salary Salary for chiropractors is expected to be around $41,001 to $127,266 annually, depending on factors such as experience, location, qualifications and personal characteristics.

References 1.The Canadian Federation of Chiropractic Regulatory and Educational Accrediting Boards. Becoming a chiropractor [Online]. Available from: http://www.chirofed.ca/english/becoming.html 2. Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College. Undergraduate admissions [Online]. Available from: http://www.cmcc.ca/page.aspx?pid=348 3. Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières. Doctorat de premier cycle en chiropratique [Online]. Available from: http://oraprdnt.uqtr.uquebec.ca/pls/public/pgmw001?owa_cd_pgm=7025 4. Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College. Undergraduate Education [Online]. Available from: http://www.cmcc.ca/page.aspx?pid=291 5.U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. Occupational Outlook Handbook, Chiropractors [Online]. Available from: http://www.bls.gov/ooh/healthcare/chiropractors.htm 6. PayScale Canada. Chiropractor salary [Online]. Available from: https://www.payscale.com/research/CA/Job=Chiropractor/Salary 7. Canadian Memorial Chiropratic College. Academic Calendar 2018-2019. Available from: http://cmcc.ca/document.doc?id=1756

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Dieticians 3.1 Description Registered dietitians are professionals who utilize science to help others make healthy choices regarding food, diet, and nutrition. Not only can they be nutrition specialists in healthcare, but dietitians also provide their assistance as evaluators for their communities’ nutrition needs, managers of food service operations, and educators who train future healthcare professionals. Contrary to popular belief, registered dietitians are not the same as nutritionists. Dietitians are accredited by the Dietitians of Canada (DC), and their title is denoted by R.D., P.Dt., or D.Pt. Nutritionists, on the other hand, are not registered members of the profession; most provinces do not have regulatory standards in place for protection of their title.

3.2 Academic Requirements Prospective dietitians must have a four-year undergraduate degree either in food and nutrition, or alternate degrees that satisfy the academic criteria of the DC (Table 1). Dietitians take a variety of courses, ranging from nutritional sciences and food service, sciences and statistics, to social sciences and management. They ultimately apply all this knowledge in order to determine the most suitable nutritional plan for their clients. Dietitians must complete a practical component to become registered, either during or after completing their undergraduate degree. Post-degree practicum programs can be completed as a Master’s program, or as an internship through the DC. The type of undergraduate degree obtained determines the practical requirements required to become a registered dietitian (Figure 1). Please note that each institution follows either one of the three pathways shown in Figure 1. For example, all three institutions in Quebec follow Path A- Integrated Undergrad Program, hence the parentheses in Table 1.

Table 1: Schools that offer this degree and from a university certified by DC

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3.3 Standardized Testing In most provinces, the Canadian Dietetic Registration Exam (CRDE) must be taken after satisfying both academic and practical requirements in order to practice as a registered dietician. CRDE is a multiple-choice examination administered in May and November every year across Canada, focusing on particular skills that are applicable for dietetic practice. For ex- ample, the test assesses six categories of competencies: Professional Practice, Assessment, Planning, Implementation, Evaluation and Communication. Please note that each institution varies in its academic and practical requirements. Refer to the respective sites in Table 1 for specific information and further reference. Furthermore, sources 7 and 8 of this article provide clear information regarding the general curriculum of this profession along with strategies regarding preparation for the CRDE.

3.4 Expected Salary Generally, dietitians earn between $42,282 to $84,295 per year, with a reported average wage of $36.50 per hour ($71,165 annually). Exact income depends on experience level, type of employer, geographic location, and type of position (e.g. management).

3.5 After Graduation Due to the increasing awareness of the benefits of healthy eating in disease prevention, dietetics has become one of the fastest growing job sectors in Canada. Even before graduation, 43% of dietitians are employed and within 5 months, another 53% are employed. Dietitians work in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals, community health centers, schools, research facilities, fitness centers, government, media, and private practices. As per data from 2009, 61% of dietitians are employed within clinical settings, 24% regarding community dietetics and the remaining 15% in administrative dietetics, education or marketing.

Figure 1: Steps to Become a Registered Dietitian

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Naturopathy Schools Offering a Degree Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine (Toronto, Ontario) The Boucher Institute of Naturopathic Medicine (New Westminster, British Columbia)

4.1 Description Naturopathic medicine is a primary healthcare profession that blends modern scientific knowledge with traditional and natural forms of medicine. Naturopathic medicine focuses on overall health, wellness and disease prevention by stimulating the healing power of the body and treating the underlying causes of diseases.2 By considering various factors including: physiological, structural, psychological, social, spiritual, environmental and lifestyle, physicians aim to utilize the least invasive and toxic therapies to promote an individual’s inherent self-healing mechanisms.2,3 It encompasses the knowledge of multiple methodologies including acupuncture, homeopathy, herbal cures and sensible concepts such as nutrition, exercise and relaxation techniques.3 Therefore, it is important for prospective naturopaths to be critical thinkers, while demonstrating integrity, leadership, curiosity, motivation, concern for others, and a strong belief in the efficacy of natural medicine.3,4 For the entering class of 2021, the tuition for the Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine was $24,695.4 In order to become a naturopathic doctor, one needs to attend a four-year medical program accredited by the Council on Naturopathic Medical Education (CNME).1 Training includes: basic medical and clinical science; diagnostics; naturopathic principles and therapeutics; and a clinical internship under the supervision of a licensed professional in the final two years.1,3 Students graduating from naturopathic programs are then eligible to write the Naturopathic Physicians Licensing Examinations (NPLEX). Students must pass the NPLEX to obtain their license to practice as a general practice physician of naturopathic medicine. Canadian provinces that currently license naturopathic physicians include: British Columbia, Alberta, Manitoba, Saskatchewan, Ontario and Nova Scotia.1 Once licensed, naturopathic physicians may choose to work in a private practice or in integrative clinics as primary care physicians. They may also work as research scientists or faculty members in alternative medical institutions, in fields including but not limited to: natural pharmacy, wellness education, public health administration, research and development in the natural products industry, consultants to industries, insurance companies, public service, political organizations, and other organizations.3

4.2 Expected Salary An established Doctor of Naturopathic Medicine who runs or partners with a large, busy practice receives an average estimated net income of $80,000 to $90,000 per year – and may make upwards of $200,000. A naturopathic physician just starting up his or her practice, working part- time or building a staff, generally earns less than these averages in the early years of practice. Early residency positions reflect incomes between $20,000 and $30,000 per year. However, these figures vary greatly depending on several factors, including region and location, type of clientele serviced, fee schedules, business objectives and marketing plans, and willingness to work with insurance carriers.

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4.3 Academic Requirements Applicants must complete at least three years of a premedical undergraduate degree.

3.3 cumulative GPA on a four-point scale 2 semesters Biology* 2 semesters Physiology 1 semesters Biochemistry 2 semester Chemistry (1 semester General, 1 semester Organic) 1 semesters Psychology 2 semesters Humanities electives** *Biology requirement may be fulfilled either by 2 semesters (one full year) of general biology or 2 semesters of courses such as anatomy, botany, cell biology, genetics, microbiology, or zoology **Humanities requirement can only be satisfied if coursework includes an essay-writing component Note: Check with each school you are considering in order to ensure that all prerequisites are met.

In addition to the required coursework, it is recommended that one takes courses in: anatomy, environmental science, genetics, human physiology, microbiology, physics, sociology, statistics, math and English composition.

4.4 Non-academic Requirements Application form 2 letters of reference Autobiographical sketch Resume (including education, employment history, volunteer experience, awards) Personal Statement/ Essay Interview

4.5 Similar Careers Similar careers may include Acupuncturist, Natural health therapist, Chiropractor, Osteopath, Nutritionist, General practitioner, etc.

4.6 Additional Resources Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine. Admissions information [Internet]. Toronto ONtario, Canada: Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine. Available from: http://www.ccnm.edu/prospective_students/admissions_information Boucher Institute of Naturopathic Medicine – Admission Requirements and Prerequisites [On- line].

New Westminster, British Columbia, Canada: Boucher Institute of Naturopathic Medicine. Available from: http://www.binm.org/prospective-students/admissions/admissions-requirements-prerequisites

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Nursing 5.1 Description Nursing offers opportunities in a wide range of areas including health clinics, home care, community and global health, research, and medical and surgical hospital wards.2 Approved colleges of applied arts and technology offer two-year diplomas in practical nursing that pre- pare graduates for entry to practice as Registered Practical Nurses (RPNs). After receiving a diploma from an accredited institution, continued education may be acquired to obtain a full degree. For registration as a registered nurse (RN) with the College of Nurses of Ontario (CNO), a Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BScN) or its equivalent is required; such a degree can be completed at one of many universities in Canada.6 Degree programs are typically four years in duration. However, accelerated nursing programs that are shorter in duration exist for those meeting school-specific requirements through previous undergraduate study.

Nursing programs offer both classroom learning as well as practical experience. Often, students are placed in hospital settings to gain experience while still in their first year. Following graduation, over 95% of nurses find employment within six months, and nursing shortages ensure that the profession is in constant demand.

5.2 Advanced Practice Continued education after acquiring a BScN can lead to more highly-skilled, leadership- oriented, specialized careers in advanced practice nursing as a Clinical Nurse Specialist (CNS) or Nurse Practitioner (NP).

NPs are RNs who have a university degree in nursing and a Master’s Degree or Practitioner Certificate.

Their scope of practice is broader than that of an RN:NPs are qualified to diagnose medical problems, order treatments and diagnostic tests, prescribe medications, and make referrals for a wide range of acute and chronic medical conditions. They may work independently or under the supervision of a physician in a variety of settings including but not limited to primary health care (e.g., Doctor’s offices) and acute care settings (e.g., in hospitals under divisions of Pediatrics, Cardiology etc.).

A CNS is an RN holding a Master’s or Doctoral degree in nursing. They possess advanced knowledge and clinical expertise in a nursing specialty. These specialties may be defined by the population (e.g., geriatrics), setting (e.g., critical care), disease area (e.g., diabetes), type of care (e.g., rehabilitation), or the type of problem (e.g., wounds). Regardless of the area of specialization, CNSs work with nurses to advance their practice and improve patient outcomes. They also work to effect system-wide change through their roles in the developing clinical practice guidelines, protocols, and creating and refining programs of care.

Doctoral and post-doctoral prepared nurses conduct research to advance the knowledge and theoretical bases of nursing practice. They assume faculty positions in nursing education programs, provide professional leadership and influence nursing and health policy.

5.3 Expected Salary Registered Practical Nurse: RPNs are paid on an hourly basis with an average of $32.46 an hour.

RPNs working full-time earn an average of $63,305 annually

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Registered Nurse: $38,965 to $87,145 annually. Working overtime and being “on- call” can raise earnings to more than $85,000 annually Nurse Practitioner: $48,212 to $105,758 annually

5.4 Typical Prerequisites Students interested in applying to nursing programs must have a high school diploma, with completed senior year Sciences, English, and Math courses. Recommended sciences are Chemistry, Physics, and Biology. Typical cut-off average is 75%. Students interested in Nursing are encouraged to visit program websites for more detailed information.

5.6 Similar Careers Students interested in nursing may also look into the professions of Registered Nurse, Nurse Practitioner, Midwifery, Community Health Nurse, and Health Counsellor.

Occupational Therapy and Physical Therapy 6.1 Description In Canada, physical therapy is a recognized health profession rooted in the sciences of movement that aims to maintain, enhance, and restore the function of multiple body systems. Physical therapists or physiotherapists (PTs) operate as autonomous primary care professionals, acting as members and leaders of healthcare teams. As such, the work of a PT may involve clients of all ages in a variety of settings, primarily providing health services ranging from health promotion and prevention, to acute care, rehabilitation, and disability/disease management.

Occupational therapy focuses on enabling and increasing the participation of individuals in their daily life activities. Occupational therapists (OTs) use a systematic approach that involves assessing a client’s functional capacity in their activities (e.g. self-care, work, study, and leisure), implementing interventions to improve their function, and evaluating outcomes. The primary concern of an OT is the treatment and prevention of occupational dysfunction. However, OTs are also trained to assist individuals with mental illnesses and emotional problems, including stress.

The physical and physiological therapeutic interventions used by PTs and OTs differ, but preserved in each role is an approach to improve the quality of life through holistic intervention.

6.2 Expected Earnings Salaries of PTs vary between and within Canadian provinces as well as with experience and employment settings. PTs in the previous year saw earnings range from $70,273 to $90,344, with a median of $78,000.

References 1. Canadian Nurses Association. Education [Internet]. Available from: http://www.cna-aiic.ca/en/becoming-an-rn/education/ 2. Canadian Nurses Associations. Where do nurses work [Internet]. Available from: http:// www.cna-aiic.ca/en/becoming-an-rn/where-do-nurses-work/ 3. Canadian Nurses Associations. Professional Development. Nursing [Internet]. Available from: https://www.cna-aiic.ca/professional-development/nurse-practitioner-and-clinical-specialists 4. Nurseone. Continuing Education/Professional Development [Internet]. Available from: http://nurseone.ca/en/professional-practice/continuing-education 5. Rpn salary in canada - average salary [Internet]. Talent.com. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://ca.talent.com/salary 6. Payscale. Registered Nurse (RN) Salary [internet]. Available from: https://www.payscale.com/research/CA/Job=Registered_Nurse_(RN)/Hourly_Rate 7. Payscale. Family Nurse Practitioner (NP) Salary [internet]. Available from: https://www.payscale.com/research/CA/Job=Family_Nurse_Practitioner_(NP)/Salary

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The salaries of OTs also vary between and within provinces. However, a survey conducted by the Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists (CAOT) found that career mobility was limited only by time and personal commitments. In the past year, OTs earned between $69,945 to $84,630, with a median of $76,811.

6.3 Future Prospects Expansions in the scope of practice of PTs over recent decades have encouraged Canadian universities to offer entry-level Master’s Programs. A MSc. has become fundamental for advanced consultant and management positions, both areas that graduates can pursue. PTs also have the option of becoming designated clinical specialists in a number of areas through the Canadian Physiotherapy Association (CPA).

Most universities also offer doctoral or doctoral stream programs. PhD preparation is required for educators and researchers in physical therapy, which provides them with the opportunity to partake in knowledge generation and dissemination, as well as observe its translation into clinical practice.

Occupational therapy practice has been greatly influenced by changing trends in health and societal needs of the Canadian population. Occupational therapists now assume roles as managers, researchers, program developers, educators and clinical specialists. However, an increasing number of OTs choose to work in private practices where they typically earn higher incomes than in publicly-funded hospitals. Target areas for career mobility in occupational therapy include, but are not limited to, home modification, ergonomics, assistive technology, research, consulting for retail businesses, work in long-term care settings, and teaching health professionals in various higher education programs.

6.4 Admission Requirements Universities that offer graduate-level programs in occupational therapy and physical therapy require students to complete a four-year undergraduate degree as the minimum academic requirement for entry.

Although no standardized testing is required, admissions processes, pre- requisite courses, and minimum required grade point averages differ between institutions.

For more information on academic requirements, consult individual university websites for details.

As a starting point, prospective applicants should consult the Instruction Booklet published by the Ontario Rehabilitation Sciences Programs Application Service (ORPAS) in 2015. ORPAS provides a centralized application for all rehabilitation science programs in Ontario. Additional helpful resources include the Directory of Occupational Therapy provided by the CAOT (Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists) and Physical Therapy Programs in Canada provided by the Canadian Council of Physiotherapy Education Programs.

6.5 Similar Careers Similar primary healthcare careers for physiotherapists and occupational therapists include: acupuncture, chiropractic medicine, counselling, diagnostic radiography, homeopathy, osteopathy, speech and language therapy, and sports therapy.

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6.6 Degree Programs in Canada

References 1. 1. Canadian Physiotherapy Association. Description of Physiotherapy in Canada 2015 [Internet]. Available from: http://www.physiotherapy.ca/About-Physiotherapy/Description-of-Physiotherapy 2. Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists. Occupational Therapy - As defined by the Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists [Internet]. Available from: http://www.caot.ca/default.asp?pageid=3824 3. Physiotherapist salary in canada - average salary [Internet]. Talent.com. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://ca.talent.com/salary 4. Occupational therapist salary in canada - average salary [Internet]. Talent.com. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://ca.talent.com/salary 5. McGill University School of Physical and Occupational Therapy Programs [Internet]. Available from: http://www.mcgill.ca/spot/programs 6. University of Toronto Graduate Department of Rehabilitation Science: Programs [Internet]. Available from: http://www.gdrs.utoronto.ca/programs/phd 7. Canadian Physiotherapy Association Clinical Specialty Program. Program Information [Internet]. Available from: http://www.physiotherapy.ca/CPA-Clinical-Specialty-Program/Program-Information 8. Canadian Association of Occupational Therapists. Current trends affecting occupational therapy [Internet]. Available from: http://www.caot.ca/default.asp?pageid=291 9. Ontario Universities’ Application Centre. ORPAS2015 [Internet]. Available from: http://www.ouac.on.ca/docs/orpas/b_orpas_e.pdf 10. Canadian association of Occupational Therapists. University Occupational Therapy Programs in Canada [internet]. Available from: http://www.cao.ca/default.asp?pageid=151 11. Canadian Council of Physiotherapy Programs. Canadian Programs [Internet]. Available from: http://www.physiotherapyeducation.ca/CanadianPrograms.html 12. Prospects. Physiotherapist Related jobs [Internet]. Available from: http://www.prospects. ac.uk/physiotherapist_related_jobs.htm 13. Prospects. Occupational Therapist Related jobs [Internet]. Available from: http://www. prospects.ac.uk/occupational_therapist_related_jobs.htm

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Pharmacy 7.1 Canadian Schools Offering a Degree

7.2 Description Pharmacists are a vital part of the health care team, aiding with the treatment of disease. Apart from providing pharmaceutical drugs, pharmacists discuss possible drug interactions, dosages, and side effects of medication with doctors and patients. In addition, pharmacists provide medication reviews and help deliver services such as chronic disease management, immunization, and wellness programs. Qualities that make a good pharmacist include strong organization skills, patience, and dedication to identify, resolve, and prevent medication-related problems. A pharmacist must also be a good communicator as they interact with the other members of the health care team as well as patients.

The path to becoming a pharmacist is similar to that of a medical doctor. Aspiring students must complete at least one year of their undergraduate training at an accredited university, as well as fulfill the necessary prerequisite courses. During the four-year pharmacy program, students learn about the chemistry of various medications, the effect of drugs on the human body, and the side effects of drug interactions. Finally, students must pass the national board examination test and undergo an internship or an apprenticeship program.

7.3 Typical Prerequisites The minimum required GPA varies between individual pharmacy schools, though it ranges around 2.7 on a 4.0 scale. However, due to the highly competitive nature of the program, meeting the minimum requirements does not guarantee acceptance. Similarly, the required pre- requisite courses vary between universities. In general, these courses include English, Physics, Biology, Chemistry, Organic Chemistry, Physical Chemistry, Biochemistry, Calculus, Statistics, and courses from the Humanities & Social Sciences.

3

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7.4 Standardized Tests In order to be admitted to most pharmacy schools in the USA and Canada, the Pharmacy College Admission Test (PCAT) must be written. This computer-based test can be scheduled at http:// www.pearsonvue.com/pcat for July, September, or January. The PCAT is a standardized test comprising seven sections that must be completed within four hours. A rest period is provided upon completion of the first four sections. The detailed breakdown of the PCAT exam is summarized in the table below.

7.5 Similar Careers Pharmacies often hire Pharmacy Technicians to assist licensed pharmacists in performing routine administrative and customer service duties. Therefore, becoming a Pharmacy Technician provides the opportunity to work at a pharmacy without having to become a pharmacist.

7.6 Expected Salary The earnings of a pharmacist vary depending on the geographical location of employment, experience, and setting (hospital versus private pharmacy). An average pharmacist in Ontario earns about $46.99 per hour in Canada or anywhere from $84,540 to $102,982 per annum.

7.7 After Graduation Licensed pharmacists can work in neighborhood pharmacies, medical buildings, and hospitals. Some pharmacists choose a less conventional stream by working with the Canadian Forces, Health, and Welfare Canada, provincial ministries of health, provincial licensing bodies, or industrial drug development companies.

References 1. Canadian Pharmacists Association. Canadian Faculties and Schools of Pharmacy [Internet]. Available from: http://www.pharmacists.ca/index.cfm/pharmacy-in-canada/becoming-a-pharmacist-in-canada/ 2. Canadian Pharmacists Association. Pharmacists in Canada [Internet]. Available from: http:// www.pharmacists.ca/index.cfm/pharmacy-in-canada/pharmacists-in-canada/ 3. University of Toronto-Leslie Dan Faculty of Pharmacy. Academic Requirements [Internet]. Available from: http://www.pharmacy.utoronto.ca/bscphm/admissions/academic-requirements 4. All about the pcat – kaplan test prep [Internet]. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://www.kaptest.com/study/pcat/all-about-the-pcat/ 5. Pharmacist salary in canada - average salary [Internet]. Talent.com. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://ca.talent.com/salary 6. Austin J, Ensom M. Education of Pharmacists in Canada. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. 2008; 72(6) Article 128.

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Physician Assistant Universities That Offer Degrees in Canada Manitoba: University of Manitoba Ontario: McMaster University University of Toronto (in collaboration with Northern Ontario School of Medicine and The Michener Institute for Applied Health Sciences)

8.1 Description The work of a physician assistant (PA) is to provide health care under the supervision of a licensed physician. Numerous health care systems around the world are starting to integrate the role of PAs. In Ontario, for example, PAs are currently being introduced to a variety of health care settings through the Ontario’s Physician Assistant Initiative and PA Demonstration projects.1 The duties of a PA may vary depending on the physician’s area of practice. Under supervision, a PA may be required to perform physical examinations, conduct patient interviews, provide counseling on preventive health care, and any other tasks delegated by the physician.1 The Physician Assistant Program at McMaster University utilizes small group problem-based learning modules. The two-year program consists of one year of clinical science studies and an- other year of clinical clerkship for a total of 24 consecutive months.2 Graduates of the program earn a Bachelor of Health Sciences (Physician Assistant) degree and are qualified to take the certification examination in order to practice in Ontario.2 The Physician Assistant Professional Degree Program (BScPA) at the University of Toronto is a two-year bachelor’s degree program, in which the first year is academically focused and the second year clinically focused. The first year of the program involves a completion of 15 courses with clinical experience, and four mandatory residential blocks. The second year of the program requires 40 weeks of supervised clinical practice and three mandatory residential blocks in both Southern and Northern Ontario. All clinical involvements are required to take place in Ontario.3 The University of Manitoba offers the only graduate level program in Canada, the Master of Physician Assistant Studies (MPAS). It is a two-year program that focuses on academics, didactic courses, and clinical rotations.4 Students graduate with a MPAS degree from the Faculty of Graduate Studies of the University of Manitoba.

8.2 Pre-requisites, Academic and Non-Academic Admission Requirements A minimum 3.0 cGPA is required to apply to the McMaster University and the University of Manitoba programs.2,3,4 Note that McMaster specifies that supplementary and summer course marks are included in the GPA calculation.2 To apply to the PA program at McMaster University or the University of Toronto, applicants must have completed at least two years of undergraduate study with a minimum of ten full courses. Upon submitting an application through the Ontario Universities’ Application Centre (OUAC) and all

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selected applicants are invited for a Multiple Mini Interview (MMI).2,3 Current McMaster undergraduate students do not need to submit an application through OUAC. For students who are interested in an internal transfer, contact the program office directly at paprogram@mcmaster.ca.

The University of Toronto requires applicants to have a cGPA of 2.7 and a minimum of one year full-time (or 1,680 hours) of direct patient contact in a professional setting.3 Direct patient contact may involve direct involvement in the treatment and/or care planning and delivery for patients in hospitals, a medical office/clinic, nursing home, care home, or other care facilities. A list of health occupations validated by the University of Toronto can be found at: http://www5.hrsdc.gc.ca/NOC/English/NOC/2011/Occupations.aspx? val=3. Note that volunteer work and clerical positions in healthcare are not valid to fulfill the clinical experience requirement. The University of Toronto also recommends that students have full-year postsecondary equivalents of human anatomy, chemistry and physiology.2 To apply to the Master of PA program at the University of Manitoba, applicants must have completed four years of undergraduate study towards a bachelor’s degree. Courses in human anatomy, human physiology, and biochemistry are required.4

8.3 Certification The Physician Assistant Certification Council of Canada (PACCC) administers the PA Entry to Practice Certification Examination, or the PA Cert Exam.5 All graduates from the programs mentioned above are required to successfully complete the exam to become Canadian certified physician assistants.

8.4 Expected Salary The salary of a PA varies depending on the province of practice, position, working environment, working hours, etc. In Canada, the initial PA salary scale ranges from $49,333 to $127,738 per year.

8.5 Similar Careers In Canada, PAs are also employed by the Canadian Forces to provide health care services to the military and their families.1 However, the training program is different given that the military has its own PA training program.

References 1.Health Force Ontario. Physician Assistants [Internet]. Available from: http://www.health- forceontario.ca/en/M4/Ontario’s_Physician_Assistant_Initiative/Frequently_Asked_Questions 2. McMaster University. Physician Assistant Education Program [Internet]. Available from: http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/physicianassistant/index.html 3. University of Toronto Faculty of Medicine. PhysicianAssistant Professional Degree Program (BScPA) [Internet]. Available from: http://www.facmed.utoronto.ca/programs/healthscience/PAEducation.htm 4. University of Manitoba. Physician Assistant Education Program [Internet]. Available from: http://umanitoba.ca/faculties/medicine/education/paep 5. Canadian Association of Physician Assistants. Physician Assistant Certification Council of Canada [Internet]. Available from: http://capa-acam.ca 6. Physician assistant salary in Canada - average salary [Internet]. Talent.com. [cited 2021 Aug 1]. Available from: https://ca.talent.com/salary

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Public and Global Health 9.1 Description Health is a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being.

The enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health is one of the fundamental rights of every human being without distinction of race, religion, political belief, economic or social condition.

The health of all peoples is fundamental to the attainment of peace and security and is dependent upon the fullest cooperation of individuals and States.

- Constitution of the World Health Organization Adopted by the International Health Conference, July 1946

Interest in public and global health has rapidly increased during the past 20 years. Such growing interest has been driven by students and young health professionals who want to address health at a population level or want to explore the health inequities that exist across the globe. Individuals involved in these sectors are not only coming from traditional pathways such as medicine, nursing and anthropology, but also from backgrounds in other health sciences, economics, business, law, international relations, education, engineering, urban planning, informatics and many others.

A commonality between these two emerging fields is the interdisciplinary approach to which health is addressed on a broader scale. Health is no longer recognized as just a biomedical issue, but one that also results from a combination of different social determinants such as poverty, environment, economy, access to resources and politics. The value of local and global cooperation is being recognized as well since increased globalization places health in a state that is dynamic, no longer static or isolated. The human race is more connected now than ever before.

Many students and health professionals often opt for education in public and/or global health as a concentrated area of study or to complement studies in another discipline. Within Canada, these programs are beginning to form for graduate students and for health professionals looking to gain experience in the field. On the next page is a primary list of public/global health programs that are available within Ontario.

References 1. 1. McMaster University. Master of science in global health [Internet]. Hamilton Ontario, Canada: McMaster University. Available from: https://globalhealth.mcmaster.ca/program-overview/how-apply 2. Dalla Lana School of Public Health [Internet]. Toronto Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto. Available from: http://www.dlsph.utoronto.ca/ 3. University of Waterloo. Master of public health [Internet]. Waterloo, Ontario, Canada: University of Waterloo. Available from: http://www.ahs.uwaterloo.ca/hsg/mph/

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Speech-language Pathology

10.1 Description Graduate school programs for Speech-Language Pathologists have a length of two years. Students undertake courses in acoustics, anatomy, assessment, consoling, linguistics, hearing aids, hearing disorders, language development and disorders, psychology, phonetics, and statistics. The programs also include a clinical section in a speech pathology-related environment. Together the curriculum covers the disorders, development and the training or retraining of human communication in its various aspects.

10.2 Academic Requirements

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10.3 Expected Salary $48,263 - $104,537 in Canada as of 2018.

10.4 Similar Careers Audiologist

10.5 After Graduation Private practice, child development centers, pre-schools, schools, hospital, rehabilitation centers, government agencies, health units, industry, colleges and universities, and research centers are all areas that are in need of Speech Pathologists.

References 1.1. Speech Language Pathology - Admission Requirements [Internet]. Edmonton, Alberta, Canada: University of Alberta. Available from: http://admissions.ualberta.ca/Recruitment-Events/Registration101/~/media/re- cruitment/Publications/Reg-101/2012-13-Tip-Sheets/Professional-Programs/Speech-Language-Pathology-Admis- sion-Requirements.pdf 2. UBC School of Audiology and Speech Sciences [Internet]. Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada: University of British Columbia. Available from: http://www.audiospeech.ubc.ca/why-study-withus/msc-speech- language/slp-criteria/ 3. MSc. Admission Requirements [Internet]. Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada: Dalhousie University. Available from: http://humancommunicationdisorders.dal.ca/Prospective%20Students/Requirements.php 4. Maîtrise en Orthophonie (MSc.) [Internet]. Quebec City, Quebec, Canada: Université Laval. Available from: https://capsuleweb.ulaval.ca/pls/etprod7/y_bwckprog.p_afficher_fiche? p_type_index=4&p_code_ prog=M-ORT&p_code_majr=ORT&p_code_camp= 5. Admission Requirements [Internet]. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: McGill University. Available from: http://www.mcgill.ca/scsd/programs/slp/how-apply 6. Description du programme [Internet]. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: Université de Montreal. Available from: http://www.progcours.umontreal.ca/programme/cgi/az00100? nom_fichier=275210&adresse=www. etudes.umontreal.ca%2Findex_fiche_prog%2F&suffixe=_desc&x=25&y=7

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11

Veterinary Medicine Schools Offering a Degree in Veterinary Medicine The Atlantic Veterinary College (University of PEI) Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire (Université de Montréal)* The Ontario Veterinary College (University of Guelph) The Western College of Veterinary Medicine (University of Saskatchewan) Faculty of Veterinary Medicine (University of Calgary) *Note: The language of instruction for this school is French

11.1 Description The scope of veterinary medicine is wide, but generally covers the same principles as other professions related to human healthcare, namely professional communication, humanitarian service and scientific knowledge. Entrance into veterinary school is highly competitive, requiring a variety of prerequisite courses in addition to personal submissions and reference letters. If admitted into veterinary school, students typically undergo a four-year curriculum. The first year covers basic science knowledge along with introductory veterinary courses. The final three years consist mostly of veterinary courses and practicum, which prepare students for their future careers. In general, classes consist of anatomy, physiology, pathology, diagnosis analysis, immunology, among others.1 Once students have completed their required courses, they are eligible to write their national board exams to obtain their Doctorate of Veterinary Medicine (DVM).

11.2 Typical Prerequisites Minimum 2 years of full-time undergraduate studies 3 semesters of introductory biology (2 animal biology + 1 cellular biology preferred) 2 semesters of chemistry 1 semester of genetics 1 semester of ecology 1 semester of biochemistry 2 semesters of math/statistics 2 semesters of social science/humanities (University of PEI requires 3 semesters) 1 semester of microbiology 1 semester of physics 1 semester of organic chemistry 2 semesters of English Competitive GPA of 3.4+ out of 4.0 Minimum average GPA: 3.0 This list is a combination of prerequisites required for all five aforementioned schools. For a list of prerequisites specific to a school, please visit their website.

11.3 Standardized Testing Only the University of Guelph requires MCAT scores from applicants (GRE scores for non-Canadian applicants).2

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11.4 Nonacademic Requirements Background information forms, animal/veterinary-related experience, and reference letters are required.

The University of Calgary requires applicants to be residents of Alberta for at least 12 months. The Atlantic Veterinary College only accepts international students or permanent residents from the Atlantic Provinces. In addition, all schools will conduct an interview during the application process; the University of Guelph and the University of Calgary follow the Multiple Mini Interview (MMI) style.2,7

11.5 Average Salary The average salary of a veterinarian lies between $51,868 to $94,686 depending on factors such as experience and type of practice.

11.6 Similar Careers Similar careers may include: veterinary technician, animal breeder, marine biologist, guide dog trainer, and veterinary pathologist.

11.7 After Graduation After graduation, DVMs may practice in traditional small-sized animal practices such as veterinary clinics or opt to work with larger animals. There are also numerous veterinary specialties open for those interested, such as animal welfare, clinical pathology, specialties dedicated to one specific species, research as well regulatory medicine in livestock.

NEW TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION

12

Clinical Research Coordinator

12.1 Description Clinical Research Coordinators work under Clinical Research Managers and are tasked with administering clinical trials. Their primary responsibilities include managing clinical trials and collecting data, informing participants about study objectives and administering questionnaires.

12.2 Academic Requirements In order to become a Clinical Research Coordinator (CRC) one should obtain a bachelor degree program that will prepare you for the CRC certificate. Some jobs call for a master’s degree in addition to a bachelor’s degree. If you have a medical experience you may need a certificate program to work as a CRC but if there is none then you will need an education program that covers all the required medical and research coursework in clinical research. Some of these include drug safety, clinical statistics, research ethics, and clinical research management. 2+ years in healthcare.

References 1.Clinical Research Coordinator Job Description [Internet]. Betterteam. 2019 [cited 2020Jun15]. Available from: https://www.betterteam.com/clinical-research-coordinator-job-description 2.Freeman C. Clinical Research Coordinator [Internet]. Canada Trials - Clinical Research Center and Clinical Trials Listing. 2019 [cited 2020Jun6]. Available from: https://canadatrials.com/clinical-research-coordinator/ 3.Salary: Clinical Research Coordinator [Internet]. Glassdoor. [cited 2020Jun10]. Available from: https://www.glassdoor.ca/Salaries/clinical-research-coordinator-salary-SRCH_KO0,29.htm

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12.3 Nonacademic Requirements At least one year of clinical experience is preferred if not required Analytical mindset Attention to detail Exceptional interpersonal skills Outstanding written and verbal communication Excellent organizational skill Willingness to continually self-educate

12.4 Expected Earnings The average base salary for a CRC in Canada as of 2020 is $60,000, ranging between $43,000-$76,000.

13

Social Worker

13.1 Description Social work is a field of study that works towards alleviating the conditions of those in need of help or welfare. Social work aims to help individuals, families, groups and communities enhance their individual and collective well-being. It aims to help people develop their skills and their ability to use their own resources and those of the community to resolve problems. Social work is concerned with individual and personal problems but also with broader social issues such as poverty, unemployment and domestic violence.

13.2 Expected Earnings A typical full-time annual salary for this occupation is in the region of $60,000 – $90,000. The hourly wage of a social worker varies in provinces across Canada.

13.3 Degrees and Programs in Canada A Social work education consists of theoretical courses and practical training at the undergraduate or graduate level. In most provinces the Bachelor of Social Work is the minimum educational requirement for entry into the profession. Postgraduate education leading to a master’s or doctoral degree is also available.

A four-year undergraduate program is required for a bachelor’s degree. Persons who have a Bachelor of Social Work degree may obtain a master’s degree after one year of postgraduate studies. Those who have a degree in another discipline would require a two-year postgraduate program in social work to obtain the master’s degree in social work.

The Canadian Association for Social Work Education (CASWE) has the responsibility for accrediting

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university-based social work programs. This association publishes a directory of accredited programs. As admission requirements and program orientation vary among schools, interested persons should consult the directory or communicate with the school of their choice.

13.4 Specializations Children and Their Families Specialization: Research for practice with families and their children Contemporary issues in dealing and working with families and their children Family social work practice Social work practice with adolescents and children Diversity and Social Justice Specialization: Access, equity and diversity in the workplace The process of marginalization, social exclusion and resistance How social work responds to trans-nationalization and globalization Creating knowledge to inform clinical practice Health and Mental Health Specializations: Mental health practice and policy The context of health and mental health practice Practice-based research in health and mental health Social work practices in health Social Work in Gerontology Specialization: Social work knowledge building Gerontological social work special issues Ageing principles Integrated practice and policies in aging and social work

13.5 Registration before Practice Some provinces require social workers to be registered before practising and pass an examination. This examination serves as a prerequisite for certification. The Association of Social Work Boards is responsible for the certification and registration of social workers.

In British Columbia, social workers can work as registered clinical social workers. Social workers with experience and knowledge in clinical health may apply for licensure and training with the British Columbia Colledge of Social Workers.

References 1. What is Social Work? [Internet]. What is Social Work? | Canadian Association of Social Workers. [cited 2020Jun6]. Available from: https://www.casw-acts.ca/en/what-social-work 2. Social Worker Salary Canada [Internet]. Living in Canada. [cited 2020Jun10]. Available from: https://www.livingin-canada.com/salaries-for-social-workers.html 3. Adam S. Social Work Degrees In Canada [Internet]. University Magazine. 2018 [cited 2020Jun10]. Available from: https://www.universitymagazine.ca/social-work-degrees-canada/

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CLOSING REMARKS

We hope that after reading through the eleventh volume of our Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, you have found all the information and resources to suit your needs. If you have any questions or are looking for more information, please do not hesitate to contact any one of your executive members; we would be more than happy to help.

We look forward to seeing you at our events this year. On behalf of our executive team, best of luck to your studies and your future endeavors!

Thank you for your continual support of McMaster’s Medicine and Health Society.

VOLUME

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RECOMMENDED

READINGS AND LINKS This publication has diligently obtained information from various sources. If you desire more information, the following is a recommended reading list:

Admissions to Professional Health Programs Dentistry 1. Hassan AS. DAT: complete preparation for the dental admission test: 2001 edition. Lippincott: Williams & Wilkins; 2000.

2. Lehman RA. How to prepare for the dental admission test, DAT. New York: Barron’s Educational Series; 1999.

3. Predental Resources - Preparing for the Dental Admission Test (DAT) [Internet]. 2015 [25 July 2015].

Available from: http://www.asdanet.org/predental/dat-prep.aspx

Medicine 1. Stoll M. Complete book of medical schools: 2001 edition. New York: Random House, Inc.; 2000.

2. Stoll M, Davis A, Braswell L. Best 168 medical schools: 2009 edition. New York: Random House Inc.; 2008.

3. The Staff of The Princeton Review. Medical school essays that made a difference. New York: Random House Inc.; 2008.

4. Wischnitzer S. Barron’s guide to medical & dental schools, 11th edition. New York: Barron’s Educational Series; 2006.

Regarding Interdisciplinary Topics in Health Bioethics 1. Hebert PC. Doing right: a practical guide to ethics for medical trainees and physicians. 2nd 2. edition. New York: Oxford University Press; 2008.

3. Bioethics Interest Group (BIG) at McMaster http://fhs.mcmaster.ca/ethics/big.html

Fiction (Medical and Health-related) 1. Gawande A. Better: a surgeon’s notes on performance. New York: Picador USA: 2007.

2. Gawande A. Complications: a surgeon’s notes on an imperfect science. New York: Picador USA; 2002.

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3. Lam V. Bloodletting and miraculous cures: stories. Toronto: Anchor Canada; 2006. 4.Shem S. The house of god. New York: Penguin Group; 2010.

4. Skloot R. The immortal life of Henrietta Lacks. New York: Crown Publishers; 2010.

Global and Public Health 1. Bortolotti D. Hope in hell: inside the world of doctors without borders: 1st edition. New York: Firefly Books Ltd.; 2004.

2. Farmer P. Infections and inequalities: the modern plagues. Los Angeles: University of California Press; 2001.

3. Moyo D. Dead aid: 1st edition. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux; 2009.

4. Sachs JD, The end of poverty: economic possibilities for our time: 1st edition. New York: The Penguin Press; 2005.

5. World Health Organization www.who.int

Health Policy 1. Kingdon J. Agendas, alternatives, and public policies. 2nd edition. New York: Addison-Wesley Educational Publishers Inc; 2003.

2. McMaster Health Forum www.mcmasterhealthforum.com 3. Shiffman J, Smith S. Generation of political priority for global health initiatives: a framework and case study of maternal mortality. Lancet. 2007; 370:1370-1379.

Medical Humanities 1. Ars Medica: A Journal of Medicine, the Arts, and Humanities http://www.utpjournals.com/ars/ ars.html 2. First Canadian Conference on Medical and Health Humanities: Creating Space for Arts and Humanities in the Education of Health Professionals http://www.mountsinai.on.ca/care/psych/ staffeducation-programs/ccme/creating_space_conference_program.pdf 3. Mukherjee S. The emperor of all maladies: a biography of cancer. New York: Scribner; 2010.

Peace Through Humanity 1. Arya N, Santa Barbara J. Peace through health: how health professionals can work for a less violent world. Virginia: Kumarian Press; 2008.

2. Centre for Peace Studies at McMaster http://www.humanities.mcmaster.ca/peace-health/ 3.United Nations Peace and Security http://www.un.org/en/peace/

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APPENDIX Helpful Links and Contacts This section of the Appendix contains additional links and contact information for the previous sections, including Canadian medical schools, dental schools, and other graduate schools. The information cited in this journal may be changed or updated from the time of publishing. For more extensive and updated information, it is advisable that you consult your schools of interest through their websites and obtain the most updated contact information.

Volunteer Links and Contacts The table of links and contact information, as well as an array of different volunteering organizations can be found on our website at www.macmhs.com. Volunteering and extracurricular activities are highly valued.

These types of activities may be equally as important as your academic record. This particular section can provide the connections needed to build your volunteering/extracurricular background.

OMSAS GPA Conversion Table OMSAS provides a table each year that shows grade conversions at Canadian universities to a Grade Point Average (GPA) on a 4-point scale. Pay particular attention to make sure you are in the correct column, because schools using the same scale may have different equivalencies. Certain schools may use a weighted or adjusted GPA, so determine how each of your schools of interest calculates their GPA.

Helpful Links and Contacts Medicine University of Alberta www.med.ualberta.ca (780) 492-6621 University of British Columbia www.med.ubc.ca (604) 822-2421 University of Calgary www.medicine.ucalgary.ca (403) 220-4262 Dalhousie University www.medicine.dal.ca (902) 494-6592

McGill University www.mcgill.ca/medicine (514) 398-1768 Memorial University of Newfoundland www.med.mun.ca/medicine/home.aspx (709) 777-6615 Northern Ontario School of Medicine www.nosm.ca (807) 766-7300 University of Ottawa http://www.medecine.uottawa.ca/eng/ (613) 562-5409

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Queen’s University http://meds.queensu.ca/undergraduate (613) 533-3307

Western University Canada(MD/PhD) www.schulich.uwo.ca/medicine/md_phd (519) 661-2111 ext. 87908

University of Toronto http://www.md.utoronto.ca (416) 978-7928

Western University Canada (Indigenous Medicine and Dentistry) www.schulich.uwo.ca/indigenous/index.php (519) 661-3744

Western University http://www.schulich.uwo.ca/ (519) 661-3459

Dentistry

Other Medicine Opportunities McGill University (MD/PhD) http://www.medicine.mcgill.ca/mdphd/ (514) 398-1603 McMaster University (MD/PhD) www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/mdphd/index.html (905) 525-9140 Ottawa University (MD/PhD) www.med.uottawa.ca/md-phd/eng (613) 562-5800 ext. 8344 Queen’s University (Multiple Mini Interviews) www.meds.queensu.ca/education/undergraduate/prospective_students/method_of_selection University of British Columbia (MD/PhD) http://mdprogram.med.ubc.ca/mdphd/ (604) 822-2421 University of Toronto (MD/PhD) http://mdphd.utoronto.ca/ (416) 978-3277 Western University Canada (MD/Bachelor of Engineering Science) https://www.schulich.uwo.ca/admissions/medicine/specialprogramsfaq (519) 661-3744

University of Alberta http://www.dentistry.ualberta.ca/ (780) 492-4474 University of British Columbia www.dentistry.ubc.ca (604) 822-7566 Dalhousie University www.dentistry.dal.ca (902) 494-2824 University of Manitoba www.umanitoba.ca/dentistry (204) 789-3631 McGill University www.mcgill.ca/dentistry (514) 398-7203 University of Toronto www.utoronto.ca/dentistry (416) 979-4900 Western University Canada www.dentistry.uwo.ca (519) 661-3744 Canadian Dental Association www.cda-adc.ca (613) 523-1770

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American Dental Education Association www.adea.org (202) 289-7201

University of Saskatchewan http://www.medicine.usask.ca/pt/ University of Toronto http://www.physicaltherapy.utoronto.ca/

Optometry University of Montreal http://www.opto.umontreal.ca (514) 343-6325 Optometry Admission Testing (OAT) Sample Test. https://www.ada.org/oat/oat_sample_test.pdf

Chiropractic Canadian Memorial Chiropractic College: Application forms (due October 31 1, 2013) www.cmcc.ca/Page.aspx?pid=349 Université du Québec à Trois-Rivières oraprdnt.uqtr.uquebec.ca/pls/public/pgmw001? owa_cd_ pgm=7025

Université Laval http://w3.fmed.ulaval.ca/readaptation/index. php?id=851 University of Montréal http://www.readap.umontreal.ca/ Université de Sherbrooke http://www.usherbrooke.ca/readaptation/ Western University Canada http://www.uwo.ca/fhs/pt/

Schools with Combined OT/PT Programs McGill University www.medicine.mcgill.ca/spot Queen’s University www.rehab.queensu.ca

Naturopathy Canadian College of Naturopathic Medicine www.ccnm.edu/prospective_students/admissions_information Boucher Institute of Naturopathic Medicine http://www.binm.org/prospective-students/admissions/how-to-apply

University of Ottawa http://www.health.uottawa.ca/sr/index.html

Nutrition and Dietetics Acadia University http://nutrition.acadiau.ca University of Alberta http://www.ales.ualberta.ca/afns

Occupational and Physical Therapy ORPAS Online Application www.ouac.on.ca/orpas

Brescia University College http://www.brescia.uwo.ca/academics/undergraduate/foods_and_nutrition/index.html

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University of British Columbia http://www.landfood.ubc.ca University of Guelph http://www.uoguelph.ca/hhns/ Université Laval http://www.fsaa.ulaval.ca

Schools with Occupational Therapy University of Alberta www.ot.ualberta.ca University of British Columbia www.ot.med.ubc.ca Dalhousie University www.occupationaltherapy.dal.ca

University of Manitoba http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/human_ecology

Université Laval www.ulaval.ca/sg/PR/C1/1.456.11.html

McGill University http://www.mcgill.ca/dietetics

University of Manitoba www.umanitoba.ca/medrehab/ot/index.html

Université de Moncton http://www.umoncton.ca/umcm-fsssc-esanef

McMaster University www.fhs.mcmaster.ca/rehab

Université de Montréal http://www.nutrition.umontreal.ca

University of Montréal http://www.readap.umontreal.ca

Mount Saint Vincent University http://www.msvu.ca/en/home/programsdepartments/professionalstudies/appliedhumannutrition/default.aspx

University of Toronto www.ot.utoronto.ca Western University Canada www.uwo.ca/fhs/ot

University of Ottawa http://www.sante.uottawa.ca/nutrition/index.htm University of Prince Edward Island http://fns.upei.ca Ryerson University http://www.ryerson.ca/nutritionandfood

Schools with Physiotherapy Dalhousie University http://physiotherapy.dal.ca

University of Saskatchewan http://www.usask.ca/pharmacy-nutrition

McMaster University http://www.srs-mcmaster.ca/Programsnbsp/ MScPT/tabid/525/Default.aspx

St. Francis Xavier University http://www.mystfx.ca/academic/human-nutrition

University of Alberta http://www.uofaweb.ualberta.ca/pt/ University of British Columbia http://www.physicaltherapy.med.ubc.ca/Home. html

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University of Manitoba http://www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/medicine/ units/medrehab/pt/index.html

University of Waterloo www.pharmacy.uwaterloo.ca (519) 888-4848

Pharmacy

Physician's Assistant

Dalhousie University www.dal.ca/pharmacy (902) 494-2378

National Commission on Certification of Physician Assistants Physician Assistant National Certifying Exam (PANCE) www.nccpa.net/Pance.aspx (678) 417-8100

Memorial University of Newfoundland www.mun.ca/pharmacy (709) 777-8300 Université de Montréal www.pharm.umontreal.ca (514) 343-6422 Université Laval www.pha.ulaval.ca (418) 656-3211 University of Alberta www.pharmacy.ualberta.ca (780) 492-3362 University of British Columbia www.pharmacy.ubc.ca (604) 822-4096 University of Manitoba www.umanitoba.ca/faculties/pharmacy (204) 474-9306 University of Saskatchewan www.usask.ca/pharmacy-nutrition (306) 966-6328 University of Toronto www.utoronto.ca/pharmacy (416) 978-2889

Volunteer Links and Contacts Volunteer Search Databases Canada Volunteer Directory www.canadianuniversities.net/Volunteer/index. html Get involved! www.getinvolved.ca (416) 361-5907 Dorothy Engelman, Executive Producer: dorothye@getinvolved.ca Planet Volunteer 2013 www.planetfriendly.net/volunteer/vol.php (613) 744-3392 p2@planetfriendly.net Volunteer Canada www.volunteer.ca (800) 670-0401 info@volunteer.ca

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Canada Alzheimer Society of Canada www.alzheimer.ca (416) 847-2951 Dana Lecours: dlecours@alzheimer.ca

Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada www.heartandstroke.com Visit the regional websites to find out more information regarding becoming a volunteer

Canadian Breast Cancer Foundation www.cbcf.org

Multiple Sclerosis Society of Canada mssociety.ca/en/involved/volunteer.html 1 (800) 268-7582 Fill out an application form online

To volunteer in BC/Yukon: 1 (800) 561-6111 volunteerbc@cbcf.org To volunteer in the Prairies/NWT: 1 (866) 302-2223 ivolunteer@cbcf.org To volunteer in Ontario: 1 (866) 373-6313 To volunteer in the Atlantic region: 1 (866) 273-2223 Tobbi Dyer: tdyer@cbcf.org Canadian Cancer Society www.cancer.ca Visit regional websites to fill out an application online Canadian National Institute for the Blind www.cnib.ca 1 (800) 563-2642 Contact is specific to city; can be found at: http:// www.cnib.ca/en/get-involved/volunteer-your-time/ Pages/Get%20in%20Touch.aspx Canadian Red Cross www.redcross.ca 1 (800) 418-1111 Volunteering contact is specific to region; please see http://www.redcross.ca/community.html For general inquiries: WeCare@redcross.ca

Parks Canada www.pc.gc.ca/agen/vol-ben/index.aspx (888) 773-8888 information@pc.gc.ca Special Olympics Canada www.specialolympics.ca/ 1 (888) 888-0608 Can be reached electronically by completing a form at http://www.specialolympics.ca/contactus/ UNICEF Canada www.unicef.ca Apply online at http://www.unicef.ca/en/get-involved/unicef-volunteer-application-process United Way Canada www.unitedway.ca (613) 236-7041; 1 (800) 267-8221 info@unitedway.ca

International CADIP http://www.cadip.org/ Phone number depends on location; available at http://www.cadip.org/contacts.htm To email, fill in form at http://www.cadip.org/form.htm

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Canada World Youth www.canadaworldyouth.org (800) 605-3526 cwy-jcm@cwy-jcm.org Cross Cultural Solutions www.crossculturalsolutions.org 1-(800)-380-4777 infocanada@crossculturalsolutions.org Global Volunteers www.globalvolunteers.org (800) 487-1074 email@globalvolunteers.org International Medical Volunteers Association www.imva.org (508) 435-7377 info@imva.org

International Volunteer Programs Association www.volunteerinternational.org International Volunteer HQ http://www.volunteerhq.org/ +64 6 758-7949 (International), or phone number according to country can be found at http://www. volunteerhq.org/contact-us.html volunteer@volunteerhq.org Youth Challenge International www.yci.org (416) 504-3370 generalinfo@yci.org

OMSAS GPA Conversion Table Conversion Table

Institution Scale Chart

Reference OMSAS – Undergraduate Grading System Conversion Table [internet]. Guelph, Ontario Universities’ Application Center. Available from: https://www.ouac.on.ca/guide/omsas-conversion-table/

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SPECIAL ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The evolution and publishing of the MMHS Journal of Health Care Careers and Opportunities was a journey that we committed to as the Journal Coordinators of this club. Although we spent many hours discussing, revising and researching, it would be difficult to overstate the importance of the effort and time that our invaluable collaborators donated to this cause.

Firstly, our partnership with The Princeton Review has helped MMHS build this journal to the level of quality and expertise seen today. Through their generosity and support, these volumes have become more reputable and up-to-date.

Finally, we could never have a journal without the 2021-2022 MMHS Executive Team, who each contribute their vast talents and inspire the both of us with their passions for helping students succeed in healthcare. They include: Zani Zartashah, Gurleen Chahal, Pranshu Maini, Abhiraj Minhas, David Mikhail, and Kate Rokoss.

DAVID MIKHAIL Co-President, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, MMHS Executive Team

GURLEEN CHAHAL Co-President, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, MMHS Executive Team

The McMaster Medicine and Health Society Co-Presidents 2021-2022, David Mikhail and Gurleen Chahal, demonstrated leadership throughout the editorial process and provided valuable guidance. This journal would not be successful without their input.

PRANSHU MAINI Editor-In-Chief, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, Research Coordinator, MMHS Executive Team

KATE ROKOSS Editor-In-Chief, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, Research Coordinator, MMHS Executive Team

ZANI ZARTASHAH Editor-In-Chief, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, Graphic Designer, MMHS Executive Team

Zani Zartashah, the 2021-2022 MMHS Journal Graphic Designer, put in extensive hours to design this entire Journal and create a reflective cover.

We would like to acknowledge and thank her for the artistic talents she contributed to this publication.

ABHIRAJ MINHAS Editor-In-Chief, MMHS Journal of Healthcare Careers and Opportunities, Research Coordinator, MMHS Executive Team

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