A Luxury Simplified Construction - Guide to Homebuilding Essentials

G UI DE TO

Home Building Essentials

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Contents! !

I. II. III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X.

Foundation!……………………………………………………………………1!

House!Framing!………………………………………………………………3!

Windows!……………………………………………………………………….4!

Roof!Basics!…………………………………………………………………….8!

Siding!…………………………………………………………………………...11!

Air!Conditioning!……………………………………………………………15!

Plumbing!Systems!…………………………………………………………17!

Electrical!………………………………………………………………………18!

Insulation!……………………………………………………………………..19!

Drywall!………………………………………………………………………...22!

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I.

Foundation

A house needs a foundation to shoulder its considerable weight, provide a flat and level base for construction and separate wood-based materials from contact with the ground, which would otherwise cause rot and allow for termite infestation.

Depending on when and where a house was built, the foundation may be made of stone, brick, preservative-treated lumber, concrete block, or poured concrete. By far the most common material for foundations is concrete.

A poured-concrete foundation may be a raised perimeter foundation, a flat slab, or a combination of the two. Houses in warm climates may have a monolithic slab, where footing, foundation, and slab are a single, integral unit.

A conventional perimeter foundation, such as the one shown in figure 1, has a poured concrete wall supported by a poured concrete footing. Both are strengthened by steel reinforcing rods (also called rebar). This type of foundation is used in connection with both raised floors and slabs.

Most houses have a raised perimeter foundation that supports floors and load- bearing walls. Some are built on a flat, concrete slab that provides both a base for the structure and the bottom floor of the house. Still others, notably vacation homes or small, older houses, rest on a series of concrete piers.

Some houses utilize all of these methods for different portions of the house. Houses with perimeter foundations, for example, often have post-and-pier supports beneath a beam that runs under a load-bearing wall along the middle of the house.

The bottom part of a foundation is called a footing (or footer). The footing is generally wider than the foundation wall and is located about 12 inches below the frost line (the average depth at which soil freezes year after year). The footing distributes the house’s weight to prevent settling and movement.

There are three types of conventional concrete foundations: Poured Concrete, Concrete Block and Post and Pier.

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Figure!1:!Typical!foundation!section!with!a!poured8 concrete!footer!and!wall.!Acceptable!foundation!types! are!regulated!by!building!codes.!

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A stepped footing, as shown in figure 2, can support a concrete block wall. The walls are hollow when laid; steel reinforcing bar is added and the hollows are often filled with concrete. They lend themselves to construction where forming concrete is impractical.

A concrete pier, resting on a footing, may be used to help support beams at mid-span. Though some older homes rest entirely on piers, this method has been phased out in favor of stronger foundations.

Concrete blocks are also used for standard foundation wall construction and are supported by a concrete footing as shown in figure 2. Both the footer and the wall are reinforced with steel rods and the concrete blocks are filled with grout.

Figure!3:!!Concrete!pier!resting!on! a!footing.!

Figure! 2:! Stepped! footing! with! concrete!block! foundation! wall.! Blocks! have! nominal!dimensions!of!

8!by!8!by!16!inches!(they!are!actually! 3/8! inch! smaller! to! allow! for!mortar!joints.!

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II. House Framing: Platform and Balloon Frame Construction There are two basic framing methods: platform and balloon construction as shown in figures 4 and 5. Platform construction (figure 4) is much more common than balloon framing, though balloon framing was employed in many two-story houses before 1930.

With both methods, wall studs and ceiling and floor joists occur every 16 or 24 inches, measured from center to center. These standardized layouts result in the least cutting and waste of floor, ceiling, and wall materials.

Most older houses have 2-by-4 wall studs spaced 16 inches on center; many newer houses have 2-by-6 wall studs either 16 or 24 inches on center to make exterior walls stronger and create a larger cavity for insulation.

Figure!4(left):!Platform!construction!

Figure!5(above):!Balloon!framing!

Exterior wall sheathing adds rigidity to the structure and provides a flat base for siding, stucco, brick, stone, and other exterior wall finishes.

Older homes have diagonal sheathing— 1/2-inch-thick boards nailed on the diagonal. Most newer homes have plywood or similar composite panel sheathing.

Exterior roof sheathing serves the same purposes for roofing materials. Most contemporary roof sheathing is either plywood or oriented-strand-board (OSB) panels; spaced wood sheathing is common for wood shingle roofs. With platform construction (shown at right), walls sit on top of subflooring.

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Multi-story houses are built one level at a time with each floor providing a platform for building the next series of walls. With balloon framing (figure 5), studs run full height from mudsill to the top plate, to a maximum of 20 feet.

This method was popular before the 1930s and is still used on occasion for stucco and other masonry-walled, twostory houses because such structures shrink and settle more uniformly than do platform structures.

But balloon framing is more dangerous to erect because of its weight and height, and the long, straight wall studs required have grown increasingly expensive and difficult to find.

III. Windows

Operable windows may slide up, down, or sideways, or they may hinge outward or inward. The windows shown below represent the major types.

Contemporary windows are available in a number of innovative styles. You can buy bent-glass corner windows, curvedglass windows, or casements with no center stile, for example. Some bow and bay windows, made up by combining fixed and operable units, are also common.

Double-hung windows, classic in appearance, offer excellent control of ventilation. They have an upper outside sash that slides down and a lower inside sash that slides up. Hidden springs, weights, or friction devices help lift, lower, and position the sash. With certain types, the sash can be removed, rotated, or tilted for cleaning. If only one sash slides, the window is called “vertical sliding” or “single-hung.”

A window isn’t just meant to bring light and views into a room. It may also define a room’s shape, provide an architectural focal point, allow for ventilation, and/or provide for emergency escape. To serve widely varying needs, windows are made in a vast array of types and sizes, each of which functions differently.

Broadly speaking, windows are either fixed or operable. Fixed windows are used mostly for accents or where light and views—but not ventilation—are important. Most unusually shaped windows are fixed, as are large picture windows.

Figure!6:!Double–hung!window.!In! some!types,!the!window!sash!can!be! removed,!rotated!or!tilted!for!cleaning.!

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Casement windows, hung singly or in pairs, are side-mounted on hinges and operated by cranks that swing the sash inward or, more commonly, outward.

They open fully for easy cleaning and offer excellent ventilation because they can “scoop-in” breezes.

Awning& windows are like horizontal, top-hinged casements—they tilt out at the bottom, offering partial ventilation, an unobstructed view, and reasonably good security.

Figure!9:!Awning!window.!Hinged!at!the! top,!these!tilt!out.!

Figure 7:!Casement!window.!These! commonly open!outward!and!offer! excellent!ventilation!by!‘scooping!in’! breezes.!

Jalousie windows, also called louvers, are made of glass slats set in metal clips that can be opened and closed in unison.

These offer good ventilation but are drafty in cold climates.

Horizontal slider windows may have one or more fixed panels in addition to one or more panels that slide in horizontal tracks. Only half of the total window may be opened for ventilation at a time.

Figure!10:!!Jalousie!window!or!Louvered! window.! These! are! made! of! horizontal! glass!slats.!!

Figure!8:!Horizontal!slider!window.!

Half!of! the! window! space! may! be! open! at! a!time.!

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Hopper windows are like awning windows except that they hinge at the bottom. Hoppers are normally used for ventilation above a door or another window, where they are protected by an eave.

Round-top windows and others that are geometrically shaped are used as architectural accents.

Figure!13:!!Round8top!window.!!

Figure! 11:! ! Hopper! window.! These! are! hinged!at!the!bottom.!

Tilt-turn windows offer distinctive European styling and have a special advantage over conventional doublehung windows: They tilt in toward the room at the top and also turn a full 180 degrees for easy cleaning. This feature also makes them excellent emergency exits. Look for a multipoint locking system; this adds security and helps keep the window tightly closed.

Bow windows project out like bays but have more than three sections that join to form a gentle curve. Center windows are generally fixed; side sashes are typically casement"windows." " " " " " " " " " " "

Figure! 14:! ! Bow! window.! Often,! the! side! panels!of!these!are!casement!windows.!!

Figure!12:!!Tilt8turn!window!!

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Seamless bent-glass corner windows are fairly new and offer unobstructed views at the corner of a house.

Figure! 15:! ! Seamless,! bent8glass! corner! window!!

Glass block is a light-allowing alternative to conventional windows, used both in exterior and interior walls.

Various patterns allow varying degrees of view or privacy. Typical sizes are 6-, 8-, and 12-inch squares and 4-by-8 and 6-by-8 rectangles made for 4-inch-thick walls.

Figure!17:!!Glass!block!

Bay windows project out from the wall; a center window parallel to the wall is flanked by two windows attached at an angle, usually casement or double-hung styles. Box bays have side windows at a 90-degree angle.

Figure!16:!!Bay!window!

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IV. Roof Basics Drive through nearly any neighborhood and you can see that roofs have many different shapes. Houses have gable, hipped, mansard, gambrel, flat, and shed roofs. Many homes combine roof types on one roof. It’s quite common, for example, to see a hipped roof with gable dormers.

Roof shape is one of the key factors in setting the architectural style of a house.

Roof shape also dictates how difficult and costly a roof will be to build and how it will serve the house. For example, flat, shed, and, in some cases, gable roofs tend to be relatively affordable to build.

Gambrel and mansard roofs offer more head height for attic rooms. Shed roofs are usually the easiest type to connect to an existing roof when adding. Roof framing can be simple or complex, depending on the roof. Overhangs, hips, and dormers add greatly to the complexity of the framing.

For most of us the roof is an afterthought — at least until it starts to leak. Then we realize how critical that surface of our house's exterior really is. Yet, as well as keeping the house dry, the roof contributes greatly to the look of the house, so when building a new house, adding on, or re-roofing, it may pay to consider the options. Right now there are more options in the marketplace than ever, so choosing one is tough.

Figure! 18:! Roof! framing! detail.! Roof! shape! is! one! of! the! key! factors! in! setting! the! architectural!style!of!a!home.!Many!times!roof!types!will!be!combined!on!a!single!structure.!

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The choices range from asphalt shingles to wood shakes and clay tiles, from steel panels to rubber look-a-like slate. The most important trend to note, however, is that as with home-construction materials in general, there is an increasing move towards engineered roofing materials.

This change is being driven by a few different factors. One is simply the high cost of wood. The second is that in many cases, codes now mandate the use of fireproof construction materials. And third, people understandably want to build with materials that not only look good but also are very long-lived.

Asphalt Shingles - the roofing material we all see the most of these days — the one that covers the roofs of a great majority of houses across America — is the standard, three-tab asphalt shingle.

One of the least-expensive roofing options, asphalt shingles are available in a dozen or so different colors both solid and blended. The shingle products being made today are usually guaranteed for 20, or in some cases 30 years, making them an excellent value. Value is the principal advantage of this roofing material, which explains its commonality.

The disadvantage, however, if there could be said to be one, is the fact that it is so common.

The next upgrade from a standard threetab is a thicker variation called an architectural shingle. These shingles are built up to be about twice as thick as a normal shingle with the layers staggered to give them a heavier, more substantial or "architectural" look. In some colors they resemble slate, and in other colors wood shakes. Architectural shingles can add style to a house with only a modest upgrade in cost and they offer up to a 30-year guarantee.

Shingles aka Shakes - For looks, it is hard to beat a wood shingle roof. Over time it weathers out to a gray or soft silver that seems to root the house to the landscape. Several species are used: Western Red Cedar, Alaskan Yellow Cedar and Eastern White Cedar.

Shingles are relatively smooth and cut to a uniform thickness, although they vary in width. Wood shakes are thicker and rougher, being split rather than sawn from the logs. Wood roofs are meant to breathe and should be laid over a substrate that allows air to circulate behind them: skip sheathing — wood strips or battens nailed directly to the roof rafters — is the traditional method of installing a wood shingle roof. About 10 years ago we began using a plastic matrix product that is something like a scrubby pad, which allows air to circulate behind the shingles. This product can be laid on top of a buildingpaper-coated plywood roof deck, making it ideal for a retrofit. Another method of getting air circulation behind the shingles is to lay them on pressuretreated lattice.

For all their great looks, shingles and shakes are expensive to install and do require some periodic maintenance, typically in the form of washing to remove any mildew or moss, and then re-oiling with a clear wood finishing product. There is a newer product out, pressure treated, Southern Yellow Pine, which grays out to resemble cedar and is said to require no maintenance at all.

A properly installed and maintained wood roof should last at least 30 to 50 years. In fact, we have seen roofs on which the shingles were still good after 25 years or so, but the galvanized nails were finally rusting, so be sure to use a high-quality stainless-steel nail!

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Fakes – Because of the limitations of some building codes, shingles or shakes cannot always be used. For example, fire danger in some areas requires roofing material to be fireproof. Accordingly, a heavy architectural asphalt shingle on the roof, and a cementitious shingle manufactured to look like a wood shake for the side walls may be used. Use of these "fake" shakes is rapidly increasing because they satisfy the strict building codes and because they are long lived and require no maintenance.

Slate and Fake Slate - In the Northeast slate was a traditional roofing material for high-end houses and municipal buildings. It is beautiful, lasts for generations, sheds ice and snow, and is very expensive. Because of its cost and weight, which requires a beefier roof structure to support, slate is not often used these days. Fake slate at only about one-third the weight and cost of slate, can be installed using standard tools and techniques. From the street, the discerning eye might be able to tell the difference between engineered and the real McCoy, but most of us would be very house-proud with one of these roofs on our homes. Plus, these shingles are guaranteed to last for as long as 50 years.

Metal - Metal roofs, in the form of corrugated, galvanized sheets, have been a standard feature of barns, sheds and other agricultural and utility buildings for years. This type of roof is cheap, rugged, long-lasting and easy to install — perfect for a utility application. On the other end of the spectrum is a copper roof, elegant enough to grace the country's finest mansions and public buildings. Graceful bay and bow windows are often roofed with sheet copper soldered at the seams. Larger expanses of roof are covered using the

"standing-seam" method, in which one sheet joins with its parallel mate via an interlocking, water-tight seam.

Metal is a great choice for a house in snow country, as well as in agricultural country. Fortunately, in terms of products available, there is much to choose from between the galvanized low-end and the copper high-end. There are a variety of powder-coated steel roof "systems" on the market, some very cost-effective variations on the galvanized sheet-steel theme. Others are factory-built standing-seam roofs, custom made to your house or barn and installed by a roofing contractor. The advantage of these systems is that they require no special fabricating equipment and can be installed by any qualified contractor.

In addition to standing-seam roofs, several types of metal shingles are also available. Regardless of the style you choose, in general, a properly installed metal roof should last you at least 50 years.

Ceramic - Ceramic tile roofs are found throughout the Mediterranean and Levant — and of course in the Mediterranean-Revival-influenced architecture of Florida and California.

Barrel tiles, the most common type of ceramic tile, resemble half cylinders about 16 inches long. In the old days they were individually made by hand, their tapered shape achieved by forming the clay over the top of the thigh.

Tile roofs are quite heavy, so the roof framing must be stout enough to support the load. Waterproofing is achieved via a waterproof membrane laid directly on the roof sheathing. Then the clay tiles are laid one by one in a pad of mortar.

Tiles turned upside down form a trough,

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which is then covered by tiles laid right side up. The whole process is quite labor intensive, which makes an authentic tile roof quite expensive -- about $1,000 per 10x10-foot square, or about three times the cost of a standard three-tab shingle job.

Stucco Siding

In addition to barrel tiles there are a number of variations of clay roof tiles.

Some are shaped like thick shingles, some like slates. A high-quality tile will be hard-fired and will not absorb moisture that could fracture the tile when frozen. Thus such tiles are suitable for northern climates. All high-quality tile roofs are expensive, both in terms of the material and the installation, and so clay tile roofs are fairly rare.

Yet in the long run the most expensive might be the most cost effective, since you can expect to get 60 to 80 years or even more out of a well installed tile roof.

V. Siding Nothing will impact the appearance of your home more dramatically than the exterior siding you choose. As you shop for exterior siding, look for a siding material that suits the style of your house and also fits your lifestyle. If you live in a planned community, be sure to verify that the material you’re considering is within acceptable specs for the community. Listed here are the most popular materials for exterior siding.

Figure!19:!Stucco!siding!

Figure!20:!Stucco!wall!section!

" Traditional stucco is cement combined with water and inert materials such as sand and lime. Many homes built after the 1950s use a variety of synthetic materials that resemble stucco. Some synthetic stuccos have been prone to problems. However, a quality synthetic stucco will prove durable. Tint the stucco the color you want, and you may never need to paint.

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Stone Veneer Siding

Figure!21:!Stone!veneer!

If you think of ancient monuments and temples, you know that stone is the most durable of all building materials.

Granite, limestone, slate, and other types of stone are beautiful and nearly impervious to the weather.

Unfortunately, they are also extremely expensive. Precast stone veneers and facings are more affordable. Some stone veneers look quite genuine, while others are clearly artificial. Austin Stone from Owens Corning Cultured Stone® is one respected brand of precast stone veneers.

Cement Fiber Siding

Figure!22:!Cement!fiber!siding!

Fiber cement siding can have the appearance of wood, stucco, or masonry.

This durable, natural-looking material is often called by the brand names HardiPlank® and HardiPanel®. If you want the look of authentic wood with a bit less maintenance, cement fiber is a good option. Fiber cement siding is fireproof, termite-proof, and may have a warranty up to fifty years. Some older homes have Cement Asbestos Siding made from Portland cement and asbestos fibers. Removing that type of siding can be hazardous, so remodelers often apply a new, modern siding on top.

Wood Clapboard Siding

Figure!23:!Wood!siding!

Modern science has given us many synthetic wood-look products, and yet solid wood (usually cedar, pine, spruce, redwood, cypress, or Douglas fir) remain favorite choices for finer homes. With periodic care, wood siding will outlast vinyl and other pretenders. As with cedar shingle siding, wood clapboards can be stained rather than painted. Many wood frame houses built centuries ago still look beautiful today.

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Brick and Veneer Siding

Made of natural cedar, the shingles are usually stained browns, grays, or other earthen colors. Shakes offer the natural look of real wood, but usually require less maintenance than wood clapboard.

By using stain rather than paint, you can minimize peeling. " Engineered Wood Siding

Figure!24:!Brick!siding!

Made of fired clay, brick comes in a wide variety of earthy, eye-pleasing colors. Although it is expensive, brick is desirable because it can last centuries and probably won't need any patching or repairs for the first twenty-five years.

Quality brick veneers are also attractive and durable, although they don't have the longevity of solid brick.

Cedar Shingle Siding Figure!26:!Engineered!wood!siding!

Figure!27:!Shown!on!a!house!

Figure!25:!Cedar!shingle!siding!

Homes sided in cedar shingles (also called "shakes") blend beautifully with wooded landscapes.

Engineered wood, or composite wood, is made with wood products and other materials. Oriented strand board (OSB), hardboard, and veneered plywood are examples of engineered wood products.

Engineered wood usually comes in panels that are easy and inexpensive to install. The panels may be molded to create the look of traditional clapboards.

Because the textured grain is uniform, engineered wood does not look exactly like real wood. Still, the appearance is more natural than vinyl or aluminum.

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Seamless Steel

Also, aluminum is fireproof and is not usually considered harmful to your health or the environment.

Vinyl Siding

Figure!28:!Seamless!steel!siding!

Seamless steel siding is very strong and resists shrinking and bulging when the temperatures change. The siding is custom fit to the exact measurements of your house. You can purchase steel siding with a wood-look texture. Or, for a modern house, consider the industrial look of corrugated steel.

Aluminum

Figure!30:!Vinyl!siding!on!a!home!

" Vinyl is made from a PVC (polyvinyl chloride) plastic. Unlike wood or cedar, it won't rot or flake. Vinyl is usually less expensive to purchase and install than most other siding materials. There are, however, drawbacks. Vinyl can crack, fade, or grow dingy over time. Vinyl is also controversial because of environmental concerns.

Vinyl Coatings

Figure!29:!Aluminum!siding!

You may think of aluminum siding as an old-fashioned option, but some builders offer it as an alternative to vinyl. Both materials are easy to maintain and fairly durable. Aluminum can dent and fade, but it won't crack the way vinyl will.

If you like the idea of vinyl but don't like the look of vinyl panels, another option is to have a pro spray on a liquid PVC coating. Made from polymers and resins, the paint-like coating is about as thick as a credit card when it dries. Liquid PVC became widely available only a few years ago, and reviews are mixed. The damage caused by poor application can be devastating.

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VI. Air Conditioner Air conditioning is one of those amenities that's easy to take for granted if you have it, and—on a hot, humid summer day—easy to covet if you don't.

In fact, in warm climates, central air conditioners have become more the norm than the exception. In addition to cooling, they dehumidify and filter air, making it more comfortable and cleaner.

Types of Air Conditioners For those who aren't familiar with the term, a central air conditioner works from a central location to distribute conditioned air throughout a house.

Unlike a window-mounted room air conditioner, designed to cool a single room or small area, a central air

conditioner utilizes a central air-handling unit such as a forced-air furnace or heat pump and ductwork to deliver cooling throughout the entire house. A heat pump is related to an air conditioner. It is essentially a central air conditioner that can be reversed in winter to heat a house. Both air conditioners and heat pumps use refrigeration technology to achieve the transfer of heat or cold.

The first decision you will face when choosing an air conditioner is whether to opt for a whole-house air conditioner, one or more room air conditioners, or a heat pump. Central air conditioning is the most popular of the options, particularly for a home that is equipped with a forced-air heating system or, even better, an existing whole-house central air conditioner.

Sizing a Central Air Conditioner Manufacturers produce whole-house central air conditioners in a range of sizes, which raises one of the most important questions you'll face when shopping for a new whole-house air conditioner: How big should it be? You want a central air conditioner to be large enough to cool your home, but you don't want to spend more than necessary for the equipment and you don't want the unit to be so large that it operates inefficiently.

Figure!31:!Typical,!central!air!conditioning!unit!

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Central Air Efficiency

Conditioning

Energy

It is important to recognize that air conditioners are expensive to operate because of today's high cost of energy so it doesn't make sense to buy one that you can't afford to run. The name of the game is efficiency or, in other words, an air conditioner's ability to convert energy (electricity) to cooling in the most costeffective way. Every new air conditioning unit is given an efficiency rating, called a SEER (Seasonal Energy Efficiency Rating). This is listed on the yellow Energy Guide label posted on each unit.

First, find out whether your house can readily accept an air-conditioning system. Installing one usually only makes sense if a house is being newly constructed or has a forced-air heating system that the air conditioner can piggyback on. Retrofitting the needed ductwork is simply too expensive in most cases.

Even in a home with usable ductwork, a standard central air-conditioning system can cost $3,000 to $6,000 because there are so many variables.

Replacing an Existing Unit?

One note about replacing an aging system: Be sure to replace both the outdoor condensing unit and the indoor evaporator. If you just replace the condensing unit, potential gains of a higher-efficiency unit may be lost.

Figure!32:!SEER!or!Seasonal!Energy!

Efficiency!Rating!labels!are!found!on! each!AC!unit.!

Central Air Considerations

Conditioner

Cost

If you are thinking about buying a new central air conditioner, there are a few factors to consider. Buying and installing a central air conditioner is not a do-ityourself project, so you should discuss the following with a qualified airconditioning contractor.

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VII. Drain, Waste & Vent Plumbing Systems The system of pipes that carries water and waste to a sewer"line"or septic tank is call the drain-waste-vent (DWV) system. As the name implies, it has three components: Drain lines collect water from sinks, showers, and tubs; waste lines carry waste from toilets; and vent lines exhaust sewer gases and provide the air pressure to allow wastes to flow freely.

All drain and waste lines slope slightly downward from the fixture toward the sewer or septic system. Water and wastes are carried by gravity. The pipes are large in diameter—typically 1 1/4 inches to 4 inches—to minimize the possibility of blockages. The main soil stack for toilets is normally a 4-inch pipe; showers usually have 2-inch pipes.

Sinks, lavatories, bathtubs and laundry tubs may be served by 1 1/4- to 2-inch pipes. Though some old homes may have pipes made of lead, most drain piping is ABS plastic, cast iron, or copper. Some vent pipes are galvanized iron.

To operate properly and safely, each drain must be served by a vent line that carries sewer gases out through the roof. Several vents may be connected together and joined to one larger soil stack as long as there is no drain above the connection point. Or vents may pass through the roof on their own. Wherever vent pipes penetrate the roof, special flashing protects against roof leaks.

All waste lines should have cleanouts at easily accessible locations. A cleanout is simply a Yshaped fitting in the line that is capped off.

Figure!33:!!Typical!vent!diagram.!Separate! vents!may!connect!to!one!plumbing!stack! before!venting!out!of!the!roof.!

If a blockage occurs in the drainpipe, a cleanout offers an easy place for a plumber" to" snake out the line. To prevent sewer gases and odors from entering the house drains are protected by traps.

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A trap is a curved section of drainpipe that fills up with water, providing a seal.

Drains that penetrate a wall have a P trap, and those that go through the floor have an S trap. The water held by the trap is replaced each time the fixture is used.

VIII. Electrical Whenever we flip a switch, plug in an appliance, or adjust a reading light, we interact with the electrical system in a house. A good electrician can make those interactions easier in a hundred little ways, so it's best to communicate your needs early—ideally after the house is framed and before the drywall or insulation goes up.

That's when electricians have an opportunity to take customers on a jobsite walk-through, showing where they plans to put switches, lights, and receptacles. It's easy to make changes at this point in the process, but once the walls are closed in, any second thoughts become far more difficult and expensive to implement.

Once an electrician starts wiring a house, virtually every aspect of his / her work is controlled by codes, both local and national. These codes are the final word on safe installation practices. Most electricians are meticulous in adhering to them. Some will take extra steps to make sure the systems are safe and easy to use.

Arc-Fault Circuit Interrupters - A conventional circuit breaker can't detect the low-level arcing (a spark-generating short circuit) that can occur on frayed or cut wires. Arc-fault circuit interrupters (AFCIs), installed at the service panel,

protect against such dangerous shorts and are now required in new bedroom circuits.

Low-voltage Lights What a difference a transformer makes.

By taking 110-volt household power and stepping it down to 12 volts, it allows most any homeowner to safely install low-voltage lighting fixtures under cabinets, on ceilings, or around gardens and outdoor walkways. Low voltage doesn't mean dim.

Airtight Recessed Lights Standard recessed lights are stylish space savers, but they leave a hole in your ceiling where air (and heat) can escape.

That's why manufacturers have perfected so-called airtight recessed lights, which block air leaks and even allow insulation to be placed on top of the fixture—a big no-no with old-style can lights. Used throughout the Milton TV project, they're now required by code in many applications.

LED bulbs Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)—now seen primarily in flashlights, traffic signals, and auto taillights—are already saving billions of kilowatt hours of electricity. They use just 10 percent of the power needed for incandescent bulbs of the same brightness and should last for at least 10,000 hours. These wonder bulbs are a contender to be the next big thing in residential lighting.

It is worth noting that current, proposed legislation in many states may ultimately end, or at least significantly change the use of incandescent bulbs.

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IX. Insulation Are you spending too much on your energy bills? If your home’s insulation isn’t up to snuff, you may well be.

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, 44% of the energy used in the average American home goes toward heating and cooling. If your attic, walls, or floors are under-insulated, a large part of your costly conditioned air may be making a beeline for the great outdoors.

For mild climates, have R-11 in the walls and floors and R-19 in ceilings below ventilated attics. For moderate climates, have R-19 in the walls and floors and R-30 in ceilings below ventilated attics. For cold climates, have R-19 in walls and under floors and R38–R-49 in ceilings below ventilated attics.

Where to insulate - Insulation should be installed inside any barrier located between heated and unheated spaces. In essence, it should form an envelope around a home.

Insulation saves you money by minimizing heat loss and reducing drafts, making a house more comfortable. Some types seal out air infiltration, a major contributor to heat loss. Just how well insulation resists heat flow is measured and rated by an R-Value.

Insulation materials differ in their R-values per inch of thickness.

How much insulation is enough? Houses built in the last few years may or may not have optimal levels of insulation, depending on how much attention was given to energy conservation when they were built. But nearly all older homes are likely to be lacking. The best way to find out if your house has enough is to call your local utility company and request information about getting an Figure!34:!Where!to!insulate?!Any!barrier!between! “energy audit.” heated!and!unheated!space.!

Recommended minimum Rvalues for homes vary by climate and may be affected by how a house is built and the type of heating used. Here are a few rules of thumb:

The attic is the most important place for insulation. Buttoning up an un-insulated attic can cut fuel bills by 30%. Bringing a minimally insulated attic up to optimum insulation levels can yield

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comparable results relative to the amount added. And, if an attic is unfinished, insulating it is a relatively easy job.

If an attic is finished with walls and ceilings, insulation should be installed in the end and knee walls, the ceiling joists beyond the knee walls, and, if possible, between rafters of the attic ceiling (however, ventilation between the rafters from the eaves to the ridge should not be blocked). It’s also important for house walls to be insulated, but, in an older, un-insulated house, this doesn’t always pencil out. Insulating walls during construction" before wall coverings are applied is a breeze, but insulating them after the fact is an expensive and complicated proposition (unless you’re remodeling or re-siding the house). If your home has un-insulated walls and is located in a cold climate, ask two or three insulation contractors for bids, and then figure out how long it will take to pay back the cost at a savings of 16%– 20% per year on your energy bill.

Insulating crawlspaces is also helpful; doing so can trim 5%–15% off heating costs. If crawlspaces are reasonably accessible, insulating is generally pretty easy. Outer walls and foundations in finished basements also should be insulated.

Types of insulation - It’s easiest to consider the various insulation materials by category (though there is some overlap): batts and blankets, loose-fill, blown-in, plastic foam, rigid boards and reflective. These categories are based primarily on the material’s form and installation method.

The batts-and-blankets variety is most familiar to homeowners and the type most commonly installed by do-ityourselfers. The main insulating material

is mineral fiber, either fiberglass or rock wool fibers. Batts are sold as precut strips and blankets as continuous rolls.

Both are sold in widths that match conventional wall-stud and ceiling-rafter spacing so they may simply be pressed or stapled into place. They are sold both with and without kraft or reflective foil/vapor- retarder facings. (A vapor barrier is faced toward the warm-inwinter side; types without a barrier are used when adding to existing insulation.)

The advantages of batts and blankets are that they’re readily available, easy for do-it- yourselfers to install, and relatively affordable. Installing them in non-standard stud or joist spacing takes a little extra time since the material must first be cut with a utility knife.

Loose-fill insulations—meant to be poured, stuffed, or blown in place—are made from glass and rock wool fibers, cellulose fiber, or expanded vermiculite and perlite. They’re made from the same spun minerals as batts and blankets but are left loose or made into pellets.

They’re used in attics and walls.

Cellulosic insulation is made from recycled paper and wood fiber treated with a fire retardant. It’s used in both attics and walls. Vermiculite is made from mica ore, and perlite comes from volcanic rock; both are heated and expanded into a fluffy, non-combustible material that is used to insulate ceilings and some walls (mostly concrete block). Loose-fill materials are sold in bags or bales and work well for insulating between ceiling joists in an accessible attic. To fill up wall cavities, pneumatic equipment is often necessary.

When using loose-fill insulation in an attic, it’s usually necessary to install a vapor barrier (such as plastic sheeting) first.

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R-values per 1" thickness Fiberglass batt & blanket 3.27 Rock wool batt & blanket 3.2–3.7 Fiberglass loose-fill (blown-in) 2.2–4.0 Rock wool loose-fill (blown-in) 2.9–3.6 Cellulose loose-fill (blown-in) 3.2–3.8 Vermiculite loose-fill (poured) 2.27 Perlite loose-fill (poured) 2.7 Sprayed polyurethane foam 6.0–7.3 Fiberboard sheathing 1.32 Expanded polystyrene (extruded) 5.0 Expanded polystyrene (molded) 3.85–4.35 Polyisocyanurate board (un-faced) 5.8–6.2 Polyisocyanurate board (faced) 7.1–8.7 Blown-in loose-fill insulation is installed by professional installers or, in some cases, homeowners who rent the special pneumatic equipment needed.

Effectiveness is a direct result of the application technique, so it’s usually best to have this done by a pro.

The material is loaded into a machine that then fluffs and blows it through a hose into the areas between ceiling joists or the cavities between wall studs. The insulation itself may consist of cellulose, loose mineral fibers, fiber pellets, or fibers coated with an adhesive (the latter type being the most effective at sealing a cavity and the least prone to settle once inside a wall).

Foam insulation is installed by professionals. It provides very high Rvalues, doesn’t shrink or settle once in place, blocks drafts caused by air infiltration because it conforms to every nook and cranny, and offers a barrier to moisture.

Sprayed-in-place types are designed for new construction and can be used in walls, beamed ceilings, and around the foundation’s perimeter. They are relatively expensive. (Take note: Avoid urea-formaldehyde foam-in-place insulation because of potentially dangerous vapor emissions.)

Rigid foam-board insulations are made from a number of different materials: asphalt-impregnated fiber board, polystyrene, polyurethane, and polyisocyanurate. These rigid panels are generally used in new construction (or re-siding or reroofing), where they may be installed as wall or roof sheathing, or insulation beneath interior walls or around foundations. Because they are classified as combustible, they cannot be left exposed. The panels may have foil facings on one or both sides to reflect heat.

Reflective insulations, made from aluminum foil, are most effective in hot climates at blocking radiant heat.

Effectiveness depends on whether the foil is simply a flat sheet, used to block heat transfer through roofs, or a barrier that has multiple layers separated by air spaces, appropriate for reducing heat gain through roofs, ceilings, walls, and floors.

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X.

Drywall (Sheetrock) Types & Sizes

Drywall, otherwise known as gypsum wallboard or by the very common trade name of sheetrock, has replaced plaster as the most common wall surface in American homes. It is used as a backing for wall treatments such as wallpaper, fabric, tile, and wood paneling. Or it can simply be painted.

Drywall has the virtue of being easy and inexpensive to install. It is sold in 4-by8-, 4-by-9-, and 4-by-10-foot sheets; the most common thicknesses are 3/8 inch, 1/2 inch, and 5/8 inch—though other thicknesses are available.

Most residential construction" utilizes 1/2 inch.

Standard drywall is subject to moisture damage. Drywall that is water-resistant is identifiable as such because it comes with a thick blue or green backing. It is a must for bathrooms, especially showers, because of the walls’ high exposure to moisture. Both the surface and the core of water-resistant drywall are specially treated to protect against humidity. It is almost always used to back ceramic tile.

After purchasing drywall, make sure to store it flat and in a dry location until you’re ready to install it. Leaning it up against a wall or other vertical surface could cause it to bow or warp and for the edges to crumble. Drywall panels are fastened directly to wall studs or to furring strips applied over masonry surfaces using wallboard nails, wallboard screws, or, in some cases, adhesive. The joints between panels are hidden by wallboard joint tape and joint compound. In some cases, a texture of special topping compound is applied over the entire surface.

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