parkforthefuture

FOR

THE

FUTURE

A BEST PRACTICE GUIDE FOR THE 21 ST CENTURY

printed on

recycled paper

PARK

F O R

T H E

F U T U R E

A BEST PRACTICE GUIDE FOR THE 21 ST CENTURY AUTHOR

Paul Geerts EDITOR

Koenraad Raeymaekers de s i g n

lu'cifer PHOTOGRAPHY

Antwerpen Toerisme en Congres (69) | Bart Vangassen (70) | Eli Devriendt (14/25/26/61/65/79/89/99/103/111/116) | Elke Van de Moortel (25, 79) | François de Heel (66) | Frank Rallings (37/123/134/135/138/141) | Gerald Van Rafelgem (93) | Greg Vantyghem (96/103/125) | Iwan Baan (25) | Karel Vanackere (25/65/110) | Katrien Vermeire (152/155/163) | Koenraad Raeymaekers (13/31/103) | Kristien Daem (65) | Lies Van Lierde (125) | Luc De Belie (54) | Nick Verleye (77) | Niko Van Horenbeeck (31) | Novo Photography (35/141) | Pascal Borgonie (37/156/157) | Paul Geerts (13/17/52/72/79/83/84/85/89/94/103) | Stad Oostende (20/21/29/35/41/47/57/88/99/115/119/123/125/155) | Yves Adams (87) | ZEE.Producties (147) The publisher has strived to obtain copyright clearance for the illustrations in accordance with the provisions of the law as much as possible. Anyone who thinks they can assert certain rights are still requested to contact the publisher.

T R A NS L A T I O N

Belgian Translation Centre

2 1 s t C E N T U R Y P A R K S P R O J E C T T E A M Aleksandra Janowicz | Brian Griffiths | Charlotte Ingelbrecht | Donna Hall | Eli Devriendt | Emma Wray | Frank Rallings | Graham Burgess | Gwenny Cooman | Johan Claeyssens | Julie Willard | Karel Vanackere | Kim Christmas | Kristof Billiet | Norman Kwan | Rebecca Bishop | Rebecca Owen | Richard Shoobridge | Rudy Simoens n E X T E R N A L C O NS U L T A N T S Eddy Pannecoucke | James Lord | Jan Staes | Koenraad Raeymaekers | Luk Vanmaele | Michelle Parker | Paul Deroose | Paul Geerts | Peter Neal | Richard Berry | Ron Welsh | Silvio Caputo | Sofie Depauw | Sophie Watelle n W I T H G R A T E F U L T H A N K S T O ADR architectes | Aglaée Degros | Alain Maes | Allies & Morrison | An Meganck | Anke Vos | Bart Bronders | Bart Slabbinck | Bart Van Gassen | Belgian Translation Center | Beth Axtel | Bill Piggott | Bexhill Museum | Brecht Zwaenepoel | Camber Parish Council | Charlotte Logghe | Chris Blair-Myers | Christina De Prêtre | Christine De Clerck | Christophe De Zutter | Clare Parkinson | Claudie Sculley | Daniel Collins | David Durtnall | David Greenfields | Debbie Peters | Dries Debruyne | DS Ontwerp en Onderzoek bv | East Sussex County Council | Elise Liversedge | Elke Van de Moortel | Environment Agency | Eveline Vermeulen | Filip Vanhaverbeke | Frank Maes | Friends of Egerton Park | Georges Descombes | Graham Burgess | Greet Van Eetvelde | Guido Vandenbroucke | Gunther Vanpraet | Guy Loder | Hannah Mears | Hannes Demeyer | Harlind Libbrecht | Hendrik De Vis | Hendrik Tratsaert | Hosper International bv | Ingenieursbureau Witteveen + Bos Belgium nv | Jacky Dereu | James Waite | James Wassell | Jan Debie | Jan Dewulf | Jean Vandecasteele | Jean-Marie Theuninck | Jemma Crawshaw | Johan Broidioi | Johan Claes | Johan Vande Lanotte | Johan Vandenabeele | Jörn Schöpke | Joy Hughes | Julien Descombes | Karen Landuydt | Kate Moysen | Kathy Belpaeme | Katrien Laenen | Katrien Vermeire | Keri Davis | Kevan Aspeslagh | Klaas De Smet | Kristof Beuren | Kurt Meerschaert | Laura Vanslembrouck | Levi Vermote | Lies Van Lierde | Liesbeth Lefèvere | Lieven Pascal | Louise Mansfield | Luc Deschepper | Maarten Wuestenbergs | Malcolm Johnston | Marc Liebaert | Mark Dowling | Mark Wilschut | Martine Meire | Mathieu De Meyer | Must stedebouw architectuur laboratorium | Natalie Bumpus | Nathalie Dewulf | Natural England | Nick Sibbett | Norman Kwan | Patrice Vanderbeke | Paul Lingier | Peter Craeymeersch | Peter Vanslambrouck | Peter Verhelst | Philippe Beernaert | Phillip Van den Bossche | Rachel Scanlan | Rachel Simpson | Radiator Arts | Robin Vennard | Rolf Quaghebeur | Ronald Van de Sompel | Ruben Joye | Russell Paisley | Samer Bagaeen | Sara De Greve | Sara Demuynck | Sinead Mc Donnell | Siska Van de Steene | Sofie Troch | Stefan Devoldere | Stijn Van de Wiele | Technum Tractebel Engineering | Tom Doust | Tom Germonpré | Tony Leonard | Tourism South East | University of Brighton Planning School | Valerie Titli | Veerle Heyens | Vicky Bracke | Vicky Pettens | Vincent Drouard | Virginie Michils | Wouter Deventer | Yves Miroir | 1066 Country

Published by Kristof Beuren, Stadssecretaris Stad Ostend, Vindictivelaan 1, 8400 Ostend Depot number: C/2013/0342/22

Foreword

[ 4 ]

Stroll or study? How to read this book.

[ 6 ]

1

Where do they come from? Why do we need them?

A walk through the park. [ 8 ]

C h ap t e r 1 A c o n c i s e h i s t o r y o f t h e p a r k [ 10 ] C h ap t e r 2 Th e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k [ 14 ]

B The city rediscovered [ 14 ] C Provider of sustainable urbanism [ 16 ] D Part of a green infrastructure [ 18 ] E City vs. countryside: a new approach [ 22 ] C h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ? [ 26 ]

B Planning and landscape benefits [ 28 ] C A healthy population [ 28 ] D Strong and safe communities [ 32 ] E Recreational benefits [ 34 ] F Tourism benefits [ 34 ] G Enhanced biodiversity [ 40 ] H An improved environment [ 42 ] I Climate mitigation and adaptation [ 42 ] J Renaissance of urban agriculture [ 51 ] 1) Economic benefits [ 56 ]

2

Parks for the 21st century. A blueprint.

[ 62 ]

C h ap t e r 1 H o w m a n y d o w e n e e d ? [ 66 ]

B Quantitative criteria [ 67 ] C A few recommendations [ 68 ]

C h ap t e r 2 Wh e r e d o w e f i n d s p a c e f o r t h e m ? [ 72 ]

B Multifunctional parks [ 73 ] Cemeteries [ 73 ] Spo rts parks [ 74 ] Business park s [ 74 ] Greening car park s [ 74 ] Metro po l itan or regional pa rk s [ 76 ]

C Surprising parks [ 82 ] Post- industrial sites [ 82 ] Landfil l becomes a park [ 82 ] Mil itary zo nes [ 86 ] Railway yards [ 86 ] Motorway turns into a park [ 90 ] Ro oftop parks [ 90 ] Waterfronts [ 90 ]

D Pocket parks [ 92 ] E Historic parks [ 94 ] 2

C h ap t e r 3 H o w c a n w e d e s c r i b e t h e m ? [ 96 ]

B Part of a network [ 98 ] C Accessible [ 101 ] D Multifunctional [ 102 ] E Attractive [ 102 ] Activities [ 102 ] Comfort and fac ilit ie s [ 104 ] Pl anting [ 104 ] Maintenance [ 105 ] Safety [ 106 ]

F Colourful [ 107 ] G Beautiful [ 112 ] H Sustainable [ 113 ] I Flexible and adaptable [ 115 ] C H A P TE R 4 W H AT MAKES A PARK S U CCESSF U L ? [ 116 ]

B Ambition [ 118 ] C Strong management [ 118 ] D An environmental strategy [ 120 ] E Collaboration and integration [ 120 ] F The regional dimension [ 120 ] G Design quality [ 121 ] H Take your time [ 122 ] I Form partnerships [ 124 ] J Participation and consultation [ 124 ] 1) Promotion [ 124 ]

3

6 Best Practice Cases

[ 126 ]

B Master plan and walking routes Camber [ 128 ] C Play-zone in Egerton Park, Bexhill-on-Sea [ 136 ] D Sensory garden in Egerton Park, Bexhill-on-Sea [ 142 ] E The Emerald Necklace (Groen Lint), Ostend [ 148 ] F Duinenkerkje, Ostend [ 156 ] G Nieuwe Koers, Ostend [ 160 ]

Concluding summary

[ 164 ]

Bibliography

[ 166 ]

3

Foreword

Parks

b elong

to

4

e v er y o n e

Pa r k s b e lo n g to e v e r yo n e

What kind of parks do we need in the 21st century? This is the main question in the European Interreg IVa project ‘21st Century Parks’.

The collaboration between the Rother District Coucil in South East England and the city of Ostend commenced in 2010 and during a period of three years it focussed on the study of six specific projects in Ostend (B), Bexhillon-Sea (UK) and Camber (UK).

Concepts, sketches and plans were discussed and evaluated during six workshops. Colleagues within different administrations and disciplines, external experts and students helped to further develop and refine the content of the projects, making it clear what kinds of green space we should be creating today.

In towns and cities such as Bexhillon-Sea and Ostend, the urban green space was mainly conceived in the 19th century. Green areas were principally laid out for the bourgeoisie who spent their holiday by the sea and strolled around in a romantic park. Egerton Park in Bexhill-on-Sea, Leopoldpark and Maria-Hendrikapark in Ostend are shining examples of this.

Much has changed over the course of the ‘incredible’ 20th century. Once the car entered the stage, many parks had to make room for ‘progress’. In Bexhill-on-Sea buildings sprung up in Egerton Park and in Ostend the size of the parks was reduced so that roads could be constructed.

Nowadays, parks and the landscape receive renewed attention. We now know how important and indispensable green public spaces are for the livability of the city and the health of its citizens. Thanks to democratisation we

no longer design parks for a specific group of people, notably the rich and famous of yesteryear. We now design parks and landscapes for everyone: rich and poor, young and old, residents of the coastal towns and tourists!

The ‘21st Century Parks’ project also made it clear that there are many more themes than before. Apart from tourism and recreation, there is also a focus on themes like urban agriculture, mobility, climate change and energy.

The days when green spaces served only one single purpose are long gone.

They used to be merely places to ‘go for a walk and relax for a bit’, but now they have multiple identities and are adapted to the challenges of the 21st century.

Present-day projects are no longer carried out by some renowned architect ‘doing his own thing’ either.

They are now the result of a thorough process during which the different administrative services and the various policy levels are aligned. A project definition is formulated by mutual agreement and an interdisciplinary team is put together to draw up the plans for the project.

The dialogue with the user is crucial to the planning process. Residents and tourists are consulted and thus co-author the story of the 21st-century parks.

Thanks to the European collaboration between the Rother District and the city of Ostend, a great deal of know­ ledge was shared and a focus was placed on the issues faced by coastal towns, such as the seasonal surge of tourists and the specific climatological

5

circumstances. However, the experiences and ‘best practices’ that were gained turned out to be applicable to all towns and cities. They are universal.

Cross-border collaboration is always interesting. It helped us to view our projects from a different perspective. Other European countries place emphasis on different aspects. The final result definitely benefits from this kind of cross-pollination. It makes a project much more layered: stronger, richer, diverse, future-oriented …

This guide not only demonstrates the six case studies that were examined within the scope of this European collaboration. It also contains many international examples of exemplary and inspiring present-day parks, landscapes and other green spaces.

In the first instance, the guide was conceived as a best practice guide for elected representatives from the Interreg IVa Two Seas region. After three years of intense collaboration between the city of Ostend and the Rother District, it appears that it would be best to share the experience and knowledge gained on a much wider scale.

We therefore hope that this guide will serve as an example to all.

We hope you will enjoy reading the Best Practice Guide and will find it useful in focussing on new thinking for 21st-century green spaces!

Jean Vandecasteele, Mayor of Ostend Coucillor Joy Hughes Chairman, Rother Discrict Council Johan Vande Lanotte, Belgian Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Economy, Consumeraffairs and the North Sea

STROLL OR STUDY?

STROLL OR STUDY? HOW

TO

RE AD

6

THIS

BOOK.

How to read this book?

Over the past few decades we have witnessed a striking park revival: all around the world neglected (urban) parks are being renovated and new municipal and regional parks and green spaces are being laid out.

Cities compete with one another for the title of ‘greenest city’. After all, in order to attract and retain residents, visitors and investors it is becoming essential for cities to be able to offer a sustainable environment including an attractive living, leisure and work environment.

The park of the 21st century is no longer an isolated green space within the built-up area. As a public space with a social, economic, cultural and ecological significance, parks are part of a green structure or are integrated in a ‘green infrastructure’ network.

These structures or networks are not limited to the urban space, but they include the entire hinterland.

In this guide we look at the park as

a planning tool to involve green space in the densely packed and dynamic urban and periurban space in a strategic manner. The park becomes a geometric metaphor to designate the gaps in and around the city and the many neglected or reusable spaces, thus giving them new meaning and defining a new agenda for them.

In the first part of the guide we present a number of explanations for the park revival. Why do cities and regions need strong parks? They make the city livelier, more pleasant and more beautiful. They provide breathing space and make sure that the compact city remains livable. They are therefore increasingly used as a lever for urban and regional development. Of course, they also have an important ecological function, both inside and outside the city.

In the second part we explore four themes regarding the new park of the 21st century by means of inno-

vative examples and practices: How many parks do we need? Where can we find the necessary space? What kind of parks do we need? And how can we establish those parks? After all, it became clear over the course of the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’ that the development of parks for the 21st century not only concerns new spatial, urban development and ecological insights, but also new political and administrative planning programmes, forms of cooperation, design methods and participation processes. In this chapter we formulate a number of recommendations or ‘best practices’, based on experiences gained and lessons drawn from the 21st Century Parks project.

Finally, the third part describes a number of ‘best practice examples’ taken from the 21st Century Parks programme in Ostend, Bexhill and Camber.

The different parts of this book can be read either individually or chronologically. The many text boxes provide additional in-depth information or practical examples regarding the overall story. The information in the book is also linked to the six case studies at the back of the book which formed the basis for this project.

For those to whom this publication signifies a starting point for a more thorough study, the many ‘Further reading’ sections and the comprehensive bibliography provide a broad overview of all the information (in print and online) that is available on this subject.

7

1

pa r t

8

A concise history of the park

The comeback of the park Why we need them

Where do they come from?

Why do we need them?

A walk through the park ‘Urban islands in a sea of countryside have evolved into an urban landscape with green fragments in densely populated areas.’

9

P A R T 1   A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Les Tuilleries (Paris)

10

c h ap t e r 1

A

A CONCISE H ISTORY OF T H E PARK

CONCISE

history of

the

p ark

To understand what we want to achieve with our park of the future for the 21st century, it is crucial that we are also aware of its origins. Just like all manner of architecture and infrastructure, parks developed from an ideological basis.

We will describe their origin and evolution in broad outlines.

Aristocratic roots

laid out according to the taste and insights of the upper middle class and offered them appropriate recreational possibilities such as promenading, riding, drinking tea, boating etc. A tearoom, bandstand, statues of local heroes, flowerbeds and exotic plants were rarely absent. Everyone was admitted to these parks, as long as they behaved according to the rules of bourgeois etiquette. Thus the park also had the purpose of ‘educating the people’ (Van Rooijen 1984). Or as the Victorian garden designer and author J.C. Loudon put it: ‘to raise the intellectual level of the lowest social classes’.

Social or philanthropical considerations often played a part as well: the urban and industrial elite believed parks to be necessary to counterbalance the densely populated, dirty and unhealthy cities with their suffocating factories.

These were places where the working class, who did not have the means to escape to the country at the weekend, could relax in a natural setting and literally catch their breath for a moment.

An antiurban ideal which adored arcadian images of nature and which aimed to shut out the sounds, smells and images of the city as much as possible was in fact at the heart of these parks. This manifested itself in the romantic, ‘natural’ design of numerous parks.

Just like the former aristocratic parks, many of these old bourgeois urban parks still function well and they are extremely popular. To a considerable extent, this is due to their multifunctional origin: urban embellishment with the emphasis on aesthetic satisfaction combined with social, educational and recreational motives.

Until the end of the eighteenth century, parks were private property and they were almost exclusively commissioned by aristocrats. Sometimes they were opened to a select public, but their main purpose was the private recreation of the privileged few.

Many of our European urban parks as well as larger green areas on the outskirts of towns and in the country originate from these private domains and estates. It is remarkable that many of these old aristocratic parks currently still function very well in a totally different social, cultural and demographic context. A few examples are the former royal parks in cities such as Vienna, Berlin, London, Paris and Turin.

Mirror of a new ruling class The public (urban) park as we know it today, specially laid out for public use in an urban environment, only came into existence at the end of the eighteenth century and flourished in the nineteenth century. On the European continent these parks often encompassed former fortifications or town ramparts, dissolved monasteries or disused land or estates, originally located outside but now within or on the outskirts of towns.

These parks, sometimes created with private resources, were first and foremost an expression of civic pride.

The urban elite of the day dreamt of embellishing their towns with green spaces and monumental buildings in imitation of their aristocratic predecessors. Parks were

11

PA RT 1

A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Cities running out of puff In the course of the twentieth century many cities lost their lustre and the traditional urban park gradually fell into decline. Although there are considerable differences in this respect between the various European nations and even between various cities in the same country, we can see a few important evolutions.

■■ Due to the scarcity of space, green areas frequently lost out to more powerful sectors such as residential building, trade, industry and often excessive transport infrastructure. Parks as well as town gardens, green ramparts, trees in streets and squares… all green areas were increasingly sacrificed to construction and after the Second World War especially to the car.

■■ At the same time major changes took place in the use of and ideas about the design of urban green spaces. While 19th-century urban parks mainly offered possibilities for passive recreation, 20th-century parks increasingly focused on active recreation: sports and games. This also had an impact on design: less ornamental and more recreational green spaces: for instance, flowerbeds had to make way for sports fields and playgrounds. All things romantic and idyllic went out of fashion, (mono)functional and practical were the order of the day. In many cases this resulted in deplorable banality and uninspired uniformity.

As from the 1960s, the increased attention to nature and the environment influenced the design and management of urban parks as well. Very highmaintenance and traditional ornamental planting was replaced by semi-natural vegetation, new images of nature were introduced and non-native species increasingly had to make way for so-called native plants.

■■ The position of parks in relation to the built-up surroundings also changed, partly due to the growth of suburbs – suburbanisation or urban sprawl – especially from the second half of the 20th century onwards. While they were previously surrounded by buildings as an autonomous object, they gradually became a functional part of the green network and/or framework of the expanding city with ‘green wedges’ and ‘green belts’ (Vroom 2010).

■■ Another negative factor was the economic decline of many cities from the 1960s and 1970s onwards, combined with the increased automobility and the antiurban tendency in numerous European countries.

Cities were no longer poles of attraction but were perceived as dirty, unhealthy, dangerous and to be avoided for various reasons. Those who could afford it abandoned the city and only those who did not

have the financial resources to do so stayed behind. If (inner) cities still attracted new inhabitants, these were mainly migrants. Many cities became impoverished, there was hardly any investment in cities and urban embellishment was out of the question. Green areas were often among the first and main victims: parks and public gardens were neglected and grew poorer.

Instead of flowers they were overgrown with weeds, litter and graffiti. Instead of a meeting place for young and old, urban parks became a kind of no man’s land, a haven for drug addicts and dog fouling. This greatly affected the appearance as well as the livability of cities in various respects: socially, ecologically…

■■ These evolutions were reinforced by new urban design models and ideas, such as the British garden city model with self-sufficient satellite towns in a green setting. Although only a few garden cities were realised according to the concept of Ebenezer Howard, this model and similar ones in numerous European countries resulted in the creation of garden suburbs, residential areas and park-like housing developments in the green outskirts of towns. It even resulted in the development of new cities. Originally intended to steer the growth of cities in the right direction, it reinforced the trend towards deurbanisation and suburbanisation or urban sprawl.

■■ The ideas of the CIAM (International Congresses of Modern Architecture) about the ‘functional city’ formulated in the Athens Charter (1933) also had far-reaching consequences. The CIAM advocated a strict separation between and rearrangement of the city’s main functions – dwelling, work, recreation and transport – and put forward the priority of light, air and space. This functional city was to be realised by means of green strips that separated all sectors of the city with their own specific function. Only one type of housing was to be applied: high-rise blocks with abundant (green) spaces in between to house the rapidly growing urban population. New housing developments often got an amorphous standard green or open space, generally with no real design and of little aesthetic, recreational or biodiversity value. These modernist ideas were applied in postwar reconstruction and in large-scale urban extensions all over Europe, sometimes successfully but more often with near disastrous consequences.

12

h o o F D S Tu K 1 H e t p a r k v a n t o e n

Garden city 'Unitas' in Deurne (Antwerp)

Social housing in Kiel (Antwerp)

‘An antiurban ideal which adored arcadian images of nature and which aimed to shut out the sounds, smells and images of the city as much as possible was in fact at the basis of many parks. This manifested itself in a romantic, ‘natural’ design of numerous parks.

Parc des Buttes-Chaumont (Paris) Trentham Park (Stoke-on-Trent)

13

Park Fiction (Hamburg)

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

‘The measure of any great civilisation is in its cities, and a measure of a city’s greatness is to be found in the quality of its public spaces, its parks and its squares.’ ▼

[ John Ruskin ]

14

c h ap t e r 2 t h e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k

the comeback of

the

p ark

Since the 1980s we have witnessed a remarkable park revival: all around the world neglected (urban) parks are being renovated and new municipal and regional parks and green spaces within and between cities are being laid out. Cities compete with one another for the title of ‘greenest city’. After all, in order to attract and retain residents, visitors and investors it is becoming essential for ‘smart’ cities to be able to offer a sustainable environment including an attractive living, leisure and work environment.

1. the city rediscovered 2. the park as a driver of sustainable urbanisation 3. the park as part of a green infrastructure 4. the new relationship between city and countryside

Once again, the various European countries and cities differ considerably, yet we see several common factors that may explain this renewed interest in (urban) parks.

We can divide them into four closely connected thematic clusters:

The city rediscovered These past few decades we have rediscovered the city, and the attractiveness of city life in terms of spatial quality (physical) and livability (social) is again at the top of the political agenda.

‘For the first time in 50 years there has been a measurable change of culture in favour of towns and cities, reflecting a nationwide commitment to the Urban Renaissance,’ Richard Rogers wrote in the final report of the British Urban Task Force (2005). ‘To us, urbanness is the mentality of the 21st century; this century is the century of the city’, according to the Flemish Urban Policies Task Force (De Rynck et al 2003).

B Various factors and contexts have contributed to this renewed attention to the city. They are connected with the challenges and the opportunities of the city.

■■ The growing concern of urban problems (impoverishment, unemployment, migration and integration issues, ageing, criminality and insecurity, outdated and inferior housing and infrastructure, disused buildings and dilapidation...) as well as their political and social consequences, such as riots and the rise of extremism. This encouraged policymakers and politicians in numerous European countries to invest in urban renewal.

15

PA RT 1

There is a growing awareness that disorderly urban sprawl in the outskirts of the city as well as the increasing scattering of urban functions over the countryside is not just the city’s problem but affects the entire surrounding area too: loss of landscapes, open spaces and nature; loss of local identity and cohesion; traffic congestion and poor sustainability (due to wasteful land use, waste of energy and nature loss).

■■ Fortunately, urban revival is not only a story of endless problems, but also an optimistic story of opportunities and challenges. Over the last two to three decades we have seen economic regeneration in many cities (or metropolitan districts), and the economic and political importance of cities and metropolitan districts has increased. Thanks to urban studies by gurus such as Richard Florida, the city is increasingly perceived as the most important place for development and innovation, and as the engine of post-industrial prosperity. The city is not the problem but the solution.

■■ Cities have again become exciting and inspiring and are gaining popularity as a high-quality environment where people gladly and consciously want to live, work and stay, and as a tourist destination. In particular young, highly-educated double-income couples, who are often employed in some creative profession, like staying and living in the city where openness and

A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

diversity, entertainment and culture can be found. ‘Not urban flight but city air makes you free’ (De Rynck et al 2003).

■■ While the city was considered an ecological wasteland, the opposite of nature, and while urbanisation was considered an important threat to biodiversity until a few years ago, it is now clear that urban wildlife exists as well, and that cities are ecosystems with highly varied habitats (gardens, parks, tracksides, vacant lots, brownfield sites, rivers …), with a unique, rich biodiversity and with species that are able to establish or maintain themselves in this environment and benefit from the specific characteristics of the city. A specific City Biodiversity Index has even been formulated recently to map urban biodiversity and measure the effect of certain policy measures.

In view of the large impact cities have on a country’s nature-protection, environmental and energy balance - our cities' ecological footprint - they also play a crucial part in meeting the many challenges in terms of sustainability, biodiversity, climate and the like (e.g. Global Partnership on Cities and Biodiversity: www.cbd.int).

■■

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Department for Communities and Local Government 2000 | De Rynck et al 2003 | Kelcey 2011 | Müller 201 | Urban Task Force 1999 | Urban Task Force 200 | De Bruyn J. & Vermeulen S. 201 | www.fh-erfurt.de/urbio | www.conturec.de

Provider of sustainable urbanism Nowadays parks are generally recognised to form an important part of the urban revival, and it is common knowledge that strong and smart cities and regions need strong and smart parks. ‘Start with the Park’ was the advice of the British Commission for Architecture & the Built Environment (2005).

Many cities try to attract new investments, visitors and inhabitants by means of large-scale spatial projects.

Barcelona was a European pioneer in this respect and many European cities have followed its lead since then. All manuals and manifestoes concerning urban renaissance and sustainable urban development emphasise that the quality of public spaces in general and of green spaces in particular is a crucial factor. ‘Well-designed and maintained public spaces should be at the heart of any community.

They are the foundation for public interaction and social integration, and provide the sense of place essential to engender civic pride’, wrote the Urban Task Force in its final report (2005). ‘Parks and green spaces should be at the centre of the renaissance of our towns and cities’, stated

C

Sally Keeble, former British Regeneration Minister, in the Urban Green Spaces Task Force’s final report (2002).

■■ A certain density and concentration should be aimed for to maintain the city’s specific characteristics and advantages as well as to prevent further urban sprawl.

However, cities are not made of bricks and mortar alone. The extensive hard surfaces and high building density have an adverse effect on the urban climate and make cities unattractive for both people and wildlife. Once the limit of livability has been exceeded, urban densification becomes counterproductive.

People will leave the compact city looking for greenery and space. An important reason to abandon the city may be a lack of urban (child-friendly) green spaces.

Under such conditions, animals and plants will no longer survive in the city either.

■■ Finding the right balance between density and compactness on the one hand and quality of life in a healthy urban environment on the other constitutes the main challenge to urban areas in Europe.

16

c h ap t e r 2 t h e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k

Density is only sustainable if green zones, water and open spaces are sufficiently available. In an urban environment with a healthy rhythm there is a continuous dialogue between ‘green’, ‘blue’ and ‘red’. We need to think about these matters not separately but in an integrated manner: intelligent densification means interweaving programmes and sharing facilities. This is an essential condition for sustainable urban and metropolitan development.

■■ Partly under the influence of authors such as Jan Gehl and Larry Beasley, attention has shifted from the parade of architectural icons and skylines to coherence in the urban fabric, the cultural and historical stratification, street life and the comfort of inhabitants and users. New urbanness is about the creation of a comfortable city for inhabitants and users, urban coherence and the establishment of good connections.

■■ All too often, green spaces are still seen as the harmless and idyllic antithesis of the city or as a residual category which is to compensate the imperfections of city life. Green spaces are perceived as a buffer to separate residential areas, divert attention from unsightly

buildings or hide industrial installations from view while they should highlight the qualities of the city instead of concealing flaws, connect instead of separating.

■■ A new urban design concept, so-called ‘inverse urban design’, is based on urban areas counterbalanced by green spaces. As these spaces are considered valuable and inviolable, the system of open spaces within the urban agglomeration will determine the structure and image. This way ‘the land in the city’ becomes the basis for further urban development. The layout of public space and the surrounding built areas will need to be adjusted to this. Instead of taking up space, green zones therefore become vectors of space.

A new kind of inverse distribution pattern appears around the chain of open spaces, in which particular functions are located on the margins of green enclaves (Heyn & Hermy 2002).

■■ The urban flight and post-industrial dereliction in cities provide room for new functions and a better living environment, partly because of the creation of more or new types of green space.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG De Gravelaine F. 200 | De Roo M. 201 | Cabe Space 2005b | Greater London Authority 200 | Mayor of London 201 | Natural England 2009b | Simoens I 2010b | Turner T. 1996 | VROM-Raad 201 | Williams K. 2004 | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/communityrevitalization.htm | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/smartgrowth.htm | www.thegreencity.com

The Reichstag (Berlin)

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A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

‘High quality parks and public spaces are an essential feature of successful neighbourhoods where people want to live, work, play and invest. They are vital to people’s health and the local economy.’ ▼

[ Michael Bloomberg - Design Trust for Public Space & The New York City Department of Parks & Recreation 2010 ]

Part of a green infrastructure Parks are not just important as ‘green spaces’ where people can relax, stroll or play, a kind of ‘high-quality emptiness’ in a built-up environment. Over the last few years there has been a growing awareness that they also play an important ecological part and that they are very useful as ecosystems, e.g. for water treatment and storage, habitat protection, improvement of the air quality, CO2 storage, keeping cities cool, etc. In that sense they are an important part of the so-called green infrastructure.

Green infrastructure is a relatively new concept originating in the Anglo-Saxon world. It has recently been put at the top of the European Union’s agenda as a crucial pillar of the European policy with regard to biodiversity, ecosystem services and adaptation to climate change. The European Commission even considers green infrastructure to be the key to embed these topics in most other European policy areas.

■■

d

In other words, mutual gains are sought that combine economic, sociocultural and ecological values and interests. The focus is no longer on ‘separating’ but on ‘interweaving’.

In this sense it differs from comparable concepts such as ecological networks, functional greenery or a green space strategy. Although these ecological networks and green spaces are important parts of the green infrastructure, they have a more limited scope. In case of an ecological network the ecological approach takes precedence, e.g. the protection of biodiversity.

A green space strategy mainly focuses on the accessibility and recreational or aesthetic quality of individual green spaces. In case of functional greenery the risk exists that one specific function is put in the forefront, e.g. the preservation of biodiversity, recreation, adaptation to climate change or combating air pollution, at the expense of other possible functions. [ table 1 ]

At the basis of the concept of green infrastructure is the conclusion that our current, often monofunctional land use creates all sorts of problems in terms of biodiversity, the environment (air pollution, water management, climate change...), mobility, housing quality and quality of life. Instead, green infrastructure assumes that each piece of land can have several functions or can provide several so-called ecosystem services. These functions and services can interact with and reinforce each other, but they can also interfere with each other.

In the case of some local development projects and infrastructure works, it is already mandatory to draw up an environmental impact report and conduct a water assessment. In a sense this is a negative ‘either/ or’ approach: environmental damage caused by a specific type of land use is prevented. The concept of green infrastructure goes one step further. It takes all (possible) relevant functions of a certain area into consideration and aims to maximise them by seeking synergies. It is an ‘and/and’ approach which attempts to create win-win situations by interweaving functions.

18

■■

Green infrastructure can be considered as the spatial translation of - or the site-specific approach to - the ecosystem services concept on all scale levels (neighbourhood, city, region …). The European Environment Agency expressly links green infrastructure to the European land-use policy and the sustainable urban development policy (European Environment Agency 2010).

The focus is no longer merely or mainly on the conservation and protection of valuable natural areas or landscapes, but it takes the whole territory of a municipality, city or region into consideration, including open farmland, recreational areas, parks, private gardens, tracksides and former industrial or landfill sites.

■■

Contrary to traditional nature policy, which starts from the intrinsic ecological value and mainly focuses on biodiversity (species and habitat protection), the ecosystem services approach starts from an anthropocentric vision of nature: human well-being is central to this approach. Public support for investments in green infrastructure is increased as the

c h ap t e r 2 t h e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k

‘Green Infrastructure (GI) is the network of natural and semi-natural areas, features and green spaces in rural and urban, terrestrial, freshwater, coastal and marine areas. It is a broad concept and includes natural features, such as parks, forest reserves, hedgerows, restored and intact wetlands and marine areas, as well as man-made features, such as ecoducts and cycle paths. The aims of GI are to promote ecosystem health and resilience, contribute to biodiversity conservation and enhance ecosystem services. (…) GI also promotes integrated spatial planning by identifying multi-functional zones and incorporating habitat restoration measures into land-use plans and policies. Ultimately, GI can benefit human populations and contribute to a more sustainable economy based on healthy ecosystems delivering multiple benefits and functions.’ ▼

[ European Commission Directorate-General Environment 2012 ]

economic and social importance of this infrastructure, the future importance of clean air and drinking water, and the mitigation of climate change are emphasised.

The expectation is that public and private organisations are more inclined to manage green spaces with care and are prepared to invest in them if it is clear that it is not just about the protection of wildlife or ‘the environment’, but that it is also in their interest e.g. since they can gain economic and social returns from such management and investments.

For instance, a property developer who wants to recoup his investment as soon as possible, may be more prepared to invest in sustainable dwellings and attractive green surroundings if he realises that by doing so he can fulfil his obligations with regard to water storage and that people are willing to pay a higher price for such dwellings or offices.

A municipality will be more inclined to invest in a park if it turns out that it will pay for itself through an improvement of the urban climate of life – attracting new inhabitants, investors and tourists. The same is true of a green bicycle route: a study under the authority of the Flemish Land Agency (VLM) calculated that the construction of a green cycling belt around Bruges would result in an economic gain of 5.7 million Euros, particularly thanks to a reduction in car use, a decrease in air pollution, higher real-estate prices and more tourists. The investment would be completely recovered after 13 to 20 years (Verspecht et al. 2010).

Conversely, people may be less willing to sacrifice an existing green space or park to widen a street or to

build a new housing development if they realise the impact this has on a specific location with regard to water management, air quality, biodiversity, mobility and livability – an impact which can even be expressed in economic terms – and the investments that would be required to compensate this loss of ecosystem services.

In a sense you could argue that green infrastructure forms the bridge between ecology and economics.

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19

The term ‘infrastructure’ is meant to highlight the fact that natural resources such as landscapes, coastlines, wetlands, natural areas, urban parks, street trees and their ecosystems are no side issues or additional costs, but essential conditions to be able to provide ecosystem services and enable sustainable growth and development. Green infrastructure is a type of infrastructure which is as indispensable in economic terms as the ‘grey’ infrastructure of roads, railways, sewers, gas pipes and electric lines. Green infrastructure may help to prevent or mitigate the negative impact of ‘grey’ infrastructure. For instance, a park in a densely built-up area may prevent flooding, reduce air pollution and increase biodiversity. Green infrastructure can sometimes be an attractive, sustainable and cheap alternative to ‘grey’ infrastructure. A classic example is green infrastructure for water retention and drainage, so-called sustainable drainage systems (SUDS), such as drainage ditches, ponds and rainwater infiltration systems. Research in Scotland and Sheffield revealed that its construction and maintenance can be half as

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A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Best pr ac tic e e xam pl e [ 1 ]

Ost e n d |B|

‘Oostends Krekengebied’ nature development project 630 ha on the territory of the towns of Ostend, Oudenburg -- The water level in Zwaanhoek has been adjusted so that water-loving birds and plants would and Gistel (province of West Flanders). Oostends thrive there; the owners and users have been Krekengebied is designated as a natural area in the compensated for this water level adjustment. regional plan, but until recently it was used intensively for -- Buffer strips of pastures or meadows and reedbeds have ­agricultural purposes. been created around creeks so as to protect the banks from The area consists of five parts: fertilisers and to provide birds with attractive breeding sites.

-- Zwaanhoek -- Ponds and drainage ditches have been deepened, so -- Grote Keignaart and Kleine Keignaart that they can contain more water and attract -- Zoutekreek, Sluiskreek and Straatkreek more meadow birds in spring. The drainage -- the Snaaskerke clay pits ditches had been filled up over the years.

-- the afforestation area (Gauwelozekreek and the Recreation area between Grintweg and the A10 motorway).

-- A watchtower was constructed at the PlassendaleManagement of Oostends Nieuwpoort canal (‘Het Rietnest’) and an krekengebied is carried out by: observation platform was installed at the provincial -- the Nature and Forest Agency (ANB) cycle path ‘Groene 62’ (the old railway between (Zoutekreek-Sluiskreek) Ostend and Torhout) near the confluence of -- the City of Ostend/vzw Buitengoed Zoutekreek, Sluiskreek and Oude Straatkreek. (forest on the edge of the city) -- A cycle route was created from Oudenburg -- Natuurpunt (reserve plots in Zwaanhoek, Grote to Ostend and Zandvoorde.

Keignaert, watchtower Het Rietnest) Water management -- the province of West-Flanders (Groene 62 cycle path) -- Middenkustpolder (water management at -- Individual water treatment plants were installed at the Grote Keignaert and Zwaanhoek) properties of private individuals and farmers to prevent -- the Flemish Environment Agency (VMM) domestic waste water from polluting streams and ditches. (water management at Blauwe Sluis) -- To prevent flooding in the new Zwaanhoek residential area, a circular ditch with a pumping The project includes the restoration of landscapes and of station was constructed around the area. the natural environment, creates facilities for quiet recreLandscape ation and encompasses measures for water control and improvement of the water quality.

-- A noise bund was constructed along the A10 motorway between Ostend and Bruges.

Several measures of this project have been included in the -- A few overhead electricity lines were undergrounded.

European project ‘Urban Habitats’, which supports measures -- Green buffers were created to hide sheds, to increase the amenity value of the surroundings of cities. industry and residential areas from view.

On 29 February 2012 the project received the ‘Duurzaam Participation Kustproject 2012’ Award, granted by the Coordination -- Several walks were organised to involve residents.

Centre for Integrated Coastal Zone Management.

See also Part III, Case 4, p148 

Advantages of green infrastructure

Restoration of the natural environment

Within the scope of this project, the Flemish Land Agency (VLM) negotiated with farmers to better adjust agriculture to nature in the future. After all, Oostends Krekengebied has the potential to become a valuable natural area with a wide variation of plants and wildlife. The development works were aimed at encouraging this evolution:

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c h ap t e r 2 t h e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k

g r e e n

s pac e

urban forest / urban park nature reserve cemeteries river / sea / lake sports fields playground for children street trees roadside / public garden p r i vat e g r e e n s pace city garden, front garden cultivated land green roofs wall gardens (school) vegetable garden, local (CSA) farm, allotment or community garden

social contacts

local food production

embellishment through green space / stimulating environment for sustainable mobility

experiencing nature: silence, smells, sounds of nature, biodiversity

pollination

ecosystem services p u b l i c

cool air corridor

Source: Simoens 2010b

rainwater infiltration / transpiration

The matrix demonstrates that various types of urban nature provide different services and that different services are provided by several types of urban nature.

air filtration

Matrix of ecosystem services per urban nature type

open green space / blue space for recreational purposes

table [ 1 ]

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expensive as traditional ‘grey’ infrastructure (Bartens 2009; Wilson et al 2009).

‘Infrastructure’ also refers to something which has to be actively planned, designed, realised and managed, something which does not come about by itself and cannot be left to ‘natural’ processes but is the result of conscious choices and actions.

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A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

become valuable. The same applies to a paved urban square or a playground that is integrated into a recreational network.

■■

It is also crucial that the different types of green infrastructure are interconnected and form a part of a spatial and functional network. In a sense, parks can be seen as the pearls in a ‘green’ necklace.

A specific location (e.g. a park or a dune system) or link (e.g. a cycle path or a river valley) can have useful functions, but cannot and does not have to provide all desired or potential ecosystem services by itself. Only by combining these locations and by connecting them spatially and functionally can the recreational, ecological, social, spatial and other effects of green infrastructure be utilised in an optimal manner. The network as a whole is larger than the sum of all individual components combined. Moreover, if green infrastructure is too fragmented, the ecological or social results will invariably be sub-optimal. Some locations can only be considered to be green infrastructure if they are part of a network. An industrial estate or an abandoned railway may in itself have little ecological or social value, but as part of a recreational or ecological network it may

Finally, it is a strategic planning tool. Green infrastructure needs to be considered a structural component of spatial planning and urban development policy. When it comes to spatial development, both in the country and in the city and everything in between, the existing green infrastructure has to be systematically protected and reinforced, and new green infrastructure has to be created and brought together in a network.

Furthermore, green infrastructure requires an integrated and interdisciplinary approach, involving not just the ‘green’ sector but all other sectors as well. It is linked to land use, spatial planning and urban development, landscape architecture, ecology, recreation and tourism, and numerous other disciplines. Only if all these sectors and disciplines cooperate from the start in a colourful coalition, green infrastructure can be realised successfully. In this process, the colour green does not always need to predominate, as the infrastructure is the result of a colourful coalition. The point is to achieve the best possible solution at every scale level through an optimal combination of all functions. In case of a sectorial, defensive solution many opportunities for an integral, forward-looking and sustainable approach remain inaccessible. [ Best practice example 1 ]

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Barton, M., & Jones, N. 200 | Benedict M.A. & McMahon E.T. 2002 | CABE Space 2009b | CABE 2011 | Ecologic Institute 2011 | EU

Working Group on Green Infrastructure 2011 | Forest Research 201 | Green Infrastructure Working Group 201 | Institute for European Environmental Policy 2011 | Landscape Institute 2009 | Mayor of London 201 | Mazza L. et al. 2011 | Natural England 2009a | Naumann S. et al. 2011 | Pankhurst H. 2012 | Rother District Council 2011a | Town and Country Planning Association 2008 | University of the West of England Science Communication Unit 2012 | www.defra.gov.uk/ environment/natural/green-infrastructure/uknea.unep-wcmc.org | ec.europa.eu/environment/nature/ecosystems/index_en.htm | www.functioneelgroen.nl | www.ginsw.org.uk | www.greeninfrastructurenw.co.uk | www.value-landscapes.eu

City vs. countryside: a new approach Thanks to the city’s rediscovery and renaissance it is becoming increasingly clear that a strict separation between city and countryside, which in fact no longer exists, is not advisable anymore. A new relationship between city and countryside, new models of urbanness and rurality are required for the future.

City and countryside are increasingly interdependent in economic, social, cultural and ecological terms. The vitality, livability and sustainable quality of one depend on that of the other. The issue of urbanisation is therefore no longer limited to the historic city centre and its periphery, but has become a regional question. This concerns the spatial organisation of functions of the city as well as the countryside, the transformation, diffusion or densification of the

E

existing urban area and the spatial linking of functions as the Dutch Council for Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment (VROM) stated in its advice on sustainable urbanisation (VROM 2010).

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22

On the one hand, historic town boundaries have become diffuse, and the concept of the city as a spatial reality has become uncertain. Despite the arguments in favour of a ‘compact city’ and ‘densification’, cities continue to sprawl in various European regions and the built-up area continues to expand. This process no longer takes place exclusively or mainly in concentric circles as was the case in the 19th and early 20th centuries, but is taking place in a quite chaotic manner,

c h ap t e r 2 t h e c o m e b a c k o f t h e p a r k

following complex patterns which are referred to as ‘patchwork structures’ or ‘fragmentation’.

On the other hand, rural areas – at least in the urbanised regions of Europe – are no longer the idyllic antithesis of the city, the residual mirror image of urbanisation. The suburban countryside has also been fundamentally changed, albeit with varying intensity, by the successive urbanisation waves and socio-economic changes. Its characteristics are increasingly urban: they are fairly densely built-up, their open space is fragmented, they contain concentrations of shopping areas ... This is why terms like diffuse city, urban field, post-urban city, dispersed city, metropolitan region and metropolitan district are used.

Urban islands in a sea of countryside have evolved into an urban landscape with green fragments in densely populated areas of Europe such as South East England and the Low Countries.

■■

The categories 'city' and 'countryside' have not become obsolete, but they need to be updated. A major challenge consists in organising the coexistence of a new urbanness and a new rurality. Neither the facilitation of ‘urban sprawl’ nor the protection of the ‘idyllic landscape’ should currently determine the agenda of urban development. City and countryside have become so interwoven spatially and in terms of programmes - often in a problematic and complex way - that the challenge is to improve the quality of the relationship between them and to lay out the urbanised landscape.

One could say that 50% of a good urban policy is implemented outside the city, whereas 50% of a good rural policy is implemented inside the city. Sustainable development and density controls should play a key part in this.

The Flemish white paper ‘The Century of the City’ emphasises that compact urbanisation (‘the city must be even fuller, the countryside even emptier’) is not the only answer to the question as to which form of urban development is the most sustainable. The scale has become too large, the functions follow their own logic, which leads to relocation. Moreover, city dwellers should not be burdened with all the negative aspects of an ‘open and urban’ land-use policy which protects green and suburban areas from additional urbanisation.

In that case city dwellers bear the entire burden and there is a danger that the quality of life in the urban living environment will deteriorate even further.

On the other hand, a pleasant urban climate of life with sufficient green and open spaces may ease the pressure on the countryside.

Depending on the local situation, this may mean that

in some cases investments are made in a good distribution of urban functions over a wider area, while in other cases investments are made in the reinforcement of the existing urban core area.

■■

In case of sustainable urbanisation, the main objective should be the spatial connection of locations and flows, a ‘clustered deconcentration’ or ‘poly-centrality’, a grid with lines, nodes and meshes, divergent in nature and size. With locations inside and outside city centres for living and working, recreation, culture and nature.

A patchwork of green fields and urban rooms – both central and peripheral – which melt into one another, overlap and interact, but still retain enough identity to be recognised as a ‘place’. With flows or connections between parts of the city, urban fragments in the periphery and the wider ‘metropolitan’ hinterland of the extended city. Through high-quality green zones in the vicinity of the city, the quality of life is improved and urbanisation and climate change are countered in a sustainable manner.

■■

Urban green spaces can increase a city’s integration of the landscape. The presence of greenery in the city and a penetration of peripheral green space into the city or town centre improve the transition between city and countryside. While people try to protect nature in the environs at any cost, they often forget that nature does not stop at the city gates. The better the integration of urban and rural areas and the more it is spread out, the more diverse the flora in a city will be.

■■

In the past, public space was almost exclusively situated within cities and the policy concerning public space was chiefly aimed at (central) urban locations.

Nowadays, public space is not just situated within cities anymore. This is not just attributable to urbanisation processes, but also to changes in leisure activities.

The ‘open space’ outside the city, which until recently mainly had a single function as agricultural land, forest or natural area, is gradually becoming ‘public space’, an ‘urban park’ for leisure and recreation as well as for nature development and experiencing nature.

Public (especially recreational) joint use of open space is not only linked to landscape qualities (an attractive landscape, water, forests) but, especially near residential centres and in tourist regions, also to good facilities which make the space more accessible (e.g. walking trails, cycle paths and bridle paths with accompanying signposting, picnic benches and information panels) and introduce new meeting places.

The same applies to (small-scale) nature development by restoring small landscape elements

23

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(e.g. hedges, woodlands, ponds, river valleys and dunes), creating ecological corridors and managing verges along farmland in a more ecological way.

To steer this functional transformation of ‘open space’ – which in fact is a soft form of urbanisation – in the right direction, it is important to formulate location-specific visions with respect for the capacity of the landscape and the natural structure. The question is not whether these transformations are good or bad as such – they are irreversible – but where they can be allowed, what land-use can protect the open space and how they can be organised to increase their quality.

However, it is crucial that these spaces continue to fulfil their social or other functions and that they retain their intrinsic value as open space as well as their ecological significance. (Tempels et al 2012).

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A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Within this scope, coastal areas are a special case: they are being transformed even more rapidly into man-made, artificial spaces. The population density on the European coasts continues to rise, sometimes even faster than inland. On average, the population density on the coast is 10% higher than inland. The transformation of natural coastal areas into artificial spaces is increasing even faster than the population density. The main causes of this trend are housing (in many areas this mostly concerns second homes), services, recreation and transport infrastructure.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG De Rynck F. et al. 2003 | Fuchs A. 2010 | Pauleit

S. et al 2010 | Samenwerkingsverband Saul 200 | Suurenbroek F. & Pais do Amaral A. 2010 | Tempels B et al. 201 | VROM-Raad 2010

Conclusion The 21st-century park DOES NOT STAND on its own The 21st-century park is no longer a more or less isolated, autonomous green space within the built-up environment where people can relax, stroll or play. As a public space of important spatial, social, economic and cultural significance, and as an ‘ecological space’ with an important role to play in matters like biodiversity, adaptation to climate change and water management, parks are part of a green structure or are integrated into a green network. These structures or networks are not limited to the urban space, they also include the entire inter-urban or metropolitan hinterland.

24

Diemerpark (Amsterdam) Floriade (Venlo) hcoh2012 o ap FD tS e Tu r 2K t2h c e ocm o embeabcakc v k ao n f hteht e p p a ar rk k

The Noriyuki Inoue cycle path (Ostend)

Latokartano district (Helsinki)

Superkilen Park (Copenhagen)

25

Omgeving Badeschiff (Berlijn)

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

‘The era of pavement and concrete is an era of the past.

We want to grow smart. We want to grow green and we want to enhance the quality of life for our citizens.’ ▼

[ Antonio Villaraigosa, Los Angeles, California Mayor, March 7, 2006 ]

26

c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

Why

do

we

n eed

the m ?

Strong and ‘smart’ cities and regions need strong and ‘smart’ parks. As an important part of public space and crucial green infrastructure, parks can provide a huge range of functions to man and society.

Why do we need parks more than ever in the 21st century?

Parks make cities more lively, agreeable and beautiful, they provide us with numerous recreational possibilities and ideal meeting places. They provide breathing space and make sure that the compact city remains livable as well. This way they improve a city’s or region’s housing quality and quality of life: they can keep inhabitants from fleeing the city centres and also attract new inhabitants and investors. They are therefore increasingly used as a lever for urban and regional development.

Parks give structure to the city, reinforce the urban fabric and help to channel public space. Sometimes, they are a living witness to our cultural heritage. Of course, they also have an important ecological function, both inside and outside the city. Thanks to their climate-regulating and air-cleaning function, they can reduce the pressure on the environment in a way that is perceptible outside the city as well.

We could come up with a thousand reasons. We have listed the ten most important ones in the following chapter: 1. planning and landscape benefits 2. a healthy population 3. strong and safe communities 4. recreational benefits 5. tourism benefits 6. enhanced biodiversity 7. an improved environment 8. climate mitigation and adaptation 9. places for urban agriculture 10. economic value

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG American Planning Association 2005 | Bade T. et al 2011 | CABE Space 2005b | Cooper C.C. & Francis C. 1990 | De Roo M. 2011

|

Design Trust for Public Space and The New York City Department of Parks & Recreation 2010 | Harnik P. 2010 | Ken Worpole 2012 | Landscape Institute 2011a | Mayor of London 2012 | Natural England 2009b | Pötz H. & Bleuzé P. 2012 | Scherer P.M. 2006 | Urban Green Spaces Taskforce 2002 | www.cabe.org.uk | www. green-space.org.uk/resources/aboutparks/benefits.php | www.greenstructureplanning.eu/COSTC11

27

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Planning and landscape benefits Parks generate considerable planning and landscape benefits: they help to give structure to the urban landscape, just like architecture they create familiarity and identity, and they contribute to the attraction of the urban landscape.

■■ As part of a green-blue network, parks belong to a framework in which cultural heritage, landscape qualities and infrastructure are integrated into a coherent whole.

■■ High-quality parks contribute to the beauty and attractiveness of the city and enhance the environmental and housing quality.

■■ Well-designed parks contribute to a balanced spatial structure which creates familiarity, harmony, spatial coherence and identity or, conversely, may help to create spatial diversity.

■■ Parks can be used to improve links between a city’s different districts and neighbourhoods and open them up.

■■ Parks can be used to upgrade outdated or neglected districts and neighbourhoods or abandoned sites and/or transitional spaces; they can also generate investment.

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■■

■■ ■■

■■

Parks can contribute to an increase in the landscape value of valuable buildings or sites, or, conversely, be used as a buffer from less attractive or unsightly transport, commercial or industrial infrastructure.

Just like architectural icons, parks can have an important spatial and symbolic significance in the transformation of problem areas in the city. They can help to experience and value certain locations differently.

Parks can have considerable historic and cultural significance and value.

Parks are often the only or the most important ‘natural’ element in an increasingly dense and compact urban setting.

Parks can contribute to a more harmonious, highquality transition between built-up areas and their rural periphery.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Ahern J. 2007 | Basdevant M. et al. 2009 | Becker

A. & Schmal P.C. 2010 | Benitez C.P. et al. 2007 | Czerniak J. & Hargreaves G. 2007 | De Gravelaine F. (ed) et al. 2001 | De Wit S. & Aben R. 1998 | Landscape Institute 2009 | Nicolin P. et al. 2012. | Palmboom F. 2010 | Shannon, K. & Smets M. 2010 | SWA et al. 2011 | Waldheim C. 2006 | www.cabe.org.uk | www.planning.org/cityparks | www.rudi.net

A healthy population Over the past few years dozens of scientific reports have been published which demonstrate that high-quality and accessible green space has a major impact on people’s health as well as on their mental and physical well-being.

c hoods with plenty of green space.

The above research has demonstrated that people living in a green environment not only feel healthier, they are in fact healthier: they consult their GP about health problems less often. Notably, complaints such as anxiety disorders and depression occur less frequently, as do high blood pressure, heart conditions, back and neck complaints, respiratory conditions, gastrointestinal complaints, migraine and dizziness,.

For children up to 13 years of age the relationship between green space and health is stronger than in other age groups. For youngsters and elderly people, this relationship is also stronger than in other age groups. People with low socio-economic status are also more susceptible to this phenomenon than people with high socio-economic status. This means that a park in a neighbourhood with many poor and low-skilled residents may very well have a more positive effect on people’s health than the same park in a wealthier

Mental and physical well-being The mere proximity of green space has a positive impact on mental and physical health.

■■

b

The quantity of green space plays an important part in this. For instance, recent research in the Netherlands (Maas 2008) has shown that residents of neighbourhoods with plenty of green space (within a radius of three kilometres from their home) assess their health more positively than people living in a neighbourhood with little green space. This applies to both urban and rural areas. In neighbourhoods with little green space, 15% of residents consider themselves to be unhealthy while only 10% of residents feel this way in neighbour-

28

Va n wa a r k o m e n z e ? Wa a r o m h e b b e n w e z e n o d i g ?

B e st pr actice e x a mpl e [ 2 ]

Ost end |B |

Jogging track in Maria-Hendrikapark Maria-Hendrikapark has been a popular spot for sports enthusiasts for years. When the park was renovated, a great deal of attention was therefore paid to the creation of a new and safe jogging track. The five kilometre track with starting and finishing point at the Spiegelmeer pond is marked with wooden posts indicating the direction and the number of kilometres.

The track’s top surface consists of bark chippings, dolomite or red shale and makes a soft substrate to prevent sore muscles and joints.

‘High quality parks and public spaces are an essential feature of successful neighbourhoods where people want to live, work, play and invest. They are vital to people’s health and the local economy.’ ▼

[ Manifesto for Better Public Space, CABE Space, 2004 ]

neighbourhood with many affluent and high-skilled residents. A possible explanation for this is that the first category is less mobile and therefore has to spend more time in the vicinity of their home.

In addition, people living in a green environment can cope better with stressful situations such as the death of a relative or friend, a divorce or redundancy. In other words, green space has a buffer effect when it comes to stress. This effect has been recorded particularly in case of green spaces within more than three kilo-

metres from people’s homes, which could indicate that people especially benefit from visiting large-scale green spaces in times of crisis.

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29

Besides a relationship between the quantity of green space and health, there also appears to be a relationship between the quality of public green space and parks and residents’ health, as is shown by research conducted in four Dutch cities (Utrecht, Rotterdam, Amsterdam and ‘s-Hertogenbosch) (Van Dillen et al

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

‘In a Society becoming steadily more privatized with private homes, cars, computers, offices and shopping centers, the public component of our lives is disappearing. It is more and more important to make the cities inviting, so we can meet our fellow citizens face to face and experience directly through our senses. Public life in good quality public spaces is an important part of a democratic life and a full life.’ ▼

[ Jan Gehl, New City Spaces, 2001 ]

2009). In neighbourhoods where a high quantity of green space is combined with a high quality of green space, the health benefit is largest. This concerns layout aspects such as structure and variation as well as maintenance aspects such as the absence of litter. Poorly maintained and neglected green spaces, by contrast, could have a negative effect on health and well-being.

the more they play outside, the lower the risk of obesity.

In neighbourhoods that meet the standard of 75 m2 of green space per household within a radius of 500 metres, children play outside 10% more. The presence of facilities such as play areas in parks appears to be far more important in reducing obesity than the distance to the park (Bade 2011).

Physical exercise

Development

Several research programmes have demonstrated that the proximity of a park encourages people of all ages to be more physically active, which results in less cardiovascular disease, less obesity, etc.

This is important to everyone, but especially children, youngsters and the elderly, who are less mobile and therefore more dependent on a park near their home (see for example De Groot 2011).

The presence of a network of footpaths and cycle paths in the immediate vicinity of residential and employment zones also contributes to an increase in active transport.

If the facilities in a neighbourhood or several neighbourhoods are to be used optimally, they should be interconnected by footpaths and cycle paths. [ Best practice example 2 ]

Children’s development of cognitive, motor and socialemotional skills benefits from varied, regular and direct contact with nature. Familiar, natural locations as close as possible to home offer possibilities of free exploration and motor learning, and stimulate sensory perceptions as well as experiences that contribute to personal development.

Children living in deprived areas appear to be able to concentrate better and have greater self-discipline if green space is present (Health Council of the Netherlands 2004; De Groot 2011).

The presence of green play areas will result in children playing outside more often and consequently having more exercise. This principle applies especially to boys:

Environment Parks can also be beneficial to health through their positive effect on the ambient climate and air quality. For instance, research has shown that respiratory health problems occur less in living environments with more green space (Maas 2008).

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2009d | CABE Space 2010a | De Wit J. et al. 2006 | Health Council of the Netherlands and Dutch Advisory Council for

Research on Spatial Planning, Nature and the Environment 2004 | Gies E. 2006 | Green Link 2010 | Greenspace Scotland 2008b | Institution Nationale de Santé Publique du Quebec (2011) | Maas J. 2008 | Sunderland 2012 | Urban Green Spaces Task Force 2002 | Van den Berg et al. 2010 | Van Dillen et al. 2009 | www.cityparksalliance.org | www.forestry.gov.uk/fr/urgc-7FRHHT | www.impala-eu.org | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/physicalactivity.htm

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

Best prac tic e e xam pl e [ 3 ]

A NT W ER P |B|

Park Spoor Noord This former 7 hectare railway yard in the densely built-up working-class area of Antwerpen-Noord became a neighbourhood park in 2008. Park Spoor Noord is popular among people from outside the neighbourhood as well.

People from nearby areas such as Antwerpen-Zuid, Kapellen and Brasschaat mingle with the numerous local residents and spend the day gathered round the renovated repair shed / summer bar and the ponds. Under fives from the municipality of Schoten play in the sandbox with children from Croatia. Between ice creams, drinks and splashes of water a half-naked father discovers the toes of a veiled mother. This is what appeals to young urban families: unexpected encounters, shared emotions, life in a melting pot of cultures and experiences. Contact with other worlds without losing touch with the peer group – the ‘tribe’ as Manuel de Solà-Morales put it. Compare it to a toddler running towards a certain point without any fear while he/she makes certain that mom or dad is still around. It is never upsetting since there is always a way back. ‘Explorers’ decide themselves how far they want to go. A peculiar ritual takes place in Park Spoor Noord: groups of visitors divide the space among themselves.

Not in a formal or aggressive way, but unconsciously.

From the viewpoint of cultural geography it is a process of exploration and demarcation. Human geographer Peter Goheen wrote: ‘Citizens create meaningful public space by

expressing their attitudes, asserting their claims and using it for their own purposes.’ This is subconscious, non-militant group behaviour. Informal and clearly visible ‘understandings’ arise: local ‘white’ residents occupy the summer bar with deckchairs and sunshades while residents with immigrant roots occupy the surrounding lawns and hillocks where they mingle with the local people. The water and the surrounding area are communal as well. Contact is most intense in this zone, the ‘tribes’ mingle irrevocably.

Children are oblivious of the unwritten codes and make the dividing line very unclear. They constantly cross the boundaries, chased by their parents. This greatly increases the possibility for adults to make informal contacts and share emotions. Just what New Urbanites are looking for.

However important children are, let us not forget that senior citizens regularly visit Park Spoor Noord as well.

Sitting in a folding chair, they enjoy this island of tranquility in the bustling inner city. They shuffle arm in arm, followed by a lapdog. The smooth paths make a walk appealing.

Once again, this illustrates the extent to which senior citizens’ expectations approach those of young families: a park closely resembling a garden and providing safe seclusion in all its openness.

Source De Bruyn J. & Van Acker M. (2011) Zaaien op beton en 106 andere recepten voor de stad. 10 jaar Stedenfonds in Vlaanderen. Brussels.

Flemish Agency for Local and Provincial Government and the civic integration policy

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‘The quality of your local green space is of fundamental importance. But some people are missing out. Access to decent green space, alongside housing, health and education, is a basic requirement for a good quality of life. Public green spaces are a local resource for exercise and socialising, community events and education, and offer respite from the pressures of urban living.’ ▼

[ CABE Space (2010) Community green: using local spaces to tackle inequality and improve health ]

Strong and safe communities Numerous studies have demonstrated that public space and particularly parks encourage social interaction and can contribute to social inclusion and cohesion in a neighbourhood. People from all ages, walks of life and cultural and ethnic backgrounds can meet each other there and children and youngsters play there… In densely built-up town centres and compact cities this is especially necessary. Well-designed and well-managed parks and public green space also contribute to people becoming attached to a location, being proud of their immediate living and working environment and feeling responsible for it. [ practice example 3 ]

(In)equality Other research has demonstrated that high-quality green spaces and parks are less and less available in poorer neighbourhoods, often populated by people of foreign extraction (see e.g. Sherer 2006; CABE Space 2004b). For example, research by CABE (Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment) Space (2010a) found that the most affluent 20% of wards in England have five times the amount of parks per person than the most deprived 10% of wards. The study also showed that English wards that have predominantly white residents have six times as many parks as wards where more than 40% of the population are people of foreign origin. Yet the latter are the most densely built-up neighbourhoods where houses rarely have gardens, they have hardly any play areas, and they are often disproportionately affected by all sorts of nuisance and environmental problems (noise, air pollution etc.). If they do have public green spaces, these are often of low quality and poorly maintained, while well-designed and well-maintained parks can serve as a kind of ‘outdoor

D

room’ in these neighbourhoods and play an important part in the livability, social cohesion, people’s involvement in their neighbourhood, and the safety and health of residents.

(In)security Various studies claim that the presence of well-maintained public parks and recreational facilities in the living environment has a positive influence on both (juvenile) delinquency and subjective feelings of insecurity (see e.g.

CABE Space 2004b; Sherer 2006). The greener a neighbourhood is, the more secure people will feel. Even women and the elderly, who are considered vulnerable groups, feel secure in neighbourhoods with a great deal of green space. However, there is an important exception: in highly urbanised areas people do not feel secure in enclosed green spaces (e.g. woodland or areas with tall vegetation) (Maas 2008).

On the other hand, neglected parks and green spaces can pave the way to criminality, vandalism and antisocial behaviour, and increase feelings of insecurity (see e.g.

Greenspace Scotland 2009; Green Link 2010).

Participation and consultation The positive social effects of parks are reinforced if local residents are actively involved in their management or maintenance, or in educational, sports or cultural activities, for instance if they can organise a barbecue or sports afternoon (see e.g. BTCV 2008; Greenspace 2010).

Allotment and community gardens can also play an important part in this respect (see e.g. Van den Berg et al 2010). [ practice example 4 ]

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best prac tic e e xam pl e [ 4 ]

G he nt |B|

Bruggen naar Rabot (Bridges to Rabot): temporary use of derelict land In the Rabot neighbourhood of Ghent there is a huge 1.5 hectare concrete floor, the remains of an old electronics plant. Within the scope of the urban renewal project ‘Bruggen naar Rabot’ (Bridges to Rabot), this site will eventually be redeveloped with housing and a neighbourhood park. In the meantime the municipality wanted to breathe new life into this site through temporary use. The site has become a creative meeting place for people from the surrounding area. A large sunbathing area with artificial grass provides a venue for shows and sports events.

Film nights, festivals, festivities, art happenings, open-air screenings, a bar and barbecues have already drawn many visitors from across the city. Rabot Beach offers a huge sandbox to toddlers and an exciting playground for building dens. In the driving circuit, children from the neighbourhood learn the traffic rules without effort. A children’s farm was even set up on the site. The 160 new allotment gardens have been very successful as well.

Gardeners were trained in organic gardening and artists made an awning for the garden complex together with local residents. Finally, ‘Made by Oya’ is a socioeconomic project in which mainly Turkish women combine traditional handicraft techniques with modern design.

The residents themselves are largely responsible for the development and management of the site. Rocsa vzw supported local residents to manage and start up the temporary use and to organise art projects together with artists and socio-cultural partners. The Community Development service of the city of Ghent has ensured the management of the allotment gardens and the neighbourhood barbecue, and has focussed mainly on the involvement of vulnerable groups. A coaching group comprising both local ‘white’ residents and residents with immigrant backgrounds supervises the site. Local residents are already appropriating this space thanks to participative management. The site therefore tells a unique story of collaboration, assuming responsibility and giving responsibility.

Source De Bruyn J. & Van Acker M. (2011) Zaaien op beton en 106 andere recepten voor de stad. 10 jaar Stedenfonds in Vlaanderen. Brussels.

Flemish Agency for Local and Provincial Government and the civic integration policy F U R T H E R R E A D I NG BTCV 2008 | CABE Space 2004b

|

CABE Space 2010a | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/ communityengagement.htm | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/ saferneighborhoods.htm

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E

Recreational benefits ■■

Survey evidence suggests that over 200 million park visits a year are made in Flanders. On average, every inhabitant of Flanders spends 54 hours a year in a park and the average visit takes about 1.5 hours. This means that the average inhabitant spends more than one hour in a park every two weeks.

■■

Research in Britain (CABE Space 2010b) has demonstrated that 30 million people frequently visit parks, many of them on a daily basis. This amounts to 2.5 billion visits a year.

-- On sunny summer days, 56% of youngsters under the age of 16 visit a park at least once a week, 37% even do so every day. In the group aged between 16 and 19, 44% say they visit a park on a weekly basis and 28% on a daily basis.

-- 50% of people over 60 regularly visit a park.

-- 86% of parents with children under 11 years of age state that their children would rather go to the park than watch TV in pleasant weather conditions.

-- 87% of the British population visited a park during the previous year and 79% during the previous six months.

This makes parks the most frequently used public service.

By way of comparison: only 32% of the population visited a concert hall during the previous year and 26% visited a museum.

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F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Dunnett N. et al 2002 | Fields in Trust 2008

|

IMPALA-project 2011 | Rother District Council 2007 | Play England 2009 | Shackell et al. 2008 | Simoens I. 2010a | www.green-space.org.uk | www.playengland.org.uk

F

Tourism benefits Parks in and around the city contribute considerably to a city’s or region’s attractiveness as a tourist destination, especially if they are part of a recreational cycling or walking network. After all, the quality standards for an attractive recreational environment are shifting from purely functional (quantity and diversity of the range of facilities) to aesthetic and visual qualities of the infrastructure and environment. Parks can also constitute a tourism asset in themselves thanks to the recreational opportunities they offer or because of their specific historic, cultural or botanical value. Conversely, a lack of parks or the presence of run-down or neglected parks and vacant lots may put visitors and tourists off.

This touristic aspect is certainly important to our coastal cities and regions, for which tourism is often the principal

Research conducted in Amsterdam in 1998 and 2008 has shown that the use of parks grew exponentially compared to previous years. The number of park visits in Amsterdam nearly doubled in ten years. Recreational areas in and around the city are visited ever more frequently as well. [ graph 1 ] It has also been found that recreational activities in parks are changing. Traditional activities such as sunbathing, walking and cycling are slightly decreasing while other activities such as lunching, picnicking, reading and studying are on the rise. A new phenomenon is that people also work in the park nowadays, by means of a laptop and Wi-Fi. Remarkably, low-skilled people practise traditional recreational activities more often while highly-educated people practise ‘modern’ activities more often in parks.

If we take a look at visits to neighbourhood green spaces and parks per age bracket, it is striking that the percentage of visits by youngsters aged between 16 and 20 is the highest of all age brackets. So youngsters appear to be the most frequent visitors of green spaces and parks. The number of visits to recreational areas is somewhat lower among youngsters. [ practice examples 5 & 6 ]

source of revenue and which have had to deal with fierce competition over the past few decades. Of course the sea, beaches, promenades and dunes continue to be the main tourism asset of our coastal regions. They therefore need to be managed with care, while their tourism potential needs to be optimised at the same time. However, it is clear that our coastal cities and regions need to review their traditional image and strive to diversify their tourism offer and increase its amenity value. A good and varied range of parks can greatly contribute to this.

■■

34

High-quality and well-maintained parks can contribute to the general image, attractiveness and livability of the urban environment, which is particularly important in a holiday setting.

c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 5 ]

graph [ 1 ]

Ostend |B|

De Schorre sports park A collection of sports fields, mainly football pitches, was extended to a varied sports and recreational park with a well thought-out design. The different user and visitor groups spontaneously blend in this park. The spatial organisation encourages this blending.

See also Part III, Case 4, p 148. 

Visits to neighbourhood green spaces according to age

n 1998 n 2008

best practice example [ 6 ] Bexhill-on-Sea |GB|

New Play Zone – Egerton Park The new play zone in historic Egerton Park in Bexhillon-Sea was opened in August 2012. The design of the playground was examined during several workshops and adjusted accordingly. This interaction between the British and Belgian partners resulted in a high-quality design.

Visits to parks according to age n 1998 n 2008

See also Part III, Case 2, p 136. 

Visits to recreational areas according to age

n 1998 n 2008 S o u r c e : D RO 2 0 0 8

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The maintenance of parks in coastal cities deserves special attention, because of the large number of visitors during the high season on the one hand and due to climatic conditions (strong and salty sea breeze) on the other. It is better not to have a park than a neglected one.

■■

■■

Parks can help to increase the value of and give a contemporary appearance to traditional coastal infrastructure such as esplanades. [ practice example 7 ]

and cultural events. Although this applies to all cities and tourist resorts, this is crucially important to coastal cities in particular. As such it enables them to expand their tourism offer, appeal to a larger and more diverse public and extend the tourist season. In addition, they can accommodate certain activities which preferably do not take place in cities on account of noise, traffic etc.

■■

A network of parks and other green-blue infrastructure can generate considerable tourism benefits by linking different parts of a city and connecting the urbanised seafront in a soft and safe manner to the rest of the coast and to open landscapes, natural areas and tourism infrastructure in the hinterland. It improves the city’s accessibility for sustainable transport on the one hand; it offers additional recreational possibilities and amenity value to people who want more than just a beach holiday on the other. This network is also very important in less favourable weather conditions and outside the traditional tourist season. [ practice example 9 ]

■■

Parks provide opportunities to improve the tourism image of certain locations that are not obvious tourist destinations and often even constitute a barrier between certain neighbourhoods or between urban and rural areas (e.g. an industrial estate, a residential area, harbour infrastructure, an airport) or at least open them up for recreation. [ practice example 10 ]

■■

The introduction of a park atmosphere can be a way to give a more high-quality appearance to caravan parks, which are often laid out in a low-quality manner and perceived as disruptive to the landscape, and better integrate them into the environment.

Parks can help to increase the tourism value of valuable buildings or sites and important landmarks, and improve their accessibility. This cultural and historical heritage (Belle Époque, Modernism, maritime, military and industrial heritage) is often typical of coastal cities and can greatly contribute to their touristic appeal; it can even create new tourism opportunities. The same applies to new developments (shopping centres, housing projects, cultural and sports infrastructure ...) [ practice example 8 ]

■■

■■

Parks that can be accessed free of charge and provide sufficient and attractive recreational and sports infrastructure can be an important supplement to the coast’s traditional recreational and tourism infrastructure. This way, certain target groups (young children, youngsters, people with a disability, the elderly) can be provided with a location for both traditional and modern leisure pursuits, also in less favourable weather conditions. Furthermore, this can help to ease or channel the recreational pressure on certain sensitive areas (e.g. dunes).

Parks can be the ideal setting for all sorts of sports

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG English Heritage 2007a | English Heritage 2007b | Vervloesem E., De Meulder B. & Loeckx A. 2012 | Walton J.K. & Browne P. 2010

Westtoer 2008 | Westtoer 2009 | www.planning.org/cityparks/briefingpapers/tourism.htm | www.westtoer.be

36

|

c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 7 ]

Bexhill-on-Sea |GB|

best practice example [ 8 ]

Linear park regenerates seafront

Ostend |b|

Duinenkerkje

The wonderful Duinenkerkje church is located at the foot of the dunes connecting Ostend to Middelkerke. The charm of this picturesque little church combined with the open dune and polder landscape has inspired many painters, writers and other artists through the centuries.

James Ensor, who was buried here at his own request, made various etchings and paintings of this site. The new park which is laid out round the church will become one of the ‘jewels’ in the Emerald Necklace, the green belt surrounding the city of Ostend.

The regeneration of Bexhill-on-Sea’s seafront, funded by the Rother District Council and with support from the Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE), included the restoration of the listed King George V Colonnade with shops, a restaurant and a new rowing club as well as the creation of a contemporary linear park on the promenade as part of the ‘Next Wave’ project. The ‘park’ is over 1.5 kilometres long and the attractive planting scheme consists of ornamental grasses as well as hardy perennials and annuals. New shelters were erected and small-scale play equipment was installed.

See also Part III, Case 4 p 148 & Case 5 p 156 

The project was nominated for the 2012 Landscape Institute Awards and won the 2012 Editor’s Choice Award in the Street Design Awards. The jury especially praised the radical transformation of the seafront.

See also Part III, Case 2, p. 136, & Case 3, p. 142. 

best practice example [ 9 ] |b|

New Coastal Walking Path Along the entire coastline The Coastal Walking Path is not just unique in form but also in content. It connects the best the Flemish coastal towns have to offer in terms of culture, nature, maritime heritage and local colour.

The Coastal Walking Path is a pedestrian network along the Flemish coast linking all coastal towns in the area.

The new network, which was developed by Westtoer, consists of two uninterrupted walking routes, one along the seafront and one more inland. Both walking routes are connected at regular intervals by an intersecting link path, so that the network looks like a ladder on the map.

www.kustwandelroute.be

The icing on the cake is the signage at resting places and points of interest along the way, designed by Designer of the Year 2008 Stefan Schöning. The route contains stylish signposts, benches and picnic tables along with numerous adjoining tourist facilities and hotels.

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Tourism, leisure and green space The tourism and recreational potential of green infrastructure is an important issue, especially as far as coastal regions are concerned. The spatial quality of our landscapes and cities is becoming increasingly important as an attraction to remain competitive in the tourism industry. Competition for visitors is therefore at the basis of numerous investments in public space. This not only concerns museums, theatres and other cultural infrastructure but also various types of green infrastructure. Leisure initiatives are increasingly the reason for conservation, adaptation or renovation of parts of rural areas, inner cities and the rural-urban fringe. This is all the more important in places in transition where traditional functions or management forms (such as agriculture and industry) have decreased in significance or have disappeared and where new public functions and new development dynamics are needed. Traditional urban parks and natural areas are also subject to this process: visitors contribute to the required public support for sustainable preservation.

applies to parks and green spaces that are progressively used for socio-cultural and sports events for which they were not originally intended and which sometimes exceed their capacity.

Conversely, the growing recreational pressure poses a threat to spatial quality. Mass tourism and the demand for amusement and entertainment with all the infrastructure this involves can result in a large degree of ‘cluttering’ and trivialisation, a ‘Disneyfication’ of our cities and landscapes, and eventually in degradation and loss of vulnerable natural and cultural qualities on which the ‘attraction’ was originally based such as the beach and the dunes. This also

The challenge is to combine the growing economic importance of leisure and tourism with the development of our cities’ and landscapes’ spatial quality in a sustainable manner. This requires, in the words of the Council, ‘a transformation of mentality and actions. We need to approach leisure and tourism as a potential designer, a crucial co-producer of spatial quality and no longer as a user that must be restrained or a disturber that must be regulated.’

These risks are real and cannot be ignored. It makes no sense to close our eyes to these developments or resist them. The consequences would mostly be counterproductive: an even greater trivialisation of the surroundings, further privatisation and conceptualisation of public space, and displacement of primary functions. If we take a passive stand, all we can do is impose rules to things that present themselves by chance. The Dutch Council for Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment warned in its advice on the spatial impact of the leisure industry (VROM-raad 2006): ‘By contrast, if you invest in a good understanding of the dynamics as well as the place and significance of the leisure industry, you can actively seize the opportunities that present themselves.’

‘Successful parks pay dividends for cities—building civic pride, increasing tourism and economic investment, and contributing to health and quality of life.’ ▼

[ Will Rogers - The Trust for Public Land ]

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 10 ]

Ostend |B|

‘t Eilandje park can play on the central lawn. The public barbecues and picnic benches can be used freely.

The ’t Eilandje area is located between two bodies of water (the sluice dock and the Bruges-Ostend canal) and between two roads (Vicognedijk and Bredensesteenweg) in the Vuurtorenwijk neighbourhood. This vacant lot was converted into a contemporary park with a nautical and child-friendly character. The bank at Vicognedijk is intended for water sports while the bank at Bredensesteenweg became an esplanade intended for cycling and walking.

The vegetation has been selected with a view to increasing biodiversity. The drainage ditch is an interesting habitat, since the water fluctuation brings typical vegetation with it and the presence of fresh water enhances biodiversity. The play equipment is hand-made from natural materials: willow branches.

This new green lung was designed in collaboration with future users. For instance, the organisations Ibis, Sportraad Ostend, Scouts De Schorre, Zeescouts 2e FOS, Zeilschool Marine and various city services had a say in the design of this 2.5 hectare terrain.

This multifunctional open space is first and foremost aimed at youngsters and water sports clubs. But everyone can enjoy ‘t Eilandje: local residents who have no garden, passers-by, people cycling along the Emerald Necklace, tourists… The central meeting place is shaped like an amphitheatre. The semicircular stepped structure is an ideal venue for events or shows. Children and youngsters

See also Part III, Case 4, p 148. 

© Verhelst

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‘If the care of parks was better informed by ecological principles the result would be more self-sustaining, cost-effective landscapes that provide better wildlife habitat and more locally distinctive surroundings.’ ▼

[ English Nature and London Wildlife Trust, London’s natural values, 2005 ]

G

Enhanced biodiversity Biodiversity in and around cities strongly depends on the number, type and diversity of habitats (gardens, parks, roadsides, vacant lots, brownfield sites, rivers, lines of trees, hedges and other small landscape elements) and their interconnections. Urban and periurban parks can contribute to the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity in and around cities in different ways.

■■

Often parks are hot spots of biodiversity in an urban environment. Various studies have shown that parks have greater biodiversity in an urban environment than in a rural environment. The mosaic of neighbouring habitats plays an important part in this. A remarkably large number of endangered and rare plant species can often be found in these areas. Numerous native species that have disappeared from the countryside have found a new habitat in cities. In addition, an amazing number of species are only able to survive in urban environments. New species and subspecies have even developed in cities and cannot be found anywhere else.

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The larger, older and structurally more diverse (open spaces, clumps of trees, ponds etc.) a park is, the greater its biodiversity usually is.

■■

Even parks with an intensive recreational programme often contain significant biodiversity. Simple measures and nature-oriented management can sometimes enhance biodiversity in such parks as well. [ practice

places for urban biodiversity. New urban habitat types can be created by giving such places an adequate park structure.

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The highest density of species is observed in the ruralurban fringe, where there is a mix of all types of urban and rural habitats. A good spatial distribution as well as connections between the built-up and agricultural areas are therefore important.

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When it comes to the conservation and enhancement of biodiversity, parks can no longer be considered little green islands as they are now crucial interconnection points in a green-blue network. Indeed, their ecological value is lower if they are isolated. Plant and animal communities have difficulty surviving in small green areas as genetic exchange is impossible. It is therefore necessary to build up a green structure in which individual areas are interconnected even if only through narrow corridors. An ecological network is thus created interlinking both small and large urban green areas. Fragmented and relatively insignificant green areas become much more important if their quality is improved and if they are integrated into a coherent structure. Once they are part of a green axis, they constitute a linear park as it were.

■■

Coastal regions often have unique natural areas of special environmental importance (mud flats and salt marshes, sand dunes and cliffs, polders with ditches and brackish water) and are home to many rare species of birds and plants. Many of these areas are protected in some way or another with a view to conservation as a recognised nature reserve, an area designated under the Wild Birds Directive or under the Habitats Directive, a Ramsar site etc. However, these unique and generally sensitive natural areas are often under pressure from tourism and recreational infrastructure interests.

A well-developed network of attractive and multifunctional urban and periurban green spaces can partly ease or channel this recreational pressure. Some less

example 11 ] ■■

A wide variety of urban habitats can be created by making use of the ecological potential in the renovation of existing parks and the laying-out of new ones.

This way, opportunities arise for a wide range of plants and animals. This also contributes to the restoration of natural processes that are essential for a living and sustainable city. [ practice example 12 ]

■■

Research in various countries has found that so-called brownfield sites, and lots that have been vacant for a long time or have rarely been used, are often valuable

40

c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 11 ]

Southend |GB|

best practice example [ 12 ]

Ecological golf course in Belfairs Park

Ostend |b|

The natural zone of Maria-Hendrikapark A great deal was invested in realising the ecological potential already present in Maria Hendrikapark in Ostend during the renovation of this 19th-century park.

For instance, a natural zone surrounded by a dead hedge was created around the Konijnenvijver pond. Nature is given free rein in this zone. Dead wood is left in place, while people can stroll on a boardwalk and witness the natural cycle of a wood.

Belfairs Park is Southend’s largest park. It boasts all sorts of recreational infrastructure such as tennis courts, a café and sunbathing areas as well as a popular golf course.

Biodiversity has been drastically enhanced thanks to diversified grassland management over the past few years.

Separate mowing management has been applied to the remnants of semi-natural grassland and to less used parts of the golf course, while special wildflower mixes have been sown in other places.

table [ 2 ]

Climate mitigation and adaptation Primary effect A rise in the average temperature Extreme temperatures A changing precipitation pattern An increase in the intensity of showers An increase in storm intensity Wind Evaporation A rising sea level Water quality Air quality

Icon

2100 An increase by 1.5°C to 4.4°C in winter, an increase by 2.4°C in summer. In summer coastal regions are cooler and in winter they are warmer. Cities cause the urban heat island effect.

An increase in the number of extremely hot summer days: an increase by 3.2°C to 9.5°C on 10% of the hottest summer days. A decrease in the number of frost days: an increase by 1.5°C to 6°C on 10% of the coldest winter days.

Probably more precipitation in winter (number of days, quantity). Less precipitation in summer, but an increase in heavy summer storms, which will become more extreme and frequent. A decrease in the total amount of precipitation.

An increase in the number and intensity of extreme rain showers (showers that occur less often than ten times a year on average).

Change is not certain, but storm intensity is likely to increase.

The average wind speed will increase by 10 to 20% during the winter months. The situation in summer is unclear.

Higher evaporation rate (potential evapotranspiration) both in winter and in summer.

Plus 20 tot plus 200 cm. De inschatting van 200 cm is gebaseerd op een ‘worst case scenario’.

Change is uncertain, but water quality is likely to deteriorate.

Change is uncertain, but air quality is likely to deteriorate.

S o u r c e : R oya l H ask o n i n g 2 0 1 1 a

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sensitive parts can be integrated into such a network and opened up for well-conceived recreational joint uses. This way, public support for nature development in sensitive zones is also increased. Furthermore, such a network of parks and other green infrastructure can serve as a buffer as well as a link between natural areas which are often highly fragmented. As a result, the

effect of barriers is minimised and the city becomes an integrated part of the whole landscape.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE 2006b | England Biodiversity Group 2011 | European Environment Agency 2010 | Heyn M. en Hermy M. 2002 | Jacobs S. et al 2010 | Natural England 2010 | Niemelä J. et al 2011 | Sandström U.G. 2008 | Town and Country Planning Association 2004 | Town and Country Planning Association and The Wildlife Trusts 2012 | UK National Ecosystem Assessment 2011 | Westtoer 2008 |

An improved environment

H

Air quality Parks – and especially the trees in parks – can be a means to improve the air quality by absorbing particulate matter and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and by reducing the quantity of CO2. In this respect, trees are the most effective, followed by shrubs and herbaceous plants, and finally grass and other types of ground cover.

■■

■■

If 10% of public green space consisted of trees instead of grass, the CO2 storage capacity would increase by 12%. Depending on its location, a single tree can compensate for 3,000 to 10,000 car kilometres a year in terms of nitrogen and carbon emissions.

■■

Pilot studies have indicated that trees can filter about 20% of the total quantity of particulate matter, about 10% of nitrogen dioxide and 8% of ozone from the air. The effectiveness of filtration depends on the tree species (conifers are better at filtering particulate matter whereas broad-leaved trees are better at filtering gaseous pollutants) and on the tree’s location.

The emission of pollutants is reduced insofar as parks and green infrastructure make us use our cars less.

Noise The sounds of the city and traffic are muted in parks.

Parks can also be utilised as sound buffers near arterial roads or in residential areas close to busy roads.

Trees also partly offset the carbon emission due to energy consumption. British scientists have calculated that, on average, 3.16 kg of CO2 are stored per m2 of green space in a medium-sized city, especially by trees.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Argante et al. 2011 | Bowler et al. 2010 | Center for Clean Air Policy (2011) | Ministerium für Verkehr und Infrastruktur BadenWürttemberg 2012 | Rijke et al. 2009 | Trees & Design Action Group 2010 | Wesseling et al. 2008

Climate mitigation and adaptation In the coming decades, climate change will have a major impact on our environment: hotter, drier summers and warmer, wetter winters as well as extreme weather conditions with dry spells and more storms.

Coastal regions are particularly vulnerable to the possible results of climate change, including erosion, rising water tables, salinisation of polders and rising sea levels.

The sea level along the Belgian coast, for instance, could, in the worst case, rise from between 20 to 200 cm on average

I

by 2100. In West-Flanders the homes of 33% of the population would be in danger of flooding.

Hundreds of studies and practical examples demonstrate that green (and blue) infrastructure can play a limited yet important part in mitigating climate change, for instance through carbon capture and storage and reduced energy consumption. This part is still insufficiently recognised and integrated in spatial planning policy and spatial developments. [ See insert p. 43 & practice example 14 ]

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

|B| best practice example [ 14 ] |GB|

Vulnerability assessment in SOUTHEAST England & Hastings

Seaside tourism and climate change Paradoxically, climate change may have a positive effect on seaside tourism in North-West Europe thanks to an increase in the number of tourists and a longer tourist season.

In South East England the Partnership Board, a partnership between the South East’s local authorities and the regional economic development agency, conducted a regional vulnerability assessment. Various sectors were examined, e.g. demography, public health, (ground) water resources and economic development. The Board decided to first look at the current vulnerability: what is the impact of flooding and erosion on the region at present? The vulnerability assessment identified areas at greatest risk or ‘vulnerability hot spots’. These were identified by overlaying maps of the regional planning association containing different geographical information.

-- For many tourists, the average temperature at traditional holiday destinations such as the Mediterranean will become too high during the summer holiday period.

Conditions will probably be more favourable in more temperate areas. This may result in a rise in the number of foreign as well as national tourists who opt for spending their holiday in their own country.

-- The duration of the tourist season may increase as well because weather conditions that are favourable for tourism would last longer on average.

However, there are drawbacks:

Hastings Borough Council explored its local vulnerability by conducting a Local Climate Impacts Profile, a procedure introduced in the United Kingdom to investigate the consequences of extreme weather events.

-- The erosion of beaches and dunes will increase due to rising sea levels and frequent storms. Coastal infrastructure may also suffer from the growing damage.

This may have economic repercussions for seaside tourism. The increase in storms may cause greater damage and a decline in tourism in the interior as well.

-- Restrictions may be imposed on recreational water use due to growing water scarcity in summer (e.g. low water levels in (fish) ponds, navigability of rivers and more delays at bridges and locks).

In addition, drinking water may be in short supply in tourist areas like the coastal region.

-- To ensure the comfort of tourists in the hottest summer months, there will be more need for air conditioning. This may result in peaks in energy demand during heat waves; moreover, these peaks will be concentrated in the tourist areas.

-- The bathing water quality may deteriorate in the sea as well as in inland waters, but this will probably be compensated by more agreeable temperatures.

Heat waves turned out to have both positive and negative consequences. More tourists came to visit Hastings because of lower temperatures thanks to the sea and wind. Negative was the increase of complaints due to more noise in the streets during warmer nights.

Following this vulnerability assessment Hastings Borough Council will develop a town-wide climate change adaptation ‘plus’ plan, drawing on regional and local climate impact data.

Source: Future Cities 2010

Source: Toerisme Vlaanderen (2008)

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Improvement of the ambient climate

■■

Recent research (Steeneveld 2011) has shown that cities are on average 2.3°C warmer than their surroundings.

Climate change is expected to further increase this difference by 2°C. An important cause of heating in urban areas is the absorption of solar radiation by buildings and paved surfaces. Furthermore, human activities which are strongly concentrated in cities generate additional heat.

Parks with trees reduce extreme temperatures in urban environments: they can diminish the ambient temperature and thus decrease the ‘urban heat island effect’. In view of global warming the importance of this will only increase.

■■

■■

Research in Berlin has found that different small pocket parks of one hectare (about the size of a football pitch) are more effective in cooling a city than one large park.

The cooling effect can be significantly measured up to 300m from the park. Several smaller parks can create a larger total cooling zone than one big park (Bade 2011) [ practice example 15 ]

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG The importance of spatial planning policy in adapting to climate change has been investigated e.g. in the Netherlands (the Climate changes Spatial Planning programme, see www. climateresearchnetherlands.nl) and in the United Kingdom (the UK Climate Impacts Programme, see www.ukcip.org.uk/) | The scientific research project CcASPAR (Climate change And changes in SPAtial structures Research project, see www.ccaspar.ugent.be) was initiated in Flanders in 2009.

Research has found that an increase in the total tree volume by 10% in urban environments can lower the ambient temperature by 3 to 5°C on hot summer days.

In case of the United States, researchers estimate that every increase by 10% in tree cover (the surface area covered by the foliage of trees) results in an additional decrease in daytime temperature rise by 0.4 to 2°C.

Energy conservation

The urban heat island effect is mostly due to the surface temperature. The removal of hard surfaces alone would result in a decline in the surface temperature. Its effect would be about 1°C if the percentage of hard or green surfaces changed by 10% (Bade 2010).

Research in Greater Manchester, for instance, has shown that the average temperature in inner cities and densely built-up areas with less than 20% green surfaces (e.g. shopping centres and industrial estates) can rise to 31°C on hot summer days, compared to only 18°C in green areas (with 98% green space).

The average temperature is 7°C lower at locations where green space occupies 50% of the total space (European Environmental Agency 2012). [ illustration 1 ]

■■

Several studies have demonstrated that a park with trees in a built-up setting can contribute to energy conservation: in winter the trees provide shelter so that buildings need to be heated less; in summer they provide shade so that there is less need for air conditioning. This last effect in particular can be fairly substantial.

■■

As part of green walking or cycle links, parks can contribute to reducing car use for short journeys.

Research in the United Kingdom, for instance, has found that 10% of the annual 2.5 billion park visitors use the park as a short cut to another destination (GreenLink 2010).

Reduction of flooding and prevention of drought

■■

If the total surface area of green space in a built-up area increases by 10%, the expected temperature rise due to global warming can be offset to a large extent.

If, on the other hand, the green surface should drop by 10%, the average temperature in cities could rise by 8°C by 2080 (European Environmental Agency 2012).

■■

During the day, urban parks are on average 1°C cooler than the surrounding built-up areas. This greatly depends on the type of park: parks with a great deal of paved surfaces and little planting can also be hotter (Sunderland 2012).

■■

Urban parks are not just cooler in themselves; they also cool their surroundings by day and especially at night. Parks can reduce the air temperature by 4 to 6°C depending on their size and planting density.

Nowadays, it is generally accepted that parks located in built-up areas can play an important part in collecting, buffering and (slowly) draining off rainwater in order to help prevent waterlogging and flooding. They can also play an important part in the prevention of drought in urbanised settings.

If the climate models are correct, increasingly frequent heavy rainfall will lead to problems in cities and densely built-up areas in the future. After all, sewer systems are rarely designed for large amounts of precipitation in a short time. If these built-up areas are furthermore located in zones with high flood risk, the problem will get bigger and bigger.

More unpaved surfaces In non-compacted soil covered by trees and grass, 10 to 20% of rainfall is immediately drained off and 50% is absorbed by the soil. In compacted soil, 60 to 70% of rainfall is immediately drained off and only 15% is absorbed by the soil.

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 15 ]

St u t tgart |D|

climate planning strategy

A comparison of the degree of soil compaction and surface temperature in Budapest S o u r c e : Eu r o p e a n E n vi r o n m e n t A g e n c y 2010

The climate planning strategy of the German city of Stuttgart is a prime example of heat island management.

Its green infrastructure was not just planned to protect nature, but also to maximise the effects of wind patterns and dense vegetation to help cool off the city and reduce air pollution. At night, cool air currents from the hills can enter the city via ventilation corridors (wide, tree-flanked Klimaatlas Region Stuttgart Analysekarte arteries).

S o u r c e : K a z m i e r c z ak e t a l 2 0 1 0; Eu r o p e a n E n vi r o n m e n ta l A g e n c y 2012.

ILLUSTRATION [ 2 ]

Effects of soil compaction on water runoff 0

0,5

1

2

3 Kilometer

40%

Legende Klimatope Bahnanlagen-Klimatop: extremer Termperaturtagesgang, trocken, windoffen, Luftleitbahn.

Wald-Klimatop: stark gedämpfter Tagesgang von Temperatur und Feuchte, Frisch-/Kaltluftproduktion, Filterfunktion.

Industrie-Klimatop: intensiver Wärmeinseleffekt, z.T. starke Windfeldstörung, problematischer Luftaustausch, hohe Luftschadstoffbelastung (großräumig bedeutend).

Freiland-Klimatop: ungestörter stark ausgeprägter Tagesgang von Temperatur und Feuchte, windoffen,starke Frisch-/Kaltluftproduktion.

Gewerbe-Klimatop: starke Veränderung aller Klimaelemente, Ausbildung des Wärmeinseleffektes, teilweise hohe Luftschadstoffbelastung.

Stadtkern-Klimatop: intensiver Wärmeinseleffekt, geringe Feuchte, starke Windfeldstörung, problematischer Luftaustausch, Luftschadstoffbelastung.

Gewässer-Klimatop: thermisch ausgleichend, hohe Feuchtigkeit, windoffen.

10%

Kaltluftbereiche

Stadt-Klimatop: starke Veränderung aller Klimaelemente gegenüber dem Freiland, Ausbildung einer Wärmeinsel, Luftschadstoffbelastung.

Stadtrand-Klimatop: wesentliche Beeinflussung von Temperatur, Feuchte und Wind; Störung lokaler Windsysteme.

25%

6918

7018

7118

Luftaustausch Berg-/Talwindsystem: intensiver Kaltluftstrom.

Hangabwinde: flächenhafter Kaltluftabfluss.

20%

Straße mit extremer Verkehrsbelastung: extreme Luft-/Lärmbelastung.

Kaltluftsammelgebiete: Kaltluftsammlung in relativen Tieflagen, Kaltlufttransportbahnen.

Straße mit sehr hoher Verkehrsbelastung: sehr hohe Luft-/Lärmbelastung.

Kaltluftstau durch Strömungshindernis.

Straße mit hoher Verkehrsbelastung: hohe Luft-/Lärmbelastung.

Bodeninversionsgefährdete Gebiete.

Gewerbe und Industrie: relativ hohe Schadstoffemissionen.

Gartenstadt-Klimatop: geringer Einfluss auf Temperatur, Feuchte und Wind.

7318

7418

38%

TKÜbersicht

6919

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6927

6928

7019

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7219

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7226

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7328

7419

7420

7421

7422

7423

7424

7425

7426

7427

Datengrundlage:

Luftleitbahn belastet: Emittenten in Tälern, Sattellagen.

Belastung durch Emissionen

Kaltluftproduktionsgebiete: nächtliche Kalt-/Frischluftproduktion auf Freiflächen.

7218

Fachliche Bearbeitung: T.Nagel, Büro Lohmeyer, Karlsruhe; J.Baumüller, Abteilung Stadtklimatologie, Amt für Umwelt, Stadt Stuttgart, 2007.

Luftleitbahn unbelastet: Täler, Sattellagen.

Thermalbefliegung; Firma Spacetec, 29./30. August 2005.

Kaltluftmodellierung, Windfeldmodellierung; Büro Lohmeyer, Karlsruhe, 2007.

Luftbildplan; ATKIS-DOP @ Landesvermessungsamt Baden-Württermberg (www.lv-bw.de) Az: 2851.9-1/19, 2002/2003 Klimaelementekarten; DWD, Büro Lohmeyer, Karlsruhe, 2007.

Verkehrsdaten; Wirtschaftsverkehrsmodell, PTV, Karlsruhe, im Auftrag des Verband Region Stuttgart, 2007.

Emissionskataster; Landesanstalt für Umwelt, Messungen und Naturschutz Baden-Württemberg, 2004.

Kartengrundlage: ATKIS-DTK25 @ Landesvermessungsamt Baden-Württermberg (www.lv-bw.de) Az: 2851.9-1/19, 2005.

GIS-Bearbeitung u. Kartographie: H. Esswein, 2007.

21%

Wohnen: relativ hohe Hausbrandemissionen.

Windrose: Windrichtungshäufigkeiten.

Grünanlagen-Klimatop: ausgeprägter Tagesgang der Temperatur und Feuchte, klimatische Ausgleichsfläche in der Bebauung.

25%

21%

Natural ground cover

10%-20% impervious surface

35%

30% 20%

30%

55% 10%

15% 35%-50% impervious surface

ILLUSTRATION [ 1 ]

5% 75%-100% impervious surface

S o u r c e : Ba r t e n s 2 0 0 9

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This has two important consequences in case of non-compacted soil: ■■ improvement of soil water management: water infiltration benefits the groundwater or green spaces directly; ■■ deceleration and reduction of runoff: an increase in parks and other green spaces by 10% could decrease runoff in case of extreme rainfall by 14% (European Environment Agency 2012). [ illustration 2 ] More planted surfaces Planting greatly increases the soil’s buffer capacity with regard to water. In particular trees play an important part in this process (see e.g.

Bartens 2009).

■■ Research has shown that tree roots can enhance the soil’s infiltration capacity by a factor of 2 to 17.

Replacing grassland by trees increases the infiltration capacity by 90%.

■■ Trees also extract water from the soil and vaporise it in the atmosphere, enhancing the ambient climate at the same time. A mature tree can absorb and vaporise about 300 litres of water a day; in case of smaller trees this amount fluctuates between 30 and 60 litres depending on the species.

■■ In addition, trees catch a great deal of rain in their foliage, which evaporates after a shower. This varies according to the size and the species of the tree. A mature tree can catch up to 80% of rainfall, a small tree only 15%. Conifers catch more water than broad-leaved

trees, especially in winter, when most broad-leaved trees have shed their leaves.

Sustainable urban drainage systems We can go one step further and integrate parks into Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems (SUDS) to collect storm water (temporarily) and (slowly) drain it off. This is possible by creating drainage ditches and channels, ponds and wetlands, rainwater infiltration systems (planted depressions which flood in case of heavy rainfall), retention basins, infiltration basins etc.

Using 1% of a city’s surface area for water storage can lead to a reduction of flood risk by 30 to 50%.

Such sustainable urban drainage systems have numerous additional advantages: they contribute to natural water purification, prevent soil desiccation during hot summers, enhance biodiversity, and increase the park’s attractiveness and recreational value. Moreover, SUDS are often cheaper than traditional sewer systems. [ practice examples 16 - 18 ]

Making a virtue of necessity We can make a virtue of necessity and treat necessary coastal defence works not just as a civil engineering challenge but also as an integral spatial planning question and link them to a tourism/ recreational and/or nature development programme. It is crucial that such works create new opportunities for space utilisation: an expansion of space for nature and recreation along the coast, further development of urban waterfronts that are safe at high tide, etc. [ practice examples 19 - 22 ]

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Amtes für Umweltschutz 2010 | Bade et al. 2011 | Bartens 2009 | Bowler et al. 2010 | CABE Space 2008a | CAN – Climate Action Network 2009 | Center for Clean Air Policy 2011 | City of Malmö 2012 | Committee of the Regions 2011 | Community Forest Northwest 2011 | Dunnett N. & Clayden A. 2007 | European Environment Agency 2012 | Gill S. 2006 | Gill S. et al. 2007 | Hutchings T. & Brunt A. 2009 | Kazmierczak, A. and Carter, J. 2010 | Kleerekoper et al. 2012 | Mayor of London 2006 | Ministerium für Verkehr und Infrastruktur Baden-Württemberg 2012 | Moens B. & Oosterlynck S. 2008 | Naumann et al. 2011b | Pijnappels M.H.J. & Sedee A.G.J. 2010 | Planning and Climate Change Coalition 2010 & 2012 | Pötz H. & Bleuzé P. 2012 | Shaw et al 2007 | Tjallingii S. & Jonkhof J. 2011 | Town and Country Planning Association 2007 | U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 2011 | Wilson S. et al 2009 | ec.europa.eu/ dgs/clima/mission/index_en.htm | www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climate | www.espace-project.org | www.espon.eu/main/Menu_Projects/Menu_ AppliedResearch/climate.html | www.factsproject.eu | www.functioneelgroen.nl | www.future-cities.eu | www.grabs-eu.org | www.greeninfrastructurenw.co.uk | www.klimaatonderzoek.nl | www.lne.be/themas/klimaatverandering | www.sic-adapt.eu | www.suds-sites.net | www.switchtraining.eu | www.urban-climate.org/wp3

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

© Stimuleringsfonds Creatieve Industrie best practice example [ 16 ]

Rotterdam |NL|

Water plazas

It is not possible to simply dig retention basins in the city centre’s scarce green space. Rotterdam therefore constructed a number below-grade plazas that are flooded in case of extreme rainfall. These plazas will be dry and serve as a pleasant outside space 90 percent of the time. Only in case of extreme rainfall will they serve as buffers. The water plaza will temporarily retain excess rainwater from the immediate vicinity that could cause problems. Consequently, the flood risk is reduced and water becomes part of public space for a limited time.

The water retained in the plaza is allowed to permeate the soil. In case of flooding it is always possible to discharge it e.g. into a watercourse.

best practice example [ 17 ]

paris |f|

© Mbzt

Jardins Abbé Pierre Grand Moulins All rainwater from the surrounding blocks of flats and office buildings is discharged into the new public garden Abbé Pierre in Paris. Via several ponds and wetland habitats that purify the water, it is collected in an underground reservoir and used for the fountains and irrigation of the park. http://equipement.paris.fr/jardins-abbe-pierre-grandsmoulins-5044

best practice example [ 18 ]

cork |IRL|

Marina Park

integral part of the park design.

The winning design by landscape architects OKRA and REDscape for Marina Park in the Irish city of Cork features a sequence of water landscapes in which water from the surrounding neighbourhoods is buffered and purified. The plan comprises a variety of functions and habitats in line with urban life and the park’s specific location in the city.

Many other activities are scheduled in the park including jogging, fitness training, skating and of course all sorts of adventurous activities linked to water. Various rowing clubs will be based in the park.

Urban spaces where cultural events and festivals can take place will be created around the stadium. The park can drive further development of the south docklands area of which it is part.

The 35 hectare site includes the Pairc Ui Chaoimh stadium, a venue for Gaelic sports as well as other events, which is being renovated. The stadium complex with pitch, a network of paths and double use of spaces is an

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best practice example [ 19 ]

ostend |b|

Zeeheldenplein and surroundings

The existing seawall around the square was broadened in some places to serve as a breakwater. The terraced extension was turned into a new promenade.

Zeeheldenplein now neatly fits in with Albert I Promenade, the walkway on the new western jetty and Visserskaai. The original historical bastion shape has been marked visually in the pavement. The memorial to the seamen who died at sea, which many people in Ostend hold dear, remains central. The familiar and protected Westerstaketsel pier has also been left as it was.

Works to protect Ostend against violent storms started in the vicinity of the Zeeheldenplein square in 2011. These works are part of a wider scheme to improve Ostend’s seawall and maritime accessibility. They were not just aimed at flood control but also at general improvements to the environment. The designers tried to preserve as much as possible the Ostend esplanade, which is valuable historical heritage. The new Zeeheldenplein square has become an example of attractive architecture which makes the everyday experience of the coast and sea more pleasant.

The ‘Kustzone Oosteroever Ostend’ plan is aimed at the restoration of the natural environment on the east bank in Ostend. The ecological, military and maritime heritage also provide new opportunities as to recreational and tourism joint use. The eastern jetty will be developed in an environmentally friendly way with a natural transition linked to the natural area around Fort Napoleon. A walkway will be created on the jetty. Platforms for anglers and facilities for surfers and yachtsmen will generate considerable recreational added value.

The harbour entrance was drastically altered by the construction of two new jetties. At the same time, the stretch of beach in front of Ostend’s city centre was raised and broadened. The weakest link in the protection of the Flemish coast from the action of the sea has been dealt with by means of these works. The Noodstrand beach which is to protect the esplanade between Groot Strand and the western jetty has become fully established.

This over 200 metres wide beach has become one of Ostend’s landmarks. In spite of this wide beach the area near Klein Strand continued to be threatened by the action of the waves. Additional measures therefore needed to be taken to prevent flooding. This was the impetus for the complete renovation of Zeeheldenplein.

The square has now tripled in size.

Ferries now carry pedestrians and cyclists between the west and the east bank free of charge. Of course, the ferry has a touristic as well as a mobility function. It has become part of the transport network and thus enhances mobility between the east and west bank. http://zeeweringenkustbeheer.afdelingkust.be

© Atelier Arne Quinze

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 20 ]

Ostend |b|

Reinforcement of the seawall with breakwaters

best practice example [ 21 ]

rouen |f|

Sustainable urban site Luciline Together with the municipality, the public developing agency ‘Rouen Seine Aménagement’ is redeveloping 800 hectares of former industrial and port sites in the French city of Rouen. This will provide an exceptional opportunity to create a compact new mixed residential and commercial centre on the river and to realise environmental objectives such as energy efficiency and natural management of rainwater.

Violent storms are one of the principal natural threats in the North Sea Region. To protect the Flemish coast against storm surges, the Coastal Division of the Agency for Maritime and Coastal Services drew up the Masterplan for Coastal Safety. This plan emphasises the protective measures necessary to permanently ensure coastal safety. Particular attention is paid to climate change: the expected rising sea levels were taken into consideration up to the year 2050. The measures of the Masterplan offer protection at least against a storm surge with a millennial cycle (a once-in-a-thousand-years storm). Within the scope of a cost-benefit analysis, additional research was conducted as to whether a significant residual risk exists of material damage and victims.

The development of the sustainable urban site ‘Luciline’ is part of a wider revitalisation project. The aim is to prepare the Luciline district for global warming. For this purpose, issues of energy, water management and ecosystems are combined on the site: -- A heat network is installed, supplied by the geothermal sources located nearby: groundwater, water from the River Seine, spring water, rainwater and wastewater will be used in the development of the area.

-- A natural rainwater drainage system will serve as a corridor for ecosystem development and offer opportunities for rainwater storage and infiltration.

-- A network of green corridors will allow for the development of urban biodiversity.

-- The combination of water systems and green corridors will refresh and improve the current building structure.

The reinforcement of the Ostend seawall with breakwaters in the zone between Raversijde and the Wellington golf course as well as the broadening of the seawall at Raversijde are part of this Masterplan.

However, protection against the sea cannot be separated from other challenges in the coastal area: natural environment, economic development, improvement of the coast’s attractiveness to tourists and residents, and the development of sustainable energy are the principles of an integrated elaboration of each project for the coastal zone. Special attention is therefore paid to design and sustainability. The planned protection projects need to create important tourist, recreational and maritime attractions whilst becoming points of interest for tourists and residents alike.

www.future-cities.eu

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best practice example [ 22 ]

Essen |D|

Green-blue climate corridor in the Lippe catchment basin can protect themselves against climate change, e.g. the disconnection of rainwater on their own plot.

The ecological transformation of the River Lippe and its tributaries is combined with the disconnection of rainwater. By combining water management measures with green corridors in inner cities, the climate in urban areas is enhanced.

-- In case of heavy rainfall, floods of the River Lippe and its tributaries can be reduced.

-- Rising summer temperatures can cause rivers to run dry. Drainage of rainwater into open rivers contributes to a sound water cycle. Evaporation creates a better microclimate.

-- The ecological functions of the water systems are strengthened.

The water system of the Heerener Mühlbach in the town of Kamen is ecologically enhanced for a distance of 2.14 kilometres. About 80 houses with a hard surface of 1.1 hectares are disconnected and rainwater is drained off to new natural water systems. A green corridor through Kamen will contribute to the town’s adaptation to climate change. Residents are informed on the ways in which they

www.future-cities.eu

Klimaatgroen Toolkit The toolkit is an inspiration and information booklet to optimise the utilisation of green space for solving climate-related problems. By demonstrating its qualities and by defining these qualities in technical terms, green space can be utilised optimally to counteract climate change.

The toolkit provides visual images of situations (roads, squares, parks) in which forms of green space can be applied.

The toolkit also provides background data to optimise the ‘green/red’ ratio in an urban setting. The annex to the toolkit contains an assessment of the effects of green space in various situations and with regard to issues such as heat, cooling, flooding, energy conservation and mitigation of carbon emissions. This annex is also a tool that can be used in planning processes of urban (re)development.

An effect table has been drawn up so that the global impact of applying green measures can be measured. www.functioneelgroen.nl

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

‘What is the value of a park? You can’t quantify it. We keep them because we’ve inherited them. But I’m sure there’ll be a rightwing movement in the future that says, “Parks? What are they for? People just wander about in them – and there’s dog shit all over the place. What’s the point of that? A great big piece of real estate in the middle of London that could be generating income – we can quantify that.” Quantification is a big temptation for society because it looks like control.’ ▼

[ Brian Eno, The Guardian, 11 november 2012 ]

Renaissance of urban agriculture Urban agriculture has become a popular topic over the past few years, you could even call it a fad. Urban agriculture encompasses various production types. The RUAF Foundation (Resource Centers on Urban Agriculture and Food Security) distinguishes eight types of urban agriculture. These eight types can be categorised into three general categories according to the way in which the integration into the urban system takes place. This integration depends on the economic activity that is carried out.

use as well as for the market.

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Small-scale (semi-)commercial livestock or aquaculture farms: small-scale businesses that mainly keep poultry or a few cows or pigs or that breed fish or shellfish. They produce for personal use as well as for the market.

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Specialised urban agriculture: specialised products such as mushrooms, pot plants and flowers are the main crops. They mainly produce for the market and are small-scale to large-scale. They can develop into intensive and highly technological companies.

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Large-scale agricultural companies: they produce on a larger scale and are therefore often located in periurban areas. They produce for the market and use advanced technologies, fertilisers, concentrates, etc.

Non-commercial urban agriculture: ■■

Micro-farming: on balconies, on terraces, in gardens or on window sills, mainly for personal use, surpluses are sold or given away to neighbours or family (without any commercial purpose). Vegetables, fruit, ornamental plants and herbs are grown and some chickens, rabbits etc. may be raised as well.

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Allotments & community gardens: plots of land specifically set aside for this purpose are leased out. Again, produce is mainly for personal use and surpluses are sold or given away to neighbours or family. Vegetables, fruit, ornamental plants and herbs are the main crops.

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Institutional gardens: vegetable gardens in schools, hospitals, prisons, etc. Their main purpose is educational or therapeutic.

Multifunctional urban agriculture: In addition to farming products, this type of urban agriculture provides other services such as agritourism, education, recreation, agri-environment land management and pick-your-own fruit or vegetable farms. They are mainly located in periurban areas and sometimes in central urban areas (e.g. children’s farms). Market-oriented farming is always multifunctional because in addition to food it generates ‘by-products’, e.g. a pleasant landscape, a habitat for species, etc.

Parks in and around cities can support several of these types of urban agriculture. As part of a green infrastructure network, parks can furthermore be a tool to support the development of city-oriented multifunctional agriculture in periurban agricultural areas and thus to integrate urban agriculture into local development projects.

Market-oriented urban agriculture: ■■

J

Small-scale (semi-)commercial arable and horticultural farms: small-scale businesses that mainly grow vegetables, fruit, herbs and plants. They are mostly located in periurban areas. They produce for personal

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best practice example [ 23 ]

Paris |f|

Educational vegetable garden in Parc de Bercy Parc de Bercy was created in 2001 on the site of the Bercy wine depot on the banks of the River Seine. The park is part of a large-scale regeneration project for this area in Paris.

As is the case for many new Parisian parks, it has an educational vegetable garden which is maintained by local school children. http://equipement.paris.fr/parc-de-bercy-5

best practice example [ 24 ]

Almere Buiten |NL|

Warmoezerij

The structural function of urban agriculture is to promote contact between various target groups. They will find the following functions in the park: -- a shop where food and related products are sold -- a children’s centre with child care, a children’s farm and a playground -- a day-care centre -- a catering establishment, including facilities for meetings and conferences -- natural playing area on a play island -- a house for the city farmer -- an energy unit to supply the farm.

Possible additional functions: -- space for small-scale businesses such as craftspeople -- small-scale events and activities.

The activities of Jeugdland will be integrated into the concept. Jeugdland makes use of the play island. The Jeugdland building can also be utilised for other purposes such as workshops or courses.

Meridiaanpark is the green lung of the Almere Buiten district. The park is used by cyclists, walkers and nature lovers and boasts a youth club, a scout centre and a funeral parlour. The 25-year old park now needs a makeover. The woodlands have become neglected, trees are too close together and compete with each other. The green space is limited and monotonous, and the cemetery and harbour basin that had been planned have never been realised. Meridiaanpark also lacks coherence: it winds like a long green ribbon through various neighbourhoods without any unity.

In 2009 the municipality of Almere drew up a development plan for the park in which the residents of Almere Buiten were actively involved. The development plan provides a wide range of public and private facilities.

The objective to restore the unity of Meridiaanpark was realised by means of a “Red Carpet”: a two and a half km long footpath, skate path and cycle path from north to south over the entire length of Meridiaanpark. The Red Carpet runs through the park and connects three parts of the city: the Buitenring ring road, the centre and the Lage Vaart canal. At the ends of the Red Carpet striking facilities have been planned: a tearoom in the south and the Warmoezerij project in the north. Warmoezerij will be developed into a special and attractive green space with the functions of urban agriculture, child care, care, recreation, natural playing area, catering and education.

The farm consists of three hectares of market garden, six hectares of orchard and grassland, and a limited amount of (small) livestock. The core activities of Warmoezerij are the cultivation of the soil and the harvest and sale of fruit, vegetables and seeds.

www.stadennatuur.nl

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 25 ]

Detroit |usa|

Lafayette Greens

After the demolition of the historic Lafayette Building in downtown Detroit in 2010, Compuware Corporation appointed a landscape architect to redevelop the 0.5 hectare vacant lot near the company’s headquarters. The initial project consisting of a city garden with a playground for children eventually evolved into an urban vegetable and fruit garden which local residents help to maintain.

In 2012 the project received an award from the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA) as an example of a ‘productive vegetable garden that also functions as an engaging public space, it is a tangible expression of the possibilities for integrating urban agriculture into city spaces and city life in a way that is participatory, beautiful and productive’. www.asla.org/2012awards/073.html

best practice example [ 26 ] |NL|

Pluk de Stad

Via the ‘Pluk de Stad’ website, residents can discover places in towns and cities where edible plants grow (e.g. hazelnuts, flowers and berries). They can also read tips on when to pick plants as well as recipes to prepare them.

These initiatives demonstrate that consumers can help make a city greener; through urban gardening, residents ensure that the soil is used more intensively, and this increases food production in towns and cities thanks to initiatives like ‘Pluk de Stad’. http://plukdestad.nl

best practice example [ 27 ]

Rotterdam |NL|

Neighbourhood vegetable gardens in Schiebroek-Zuid that they do not have to stoop.

The project is an initiative of the Vestia housing corporation. Vestia funds the investment in the construction and provides a water tap point and storage. The residents are responsible for maintenance and the purchase of seeds and the like. The fact that Vestia manages both the housing stock and public space simplifies and accelerates the realisation considerably. The first result of this project is that the neighbourhood has become neater and that social control has increased. People are increasingly aware of their environment, get to know their neighbours and collaborate more. http://stadslandbouwschiebroek.blogspot.nl

It is a peculiar sight: vegetable gardens can be found everywhere between the blocks of flats in SchiebroekZuid: in the middle of a lawn between high-rise buildings or right next to a building. The gardens are surrounded by chestnut fencing to keep out geese and dogs.

The gardens have been created by the flat-dwellers themselves to grow their own vegetables. Every resident with a good plan can register and start a garden as he/ she wishes.

Since the start of the project in 2011, a total of 21 vegetable gardens have been created in addition to a children’s garden and a small orchard. A greenhouse with elevated planting tables was specially built for senior residents, so

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best practice example [ 28 ]

ANTWERP |B|

Biodroom, amenity green space for the Linkeroever area gardening or for harvested vegetables.

With Biodroom the city of Antwerp aims to encourage residents to garden on a permanent basis so that they come into contact with nature more frequently. There is a great deal of ‘ornamental’ green space in the Linkeroever area, but relatively little amenity green space for the many flat-dwellers.

Visual artists are also inspired by nature. Every month an artist creates an installation. Anyone can join in the construction. Biodroom is also a place where music, theatre, workshops and all sorts of activities for young and old take place.

Biodroom is a community garden full of art, culture and vegetables. Everyone is welcome to garden and learn all about gardening. As this is only a temporary garden, large bags are used to grow plants in. The greater part of the garden is communal. Gardeners who regularly come to work here receive a Biodroom saving card to save for their own bag and spot in the garden, for a lesson in organic

Schools, residents and groups can participate in courses and workshops in Biodroom with regard to gardening, composting, bee keeping and organic cooking, organised

by Ecohuis and Velt vzw. www.dna.be/biodroom

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 29 ]

London |GB|

The Abundance urban agriculture project in Brixton The Abundance urban agriculture project in Brixton, London, is a citizens’ initiative in which vacant lots of less than 5,000 m2 were mapped with a view to developing community gardens on the principle of ‘Activating Barren Urban Niches for Daring Agricultural Networks of Creativity and Endeavour’. A toolkit has been produced that maps the suitability of various plots of land (accessibility, availability, current use, possibilities for urban agriculture).

The community gardens have now been taken over by the Brixton Transition Town team. www.transitiontownbrixton.org/category/groups/foodgrowing

best practice example [ 30 ] |NL|

Pergola farms

‘Pergola’ is the Dutch term for Community Supported Agriculture, in North America also known as Community Shared Agriculture. Pergola refers to the relationship between customer and agricultural business. The customers or stakeholders constitute the framework which supports the ‘plant’ or the business in its growth.

The customers are stakeholders in the business. To that end, the farmer and the stakeholders enter into a contract. The farmer agrees to take care of the land, plants and animals as best he can. The stakeholders undertake to buy part of the harvest and bear the costs thereof, irrespective of the size of the harvest. This way, the farmer has a guaranteed income. The customers contribute to the cultivation plan, have an insight into the figures and are entitled to qualitative and fresh products.

At present there are about a dozen Pergola farms in the Netherlands. www.denieuweronde.nl

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

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New and existing parks can be partly or completely (re)designed for non-commercial urban agriculture in the form of allotments, community gardens, neighbourhood vegetable gardens, educational vegetable gardens, urban orchards, children’s farms, municipal farms, etc. [ practice examples 23 - 27 ]

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Insufficiently utilised or vacant lots in and around cities can be temporarily used as a communal vegetable garden while awaiting their final development. [ practice

ised and multifunctional urban agricultural businesses can be integrated in a recreational network of parks connecting the city with rural areas. In addition, new opportunities arise for farmers by capitalising on the desires of city-dwellers and holiday-makers through farm shops, pick-your-own fruit or vegetable farms and agritourism. [ practice example 30 ] ■■

examples 28 - 29 ] ■■

Small-scale (semi-)commercial arable and horticultural farms, livestock and aquaculture farms, and special-

A further interesting green space initiative relates to the development of the ‘metropolitan’ or ‘region parks’. Rural areas are an integral part of them and farmers play a pivotal role in the use and management of the area.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Allaert G., et al. 2006 | Danckaert S., Cazaux G., Bas L. & Van Gijseghem D. 2010

| De Graaf P. & Boeijenga 2011 | Dewaelheyns, K. Bomans & H. Gulinck (Eds.) 2011 | London Assembly Planning and Housing Committee 2010 | Mulder M. & Oude Aarminkhof C. 2008 | Norman N. et al. 2012 | Pötz H. & Bleuzé P. 2012 | Stroom Den Haag 2010 | http://farmingthecity.net | http://productive-urban-landscapes.blogspot.be | http://stroom.typepad.com | www.het-portaal.net/project/eetbaar-rotterdam | www.samentuinen.org | www.urbanfarming.org

1)

Economic benefits Although green space and parks are still frequently considered a cost, more and more people are becoming aware of their considerable economic value to both individuals and society. In other words: they have to be viewed as a type of infrastructure with an important social, economic and ecological return. [ practice example 32 ]

Attractiveness to residents, tourists and investors A green environment with a well-developed green infrastructure including parks, cycle paths, recreational opportunities etc. is an important incentive for many people and companies to establish themselves in a particular location or to visit a city or region. Dozens of examples in Europe and North America have shown that a good park system can really raise the level of an area, thereby attracting people and investments.

A good example of this process is the new Westergasfabriek Culture Park in Amsterdam. The surrounding neighbourhood has become popular among young professionals, and various culture-related businesses have been started up in the area. Property prices in the neighbourhood saw one of the sharpest rises within the Amsterdam conurbation (Bade 2011).

Some studies have tried to express this economic impact in figures. These are a few examples:

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The new Millennium Park in Chicago is expected to yield 1.4 billion dollars in higher property prices and about two billion dollars in tourism over the next ten years.

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The entire park system of Denver, Colorado, a city with a population of over 500,000 inhabitants, is estimated to yield 71 million dollars and save 3.6 million dollars annually, while societal wealth is estimated to increase by 48 million dollars (Greenlink 2010).

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The master plan for the development of riverbanks in Minneapolis, Minnesota, where a series of parks are being laid out, assumes that every dollar of government money will attract five dollars of private investments (http://minneapolisriverfrontdevelopmentinitiative.com).

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Since the opening of the High Line in New York in 2009, the number of new construction permits has doubled and some thirty large construction projects have started for a total amount of two billion dollars. The High Line has also developed into one of New York’s principal tourist attractions with over five million visitors since its opening.

Value of real estate Numerous studies have demonstrated that people are more inclined to buy a house near or with view of a park, and that a (well-maintained) park has a positive effect on property prices.

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c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

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A study in Aberdeen, for example, has shown that houses located next to a park are worth between 0.50% and 20% more than houses at a distance of over 450 metres from a park (Dunse 2007). However, there is a significant difference according to the type of house and the type of park. [ table 3 ]

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Remarkably, the impact of an elongated or rectangular park is greater than that of a square or round park. This could be due to the better accessibility of an elongated park.

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According to a study in North West England, houses near a park are up to 20% more expensive than houses located further from a park (GreenLink 2010).

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A study by the Greater London Authority has found that an increase by 1% in park surface results in an average rise in house prices by 0.3 to 0.5% (CABE Space 2005a).

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Research in the Netherlands has shown that houses with nearby green space are worth 4% to 30% more than identical houses in a non-green environment.

These effects occur up to a distance of 400 metres (Bade 2011).

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The same phenomenon is found in commercial development. A survey among developers in 33 European countries, for example, has found that the proximity of green space (public parks, green squares, neighbourhood green spaces between buildings, roof gardens) is an important investment consideration (after location, purchase price, public transport and amenities) and that investors are willing to pay up to 3% more for properties near accessible green spaces (Gensler Institute & Urban Land Institute 2011). [ practice example 30 ] [ insert 1, p. 61 ]

of the Netherlands this would mean that the creation of more green space in urban areas can reduce public health expenditures by € 65 million. More green space can also result in employees reporting sick less often, producing a saving of € 328 million. The costs of layout and maintenance of additional green space would be recovered in five to twelve years.

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According to research in the Netherlands, greening the environment can reduce direct health care costs by over € 100 million annually thanks to a 15% decrease in overweight and obesity amounting to € 8 million, a 10% reduction in the use of antidepressants totalling over € 2 million and a 10% decline in the use of ADHD drugs (Bade 2010).

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The Department for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs (Defra) calculated that the National Health Service could save £ 2.1 billion a year if parks and green infrastructure encourage people to exercise more (Defra 2010).

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A study on the green cycling belt around Bruges calculated that the health benefit would amount to € 212 per cyclist a year (Verspecht et al 2010).

Recreation and tourism

Health costs

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Public parks provide residents and visitors with a cheap – usually free – recreation facility. A study in Boston calculated that the local urban parks received 131 million visits a year, amounting to $ 354 million in ‘use value’ (Harnik et al 2009).

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According to a study by the University of Sheffield, residents are willing to pay £ 30 a month or £ 360 a year for greener public spaces in the city (www.rudi.net/node/22726).

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Studies in the Netherlands have found that bringing water back into the city, combined with green space and footpaths along the water, results in an average sales increase of 10% to 15% as well as additional employment in the catering industry. Moreover, it leads to higher property prices and often improved water management (Bade 2011).

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The organisation of all sorts of cultural and sporting events in parks directly and indirectly generates revenue as well. For instance, the Royal Parks in London generated £ 14 million in 2009 as a result (Sunderland 2012). The privately run Potters Fields Park near Tower Bridge in London generates £ 350,000 a year thanks to the organisation of events (Jager 2010).

Numerous studies have shown that the presence of green space leads to savings on health costs as it contributes to improved health.

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Professional services company KPMG was ordered by the Dutch Ministry of Economic Affairs, Agriculture and Innovation to conduct a societal cost-benefit analysis and calculate two case studies in an Amsterdam neighbourhood (KPMG Advisory 2012). The creation of 10% additional green space in the neighbourhood in 2014 would result in a decrease of the number of patients with depression by 130, which equals a saving of € 800,000 on a yearly basis (health care costs and sickness absence).

Children having 10% more green space at their disposal in the area would get 15% more exercise. For the whole

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[ practice example 31 ]

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

‘Successful places – where people are attracted to live, work, visit and invest – have successful green spaces that people will want to use and respect.’ ▼

[ Commission for Architecture & the Built Environment - CABE ]

Employment The layout and maintenance of parks creates employment, often for low-skilled people who are disadvantaged in the regular labour market.

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In addition, many volunteers help maintain parks and green spaces. The economic value of this work is estimated at £ 17 to £ 35 million a year (Sunderland 2012).

A few examples will illustrate this.

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An employment project in Dutton Park, Cheshire for the long-term unemployed and people with learning disabilities and mental problems saved an estimated £ 1000 a day compared to standard social security (Natural Economy Northwest 2009a).

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About 50,000 people work directly for municipal parks in the United Kingdom and at least as many people are employed at all manner of supply companies.

Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

c h ap t e r 3 Wh y d o w e n e e d t h e m ?

best practice example [ 30 ]

New York |USA|

Bryant Park

A classic example is Bryant Park, a small urban park in Manhattan (New York). What once had been a haven for drug addicts and homeless people, became one of the trendiest parks in New York since its restoration in the 1990s. In the first two years after the refurbishment, 60% more flats and 40% more offices were leased in the surrounding streets, while rents rose by 115% to 225% in ten years’ time (versus maximum 75% in the wider area).

Since then, several large companies such as MetLife and Bank of America have opened new offices around the park (Sherer 2006).

best practice example [ 31 ]

Barnstaple |GB|

best practice example [ 32 ] |GB|

A new heart for Barnstaple

Green Infrastructure Valuation Toolkit

The construction of a bypass around Barnstaple (North Devon) provided an opportunity to transform a busy roundabout in the town centre into a low-traffic park zone with an events square. This breathed new life into the historical city centre and re-established contact with the promenade. Nowadays it has become a much frequented urban square where numerous events are organised.

As a direct result, the North Devon Museum located near the park saw its number of visitors rise from 50,000 to 78,000 in one year’s time.

The Green Infrastructure Valuation Toolkit is a tool to assess the economic rationale for investments in green infrastructure. By means of this tool, a ‘green infrastructure score’ can be determined for each sub-project in a particular area. The aim is to gain the highest possible score for the entire area.

The Valuation Toolkit has been tested in several British cities and regions. The Toolkit is based on similar tools such as the ‘Green Space Factor’ from the Swedish city of Malmö, the ‘Biotope Area Factor’ implemented in several German cities including Berlin and Hamburg, and Seattle’s ‘Green Factor’.

(The Landscape Institute 2011a)

www.ginw.co.uk/resources/gi_toolkit.xls

table [ 3 ]

Influence of parks on house prices in Aberdeen Detached house Urban park 3% Neighbourhood 10% park Unused green 0,5% space

59

Terraced house 20% 9,5%

Flat

3%

5%

7,5 % 8%

P A R T 1 A wa l k t h r o u g h t h e p a r k

Environmental benefits Several studies have attempted to calculate the environmental benefits of parks.

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infrastructure as far as construction and maintenance are concerned (Bartens 2009; Wilson S. et al 2009).

A study in Washington, for instance, has shown that the removal of pollutants from the air by all park trees together represents a value of $ 1.1 million a year. For Chicago this value is estimated at $ 1.5 million (Harnik et al 2009). The economic value of the air-cleaning capacity of urban trees is estimated at nearly $ 4 billion dollar a year for the entire United States (Center for Clean Air Policy 2011).

In the Netherlands it has been calculated that the monetary value of the air-cleaning effect of all urban trees together amounts to € 800,000 for Amsterdam, € 130,000 for ’s-Hertogenbosch, € 350,000 for Groningen and € 90,000 for Haarlem. This would total € 28 million a year for the whole of the Netherlands. If the number of trees in the centres increased by 10%, this would generate a value of € 2.8 million annually (Bade 2011).

The cost savings by means of storm water retention in the parks of Philadelphia are estimated at nearly $ 6 million a year (Sunderland 2012).

In the Netherlands it has been calculated that converting 10% of sealed surfaces into garden surfaces would result in a reduction of rainwater flowing into the sewers by over 32.3 million m3. In terms of transport and treatment costs this would mean a saving of over € 9 million a year (Bade 2011).

Research in Scotland and Sheffield has found that green infrastructure for water retention and drainage, so-called sustainable drainage systems (SUDS), such as drainage ditches, ponds and rainwater infiltration systems, can be half as expensive as traditional ‘grey’

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Studies in Chicago have shown that the extension of tree cover can result in energy savings of 5% to 10%.

If 50,000 offices in Dutch inner cities are cooled because the urban heat island effect is (partly) offset by the greening of town centres, this will reduce electricity costs by € 25 million a year (Bade 2011).

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An American study has calculated that one mature urban tree generates between $ 30 and $ 90 a year (the value of air purification, water retention, temperature reduction etc.). Trees provide $ 1.5 to $ 3 in benefits for every dollar spent (Center for Clean Air Policy 2011).

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The use of biomass from parks (grass cuttings, ­prunings etc.) can also be a source of revenue.

Food ■■

The economic value of the produce of allotments and community gardens in the United Kingdom is estimated at £ 50 million a year (Green Link 2010).

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According to a study by the Fédération Nationale des Jardins Familiaux et Collectifs (FNJFC) a 200 m2 allotment can enable a family to save € 700 a year in day-to-day purchases. The total area of allotments amounted to 3,906 hectares in the Netherlands in 2006.

This means a total saving in yearly grocery purchases of € 137 million.

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Research in the Netherlands has found that an increase in the total area of allotments by 400 hectares would generate about € 14 million a year (Bade 2011).

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Bade et al. 2011 | CABE Space 2004b | CABE Space 2005a | CABE 2009c | Center for Clean Air Policy 2011 | Dunse N. et al. 2007

Ecotec 2008 | Forest Research 2010 | Gensler Institute & Urban Land Institute 2011 | Green Link 2010 | Harnik P. & Welle B. 2009 | KPMG Advisory 2012 | Kozloff H. 2012 | Liverpool City Council 2010 | Natural Economy Northwest 2009a | Sherer P.M. 2006 | Sunderland 2012 | TEEB 2010 | TEEB Stad 2012 | Trust for Public Land 2000 & 2009

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HOO F d S T U K 3 w a a r o m h e b b e n w e z e n o d i g ?

INSERT [ 1 ]

Does money grow on trees?

In 2005, CABE Space conducted case studies on the economic impact of eight new or renovated urban parks in various British towns and cities, and two new parks in a commercial area (Jubilee Park in London and Arlington Business Parks).

-- Property prices rose by 3% to 34% (11.3% on average) for houses overlooking a park, and by 0% to 34% (7.3% on average) for houses located at a greater distance from a park.

-- The economic impact of parks that are visible from a distance (e.g. thanks to high trees, sightlines...) or extend down the neighbouring streets (e.g. thanks to walking or cycle links) is greater than that of parks with strict boundaries or where tall buildings block views of the park.

-- The larger the park, the greater its economic impact.

-- The economic impact is much lower if the park is located behind the houses.

-- The influence on house prices is higher in case of old renovated parks than in case of newly created parks.

Cabe Space 2005a

61

High Line Park (New York)

2

How many do we need?

Where do we find space for them?

How can we describe them?

What makes a park successful?

PART

62

Parks for the 21st century.

a blueprint ‘The questions “how much open space is enough?”, “how big?”, “how should it be distributed?” and “what type and where?”, do not have simple answers. Needs and expectations for open space in its numerous forms vary with different communities, with households and with individuals. Small, well-designed and well-maintained parks can be far more useful and valuable than larger but inaccessible or unattractive spaces. It is therefore inadvisable to apply arbitrary open space standards without reference to local community needs and the quality of development.’

Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment, Green space strategies - a good practice guide, 2006

63

par t 2

a b lu e p r i n t

Towards a new definition Over the course of the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’ it has become apparent that the concept of ‘park’ is much less clearly defined than it used to be. There are many different kinds of parks and park systems that are not only located in the city, but also outside it. Apart from the traditional urban parks, we now also have nature parks, eco parks, wildlife parks, national parks, regional parks, landscape parks, forest parks or park forests, river parks, dune parks, cultural parks, sculpture gardens, recreation parks, play parks, theme parks, amusement parks, holiday parks, caravan parks, science parks, business parks, skate parks, pocket parks and many more.

We also use a multitude of terms to refer to undeveloped spaces, such as ‘green space’, ‘urban green space’, ‘functional green space’, ‘public green space’, ‘green axis’ etc. while we could in fact simply refer to those spaces as ‘parks’.

The design and functions have changed as well. While the park used to be a more or less autonomous or isolated phenomenon, it now forms part of a network, of a green structure encompassing a city or region and connecting places, people and the city.

The 21st century park is no longer a pastoral idyll or green frame for the built-up space. Instead, it is an aesthetic and ecological infrastructural layer that is placed over urban and inter-urban landscapes. It is an exercise in what could be called landscape urbanism, as was emphasised at the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’ presentation at the UK and Ireland Planning and Research Conference 2012 at the University of Brighton.

Good examples of this are two projects in France by French landscape architect Michel Desvigne: the master plan for Lyon Confluence and the strategy for an ‘intermediary landscape’, an urban forest as the framework for the transformation of the abandoned infrastructures on the right bank of the River Garonne in Bordeaux (cf. Vervloesem E., De Meulder B. & Loeckx A. 2012).

Perhaps we should even stop considering parks as a specific type of (green) public space. After all, we can also describe parks as a programme or a planning tool to involve green space in the densely packed and dynamic urban and periurban space in a strategic and high-quality manner. In this scenario, parks become a method to give shape to the multifunctional nature and use of urban, periurban and inter-urban spaces and infrastructures. In other words: the park becomes a geometric metaphor to designate the spaces in and around the city and the many dilapidated, neglected or reusable spaces and plots of land, thus giving them new meaning and defining a new agenda for them.

In part II we explore four themes concerning the new park: 1. How many do we need? - the needs from a quantitative point of view 2. Where do we find space for them?

3. How can we describe them? - the qualities of the 21st century park 4. What makes a park successful? - to-do list for a successful project

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Basdevant et al. 2009 | Becker & Schmal 2010 | Benitez et al. 2007 | Czerniak J. & Hargreaves G 2007 | Nicolin et al. 2012.

Regionalverband Rühr 2010 | Steenbergen C. en Reh W. 2011 | SWA et al. 2011 | dirt.asla.org | www.landezine.com

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Garden city P Falkenberg a r k e n(Berlin) voor de 21ste eeuw

Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

MFO-park Neu Oerlikon (Z端rich)

Garden festival Brussels

65

East River Waterfront (New York)

deel 2 

Vegetable garden Biodroom (Antwerp)

66

een blauwdruk

c h ap t e r 1 H o w m a n y d o w e n e e d ?

How many do

we

n eed ?

‘There are no simple answers to the questions as to how much green space and how many green parks we need, how big they should be, what types we need and where we need them. The needs differ from city to city and from area to area, and they depend on numerous factors.

Traditionally, the main factors that are taken into account are those regarding the utility and amenity value of parks. Those factors include population density, family composition and the degree of urbanisation. However, it is equally important to take other factors into consideration,

such as the contribution parks can make to the local environmental quality (e.g. the reduction of air pollution and environmental climate mitigation), biodiversity, climate adaptation, flooding, sustainable mobility and the local economy.’

B

Quantitative criteria In order to get an idea of the need for, or the lack of, green space and parks certain quantitative criteria are often used: ■■ a certain minimum surface area of green space and/or types of green space per inhabitant or per home; ■■ a combination of surface area and/or type and distance.

In this case, the basic principle is that there is a need for the simultaneous availability of different types of green space on different functional levels and of different sizes.

It is not only necessary that there are sufficient parks in proportion to the number of inhabitants, the parks also need to be evenly spread over the city. For example, people should have small parks and playgrounds at their disposal that are close to home and easy to reach on foot.

And as to green space on the periphery of the city, it is not simply interchangeable with green space in the city.

In other words, it is not sufficient simply to have a lot of green space around the city, e.g. a forest or a dune belt, in order to meet the need for green space within the city.

This is even more important for people with restricted

mobility (children, the elderly, disabled people, etc.).

Examples of such quantitative criteria are the Natural England’s Accessible Natural Greenspace Standards (ANGSt), the Woodland Trust Woodland Access Standards, the Benchmark standards for Outdoor Sport and Play of Fields in Trust and Access standards for playable space of Play England.

According to ANGSt, everyone should have access to a green space of: ■■ at least 2 hectares within 300m from their home (5 minutes walking distance); ■■ at least 20 hectares within 2 km from their home; ■■ at least 100 hectares within 5 km from their home; ■■ at least 500 hectares within 10 km from their home plus ■■ minimum 1 hectare of nature conservation area per 1000 inhabitants. (www.naturalengland.org.uk)

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According to the standards of Play England (Play England 2009), all children and youngsters of up to 16 years of age should have at least three types of play areas at their disposal at walking or cycling distance: ■■ a doorstep play space at 60 metres from home ■■ a local play space at a maximum distance of 240 metres from home ■■ a neighbourhood play space at a maximum distance of 600 metres from home.

In Flanders, the Nature and Forest Agency (www. natuurenbos.be) established green standards. These are target figures, not legal or binding standards. The guideline standards consist of two elements: ■■ a global target standard, expressed as an ideal number of m² per inhabitant, depending on the area (categories of the Spatial Structure Plan Flanders), ■■ standards regarding the maximum distance at which the green space should be situated for each inhabitant, depending on the type of green space.

The reason for this duality: it is perfectly possible for a municipality to achieve the general target figure without this necessarily leading to a good and balanced provision of green space. In an extreme situation, one massive green area, far from the city centre, could lead to full compliance with the green standard. However, it is highly likely that in this case the need for green space within the municipality is not met. What is especially important for a high-quality living environment is the development of a network of green spaces, evenly spread over the entire surface area of the city or municipality. [ table 4 - 5 ] ■■

Doorstep green space should always be present. This is green space with a mainly aesthetic function that helps determine the nature of the living environment.

Doorstep green space is not immediately linked to a recreational function. Doorstep green space definitely

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needs to be situated within a distance of 150 metres from each home. It can come in different forms: from communal front garden strips in social housing estates to a single tree in a small public garden which helps determine the image of the area.

■■

Neighbourhood green space: everyone needs to have neighbourhood green space with a total area of at least 1 hectare at their disposal within 400 metres.

Neighbourhood green space has a social and recreational function. They are green spaces where people meet or walk their dog, where parents take their kids, where children can play. The emphasis is on peaceful and quiet recreation.

■■

District green space is what everyone should find at less than 800 metres from their homes. The larger size offers possibilities for a more diverse functionality. The more varied the functions are, the larger the population group turning to that green space will be.

■■

Green space at quarter level is available within 1600 metres. If they are not parks but forests or nature areas, they need to have a minimum size of 30 ha. If they are parks, a minimum size of 10 ha is sufficient. Indeed parks are designed and equipped to perform various functions in a more intensive manner on a smaller surface area. Parks can usually handle a higher recreational pressure than forests and nature areas.

■■

Municipal green space is meant for every inhabitant of the city or municipality (and sometimes this also applies to green space at quarter level). Everyone should be able to enjoy municipal green space of at least 60 ha within 3200 meters.

■■

Urban forests are preferably situated within five kilometres from the city and ideally have a surface area of 200 ha.

A few recommendations for drawing up quantitative criteria Quantitative criteria are an attractive tool to: ■■ compare cities and regions to one another (benchmarking); ■■ identify and objectify existing shortages or problem areas within a city, municipality or region; ■■ protect existing green spaces and plan sufficient green

space in case of new developments and projects; support a plea for ‘more green space’ or for certain types of green space with more or less objective criteria; ■■ set priorities; ■■ follow up on and measure policy effects.

■■

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table [ 4 ]

INSERT [ 2 ]

Criteria for the proportion of green areas with regard to population density Metropolitan area Regional urban area Structure supporting suburban area Suburban area at provincial level Rural area

30 m²/inhabitant 25 m²/inhabitant 20 m²/inhabitant 15 m²/inhabitant 10 m²/inhabitant

These criteria are based on the assumption that the required amount of green space per municipality varies depending on the local needs and possibilities. For example, in rural areas which have a great deal of open space, the need for green space will not be as great as in densely populated cities, where the built-up area is dominant.

table [ 5 ]

Criteria for distances and surface areas for different functional areas Functional level doorstep green space neighbourhood green space district green space green space at quarter level municipal green space urban forest

Maximum distance < 150 m

Minimum surface area

< 400 m

> 1 ha

< 800 m

> 10 ha (park: > 5 ha)

< 1600 m

> 30 ha (park: > 10 ha)

< 3200 m

> 60 ha

< 5000 m

> 200 ha

Source: Agentschap Natuur en Bos

Points of attention for setting quantitative criteria -- Existing national or international criteria can be used to set quantitative criteria as a kind of benchmarking, but these criteria should be adapted to local circumstances.

-- The criteria are preferably set at a metropolitan/regional level. It is only on that scale that conflicting space claims can be weighed against one another and that a stable and coherent balance for a green infrastructure can be established. During the second phase, the analysis can be further refined to a lower scale level (e.g. central towns).

-- It is preferable that a holistic point of view is adopted to set criteria. This means that the whole package of environmental benefits is taken into account, and that the focus is not exclusively on matters like recreational needs or nature protection. A holistic point of view also offers the opportunity to link functions to the largest possible extent.

-- Quantitative criteria are set on the basis of an audit of the current situation, consisting of an inventory of the different types of green infrastructure and an analysis of that situation's strengths and weaknesses. GIS (green infrastructure) mapping is the recommended method to do so. In that case, not only the number, the size, the type and the distribution of individual green spaces are important; the links between those green spaces are equally important.

-- The development of quantitative criteria is a process which involves various disciplines and services (spatial planning, urban regeneration, green space management, …). The public and all public and private stakeholders are also actively involved in the process through surveys, consultation and workshops. This means that additional attention can be paid to specific target groups (e.g. children, youngsters, the elderly, …)

-- Quantitative criteria only make sense as part of a regional or sub-regional planning process, of a ‘green structure plan’ or a ‘green space strategy’ covering an entire area.

-- The overall vision and the set criteria are published and widely advertised. They are preferably also included in regulations on urban development.

Vegetable garden Biodroom (Antwerp)

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On the other hand, a number of potential dangers need to be taken into account.

■■ Quantitative criteria often do not sufficiently consider local circumstances, needs and policy priorities. Each city or region has its own geography, history, culture, nature, demographic structure… This is definitely the case for coastal towns and regions, they have specific needs due to their location by the sea and their beaches and dunes that attract a generally older population as well as masses of tourists in summer.

■■ The criteria are often exclusively aimed at the needs of the local population and barely take into account other aspects such as tourism or broader ecological effects and benefits that form an important part of a green infrastructure strategy.

■■ Sometimes, the criteria do not sufficiently take into consideration the differences between the countryside,

Day of the Park 2004, lawn for events, Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

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peripheral areas, urbanised areas, etc.

The focus on specific types of green space (play areas, natural areas, etc.) or on people-oriented, recreational aspects often leads to an oversupply of certain types, e.g. play areas. The typology used is often too general and monofunctional, whilst the green infrastructure strategy is precisely based on multifunctional green spaces.

■■ Some types of green infrastructure are difficult to fit into the criteria, e.g.: small landscape elements (hedges, rows of trees, …), roadsides, cycle links, etc.

■■ Due to the focus on quantitative criteria, quality aspects sometimes tend to be forgotten. Cities do not necessarily need more green space, but they do need more significant green spaces.

■■

[ insert 2 ] [ practice example 32 ]

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best practice example [ 32 ]

East Sussex AND Rother District |gb|

Criteria for green infrastructure and recreation areas The ‘Draft East Sussex Country Council Strategic Open Space Study’ tested the present accessible green space in East Sussex against the Accessible Natural Greenspace Standards (ANGSt) (see above). According to this study

creation of the Combe Valley Countryside Park and an expansion of the Rye Harbour Nature Reserve. This way, 90% of the regional population would have access to a green area of 500 ha or more within a 10 km radius.

-- 91% of the population has a green space of at least 20 ha at their disposal within a 2 km radius -- 85% has 100 ha at their disposal within a 5 km radius -- 60% has 500 ha at their disposal within a 10 km radius.

This study was a great help for the development of the Combe Valley Countryside Park.

Rother District Council developed local criteria for green infrastructure and recreation areas based on the current situation and on a survey of users and other parties involved.

The study concludes that there is a need for a large green area (500 ha) in the Rother District between Rye and Bexhill. This lack could be compensated by the Green Infrastructure, Rother District Council Type

Parks & gardens Natural & seminatural green space Amenity green space Outdoor sports facilities Allotments & community gardens

Recommended criterion (per 1000 inhabitants) 0,57 2

Current situation (per 1000 inhabitants)

1,73 3,90 0,31

Increase/decrease (ha per 1000 inhabitants)

Increase/Decrease (hectares)

0,25 15,53

0,32 -13,53

27,34 -1155,84

0,89 2,75 0,19

0,84 1,15 0,12

71,76 98,33 10,25

Source: Rother District Council Open Spaces, Sport and Recreation Study.

Recommended Access Standards and Recreation Areas

Urban Rural

Outdoor sports Parks & gardens facilities 20 mins. walk time 20 mins. walk time 20 mins. walk time 20 mins. drive time

Amenity green space 15 mins. walk time 15 mins. walk time

Source: Rother District Council’s Open Spaces, Sport and Recreation Study.

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Allotments & community gardens 20 mins. walk time 20 mins. walk time

Natural & seminatural green space 15 mins. walk time 15 mins. walk time

deel 2â&#x20AC;&#x192;

een blauwdruk

Sometimes, temporary use as a park can be an interesting alternative for the uselessness of plots of land that are waiting to be developed.

IBA- Emscher Park (Duisburg)

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Where

do

we

fi n d

s p ace

for

the m ?

It is not easy to lay out new parks in a densely developed urban or periurban environment where strong space claims compete with one another for scarce space, and where places for living, working and recreation and space for water storage and nature are in great demand. This is definitely the case in coastal areas, which are bounded by the sea on one side and where spatial pressure is possibly even greater than inland.

We therefore need to focus all our efforts on intelligent and careful use of space. This means that we sometimes have to think outside the box and focus on multiple and variable use of space, that we need to think about the reuse and redesignation of plots of land, and about new locations for

parks. It also means that we need to optimise the existing green surface area. We can no longer afford lax use of space.

Within the scope of the 21st Century Parks programme we have put together a non-exhaustive inventory of new spaces for parks.

B

Multifunctional parks Cemeteries By assigning a ‘park layer’ to places that were traditionally meant to fulfill one single purpose, such as cemeteries, business parks or agricultural land, and by connecting or adding other activities to them, multiple and variable use of space over time is made possible. This enables ‘softer’, less powerful, yet socially valuable functions to develop in these areas.

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, many beautiful park-like cemeteries were laid out, with leafy lanes and footpaths, rose gardens, extensive lawns and gracious flower beds. Just like the traditional urban parks, these cemeteries often constitute small pastoral islands in or at the periphery of the densely developed city. They have both an important cultural-historical and a scenic and/ or ecological value. In the United Kingdom, for example, English Heritage has included 108 of those historic ceme-

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teries in its Register of Historic Parks and Gardens, whilst Natural England has identified a few of them as having Importance for Nature Conservation. The new Parks for People programme of the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) and the BIG Lottery Fund (BIG) therefore includes relevant cemeteries. See: www.parksforpeople.co.uk/about/parksfor-people-programme.

is now being converted into one of the largest new urban parks in Europe. (noordinarypark.co.uk - londonlegacy. co.uk) [ practice examples 37 - 39 ]

Business parks Business parks often occupy a peripheral position, both literally and figuratively speaking. Not only are they usually situated on the edge of town, they typically do not form part of the city or municipality in any way either. They are only visited during business hours. In addition, their spatial quality is often uninspiring, with a disorderly spatial organisation of buildings and dreary architecture, poor accessibility, unsightly parking areas and drab, badly-maintained outside spaces.

Although this kind of business park still exists, a turnaround has been observed over the past few years. With the development of new business parks and the reconversion of old ones, more and more attention is paid to the spatial quality and integration into the landscape, as well as to aspects such as biodiversity, sustainability (in terms of energy consumption, etc.) and water storage. The spatial barrier zones of the past can now also be integrated into a recreational walking or cycling circuit and developed as a park-like link between different neighbourhoods. Good examples are Park Central and Avenue John F. Kennedy on the Kirchberg Plateau in Luxembourg that connect all parts of the new European office quarter.

New business parks can also be equipped with recreational facilities such as sports fields that are used by people living in the neighbourhood outside regular business hours. Sometimes temporary use as a park can be an interesting alternative to the wastefulness of unused plots of land that have yet to be developed.

These historic cemeteries offer many possibilities for recreational joint use, even if they are still used as cemeteries. The best-known examples of this are perhaps the seven cemeteries in London, also referred to as the ‘Magnificent Seven’ (Brompton Cemetery, Kensal Green, Abney Park Cemetery, Highgate Cemetery, Nunhead Cemetery, Tower Hamlets Cemetery Park and West Norwood Cemetery), and which are among the most popular parks in London. [ practice example 33 ] New cemeteries can be designed for multifunctional use and included in a recreational or ecological network from the very start. For example, a cycle or footpath can run through it or the cemetery can be part of an ecological corridor. [ practice examples 34-36 ] Another newcomer is the so-called natural cemetery or ‘green cemetery’, which has become very popular in the Netherlands, Germany and Britain over the past few years.

In the United Kingdom alone there were over 250 such green cemeteries in 2012. A natural cemetery is situated in a natural environment, i.e. a forest, park or natural area.

Instead of a headstone, graves are marked with a tree or shrub, or a commemorative plaque at the most. People are usually buried there in an environmentally friendly fashion with biodegradable materials.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG English Heritage & English Nature 2007

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|

www.greenburial.co.uk | www.groenebegrafenis.be | www.naturalburialresearchproject.group.shef.ac.uk | www.naturaldeath.org.uk

Greening car parks During the tourist season there is a great need for parking areas in coastal towns and tourist centres in general.

These areas are often desolate outside the tourist season.

The same goes for shopping centres, where parking areas are barely used at night. Greening car parks are an alternative for these traditional car parks. Greening car parks are parking areas with a flexible usable surface area that allow for more activities than merely parking. These car parks can be equipped for recreational activities (sports, games, cultural and/or sports events at night or at times when they are not used for parking), or they can be used as a point of departure for tourist cycling and walking circuits. They can also be integrated into a programme for natural water management or a green corridor.

Sports parks Parks have always been used for all sorts of sports activities and infrastructure. Over the past few years, we have increasingly observed the opposite tendency: the development or renovation of sports infrastructure often results in true leisure landscapes. This can only be beneficial: by combining multiple functions, scarce space is used in a much more efficient and sustainable way, and maximum investments can be made in the social and ecological dimensions of green infrastructure.

The most spectacular example of this is perhaps the new Queen Elizabeth Olympic Park in London which was created on the occasion of the 2012 Olympic Games and

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best practice example [ 33 ]

Bristol |GB|

Arnos Vale Cemetery The Arnos Vale Cemetery in Bristol was developed between 1836 and 1840 and is listed in the English Heritage Register of Parks and Gardens. When the site was about to be sold to a property developer in 2003, it was purchased by Bristol City Council. The Arnos Vale Cemetery Trust became responsible for the management of the cemetery and started an ambitious restoration programme with the support of the Heritage Lottery Fund. The intention was not only to restore and preserve the historical heritage and to reopen the site as a cemetery, but also to make it available as a public park and to develop its ecological value. The cemetery is now also listed as a Site of Nature Conservation Interest (SNCI). www.arnosvale.org.uk

best practice example [ 34 ]

Vleteren |B|

© Andy Malengier bvba

New park cemetery The design for the central cemetery of Vleteren was based on the assumption that, taking into account our limited space, cemeteries can fulfil a park function for the village. The cemetery will be an important element of green space in the village setting. It should seamlessly blend into the village setting and the surrounding landscape. This can increase the involvement of the villagers and the cemetery can assume the role of park in the village life of Vleteren and its submunicipalities.

best practice example [ 35 ]

Leuven |B|

Diestseveld park cemetery The new Diestseveld park cemetery in Kessel-Lo interconnects with its environment in a subtle manner. A cycle path that is at a lower level in the most ‘sensitive’ places winds through the site, and on the periphery there is a small neighbourhood park. It seems to make perfect sense to come here for a walk on Sunday afternoons as if it were a quiet urban park.

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© Ontwerpbureau Pauwels bvba

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Metropolitan or regional parks

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and interconnection of functions and recreational joint use on the other. Here, the question as to how new cohesion between recreational functions and designations can be created occupies centre stage. The emphasis thereby shifts from fragmented joint use to overall ‘recreational experience’. It is no longer about building the requisite birdwatching hide or establishing the typical cycle network access point. It is all about making an area as a whole as attractive as possible to residents and tourists without ignoring the natural and agricultural aspects that are present. It is not about reducing nature or agriculture, it is about doing more with it.

What is also important is the creation of new perspectives for zones that are less valued or are even considered unwanted, such as industrial estates or business parks, semi-rural areas and agricultural buildings, residential areas, road infrastructure, marshalling yards, vacant lots, and landfills. In future, these incongruencies will be accepted and integrated into the wider landscape.

Metropolitan or regional parks are a relatively new development in the interface between the city and the countryside. The first regional or country parks were developed in the United Kingdom in the 1960s as a way to steer the pressure exercised on the countryside by urban ­holiday-makers in the right direction. The regional parks were to lure the stream of tourists like a honey pot and thus reduce the pressure on the rest of the region.

The concept, which over time spread all over Europe, has evolved greatly since then. Current regional parks no longer need to streamline the urban pressure on the countryside. They are now part of a strategy to make the open space in and around urban areas accessible and to connect them with different interest and population groups, both literally and figuratively speaking. This is important for the ecology as well as for the recreational needs of the city and its surroundings.

In coastal regions, such parks link the different landscapes (dunes, polders, fields, creeks, wetlands, natural areas) to numerous functions and thus create coherence in this diversity.

Even though the traditional separation between the city and rural areas has disappeared a long time ago in most urban regions, the image of a clear separation between built-up areas and nature still dominates the way we see spatial planning.

A new regional dimension to spatial planning is crucial in quickly changing urban regions, with an increasing or decreasing population, with a growing need for recreation, businesses moving away or looking for new locations and farms closing or planning to expand.' A defensive strategy to protect the open space and green belts around urban centres is no longer sufficient. Instead of preserving existing plots of open land and green belts with passive protection regulations, new spatial strategies and models of active landscape management and design need to be developed that take into account the heterogeneity and the multifunctional character of the changing urban landscape. The rediscovery and the reinterpretation of the intrinsic value of the urban landscape and the benefit of its use can help achieve this goal. The underlying thought is: that which is utilised and appreciated will also be protected.

Regional parks are not parks in the traditional sense of the word. They are hybrid, multifunctional areas near the city in which different landscape types and spatial typologies come together. They can be recreational areas and connections, natural and forest areas, coastlines and river deltas, ecological connections, farmland, scenic, cultural-historical and industrial relics… They are ‘recycled landscapes’ where the functions of recreation and tourism, nature, water management, sustainable energy, landscape, agriculture, cultural history and sometimes even living and working all fit in.

Some parts of a regional park can be equipped as a more or less traditional park with recreational or natural infrastructure while other parts retain their original functions or are given a new function. However, these parts are connected to one another by means of a park layer so that a new kind of versatile, generally accessible and attractive urban landscape is created.

The best way to illustrate this is by means of a few practical examples.

The regional park concept offers a spatial framework to give shape to these new urban developments and landscapes in transition and to connect the city with the countryside in an innovative manner.

This involves reinforcing or restoring the scenic, natural and cultural-historical qualities of the peripheral and interurban area on the one hand, and stimulating the interlacing

■■

One of the first and best-known regional parks of this new style is the IBA Emscher Park in the German Ruhr region that was transformed from a derelict industrial area into a valuable natural area and a cultural hot spot. www.iba.nrw.de/main.htm

■■

Parc de la Deûle in the environs of Lille in France was also a pioneer in this respect. In time it should cover about 4,000 ha. This is a typical periurban area, a fragmented landscape with villages spreading out from the city, dozens of abandoned industrial sites and dumping grounds, interspersed with small patches of

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best practice example [ 36 ]

Langedijk |nl|

best practice example [ 38 ]

Ostend |B|

Oostervaart cemetery

De Schorre sports park

The new Oostervaart cemetery in the Dutch municipality of Langedijk is part of a green recreational zone that also comprises a traditional park, sports and playing fields and an allotment garden. A large pond is located in the middle of the park, and the park is structured by various linear water elements.

The De Schorre sports park in Ostend has been refurbished and developed into a fully fledged open-air sports complex over the past few years. Apart from the expansion of the sports infrastructure, attention was paid to other recreational infrastructure as well: a mountain bike and jogging track, cycle paths and footpaths, a multifunctional playground and space for culture and education.

Within this project, special attention was paid to the layout of the landscape and integration in the polder landscape. A buffer basin was constructed to sprinkle the football pitches together with a system of ditches to collect the water drained from the football pitches.

best practice example [ 37 ]

Ostend |B|

Nieuwe Koers

The surroundings of the training race track in Ostend have become one of the hot spots of the Emerald Necklace. It is a historically and scenically valuable location situated on the boundary between the city and the historical polder landscape with its embankments.

The sports poetry route in the park combines sports and culture in a four-km walking track along 17 poems on sports written by Flemish and Dutch poets.

Children’s farm ‘De Lange Schuur’ and allotment complex ‘Karel Achtergaele’ are located at the edge of the park.

The farm was built immediately after the drainage of Sint-Catharinapolder so as to cultivate the area. De Lange Schuur farm will also function as a reception point for the environs of Stene, with the forest on the edge of the city and the historical creek area in the immediate vicinity.

See also Part III, Case 6, p 160. 

See also Part III, Case 4, p. 148. 

best practice example [ 39 ]

Koksijde |B|

‘Hof ter Hille’ ecological golf course In the Flemish coastal town of Koksijde, a brand-new 85-hectare golf course has been developed which is fully embedded in the coastal landscape. It has a driving range with 25 tees, a practice bunker and a zone with four holes, a short course with nine holes (par 32) and a championship course with 18 holes (par 72). Due to the increasing scarcity of space in Flanders, the Flemish golf strategy places great emphasis on the importance of multifunctional joint use for outside sports when new golf courses are developed. Various facilities have therefore been installed on and around the domain, such as cycle paths and walking trails, bridle paths, fishing ponds, picnic areas, a marina and a playground. koksijdegolfterhille.be

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‘The objective of making visible and possibly enhancing the beauty from function and as function in the landscape is an aim that is particularly imperative in the urban context. A cultural landscape that deserves that name calls for design qualities and aesthetic categories that abandon the ideals of a traditional rural landscape.’ ▼

[ Udo Weilacher (2010) Beauty from Function and as Function. In: Field Studies: The New Aesthetics of Urban Agriculture, Birkhäuser Basel ]

open space and farmland, a few isolated woodlands and some brooks. The initiators had an important social agenda: to improve the quality of life of local residents, to provide an attractive environment to the residents of the Lille metropolitan area, and to guarantee an economic future for farmers.

The manner in which nature, agriculture and recreation (which often have conflicting views and space claims) were involved in the project is exemplary. For example, it was decided that spatial development should not be aimed at one single industry and the idea of a sectorial subdivision of areas for nature, forest, agriculture or recreation was consciously abandoned.

Ambiguous land use was therefore opted for as much as possible, whereby the different functions were interlaced to a maximum extent. No farmland was sacrificed in the name of nature, and it forms an integral part of the recreational network of cycle paths and walking trails. Nature is not confined to small reserves. On the contrary, it surfaces in every mesh of the network.

Farmers were initially highly suspicious of the entire project, but the vast majority now actively cooperate thanks to extensive consultation processes, training activities and specific actions. They are involved in the maintenance of walking trails, roadsides and small landscape elements. Several programmes are underway to embellish agricultural landscapes, e.g. by planting rows of trees and hedgerows or by using one single type of fence. The farmers are also stimulated to work in a more environmentally friendly manner and to try out new crops. Agreements are made on the botanical management of field borders and other forms of nature and landscape management. Some farmers also actively turn the proximity of the city and the presence of walkers and tourists to their advantage: they sell farm products, organise visits or offer accommodation. www.lillemetropole.fr/index.php?p=1052 ■■

metre path network. These paths are flanked by a ten metre wide roadside planted with trees or shrubs.

Various ‘building blocks’ such as (public) gardens, natural areas, orchards, historical sights, installation art, adventure playgrounds and catering establishments are linked to these regional park paths. The path network provides the framework onto which local initiatives can also be added. The use of the existing cultural landscape remains largely intact. Agricultural activity forms part of the leisure experience of the regional park users. www.regionalpark-rheinmain.de ■■

With its different landscapes including beaches, forests and grassland, the new regional park Duin, Horst en Weide near The Hague in the Netherlands constitutes an ecological connection between the North Sea and the Green Heart. It is also a valuable area in culturalhistorical terms. The landscape of the area is made more attractive and better accessibility is provided to day-trippers. For example, it is the intention to create new points of access to public transport. The plan also provides for new walking and cycle paths, cycle hire and additional ponds. Other zones in the area are closed off in order to ensure some peace and quiet for the birds.

■■

Park21 is a new regional park in Haarlemmermeer in the Netherlands. It forms a link between the regional, recreational and ecological areas: the dunes in the west and the ponds on the east side. The historic character of the polder is maintained and the existing agricultural businesses are made accessible to the public. About one third of the 1,000-ha park is aimed at continuing and renewing the agricultural function: there will be space for multifunctional agriculture and urban agriculture to be experienced and used by local residents as well as visitors. The park has been built up in three layers: the polder layer, the park layer and the recreation layer. The layers operate throughout the park, and while they complement each other, they also show very clear differences. The polder layer keeps the cultural-

Another example is the German Regionalpark RheinMain near Frankfurt. It consists of a 1200-kilo-

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Parc de la De没le (Lille)

IBA-Emscher Park (Duisburg)

Hudson River Park (New York)

'Whisper Trees' by Yves Velter, Filip Van Maestrichtplein (Ostend).

The artist fixed small silver ears onto the tree. They will gradually become overgrown with bark.

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‘The vision: To create and manage a high quality sustainable, attractive, accessible and multi-functional countryside area to serve the recreational, economic and health and well-being needs of residents and visitors.’ ▼

[ Combe Valley Development Strategy Review and Implementation Plan 2012-2015 ]

historical dimension of the area recognisable and accessible. It is the basis for the integration of agriculture, nature and water on a wider scale. The park layer is the supporting and connecting structure. It is public, a framework that runs across the polder layer and contrasts with it while, at the same time, it constitutes the connection between the recreational and agricultural areas. This layer offers space for elements such as a tearoom, playgrounds and sunbathing areas, culture, sports and special facilities. A network of walking trails, cycle paths, skate trails and bridle paths runs through the park layer. The paths and trails connect to the old polder roads and to the residential areas. The third layer is the recreation layer, with large-scale facilities and attractions. www.park21.info

functions and types of users. Once the project has been completed, about a third of the surface area will no longer be used for agricultural purposes. There will also be room for supporting catering establishments, homes, high-tech business and active recreation. www.parkbos.be ■■

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Park Lingezegen in the Dutch province of Gelderland is a large regional park that is being developed for the 160,000 current and future residents of Arnhem, Elst, Bemmel and Nijmegen. The park covers a surface area of 1500 hectares and consists of five interconnected zones which each have their own theme. The first phase consisted in the development of the ‘basic facilities’: cycle, walking and bridle paths, nature, tree planting, bridges and ponds. During the second phase, private initiatives are expected to contribute to making the park accessible through physical projects, e.g. through the lay-out and maintenance of natural fields, the development of a walking route or the opening of a restaurant. www.parklingezegen.nl

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Parkbos in Ghent (Belgium) is aimed at the development of a multifunctional metropolitan landscape park with a surface area of about 1200 ha to the south of Ghent. It extends over the territories of Ghent, De Pinte and Sint-Martens-Latem. Several castle parks, lanes and vistas are situated there. Within this green lung, space is provided for 340 ha of old and new woodland, 200 ha of park and natural area and 500 ha of sustainable agricultural area. It is set to become a kind of ‘countryside’ to be shared and experienced by different

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Combe Valley Countryside Park in the United Kingdom is an area of 600 ha near the coast between Hastings and Bexhill-on-Sea. Over the next few years, the area will be developed as an attractive, multifunctional and accessible landscape for residents and tourists.

About one third of the area is local authority ownership and the rest is privately owned and is mainly used as pasture land. The aim is to make sure that farmers can continue their activities for the most part.

The improvement of existing walking, cycle and bridle paths and car parks, and the creation of new ones should make the area more accessible. The site adjoining a landfill (landraise) that will be closed in 2014 will be developed into a recreational activity zone with infrastructure for sports and games, amongst other activities. The installations for waste disposal are being integrated into the landscape of the park. In addition, an annual programme of events and activities relating to nature and recreations is being undertaken to promote the new park.

Several sites of nature conservation interest are contained within the park, as well as wetlands with unique flora and fauna endemic to the coast, e.g.

Combe Haven SSSI and Filsham Reed Bed, the largest reed bed in Sussex, and coastal vegetated shingle (Galley Hill and Glyne Gap). In the northeast, the area connects to two semi-natural woodlands. A disused railway which has developed into an important ecological corridor runs through the park. These areas constitute the park’s natural cores and are expanded and further developed.

Access to the coastal areas and beaches is improved and the seashore area is being used as a coastal park

c h ap t e r 2 Wh e r e d o w e f i n d s p a c e f o r t h e m ?

New urban landscapes: a tip for Europe

Sevilla Declaration on Periurban Parks

‘In Europe’s economic heartland, new urban landscapes are now a reality with a vital impact on people’s quality of life in city regions. Their unique challenges and opportunities need innovative approaches (...)

‘We believe that periurban nature parks, going beyond their legitimate vocation to be leisure spaces for the public, should be recognized as essential components of a green infrastructure in the form of an ecological network which is indispensable for the establishment of sustainable town planning that is committed to the fight against climate change and to preserving biodiversity.

Politicians should make new urban landscapes a key policy tool in urban and regional development strategies, to reflect the changing needs of society in all city regions. (…) [They] should adopt regional spatial strategies that create new opportunities for improving quality of life in city regions (...)

[They] should recognise and assert the high value of public spaces as a crucial development resource for city regions, and a major asset in building a region’s economic success through enhanced quality of life.

FEDENATUR believes that an ambitious European policy must take steps to: 1. Accelerate the protection of natural and rural spaces located near cities.

2. Promote an integrated approach to spatial planning in metropolitan areas in which periurban natural and rural areas are valued and appreciated as essential for biodiversity and the quality of urban life.

Practitioners should respond to the changing functions of new urban landscapes by testing innovative ways of interpreting them, designing and creating environments fit for purpose. [They] should embrace new spatial planning tools, such as the broad spatial vision approach, using consensus based methods in which all citizens can participate, and capturing larger scale opportunities to which a wide spectrum of society can relate. [They] should incorporate into spatial planning strategies the full potential of new urban landscapes, including forestry and agriculture, inner city and peri-urban spaces, in order to promote their new potential for encouraging social cohesion.’

3. View periurban nature parks as places with great ecological, social and cultural challenges and include these spaces in public spatial planning policy as a means of containing urban sprawl.

4. Promote the creation of a green infrastructure, consisting of a network of interconnected physical spaces that nurture the welfare of the public and biodiversity, and view these spaces as essential facilities on a par with educational, health, cultural, transport and communication facilities.

The SAUL (Sustainable & Accessible Urban Landscapes) partnership, a consortium of metropolitan regions in North West Europe (Amsterdam, Frankfurt/Rhein-Main, London, Luxembourg, Rhine-Ruhr and Saarland) www.saulproject.net

5. Encourage the maintenance and diversification of sustainable local agriculture, seen as an important facet of the management of periurban spaces.

6. Promote the means for the preservation of the biodiversity of ecosystems and associated landscapes. ’ Seville Declaration, Fedenatur 2010

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which focusses on the natural, recreational and culturalhistorical dimensions of the area.

The wildlife and countryside area of the park also has an important water storage function which is being sensitively incorporated into the countryside access and ecological functions of that part of the valley. At

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the southern edge of the park area there is a town expansion masterplan proposal for Bexhill-on-Sea to include a new residential area of 1200 homes and a business park along with a new 3.5 kilometre link road to Hastings along the northern side of the park.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Fedenatur 2010 | Fuchs A. 2010 | Samenwerkingsverband Saul 2006 | Urban Parks Forum & Garden History Society 2003

www.naturalengland.org.uk/ourwork/enjoying/places/countryparks

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Surprising parks Nowadays, parks emerge in the most unexpected places: abandoned railways or port areas, former industrial sites, mining areas, landfills and other brownfield sites, as well as on the sites of barracks, monasteries or convents that are no longer part of the public domain. These places are often in transition and building on them is not allowed or possible, or they come with excessive redevelopment costs, e.g. because they are heavily polluted.

Commercially speaking, this does not make them very attractive, so that redesignation is not always easy. In that case, a partial or even temporary redesignation as a park can be an interesting alternative. These are the parks born out of necessity.

buildings, railways and a (new) vineyard remind one of its past as a wine depot. In Parc de la Villette in Paris, Park Spoor Noord in Antwerp, Westergaspark in Amsterdam or Plaza del Desierto in Barakaldo/Bilbao this is the case as well, as there are only a few buildings and industrial constructions that bear witness to the past use of these sites.

At the MFO-Park in Neu-Oerlikon, a former industrial site in Zurich, Switzerland, the industrial heritage was interpreted in a very original manner... [ practice examples 41 - 42 ] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Tritel & AMRP 2012 | Treib M. 2010

Regionalverband Rühr (eds) 2010 | Shannon, K. & Smets M. 2010 | www.cabernet.org.uk

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Post-industrial sites The conversion of abandoned industrial sites, railway yards, port infrastructure etc. into parks is a relatively new phenomenon. Over the past few years, this trend resulted in several new parks that appeal to the imagination. One could even say that these post-industrial parks are the 21st-century version of the idyllic and romantic 19th century urban park. While the 19th-century parks figuratively turned away from the city and wanted to evoke an imaginary ‘countryside’ through their design and planting, these post-industrial parks actually embrace the city. In addition, places that have been vacant for a long time often contain flora and fauna that require protection. This is where the interface takes place between an industrial past and an ecological future. [ practice examples 39 - 40 ] Apart from these post-industrial parks which explicitly capitalise on their industrial past and even glorify this past by attributing an iconic value to it, there are many post-industrial parks that show their roots in a much less explicit, and sometimes even symbolic manner. A great example of this is Parc de Bercy in Paris, where only a few

landfill becomes a park Closed landfills increasingly get a second life as parks or natural areas. This is not a new phenomenon: one of the oldest and most iconic urban parks in the world, Parc des Buttes-Chaumont in Paris, developed in 1867, is located on a former landfill site. Another famous ‘landfill park’ is the Flushing Meadows-Corona Park in New York, dating from 1930. Even some of the most spectacular parks developed over the past few years, such as Vall d’en Joan park along the coast of Barcelona, Sangam-dong World Cup Park in Seoul, Korea, and Byxbee Park in Palo Alto, USA, used to be landfill sites.

There are many reasons why it is convenient that landfills are developed into new parks: their size, sometimes their location, and the fact that few other designations are possible, which makes the land cheap. However, they are also often the most difficult sites, requiring special measures as their soil is heavily polluted. Then again, this

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Duisburg-Nord |D|

Landscape Park Duisburg Nord

former Emscher canal offers a view of the entire site.

Water management constituted an important part of the project. Design agency Latz + Partner designed an entire water purification system with canals and retention basins to clean up the heavily polluted river Emscher and collect the rainwater. The blend of spontaneous wasteland flora with plants that are more likely to be found in parks and even gardens is extraordinary. In some places the wild flora, which took over the area after the blast furnaces were shut down, are given free rein. These are often very special plants that landed here by accident through ore transport. Cultivated plants were deliberately planted in other places, such as an ornamental cherry orchard, in order to emphasise the human, artificial dimension of the site as a whole. Some small archetypical ornamental gardens were even laid out in the former coke bunkers to create a contrast with the ‘industrial’ nature that flourishes elsewhere.

The Landscape Park Duisburg Nord, situated on an old blast furnace and coal mine site in the German Ruhr region, is a shining example of a post-industrial park. Instead of sweeping the industrial past under a romantic park carpet, the entire park is built up around the industrial installations. A number of buildings were preserved as ruins and were integrated into the park. As well as an industrial archaeological function they also have a recreational function, or they serve as impressive artefacts. For example, the old gasometer was filled with water and is now used by a diving club. The former ore storage bunkers were transformed into climbing walls.

The gigantic power plant was converted into an event hall. The ‘Dampfgebläse’ (or blower house) complex and the casting house are used for concerts and theatre performances. There are mountain bike trails, a skate park and an extensive cycle network. Walking trails run along and over the former installations. A footbridge along the

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Parco Dora The new Parco Dora in Turin forms part of a largescale urban development covering over 100 hectares just outside the historic city centre. Up to the 1980s this used to be the centre of the Italian steel and automotive industry, where factories of companies like Fiat and Michelin were located. In less than ten years a new city came into existence here, with blocks of flats and office buildings, a shopping centre with a hypermarket, cinema, hotels and restaurants, sports fields, a ‘green’ science park for technology, eco and media businesses and a new cathedral.

Nearly half of the area (45 hectares) has been reserved for a new urban park that now connects the different neighbourhoods with one another and with the city.

Parco Dora consists of four zones that coincide with the former industrial sites. A network of footpaths, cycle paths and footbridges ensures that people can easily move from one part of the park to the other.

The park in the Ingest zone has been conceived as an elongated urban promenade between new blocks of flats and office buildings. At first sight, it seems rather traditional with rows of trees and lawns with flower and rose beds. However, appearances can be deceptive. There is a large water garden at the centre of the park. If you look closely you can see that the water garden is actually the cellar of the old steel factory that was inundated and is now the home of water lilies and other aquatic plants. A former building of the factory, of which only the walls remain, has been transformed into a hortus conclusus, an enclosed garden filled with various special plants. The garden is not accessible: it can only be viewed through windows and doors. This is an example of how traditional, almost romantic park elements can become contemporary when given a new interpretation. A footbridge hung from the steel trusses of the former factory connects the Ingest zone with the Vitali zone. Vitali constitutes the central, most extensive and spectacular part of the Dora park. This is also where the industrial infrastructure is most prominent. A huge factory hall of the old steel plate factory Teksid has been preserved in the middle of the park. The building is 320 metres long, 45 metres wide and 30 metres high and is now an impressive sports and events hall. Two adjacent factory halls have been dismantled, but the 30-metre high steel pillars and their concrete foundations have been preserved. The pillars, which are painted bright orange, are visible from a great distance. These eye-catchers

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Turin |I|

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Zurich |CH|

MFO-Park Neu-Oerlikon provide a fascinating, almost futuristic sight. The footbridge hanging from those pillars runs through the park and offers visitors an extraordinary walking experience.

The park consists of a huge metal construction, a kind of factory hall or green cathedral which is 100 metres long, 34 metres wide and 17 metres high. It follows the outlines of the former Maschinenfabrik Oerlikon and is completely overgrown with over 1000 flowering and fragrant climbing plants. A set of metal stairs lead to different galleries, balconies and terraces resembling opera boxes. At the very top, a large sun deck was installed which is very popular with local youngsters. The open space within this green ‘folly’ was conceived as an urban square, with pillars of plants, benches, etc. On one side it is flanked by a slightly deepened area covered in grey-blue pebbles and a small reflecting pond. Here people can go for a stroll, read a book in peace or eat their lunch. At night the courtyard is converted into an open-air theatre, where films are projected, concerts are organised and where sweethearts retreat to one of the many secluded spots.. All rainwater is collected in a subterranean reservoir for the irrigation of the climbing plants.

Between the pillars there is a patchwork of green strips planted with red and white roses, grasses and some trees, and small canals to collect the rainwater. In time, the concrete monoliths will be completely overgrown with climbing plants, which will turn the site into a kind of industrial wilderness, analogous to old ruins reclaimed by nature.

The old power plant of the Vitali factory got a new function as a water purification plant: all rainwater coming from the roofs and paths is led to the plant through small above- and underground canals to be stored and purified so that it can be reused to irrigate the park.

The easternmost part of the park, Valdocco, is located on both sides of the river Dora. The river was canalised and a large part of it was covered over in the 20th century. A 400-metre long part of it has now been uncovered again. The Latz + Partner agency (see Duisburg Nord) sought to preserve the visibility of the site’s industrial past here as well: instead of restoring the river’s natural course, the concrete walls and covers have been partially preserved. This creates the image of a river emerging from the ground and running through a ravine. The park itself consists mainly of grassland with trees, with some small secret gardens, intimate squares and infrastructure for sports and games. A former factory hall was completely dismantled. Only its metal structure was preserved. Trees were planted inside and the whole structure is now becoming overgrown with climbing plants. In time, this will result in a kind of green cathedral.

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Birmingham |GB|

Eastside Park

Finally, the Michelin site was transformed into a bowlshaped valley which slopes down to the river Dora. The river has been provided with space to overflow its banks at high water. The river bank will be equipped with a pedestrian boulevard and an urban beach with a landing stage for rowboats. A sturdy row of trees will be planted on the south side to separate the park from the nearby shopping centre. The industrial eye-catcher of this part of the park is the old cooling tower. It will be converted into a light and sound sculpture which visitors can take a walk in and which will serve as the park’s beacon day and night.

Birmingham’s first new urban park in 130 years was developed on a former brownfield site within the scope of an urban reconversion project and with support from the European Regional Development Fund (ERDF).

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can also turn out to be beneficial, as was the case for the new Freshkills Park in New York, the largest New York park developed in the last 100 years, which was established on a site that, until a couple of years ago, was known as the largest landfill in the world. The revenue generated by the methane harvested from the waste exceeds the estimated cost of the park (www.nycgovparks.org/park-features/ freshkills-park). Furthermore, it seems that Freshkills Park saved nearby neighbourhoods in New York from flooding when Hurricane Sandy struck at the end of 2012 (http:// freshkillspark.wordpress.com).. [ practice examples 43-44-47 ]

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A m st e r da m |NL|

Diemerpark

Until recently, Diemerpark in Amsterdam was a landfill.

A few years ago, it was decided to sanitise the area and transform it into a park. In order to completely isolate the waste, an upside-down box with a five-kilometre perimeter was built around it. The walls are founded in a thick layer of clay at a depth of 26 metres. Due to a lower groundwater level, the buried waste now starts to rot and release gasses. A gas extraction and transport system transfers the gasses to a combustion plant.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Harnik P., Taylor M. & Welle B. 2006

In other words, Diemerpark is in fact a gigantic roof garden. The isolation layer was covered with a new layer of soil with a thickness of one metre. As no groundwater is available, only grasses, herbs, flowers and shrubs can grow there. Certain tree species like willow and poplar grow outside the isolation wall and in the surrounding wetland. People or dogs are not allowed to dig holes in the roof garden. In only a few years’ time, the park has developed into a unique urban nature area which still follows the hilly outlines of the old landfill. It bears a strong resemblance to a dune landscape with its corresponding vegetation. The park accommodates over two hundred plant species and as many bird species.

In addition, all sorts of characteristic mammals such as bats, foxes, stoats and roe deer have made this place their home. The entire area offers a network of several kilometres of footpaths and cycle paths. The busiest part of the park is situated on the west side. It boasts sports fields, a large recreational lawn, a small beach and an open-air theatre. Green hills are located at the centre of the park. The east side, where the large pond is to be found, also provides the peace and quiet of a nature park. The south-east section is allowed to grow wild in a ‘natural’ manner. The elongated strip along the Amsterdam-Rhine Canal is developing into a marsh.

Military zones Over the past few decades, a large number of barracks, military bases, airports and marine bases have been shut down, both in cities and in the countryside. This process was further accelerated by the fall of the Iron Curtain and the end of the Cold War. They often involve relatively large areas ranging from dozens to hundreds of hectares, with important cultural-historical, scenic or natural value.

Redesignation is not always easy due to their location, size, poor accessibility, the presence of buildings and constructions that are difficult to reuse, or polluted soil.

The (partial) conversion into a nature and park area sometimes offers a solution for these plots of land. [ practice examples 45 - 46 - 48 ] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG http://urbact.eu/en/projects/urban-renewal/

repair/homepage

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Dundee |GB|

Riverside Nature Park

Ostend |b|

Provincial Domain of RaversYde

The new 33-hectare Riverside Nature Park in Dundee, Scotland, was developed on a former landfill site on the Tay Estuary. The project aimed to connect the inter-tidal area of the river Tay with the city. New footpaths and cycle paths leading to the park and a car park were created.

The former military zone of Raversyde is situated right by the sea, and part of it is located in a protected dune area.

Its core is the former Royal Domain of King Leopold II of Belgium. In 1914, the domain was converted into a coastal fortification by the German army. During the Second World War, it was also integrated into the widely known Atlantic Wall, the German army’s defensive ‘wall’ along the Atlantic coast. This site has some of Europe’s best-preserved remains of the Atlantic Wall: 60 structures including emplacements, bunkers and batteries from both World Wars, which are interconnected by two kilometres of open or subterranean corridors. The structures were restored to their original state and refurbished with authentic artefacts and furniture in the open-air museum.

The development of the park itself, which attracts many birds thanks to its location by the water, is especially aimed at the further development of the fauna and flora already present without interfering with the nearby airport. Visitors can enjoy walking trails and birdwatching hides. www.dundeewaterfront.com

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best practice example [ 46 ]

Lisbon |P|

Ocean & Coastline Observatory (OCO) – Trafaria

With its surface area of nearly 50 hectares, this area aims to offer an extraordinary experience to people visiting the coast in any weather conditions, focussing especially on recreation and cultural tourism.

The archaeological site Walraversyde was opened to the public in July 2000. This site pays special attention to the everyday life of the 15th-century fishermen who lived in the village of Walraversyde.

The project to transform the military site of Caminho da Raposeira Estrada Militar in Trafaria by the Portuguese Costa da Caparica into an ocean and coastline observatory was declared laureate of the Open Architecture Challenge [UN]RESTRICTED ACCESS by Architecture for Humanity in 2012. The theme of the challenge was the redesignation of former military installations from a social, economic and ecological perspective. The buildings were turned into a study and information centre for the sustainable protection of the Portuguese coastline. The buildings will be surrounded by a new park in which native flora endemic to the coast is given every opportunity to thrive. http://openarchitecturenetwork.org

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Tel Aviv |IL|

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Ost e n d |B|

Ariel Sharon Park

Military Hospital

One of the most spectacular and innovative landfill parks is Ariel Sharon Park in Tel Aviv. The park, which should eventually cover 800 hectares, is located a few hundred metres from the coast and connects the city with Ben Gurion Airport. A former landfill site is at the core of the park, a hill that is 80 metres high and one kilometre long.

It was completely covered with a biofilm and a thick layer of soil in order to make planting possible. The methane produced by the waste is used to generate electricity. Rain and waste water is collected in above- and underground basins and is filtered and purified in a natural manner. At the top of the hill there is an artificial lake and a mediterranean ‘paradise garden’ filled with aromatic herbs. In order to stabilise the soil, the steep slopes were planted with fruit trees and other vegetation. An amphitheatre was built on one of the slopes. It can accommodate 50,000 people and can be used for open-air concerts.

Several sports fields and playgrounds are scattered over the hill, while footpaths and cycle paths connect the city centre with the esplanade.

Over the past few years, the former Military Hospital of Ostend has been converted into a high-quality residential park, which combines conversion and new construction while creating a subtle balance with the surrounding natural environment of dunes and beaches. Over half of the built-up area is used as a green space complemented with facilities for sports and games. An existing passage to the dunes has been restored. The built-up space itself will be traffic-restricted in order to guarantee the quality of living in terms of peace and quiet and safety.

‘Militair Hospitaal Ostend’ forms part of Ostend’s new Oosteroever district, which is separated from the city centre by the harbour channel. At the head of the Oosteroever district, the former Military Hospital will be a landmark heralding the reconversion of the area as a pilot project.

The project was granted the ‘Prijs Bouwmeester’ award by the Flemish Government Architect in 2012. The jury praised aspects such as amenity value, heritage value, architectural quality and integration into the landscape.

The visitors centre at the foot of the hill is built completely out of recycled materials. Three waste disposal companies are also established here to dispose of the waste that used to end up at the landfill. www.hiriya.co.il/len

© Park Ariel Sharon Company

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Paris |f|

Promenade Plantée

best practice example [ 51 ]

new-york |usa|

The High Line

Promenade Plantée in Paris is a 4.5 kilometres long park that was partially developed on the 19th century viaduct of a former railway. It offers pedestrians the opportunity to walk in a park-like environment high above the ground, while cyclists can follow a cycle route on ground level. The arches of the viaduct, Le Viaduc des Arts, were transformed into shops, galleries and arts and crafts studios.

New York got its own Promenade Plantée in the shape of the High Line, a park up in the air that was created on a freight railway dating from the 1930s in the Meatpacking District in Manhattan.

At present, 1.6 kilometres are accessible to pedestrians; the park will eventually become 2.33 kilometres long. The park is accessible through a series of lifts and stairs. Flower beds with a great diversity of plants were laid out along a central footpath and benches are scattered throughout the park. Parts of the railway are still visible and concrete beams are shaped like rails. The result is a linear park running over, along and even through the existing built-up area, including a successful mix of wilderness and gardens, of experience, history and heritage. Since opening in 2009 it has developed into one of New York’s most popular parks and tourist destinations. www.thehighline.org

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Maastricht |nl|

Green Carpet of Maastricht Over 2 kilometres of the A2 motorway from Belgium to Germany, that splits this city located in the region of Limburg in two, now run through an underground tunnel.

This not only improves the air quality and reduces noise pollution, it also provides the opportunity to ‘make the city whole again’, as is described in the ‘De Groene Loper’ (Green Carpet) plan.

On top of the tunnel and to the north and the south of it, an elongated park avenue will wind through the city from north to south. Four thousand lime trees will be planted side by side in four to eight rows. The avenue is designed for slow traffic. A gravel road for walkers and cyclists will run in the middle, between the trees. Car traffic and public transport will get one lane in each direction. This way, the avenue will get the appearance of a recreational ribbon that connects the different neighbourhoods, the city centre and the surrounding landscape. A great deal of attention is also being paid to the maintenance and the reinforcement of ecological connections around and over the motorway.

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Londen |GB|

Greening the BIDs

The ‘Greening the BIDs’ initiative in London is an interesting example in this respect. The Greater London Authority carried out a green audit of ten centrallylocated Business Improvement Districts (BIDs). Over 500 hectares were examined and it was concluded that there was enough space to create 300 rain gardens, 200 wall gardens and over 100 hectares of green roofs. www.london.gov.uk/priorities/environment/greeninglondon/urban-greening/greening-bids

www.a2maastricht.nl

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‘If we can develop and design streets so that they are wonderful, fulfilling places to be - community-building places, attractive for all people - then we will have successfully designed about one-third of the city directly and will have had an immense impact on the rest.’ ▼

[ Allan Jacobs ]

Railway yards Yet another fascinating evolution is the reuse of abandoned railways. They are integrated into walking and cycling networks or, thanks to their often unique habitat value, they are cherished as small nature reserves. They can also be transformed into urban parks.

Some of the most iconic urban parks that have been developed over the past few years, such as Promenade Plantée in Paris and the High Line in New York, have been created on abandoned railways. Despite their unique location high above the city, it is remarkable that these ‘railway parks’ bear a very strong resemblance to the traditional urban parks of the 19th and early 20th centuries in terms of layout, design, nature aesthetics, atmosphere and utility and amenity value.

The success of New York’s High Line has proved contagious. Cities around the world now want their own High Line. For example, together with the Mayor of London and the London Garden Museum, the British Landscape Institute organised an open ideas competition called ‘A High Line for London – Green Infrastructure Competition’ in 2012 in order to give abandoned sites in London a new future as parks. (www.landscapeinstitute.org/events/ competitions/highline.php).

Motorway turns into a park All over the world, cars are progressively banned from city centres. Streets and squares are made traffic-restricted or even traffic-free for the benefit of residents, cyclists and pedestrians. By giving these streets and squares a different layout and making them ‘greener’, by integrating them into a recreational network of cycle paths and footpaths or by connecting them to parks and playgrounds, they become an important part of the urban park infrastructure.

Another strategy that has resulted in some of the new urban parks that most appeal to the imagination over the

past few years is the covering over of urban motorways or car parks. [ practice example 50 & 53 ]

Rooftop parks Just like parks are developed on top of underground car parks, parks can also be created on top of overground buildings.

A good example of this phenomenon is the nearly 5-hectare Jardin Atlantique on top of the Montparnasse railway station in Paris. Another good example is the semipublic park on the roof of the new Koo Tech Puat Hospital in Singapore, where a vegetable garden was even laid out which is maintained by people who live nearby. The vegetables grown in this garden are used in the hospital kitchen (www.ktph.com.sg). [ practice example 52 ]

Waterfronts The development or redesign of waterfronts and port infrastructure is an important challenge for many coastal and port towns and cities in Europe. After having neglected and almost literally turned their backs on these areas for years, cities have rediscovered their waterfronts and river banks. They have done so out of necessity, because industry, fishery and shipyards disappeared from the city and left the waterfronts dilapidated and isolated, or because infrastructure works are needed for flood protection. However, cities have also returned to their waterfronts out of conviction, as these areas offer great opportunities in terms of living, working, recreation, tourism and nature. The proximity of water offers an extraordinary spatial quality and amazing views.

Quincy Market in Boston, Harborplace in Baltimore and Battery Park in New York, which were later followed by the London Docklands and Villa Olimpica in Barcelona, were pioneers in this respect. Now we see beautiful, innovative and sometimes bold examples of waterfront projects that

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best practice example [ 53 ]

madrid |E|

Madrid Rio: park replaces motorway On the banks of the river Manzanares, in the heart of the Spanish capital of Madrid, Dutch agency West 8 developed a new urban park, one of the largest in Europe. The park is situated on top of the M30 motorway, which used to run through the city but now largely runs underground through a tunnel.

kayak area, and dozens of kilometres of coloured asphalt used as footpaths and cycle paths that wind through the area like sand-coloured ribbons. Every part of the park forms a miniature landscape with its own atmosphere and its own story. Neighbourhoods that used to be separated by the motorway now melt into one another.

In total, 43 kilometres of tunnels were dug, into which the slip roads and lanes for the six-kilometre long route along the river Manzanares in the heart of the city disappeared.

The river Manzanares, which is fully canalised and whose water was hardly visible between the high banks until recently, was restored as well. Thanks to an ingenious system of storm water basins and pumps, water once again runs through the river in abundance. Every couple of hundred metres, the water level is kept artificially high by a sluice. The three historic bridges over the river were renovated and equipped with broader footpaths and cycle paths so that they could be integrated into the recreational circuit.

The new park is situated on both sides of the river Manzanares, just like an elongated ribbon. Resembling a rosary, it is a chain of small and large parks, squares and pedestrian boulevards. The park boasts dozens of playgrounds and areas for the most diverse sports, a BMX circuit and a skate park. It even has an urban beach and a © Municipality Madrid / West 8

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‘Parks are critical to the development of new neighbourhoods and we design communities so that parks and public spaces are their spines. This is critical because parks and public spaces invite and draw people into new areas and they demonstrate that change and development is happening.’ ▼

[ www.waterfrontoronto.ca ]

reconnect the city with the water and that have revitalised entire quarters or even entire cities all over the world.

As part of the public realm, parks can make an important contribution to the successful and sustainable regeneration of waterfronts, where environmental quality and recreation are optimally linked. Such parks are not designed as a goal or destination in themselves, but as a means to make the waterfront or the river bank accessible and more attractive, to connect neighbourhoods with the waterfront, to give nature more opportunities and to improve water quality and storage.

For example, the development of new waterfront parks is one of the main goals of the ambitious ‘New York City Comprehensive Waterfront Plan’ which was launched in 2011 (www.nyc.gov/waterfront). During the revitalisation of the waterfronts in Toronto, Canada, one of the greatest regeneration projects in North America, 25% of the surface area has been reserved for parks and public space (www. waterfrontoronto.ca). In the Granton Waterfront project in Edinburgh, one of the most significant waterfront regeneration projects in Europe, at least 20% of the space has been reserved for public parks (www.waterfront-ed.com).

A floating park was even laid out in the port of Oslo, Norway: Noe Park, for which the same technology was used as for drilling platforms.

Linear parks along the waterline provide residents and visitors as well as fauna and flora with the opportunity to move along the water without being disturbed. A network of small and large parks connects destinations along the waterfont with one another, or the city with the water. They provide variety and form an attractive setting to enjoy the water alone or in groups, they create new meeting places and offer room for all kinds of sports, games, relaxation and leisure activities along the waterfront. They can also highlight cultural-historical and industrial heritage or cultural and recreational infrastructure. Natural waterfronts are treasuries of biodiversity, protect the land from flooding and provide better water quality. [ practice examples 54 - 55 ] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Ferrari M. S.G. & Smith H.C. 2012 | www.englishheritage.org.uk/publications/on-the-waterfront | www.pps.org/reference/ turnwaterfrontaroun | www.pps.org/reference/greatwaterfronts | www.wareproject.net | http://waterfrontcenter.org | www.waterfrontcommunitiesproject. org | www.waterfrontoronto.ca | www.waterfrontexpo.com | www.waterfronts.nl

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Pocket parks Small neglected or vacant plots of land between or behind buildings, ‘splinters’ along infrastructure, tracksides or river banks… every city has some of those unused or lost places, seemingly aimless residue that is often degraded to noise buffers, green curtains or illegal car parks. Places that cause irritation, or that leave people completely indifferent at best. These ‘blots’ are often located in places that have an important influence on the experience of the urban environment, and are, or could be, drivers of urban culture.

By being transformed from 'residual spaces' into perma-

nent or temporary ‘pocket’ or ‘miniature’ parks, they can play a special role in the neighbourhood’s social life and fulfil a unique amenity and meeting function - something which other green spaces rarely achieve. They are small green spaces balancing on the border between the intimacy of a private garden and the accessibility of a public space; attractive leisure zones that compensate for the densification of the urban area. They have a clear identity, are attractive, look inviting and hospitable and are often co-designed and/or co-maintained by local residents.

In the book ‘De omsloten tuin’, Rob Aben and Saskia

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best practice example [ 54 ]

Nieuwpoort |B|

Yser estuary

best practice example [ 57 ] kortrijk |b|

Dubbele Haagjes

The Yser estuary in Nieuwpoort has been thoroughly renovated during the past ten years. After companies and activities had moved away and after several plots of land had been decontaminated, space was cleared for a high-quality and contemporary architectural setting to accommodate housing, tourism, trade and services. A new park was created at the centre of this area to form part of a green belt around the city. The IJzermonding nature reserve was expanded and the visitor infrastructure was improved. Several recreation axes were established with new cycle links from and to the coast. Along the reservoir in Sint-Joris, the construction of a separate cycle path was combined with nature development.

A good example of a miniature or pocket park is Dubbele Haagjes in Kortrijk, which was nominated for the ‘Prijs Bouwheer’ award of the Flemish Government Architect in 2007. The land of a former horticultural farm that filled the inside of a building block was transformed into a neighbourhood park. Two large greenhouses of the horticultural farm were restored and now accommodate a leisure centre for senior citizens, garages and garden sheds for local residents. All residents of the neighbouring streets have an exit from and an entrance to the park at the back of their home and were given the opportunity to buy an extra plot of land.

The old marina was expanded and the harbour channel promenade was given a makeover, including the creation of a linear park with a cycle path, a footpath and a new ferry service for cyclists and pedestrians. best practice example [ 58 ] New York |usa|

Paley Park

Paley Park in Manhattan is the prototype of a pocket park. www.pps.org/great_public_spaces

best practice example [ 55 ] |eu|

The Waterfront Communities Project best practice example [ 56 ]

Londen |GB|

The Pocket Parks Programme The Mayor of London has launched a ‘Pocket Parks Programme’ to create 100 new pocket parks in London between 2013 and 2015. Public initiators can receive up to £ 50,000 in subsidies to lay out such a park. The subsidies can also be allocated to refurbish small existing parks that are hardly used. www.london.gov.uk/priorities/environment/greeninglondon/parks-green-spaces/pocket-parks

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The Waterfront Communities Project was an EU project from the Interreg North Sea Region Programme, in which nine European coastal cities participated (the Danish cities of Aalborg and Odense, the Swedish city of Gothenborg, Oslo in Norway, Hamburg in Germany, Schiedam in the Netherlands, the Scottish city of Edinburgh and the English cities of Gateshead-Newcastle and Kingston upon Hull). Within the scope of this project, several approaches and strategies were tested for the regeneration of waterfronts and the connection of those waterfronts with the city. A number of pilot projects were developed as well. These approaches, strategies and projects were all published in a Toolkit entitled ‘The Cool Sea’. More information: Waterfront Communities Project (2007) The Cool Sea: waterfront communities project toolkit. www.waterfrontcommunitiesproject.org

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de Wit present this type of park as a model to inject new life into urban designs. According to the authors, the unstoppable growth of the city can be counterbalanced by small-scale ‘surgical’ procedures: small open spaces that introduce the experience of space and landscape into the city. The authors state that: ‘enclosed gardens can act as a catalyst for their environment. Small, carefully

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designed and created outside spaces in the right location can function as a kind of acupuncture, the impact of which goes far beyond the site where they are situated.’ [ practice examples 56-57-58 ] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG De Wit S. & Aben R. (1998) | www.kibi.org/ pocket_parks | www.northamptonshire.gov.uk/en/councilservices/Leisure/ pocket-parks | www.postzegelparken.nl

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Historic parks It is necessary not only to create new parks. We also need to cherish our existing parks and try to make the best of them. In fact, this should come first.

Many historic parks in our cities have an irreplaceable scenic, social, recreational, ecological and cultural-historical value and are often strategically located in the city.

In order to secure the future of these parks, adequate and expert management and maintenance are required to take into account the historic character and the cultural-historical, aesthetic and natural values of the place as well as its everyday use.

To secure their preservation in the long term, historic parks often need to be restored and/or modernised.

Sometimes new layers need to be added as well in order to meet new needs in terms of recreation or nature conser-

vation. When this occurs, it should always be done with respect for the cultural-historical and aesthetic value of these parks and for their natural value. However, this does not mean that contemporary additions are not permitted and that the ‘original state’ should be cherished at all costs.

What it does mean, is that the historic qualities of the park should be recognised and that any contemporary adjustments should have the same refinement and the same level of ambition as the original design, so that the park can optimally fulfil its new, expanded and contemporary function. Not ‘retro’, but respect for the past with a view to the future. [ practice examples 59 - 60 - 61] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG English Heritage 200 | Heritage Lottery Fund 200 | www.english-heritage.org.uk | www.hlf.org.uk

Trentham Park (Stoke-on-Trent)

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best practice example [ 59 ] |GB| best practice example [ 61 ]

The Parks for People programme

Ostend |b|

MARIA-HENDRIKAPARK

With the refurbishment of the 19th-century Maria Hendrikapark in Ostend, the designers restored the historic ‘structural diversity’ of the neglected park, with different park types and elements such as woodlands, ponds, lawns, etc.

In October 2012, the first UK Public Parks Summit on the future of (historic) parks took place in London.

The summit was an initiative of the Heritage Lottery Fund (HLF) and the Big Lottery Fund (BLF), which launched their new ‘Parks for People’ programme on this occasion: both funds will invest £ 100 million in the maintenance and restoration of historic parks between 2013 and 2016. Both funds have already invested £ 640 million in the restoration of over 700 historic parks and squares since 1996. www.hlf.org.uk

best practice example [ 60 ] Bexhill-on-Sea |gb|

The playground in Egerton Park

For example, an impressive mixed flower border was planted around the Spiegelvijver pond, where French landscape architect Elie Lainé had created a Neo-baroque ‘arabesque de sable’ (a herbaceous border with veils of pebbles) in the 19th century. It is a very powerful image, which can almost serve as a manifesto for the recovered pride of the public park, which goes together with the re-recognition of the specific park aesthetic and architecture. In the area around the Konijnenvijver pond, where Lainé had designed a rather romantic, almost wilderness-like park, nature development is given free rein. This will be a pocket of wild nature in the middle of the city, only accessible via a boardwalk and a ferry raft.

The second challenge was a better connection of the park with the city and the surrounding residential areas. A striking path network was designed for this purpose.

Egerton Park is a small yet very popular urban park which was laid out by the 7th Earl De La Warr at the end of the 19th century. He wanted to turn the peaceful coastal town of Bexhill in East Sussex into an exclusive seaside resort. The children’s playground was completely renovated in 2012 into a Children’s Garden (Play Zone). The installations were antiquated and no longer met today’s expectations. The playground no longer met aesthetic expectations either.

The third and most important change was the construction of an elegant pedestrian and cycle bridge over the Koninginnevijver pond, creating a direct connection between the city centre and the neighbourhoods on the other side of the park.

The final result is an attractive and multifunctional contemporary park that pays homage to its historic roots.

The new Play Zone, which was developed within the scope of the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project 21st Century Parks, is an example of attractive and adventurous contemporary play infrastructure for children, which is perfectly integrated into the existing park architecture and the wider coastal area.

See also part III. Case 2, p 136. 

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‘In many places the need is not to create a great deal of new green space, but to make the most of what already exists. The emphasis should be on quality rather than quantity, distinctiveness rather than uniformity, connection rather than isolation, function rather than uselessness, and conviviality rather than exclusiveness.’ ▼

CABE Space (2005) Start with the park

Allotments De Akkerwinde (Ostend)

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How we

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We not only need more parks, we especially need better and more high-quality parks. Too many green spaces are barely used. They are not places people feel any involvement with. They are impersonal, anonymous.

This is because they are organised in a trivial, bad or stereotypical way and are not experienced as pleasant, visually interesting, inviting or user friendly in any way; because their design and/or infrastructure is not compatible with the scale of the environment or with their actual use; because they are hopelessly outdated or poorly maintained; because they are crowded with far too many functions - ‘programme overkill’ as it were - or conversely, because they do not have any clear purpose.

In our densely developed cities we can no longer afford such lax use of space. Furthermore, this kind of unused green space often leads to annoyance and sometimes even to antisocial behaviour.

stated that quality should not equal ‘pretty’, it should stand for ‘good’ (VROM-raad 2011). This means that we ought to strive for a balance between use value (functional), amenity value (pretty) and the future value.

Quality is much harder to measure and evaluate that quantity. In addition, quality is an ambiguous notion: it has both objective and subjective aspects. What is experienced as ‘high-quality’ in one place or by one person, will perhaps be viewed as ‘low-quality’ by someone else, in another place or in another context. Quality is also time-dependent and situational to a certain extent: it is an area-oriented notion which needs to be interpreted differently for every specific case.

In a recent advice on spatial quality, the Dutch Council for Housing, Spatial Planning and the Environment has

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The use value concerns functionality, an optimal concentration of and optimal possibilities to combine functions. How and where can certain functions be best integrated? Is scarce space given sufficient multiple use and do the functions reinforce each other?

■■ Amenity value concerns matters like image quality, ‘beauty’ and attractiveness for (future) users.

■■ Future value has to do with sustainability and sturdiness, as well as with the capability to deal with the spatial consequences of changing circumstances and with careful and adequate management.

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In a recent guide of the Northwest Regional Development Agency, a fourth element is added to this: stewardship (Gillespies 2007). In this context, we could describe this as social ownership or partnership. This says more about the way a park is developed and managed. It has to do with good management practice, the planning and design process and the involvement of (future users). These topics are discussed later on in chapter four.

In this chapter, we try to encapsulate the abovementioned quality aspects by means of a number of characteristics that a 21st-century park should possess. This may help to clarify the above. They are not standards, but rather points of attention that may serve as guidelines, factors that should be considered during the revitalisation or redesignation of existing parks and the design of new parks and green infrastructure, even if the solution will be different for every specific case. The different characteristics overlap and reinforce one another. They will not have the same

weight at all times and in every case: sometimes a choice will have to be made with regard to priorities.

Use value 1. Part of a network 2. Accessible 3. Multifunctional

Amenity value 4. Attractive 5. Colourful 6. Beautiful

Future value 7. Sustainable 8. Flexible and adaptable F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2006a | Design Trust for Public Space and The New York City Department of Parks & Recreation 2010 | Marcus C.C. & Francis C. 1990 | www.thesteelvalleyproject.info/green/ Places/art-making/index.htm | www.urge-project.ufz.de

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Part of a network As we mentioned before, the 21st century park is not an independent entity, it is part of a functional-spatial network of green spaces and it exists by the grace of this network or green infrastructure. Only by combining these locations and by connecting them spatially and functionally can the recreational, ecological, social, spatial and other effects of green infrastructure be utilised in an optimal manner. The network as a whole is larger than the sum of each individual component combined.

The network encompasses all types of green infrastructure: large and small, public, semi-public and private.

It concerns green space in residential and commercial areas, sports and recreation areas, green boulevards and squares, brooks and rivers and their banks and embankments, road- and tracksides, gardens of monasteries, convents, castles and museums, municipal farms and allotments and (community) gardens, cemeteries, agricultural land, forest and natural areas, and in the case of coastal regions, beaches, dunes, mud flats and salt marshes. Vacant or unused plots of land also form part of the network of functional and recreational cycle paths and footpaths.

The whole network can be called a park, as is the case with metropolitan or regional parks. In this case, the network is not only the ‘green carpet’ interconnecting the

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different zones, it is the structural support that defines the identity of the whole area.

The term ‘park’ can also be reserved for the crucial details, the hinge points, the places that stand out, that are experienced as events and embed themselves in our memories. They are the details where landscape, urban development and architecture meet and together they tell the bigger story. They are the pearls in the network necklace.

This is no new notion. Over a century ago, the famous American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, father of New York’s Central Park and Boston’s Emerald Necklace park system, already knew that ‘no single park, no matter how large and how well designed, would provide the citizens with the beneficial influences of nature (…) A connected system of parks and parkways is manifestly far more complete and useful than a series of isolated parks.’

The County of London Plan by British town planner Patrick Abercrombie dating from 1943 advocated the coordination of open spaces in a park system: ‘All forms of open space need to be considered as a whole, and to be co-­ ordinated into a closely-linked park system, with parkways along existing and new roads forming the links between the larger parks. The Region is the only satisfactory basis for co-ordination; the Green Belt and surrounding coun-

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East River Waterfront (New York)

(Amiens) HOO c h ap FD tS eT r ULes 3K Hortillonages H3 o H wo e c aon mw s ceh d re i jsvcerni b w e et hz ee m ?

Brooklyn Bridge Park (New York)

Private garden Molenbeek (Brussels)

Mauerpark (Berlijn)

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Pond Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

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‘The green areas of the suburbs are often lacking in the subtle signs that indicate that it is okay to spend time there.

The anonymity of the city and the inviting atmosphere is also missing, for better or for worse. As a result, a situation develops where there is a lack of green areas despite the large quantity of public areas that the suburbs often encompass.’ ▼

Emelie Brunge, The outdoor spaces of the suburb, 2006.

tryside need bringing more into the centre through green wedges formed by the existing undeveloped and public land, the parkways along the ring roads giving access from one wedge to the other. At the other end of the scale the space around and between buildings needs planning in relation to the larger open spaces in the area, so that there is an inter-penetration of greenery from the parks into the residential areas, and it becomes possible for the town dweller to get from doorstep to open country through an easy flow of open space from garden to park, from park to parkway, from parkway to green wedge and from green wedge to Green Belt.’ (Abercrombie P. 1943).

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The ecological value of individual areas is much lower if they are isolated. It is therefore necessary to build up a green structure in which individual areas are interconnected, even if this is done through narrow corridors. This way, an ecological network is created interlinking both small and large urban green areas. Consequently these fragmented, and individually perhaps relatively unimportant, small green spaces suddenly gain importance.

The network needs to be connected to ecological hotspots and networks inside and outside the city to the greatest extent possible, thus minimising the effect of barriers in order to create a kind of ecological continuum.

The recreational success of a park largely depends on a good connection to a recreational network and connections with other parks. First of all, it is beneficial for the accessibility of the parks themselves if people can walk or cycle from home to the park and from one park to another in a safe and environmentally friendly manner.

A coherent network of green infrastructure that runs through the city and from the city to the surrounding countryside without being interrupted can furthermore give new meaning to less accessible or neglected places inside or outside the city, cultural-historical relics or infrastructure.

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Spatial and functional networking is also crucial to be able to provide other essential ecosystem services such as local climate control or water storage.

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The green network can form an important urban development structure that helps steer urban development in the right direction and contributes to a balanced spatial build-up. It can also be developed into an alternative traffic network for sustainable traffic that interconnects the different parts and neighbourhoods of a city and makes them accessible.

The connections not only reinforce the significance of the different components of the network. For example, roads that in the first instance constitute a physical barrier hampering access to a green space can be converted into pleasant arteries through the creation of green space and a change in green space management or maintenance. If they are sufficiently sturdy and wellequipped, they can individually form a linear park and improve the spatial coherence of the city (locations to live, work, relax, shop, …).

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Interconnectivity is highly important for coastal and delta areas: at the interface of land and sea, every detail has a scenic dimension. In addition, coastal regions often have unique natural areas of special environmental importance (mud flats and salt marshes, sand dunes and cliffs, polders with ditches and brackish water) and are home to many rare species of birds and plants. A well-developed network of attractive and multifunctional green spaces can serve as a buffer and a connection between the different natural areas which are often highly fragmented. This minimises the barrier effect.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Champres J. 2009 | Harnik P. 2006 | Heyn M. & Hermy M. 2002 | Institute for European Environmental Policy 2011e | Landscape Institute 2009 | Life 2010 | Mayor of London 2012 | Pötz H. & Bleuzé P. 2012 | Ståhle A. 2002 | Verband Region Stuttgart 2008 | www.greenstructureplanning.eu/COSTC11

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Accessible By definition, parks are public spaces accessible to all.

Accessibility has both a physical and a social aspect.

Physical accessibility has to do with the accessibility by public transport, bicycle, on foot and/or by car. As mentioned above, this is one of the most important characteristics of the 21st century park: the fact that it is not isolated, but embedded in a green structure that covers an entire area.

Special points of attention in this regard: ■■ Is the park connected to a walking or cycling network?

■■ Is the park easily accessible by public transport?

■■ Are there many parking facilities? Are there safe cycle parking facilities?

■■ Are there no obstacles posed by traffic, such as a busy road to be crossed?

■■ Are the access points located in the right places and are they clearly indicated?

■■ Are the paths sufficiently passable by specific users such as disabled people or parents with prams in all weather conditions and in all seasons?

■■ Are all parts of the park easy to find and easily accessible to all?

■■ Are all of the park’s facilities (lavatories, cafeteria, play equipment, etc.) accessible to all?

The park’s location and the connections with other infrastructure and poles of attraction are important as well.

Examples include a residential area, a school, a sports centre, a hospital or retirement home, a promenade or coastal boulevard, a museum or another park.

Another aspect is the distance people need to cover: the park infrastructure should not be concentrated in certain neighbourhoods or parts of the city, it should be spread over the complete area of the city and the region as evenly as possible. This is also a question of social justice.

Therefore, a combination of surface area per number of inhabitants and distance is usually used for quantitative criteria and analyses (see also Part II, chapter 1 ‘How many do we need?’).

Accessibility has hardly anything to do with spatial openness: an open space can be experienced as highly inaccessible or uninviting and not user friendly, while a (more or less) enclosed park or a park overlooked by buildings can be very inviting and accessible.

girls in general, elderly people, families with children ...

Conversely, the presence of elderly people or parents with small children may make the park unattractive to some young people.

Social accessibility can be improved by involving local residents in the design and/or maintenance of the park, by equipping certain parts of the park for specific use or for specific target groups, by maintaining good communication on what is happening and what there is to see or do, by mapping out walking routes or organising guided visits, by organising activities for specific target groups, etc.

Accessibility does not have to be absolute or continuous. The park can, for example, be closed at night so as not to disturb local residents’ sleep, for safety reasons or to prevent vandalism. Parts of the park can also be reserved for specific use or specific users in order to prevent competition between different user groups or dominance by one group in particular. Some parts of the park, e.g. a steep pond bank, can be closed to certain visitors for safety reasons. In places with special fauna or flora or vulnerable habitats, such as dune areas or wetlands, measures can be taken to restrict access. In a sense a distinction could be drawn, with at one end of the spectrum mainly people-oriented parks, the people-to-people parks that are extremely accessible, and at the other end: the mainly nature-oriented, less or only partially accessible nature-to-nature parks.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2009a | Centre for Urban and

Regional Ecology 2003 | Natural England 2010 | Van Herzele A., Wiedemann T., De Clercq E. 2004 | www.bartlett.ucl.ac.uk/casa | www.sensorytrust.org.uk

Social or mental accessibility has to do with the absence of social obstacles, safety and the inviting nature of the park. For example, the presence of some users may scare off other potential users such as immigrant girls or

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Multifunctional As part of a green infrastructure, parks are multifunctional by definition, and they provide a wide range of environmental benefits in terms of biodiversity, climate adaptation, air quality, water management, health and wellbeing, recreation and tourism, spatial quality, etc. This is not just a question of intelligent use of space, it is also about ecological vitality and economic efficiency. Thanks to the integration of certain infrastructures (e.g. for water storage or climate control) into a park, or the linking of park development to other spatial tasks and infrastructure works, parks not only cost less, they can also save money and even generate profits (see Part I: ‘Where do they come from? Why do we need them?). Certain functions, such as the social-recreational, the aesthetic and the ecological function, will always be present to a greater or lesser extent. Other functions can be linked to this, like water retention and storage and heat stress mitigation, which are matters that deserve ever more attention in the urban landscape. This is especially the case in coastal areas, where water safety plays an even more important part. In a multifunctional space, water storage does not take up any space. On the contrary, it enriches the park.

The larger the park, the greater the number of functions that can be fulfilled by it and the more environmental benefits can be derived from it. Even the smallest park should always be designed and managed in such a way that multiple functions are possible. In any case, it should at least be examined which functions are best concentrated in the park’s location within the network of parks

and other green infrastructure. The main challenge lies in coming up with an optimal concentration of mutually reinforcing functions and smart-linking opportunities for every specific park and for the overall green network.

Multifunctionality can be implemented in different ways.

■■ One way is to define zones in which one particular function is made the main function. Sometimes this is inevitable. A tennis court or a bowling green, for example, will necessarily always be monofunctional.

However, such a strict separation of functions is considered a weakness and it should definitely be limited to a small part of the whole.

■■ A better option is a multi-layer approach, in which the different functions are interwoven in varying layers and proportions throughout the park. Instead of providing a separate play area for children, the park as a whole can be conceived as a play landscape, for example. An allotment area does not need to be stashed away in a small corner, it can be perfectly integrated into the park concept. Even with this approach it is possible that certain functions will predominate, but they are always linked to other functions. It is precisely thanks to the linking of main and additional functions, e.g. water storage and recreation, that both functions can be fully developed.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Landscape Institute 2009 | Natural England

2009a | Tjallingii S. & Jonkhof J. 2011 | University of the West of England Science Communication Unit 2012

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Attractive Activities Parks may have many functions, but their main aim is to be visited and used by people.

A great deal of research has been conducted into factors that determine why people use, appreciate and feel comfortable in parks, or why they do not. This is where utility and amenity value in fact meet.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2010a

ie/greensp | www.urge-project.ufz.de

| www.pps.org | www.ucd.

A significant part of a park’s attractiveness has to do with what people can see and do in the park. The variety of possible activities is an important reason why people go to a park and like to stay there. A very broad interpretation should be given to the term ‘activity’. Some people want to walk, run, cycle or skate, walk their dog, play or practise sports with their children or with each other, fish or go boating, enjoy nature, sunbathe, meet with friends, play cards, picnic or celebrate… Some people go there to look for peace and quiet, while others are in search of company or fun, adventure and excitement. Some people are espe-

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Emscher Park (Duisburg)

Pa r k e n vo o r d e 2 1 st e e e u w

Floriade 2012 (Venlo)

Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

City park Antwerp

1 0 3Flower Show (Londen) Chelsea

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cially drawn to the natural aspects, while others are more interested in the botanical, cultural-historical or aesthetic qualities or in pleasant views.

This does not mean that all these activities need to be distinctly programmed. The park does not necessarily need to be crammed with all sorts of facilities; there is no need to provide a separate space for social meetings, for ball sports, sunbathing, skating or nature contemplation, and it is not necessary to constantly organise all kinds of events either. The park should, however, make those activities possible.

Most of the abovementioned activities are easily made compatible with one another, but some are hard to combine. For example, skating or noisy celebrations do not go together well with quietly reading on a bench; a sunbathing area cannot be used as a dog walking area or a football pitch either. However, ‘Keep off the grass’, ‘No ball games’ or ‘ No skating’ signs should be used with caution.

And signs prohibiting children from playing are usually completely unacceptable. The sound of children playing is as much part of a park as that of birds singing.

All desired activities can seldom be joined together in one park, especially in smaller parks. The biggest mistake one can make is grouping too many activities in a space that is too small to meet every user’s needs. It is better to make clear choices and to spread the different desired activities over several parks in a specific area, taking into account the location and characteristics of each park. Larger parks can perhaps be divided into different zones so that different groups can appropriate the space without interfering with others. The park can also be arranged in such a way that different activities can take place at different times of the day or week so that different groups can find a spot that meets their needs.

Comfort and facilities Two other important elements that determine a park’s attractiveness are comfort and facilities. We can provide a list of possible points of attention: ■■ Is the infrastructure (benches, play equipment, rubbish bins, …) sufficient? The importance of giving people the opportunity to sit where they want, e.g. in the sun or in the shade, is often underestimated.

■■ Is the infrastructure attractive, of high quality and in good condition?

■■ Is the infrastructure user friendly and well-installed (e.g. benches, play equipment)?

■■ Is the infrastructure suitable for any (potential) users (toddlers, children, teenagers, families, elderly people, women, disabled people, dog owners, …)?

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Is the infrastructure adapted to the environment (in terms of appearance, size, …)?

Is the facility adapted to our climate (sun, rain, wind, …)?

Is the path structure and the path quality (e.g. the type of paving) suitable for the expected use and the users?

Has suitable lighting been provided?

Is (free) Wi-Fi available?

Are there any (clean) toilets in the park or in its immediate vicinity?

Can people have a bite to eat or a drink in the park or in the immediate vicinity? Are there any picnic facilities?

Planting While plants used to be the essence of a park, today’s lack or scarcity of planting or the poor quality of planting is the source of recurring complaints when city dwellers are asked about their appreciation for a park. An unused green plain with a few random small trees, some scanty shrubs or ground cover beds is rather a source of irritation than of appreciation. The quality of planting is often one of the main assets of parks that are greatly appreciated.

This has recently been confirmed in a large-scale study on public space in several European cities. It demonstrated, for example, that the inhabitants of Barcelona, with its many urban parks that have been highly praised in architecture magazines, would like more ‘green space’ and less ‘architecture’…

(Priestley G. (2005). Issues in relation to green space valuation, preferences and use in Barcelona, The Greenspace Project)

Planting is so much more than scenery or a filler, it is an essential part of the park design which deserves the same kind of attention and care as the architecture of a building, the choice of paving material, lighting or furniture. Plants of all types, including trees, shrubs, hedges, topiaries, ground cover, bulbous plants, annual plants, perennial plants and grasses, determine a park’s atmosphere and character to a great extent. They are not a goal in themselves, but a tool to better express the intrinsic value of a specific space and to make its experience more intense.

In the first place, plants have an architectural function.

They are introduced to provide structure and rhythm to a space, to emphasise the intimacy of a space or the wideness of a view, to define viewing lines, to provide a foreground or background and to create depth. Plants provide variation and complexity, vitality, coherence and contrast; they mark boundaries or make them become blurred, they establish connections, they guide a walk, they are used as a screen and protection or to create anchoring points.

If well-designed and maintained, planting also has a significant aesthetic function. Trees, flowers and plants add

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‘It’s hard to design a space that will not attract people. What is remarkable is how often this has been accomplished.’ ▼

William H. Whyte The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces

beauty, poetry, magic and emotion. Their smell and colour evoke a sensory experience and help us appreciate the seasons. They fascinate and stimulate our curiosity and are an invitation to go out exploring and to discover, experience and enjoy the wonders of nature. They make sure we can experience the majesty of nature in human proportions. Many city dwellers have forgotten how fascinating and beautiful the world of plants can be. How exciting and overwhelming a collection of roses, a flowery meadow, a flower garden, a leafy woodland or an orchard can be.

In the 21st-century park, planting once again assumes a leading role, even if it is to create biodiversity and for the effect of trees and plants on local climate control, water retention, etc. It is also important because of its direct utility and amenity value. Planting needs to be adapted to the expected use and the local circumstances, i.e. topography, climate, ecology and history, and should, as mentioned above, reinforce the park’s identity and character. Sometimes there can also be educational, scientific or recreational reasons to create a butterfly garden, a flower picking garden or a hedge maze, to plant a small play woodland or a collection of old fruit trees, or to create a sensory garden like the one at Egerton Park in Bexhillon-Sea. (See also Part III, Case 3, p 142.

Maintenance

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The successful management and maintenance of urban green space starts with a correct understanding of the nature and the needs of the different types of green space. In general, designs will be conceived with a low maintenance frequency. Intensive maintenance is reserved for specific places where this is justified.

A fascinating development in the field of park planting is the ‘naturalistic’ application of blooming plants and ornamental grasses. In several European countries such as the United Kingdom, Germany and Switzerland, many experiments are being conducted with such ‘naturalistic’ plant combinations and seed mixtures for low-maintenance and dynamic planting in an urban environment on the basis of diverse semi-natural types of vegetation, such as grassland, forests and wetlands.

This kind of planting has been carried out in some of the most successful new parks including Battery Park and the High Line in New York, Lurie Garden in Chicago’s Millennium Park, Landschaftspark Riem in Munich and the Olympic Park in London. The large new flower border around the Spiegelvijver pond in Maria Hendrikapark in Ostend also fits into this picture.

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Those responsible for management and maintenance need to be involved in new projects from the first phase of these projects, so that their working method and wishes can be taken into account, possible alternatives can be found, etc.

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A detailed management plan and a maintenance budget must be drawn up for every green space, no matter how small. Ideally, this is already carried out during the design phase. Afterwards, the management plan is regularly adjusted on the basis of specific circumstances and issues, user feedback, changing views, etc.

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The management of a green space not only requires the technical skills necessary for the maintenance of the vegetation, but also the capacity to adequately adapt the green space to its users and to the way the space is used.

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There is probably not one ‘best’ form of organisation for

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG Dunnett N. & Hitchmough J. 2004 | Miller L.

2009 | Schmidt C. 2010 | Fiers E. & Hermy M. 2012 | www.natuurenbos.be

As demonstrated by numerous studies and surveys, the state of maintenance is of overriding importance for the amenity value and appreciation of a park, and therefore also for its use. A poorly maintained park can furthermore be a permanent source of irritation, may stimulate anti­ social behaviour and eventually lead to the park becoming a no-go area for local residents and visitors.

It is also important that maintenance is in line with the park’s type and its expected and actual use. For example, the maintenance level of a public garden whose main purpose is ornamental will be higher than that of an adventure playground. In a more natural park setting, fallen trees or branches do not need to be removed, brambles can be left to grow and the herbaceous layer can be left to roughen. However, in a small park or public garden this may be perceived as unsightly.

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the management and the maintenance of urban green space. Several urban studies have demonstrated: -- that a strong parks department, with well-trained staff who are paid accordingly, usually leads to the best results; -- that coordination and consultation between the different city services responsible for the public domain (parks department, environmental department, youth service, …) are essential; -- that the people responsible at the parks department not only need to possess the necessary professional skills, but that they also need to have a clear vision, possess the necessary management skills and be able to make their case to politicians and the public.

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Within the departments responsible, a sufficient number of expert staff should in any case remain present to draw up management plans, monitor their implementation etc. in case maintenance works are contracted out. Contracting out should be viewed as a long-term partnership between the private and the public sector, and not in the first place as a short-term savings measure. Experience teaches us that routine tasks are easier to contract out than more specialised or punctual maintenance work or work that requires great flexibility.

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On the basis of the management plan, a code of good practice is drawn up or a target is set for every green space, both for works carried out by a municipal department and for works that are contracted out.

Compliance with this code (in terms of timing, expert execution or input measurement) or whether or not the set goal (outcome measurement) is achieved need to be strictly monitored.

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Park managers need to receive adequate training.

According to the guidelines of the Nature and Forest Agency, at least 75% of the technical staff, both executive and support staff, must have received some kind of schooling or other green training.

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Park managers need to be easily accessible to users so they can record any complaints and react promptly to problems.

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All parks need to be permanently monitored on the basis of the management plan.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2004d | CABE Space 2010c

www.natuurenbos.be

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Safety Safety (or the sense of safety) determines a park’s attractiveness to a great extent. People avoid places where they do not feel safe. Safety includes good visibility, avoiding dark corners or dense vegetation where people can hide, a clear path structure, adequate lighting, sufficient social control, measures to prevent antisocial behaviour, etc.

Graffiti, damaged benches, trampled lawns and rubbish can sometimes be an indication of a problematic safety situation or can be interpreted as such by users.

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However, safety should not become an obsession. Not every shrub hides an attacker or a paedophile. Not every group of youngsters is looking for trouble. And graffiti are not always a sign of neglect; they can sometimes also be considered a kind of ‘appropriation’ of a space.

Parks are good examples of shared places visited by people of all backgrounds where those people should be able to move freely, enjoy themselves, go out exploring and discover things... Parks are places where not everything is pre-programmed and where surprising things and unexpected meetings occur.

Places that are not only characterised by order but also by freedom. For the design, layout and management of each park, it is important to find a reasonable balance between both. This is not an easy task as nearly every user has a different view on what order and freedom mean, on what is acceptable and what is not. This will also differ from place to place and from moment to moment: in some parks and at some times order will be higher up on the priority list while in other parks and at other times there will be more room for freedom.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG CABE Space 2005c | CABE Space 2005d

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A particular safety aspect focuses on the absence of risks. We live in a society in which we want to avoid risks as much as possible and in which the smallest risk can be punished with a liability lawsuit.

This risk obsession can lead to chestnut trees and thorny shrubs having to be removed because falling chestnuts or thorns might injure someone or damage cars. Another result may be that ponds and wetlands have to be closed off. Or that we remove all toxic plants from a park because somebody might eat them or that swing sets are no longer allowed because a child might fall off.

However, it is an illusion to think that all risks can or must be avoided. It is impossible to fence off all ponds in a park to prevent children from falling in. We can hardly fence off every playground to keep children in and dogs out either. Furthermore, there is not a single

c h ap t e r 3 H o w c a n w e d e s c r i b e t h e m ?

‘Most of us can remember that as children we needed places where we could run, explore, play with our friends or be on our own to look and wonder, think and daydream and make amazing discoveries.’ ▼

[ CABE Space. (2005). What are we scared of ? The value of risk in designing public space. London. CABE Space ]

piece of play equipment that is completely safe.

The goal should be a reasonable balance between risks and fun depending on use and users. For example, for children it is important that they can explore their own boundaries from an early age, meaning that they should learn to deal with challenges and risks, with insecurities and coincidences. This is an essential part

of their play. What really matters is making sure that they do not run an unreasonable risk or that they are not confronted with any unexpected dangers. [ inserts 3-4 ] F U R T H E R R E A D I NG IMPALA-project 2011 | Shackell A., Butler N.,

Doyle P., & Ball D. 2008 | www.playengland.org.uk

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Colourful Not only do parks need to be multifunctional and attractive, they should also be colourful. After all, they are supposed to serve many purposes and meet many expectations. They are meant to be used by people of all walks of life, genders, ages, cultures and religions. By people who are feeling lonely or bored, who are in love, aggressive or excited. Just as the elderly’s preferences differ from toddlers’ when it comes to radio and TV shows, they also differ when it comes to parks. Parents with children have different needs from teenagers who are just looking to hang out; and Asian, African or Turkish customs are different from Belgian, German or British ones.

Our parks should express this colourfulness. Of course, this does not mean that we should resort to trivial functionalism, including a sand box for the little ones, a playground for teenagers, grass and flowers for adults and benches and a pétanque pitch for the elderly. It is not so much about the equipment and the available facilities as it is about the general look and feel of the park. British landscape architect and historian Tom Turner came up with the term ‘harlequin parks’ to describe this (Turner 1996).

Red is the colour for exciting, festive places with many people, according to Turner. Places with music and celebration, funfair stalls or a ferris wheel, fireworks, …

■■ Blue is serene and cool, with water in all shapes and sizes, including ponds, canals and fountains. Visible,

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swimmable or at least tangible water.

Yellow should stimulate one’s curiosity, with a myriad of things to hear, see, smell and touch. Species-rich grassland or orchards in full bloom where bees and butterflies fly and flutter about are yellow.

Orange is a blend of red and yellow. They are cheerful with movement, laughter and fun. Places to watch and be watched. Waterfronts and sports fields with many sportspeople and spectators are orange.

Purple is mysterious, powerful and scarce. Calm but with drama lurking in the shadows. Gorges, caverns and narrow paths through obscure woods are purple.

Brown is wholesome and satisfying, like the aroma of freshly dug earth, the outdoor equivalent of fresh coffee. Town forests can be brown, as well as avenues in autumn, when walkers can smell the fallen leaves.

Grey is solemn. It surrounds tombs and memorials, encouraging people to reflect on the transience of human life and the glory of the departed.

White is for the projection of one’s soul. For example, on a snow-capped mountain or at sea. 'White' spaces in cities have often extensive surfaces and are surrounded by impressive buildings. The environs of La Grande Arche at La Défense in Paris or of the new German Chancellery in Berlin are examples of such a ‘white space’.

Finally, green is a mix of yellow and blue, to calm the

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INSERT [ 3 ]

Parks for loitering youths Loitering youths are a timeless phenomenon found in all cultures. Youngsters take to the streets because that is where they find relaxation, where they can hang out with peers and have fun together. It is where they can escape parental supervision and develop their own social identity. Now that public space is becoming more and more scarce, youngsters increasingly become more visible and the possibility of nuisance increases. People want youngsters ‘off the streets’ so they do not cause any nuisance or unsafe situations, or become the victims of unsafe situations themselves. Recently, an interesting study on the (potential) value of parks for loitering youths has been published in the Netherlands (De Groot 2011). In this study, green space is broadly conceived as: all kinds of urban nature at a neighbourhood and quarter level: parks, municipal gardens, public gardens, green squares, sports fields and green street elements such as rows of trees and wall gardens. They are places that are accessible to all.

Four types of green meeting places surfaces. Greenery at the local sports site is therefore mainly ornamental.

Often, several types of green meeting places are distinguished, differing in terms of function, scale, use, users and added green value.

4. In the large green recreation area green space occupies a much more prominent place than in the other areas. This includes parks, grassy banks and recreation areas with a large amount of greenery. Contrary to other meeting places, young people specifically visit these locations for their green space. Recreation (picnicking, sunbathing, relaxing) and meeting friends are their main purposes. Green meeting places are used by boys and girls of different age categories and from different socioeconomic backgrounds. Visitors come from all over the surrounding area. Greenery in these places is consciously experienced and used. Here, the greenery serves as a source of tranquility and scenic beauty and is also actively used.

1. The local place to hang out is an informal place

without any specific layout where youngsters from the immediate vicinity come to chill. Here, being together and relaxing are more important than participating in an activity. These are places where youngsters from the neighbourhood meet. Youths who make use of these places to hang out often have a low level of qualification and a low socioeconomic status, the majority being boys.

Greenery is mainly ornamental (flower boxes) or functional (trees offer protection from rain and prying eyes).

2. The local play area is a formally organised play-

ground with play equipment used by neighbourhood children and youngsters of up to 15 years old. Later in the evening, the play areas are sometimes used by older youths. Especially the larger playgrounds with a multifunctional layout are popular among young people. The emphasis lies on playing and meeting. Boys and girls from the neighbourhood meet each other here without making prior arrangements. Greenery in the local play area is mainly ornamental and is rarely involved in playing activities.

3. The local sports site is a place that is equipped with sports facilities such as football pitches and basketball courts. Sports and the meeting opportunity for young people from the neighbourhood occupy centre stage in these places, the majority of youngsters being boys. The quality and equipment of sports areas vary greatly. Sports are sometimes practised on grass, but usually on hard

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Success factors

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Recognisability and accessibility Recognisability

Combination of public and private Young people

and accessibility are important assets to all green meeting places. Many young people often interpret ‘accessible’ as: within walking distance from home. This is especially true for youths under the age of fifteen and youths coming from less privileged families in neighbourhoods with a lower socioeconomic status. Accessibility is crucial for local play, sports and hang-out sites. If they are easily accessible and recognisable, they can start serving as a neighbourhood’s central meeting point. Play equipment, a work of art or greenery can serve as a meeting point in these places.

do not like to ‘chill’ in a place where they are too visible.

On the other hand, many youngsters also like sociability and find it important to feel safe. The desired amount of privacy and visibility can differ for each place and desired activity. For example, it is not recommendable for local play and sports sites to offer a great deal of privacy.

In other words, the task is to find a balance between privacy and freedom on the one hand, and visibility and supervision on the other. Green space can play an important part in this: different levels, medium-sized shrubs, semi-transparent hedges or rows of trees can offer just the right amount of privacy.

Large green recreation areas, which are precisely the sites that are highly valuable thanks to the tranquillity they provide, are not visited often by these youngsters.

By creating youth-friendly and attractive access routes to parks from residential areas, parks can be opened up to a young public. Youth work and out of school care can also play a part in this. Another possibility is to bring the green space to the youngsters by decorating existing or new meeting places in residential areas with greenery.

Variation and high use value | Young people are partial to variation and places with high use value.

Green meeting places are used by several user groups, each with their own wishes and uses. Since young people grow up fast, their wishes change rapidly as well. By working with different zones for different activities and users, a place can be optimally used. One possibility is to provide places that can accommodate different activities and user groups during the day: a playground can be designed in such a way that it is attractive to children during the day and to teenagers at night. Providing for flexibility, with scope for experimenting and change are other ways to meet the changing demands of youths.

With a minimal amount of resources and effort from both youngsters and residents, vacant plots of land can be transformed into temporary meeting places. If youngsters are involved in the design of meeting places, it is more likely that those places will be successfully used and cared for. The utility function of green space is not sufficiently taken advantage of when limited to a tree to provide shelter, greenery for a bit of cover and some grass to lie down or play football on.

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Design and maintenance Young people enjoy places

with a good design. Many youths appreciate greenery as a significant factor that really defines the atmosphere of urban meeting places. This is true for all types of meeting places. Youngsters find meeting places without any greenery dull and bare. Water is also a popular element: many young people find a pond, fountain, ditch or waterfall indispensable for their perfect meeting place.

Poorly maintained places and litter appear unattractive to them and sometimes make them feel unsafe. These places are especially avoided by girls.

In addition, there is a risk that youngsters will sooner start to demonstrate unacceptable behaviour in poorly maintained places.

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INSERT [ 4 ] |GB| best practice example [ 62 ]

Copenhagen |DK|

Superkilen Park

Fencing in playgrounds?

The new Superkilen Park is situated in one of the poorest and most ethnically diverse areas of the Danish capital. The designers expressly capitalise on this ethnical diversity with artefacts from the countries of origin of the people living around the park, who also selected the artefacts: furniture from 60 different countries, fitness equipment from California, palm trees from China, loudspeakers from Jamaica, lamps from Russia and Qatar, manhole covers from Israel, a black bull from Spain. Each of the park’s three parts have their own colour: the red square is meant for sports and culture, the black square is an urban meeting space with picnic tables and a Moroccan fountain and the green square has been designed for sports and games.

The new Play Zone in Bexhill’s Egerton Park, which was created within the scope of the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project 21st Century Parks, was integrated into the park’s landscape instead of being fenced in, which resulted in detailed debate at the design workshops.

The decision whether or not to fence in a park playground depends on many different factors. For parents it can provide a sense of safety to know that their children cannot run off, that no dogs can enter and that there is some control as to who comes near the children.

However, a fence creates the impression that children are only welcome in that specific part of the park. The view of a fence alone can deter some children. And separating different age groups is rarely a good reason to place a fence.

http://superflex.net/tools/superkilen

If enclosure is advisable, there are many options that are not as aggressive as a traditional metal or wooden fence and that fit in much better with the park atmosphere.

Examples are a hedge, a landscaped bund or a wall that also offers the chance to sit or play. Possibilities abound.

See also Part III, Case 2, p 136. 

‘Instead of embellishing their plans with a green sauce, open space planners should produce harlequin plans (...) for harlequin space, to suit our harlequin lives.’ ▼

[ Tom Turner, City as Landscape: a post-Postmodern view of design and planning. ]

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diversity of the yellow and restrain the sublimity of the blue. Green has a relaxing effect. City dwellers love to come across green space amidst the noise of the city, but they don’t want everything to be green.

According to Turner, young children need purple spaces, which are exciting but safe. Boys also like brown spaces, where they can literally splash about in the mud, build dens or embankments. Teenagers prefer a blend of red, yellow and orange: amusement park-like places where it all happens, where to meet friends, practise sports, dance or simply sunbathe. Yuppies are partial to these kinds of places as well, but like them a tad fancier and more expensive. Families prefer green and blue spaces, where they can have a picnic, lounge around, and where fathers can display their kite flying, model boat steering and other skills. The elderly feel at home at any of the abovementioned spaces, provided that they are safe and comfortable. However, when given the choice, they prefer a traditional park with all the works, the kind that no longer appears in our urban landscape but that we should cherish all the more.

“Next time you hear that urban designers are proposing a new space for your town, please ask: ‘what colour is this space?’ If they do not have an answer, they have not thought through their scheme with sufficient profundity”, states Turner. [ practice example 62 ]

Floriade 2012 (Venlo)

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‘Beauty is the upshot of serving our practical needs with elegance, integrity and imagination. If we look at the urban areas people value, what matters is the beauty in all its different forms that people find there. Thus beauty is not just intrinsically valuable but also economically beneficial and socially cohesive.

It is only if we recognise this truth that we can restore beauty to its rightful place in public discourse and provide the architecture, urban design and public spaces that people deserve.’ ▼

[ Kieran M. (2010) The X factor: beauty in planning. Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment ]

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Beautiful Our parks also need beauty. While attractiveness is mainly about user-friendliness, i.e. why people like to visit a place often, and colourfulness with the need for diversity, beauty has to do with aesthetic qualities, i.e. design. This includes image quality, visual patterns, coherence with the environs, as well as the past, present and future meaning of the place, and identification. In the final publication of the government programme ‘Mooi Nederland’, this is also referred to as identity: the synergy between the image, use and meaning of a place (Ministry of Infrastructure and Environment 2011). Each place should be thoroughly examined so as to determine which kind of beauty, which identity is most appropriate.

scape or the built-up environment. Those who disregard existing identities impoverish the city and the landscape.

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The history of a place can be a source of inspiration.

However, identity means more than a mere reconstruction of the past, and cultural history does not equal the preservation of monuments. Cultural history means to acquire knowledge of the history of a place and to use this knowledge to enrich the design. Local quality should not remain anchored in the past, it should in fact offer possibilities for current and future users.

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Sometimes, it will be necessary to create a completely new identity and to introduce a totally new design. In that case it is also important to take into account the characteristics of the city/neighbourhood/environment, the scale and the spatial structure, and the cohesion between functions.

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The chosen identity should be in line with the needs and the culture of the residents and the users of the park. Active resident participation in the design process may contribute to this. The success of a project often depends on the extent to which it is appreciated by the population.

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Every part of the park, i.e. planting, paving, furniture, signposting, light fixtures, public art etc., contributes to the image quality and identity and deserves the same amount of care and attention.

It may be interesting to work with a list of materials or an image quality plan in which the materials to be used are enumerated. Such a plan makes clear to all parties involved how the improvement of the image

The importance of a good design cannot be underestimated. Designing and laying out a park is a special skill for which the best designers and the highest quality standards are used.

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The basic principle should be that every place is special or unique and that there are no models or standard solutions that can be applied always and everywhere. The beauty lies not in generic, but in particular qualities.

Within this respect, designers often talk about the ‘genius loci’, the ‘spirit of a location’: a place’s distinctive features, inherent qualities and traits or its unique, local atmosphere. At times, it may be necessary to base the (re)design of a place on those sometimes hidden qualities or traits.

In any case, every design has to be based on a thorough inventory of the plot, the existing topography, the trees, any historic artefacts… and it should take into account the spatial structure, the surrounding land-

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‘Cities need hidden spaces and exposed spaces, rough spaces and smooth spaces, loud spaces and silent spaces – spaces where people remember, experience, contest, appropriate, get scared, make things, lose things, and generally become themselves.’ ▼

[ CABE Space (2005). What are we scared of ? The value of risk in designing public space. London. CABE Space. ]

quality can be achieved.

An image quality plan should not be a straitjacket, it should leave enough space for local use and variation depending on matters like the environment, the spatial entity, demographic data, etc. It also needs to

be adjusted and adapted to new needs and insights at regular intervals. The plan should, however, guarantee a certain sense of ‘unity in diversity’.

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Sustainable It is crystal clear that parks need to be designed, laid out and managed for long-term use, i.e., that they need to be ecologically viable and have a ‘future value’. Many of our most beautiful and most valued parks were laid out over 100 years ago. Most parks that are laid out now will only come into their own in a couple of decades.

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Art can play a part in this by reinforcing a place’s identity. But a park cannot be saved by art alone.

where possible.

The precise localisation of all sorts of underground infrastructure (pipes, sewers, …) is an important point of attention as well.

Sustainability has to do with matters such as the choice of plants and materials: they should be low-maintenance, sturdy and renewable. It is important to select plant species that thrive in an urban setting or in challenging circumstances, e.g. in coastal areas. For the layout, all the necessary measures need to be taken in terms of planting, location, soil, etc. in order to maximise the plants’ chances of survival, and in case of trees, to give them every opportunity to mature.

In case of renovation of an existing park, all measures should be taken to protect existing valuable trees.

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Sustainability is also about avoiding the waste of space and energy. For instance, the design needs to take into account the limitation of the development’s environmental impact (earthworks, the use of local and recycled materials) and sustainable management methods (water and energy consumption, avoiding pesticides). It is important to pay close attention to efficient, effective and stable management in the design and development phase.

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Sustainability furthermore means that during the layout or renovation of a park maximum efforts are made to achieve spatial synergy: how the park can be integrated into or linked to strategies for a more sustainable city. This includes how a park can contribute to water management (water retention and drainage, infiltration, etc.) and to the improvement of the ambient climate and air quality. Spatial synergy can also be about how parks can be linked to other infrastructure works such as the expansion of a residential area, the creation of a car park or a business park, water treat-

A park’s sustainability is reinforced by bringing the layout or renovation in line with the biotic and abiotic conditions of the land and its surroundings, such as hydrology, groundwater flows, natural relief, geology, soil, flora and fauna. The artificial enrichment of an area through foreign soil types and/or artificial relief, or interference with the natural hydrology should be avoided

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‘Good quality design can encourage living and working patterns that mean less car use, reduced consumption of natural resources and increased biodiversity.

This will be good news for future generations.’ ▼

[ CABE (2005) Buildings and Spaces: Why Design Matters ]

ment works etc., or how they can be integrated into a sustainable mobility policy by linking them to good cycle and walking routes and public transport.

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Yet another aspect of sustainability is the preservation and, if possible, the reinforcement of biodiversity. This means that efforts are made to obtain the greatest possible diversity of species and ecosystems. After all, biodiversity is not limited to natural areas or rural areas.

Urban nature is still of extraordinary and increasingly important significance in this respect. Parks can play a crucial role in this.

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The points of attention include: -- Respect for the original situation: in case of the layout or renovation of a park, the existing ecological values should be preserved as much as possible. This is true for both the renovation of existing parks and the transformation of areas with special fauna and flora, e.g. certain natural relics or plots where the soil is highly degraded (abandoned industrial sites, tracksides) and where special urban vegetation has often developed.

-- Biodiversity is positively impacted by structural variation including open and semi-open spaces, groups of trees and ponds.

-- Within the different structures or landscape types, efforts should be made to achieve the greatest possible diversity of species through an alternation of environmental circumstances (wet or dry, oligotrophic or eutrophic, sand or clay), of vegetation types (woodland, grassland, dunes, wetland) and of the structure of a certain type of vegetation (mowed or unmowed grass, a flower meadow, shrubs, a line of trees or an orchard, brushwood or ornamental planting).

-- If the size and use of the park allow for this, it is interesting to lay out and manage some parts of the park as natural micro-environments.

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Sustainability also has an aesthetic component: not only should the layout be durable from a ‘technical’ point of view, it should not ‘go out of date’ too soon either. This is why during the layout or renovation of parks, efforts should be made to avoid fashionable or trendy architecture and mere window dressing. Instead of being a plea for bleak minimalism, this is an argument to create a certain sensitivity that takes into account the character of the park and its environs. This does not alter the fact that for some places and in certain circumstances frivolity and even spectacular gestures with a high iconic value may be opted for.

The basic principle is to create places with beauty and character, places that do not leave people indifferent but that move them and make them feel involved thanks to their significance and aesthetic quality. Something unattractive or insignificant does not usually last very long. It is only when people feel a connection with a place that they will also feel responsible for it. Visual quality is therefore not a mere detail, it is essential for sustainability. Ignoring aesthetics and design is not a sustainable strategy.

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In certain circumstances, it may be advisable to give public spaces a temporary or interim use. Instead of leaving a plot where a house was demolished or a factory was closed down lying vacant for years and letting it deteriorate while awaiting a permanent use, it may be wise to give such places a temporary use and make them accessible to local residents.

This not only prevents dilapidation, it can also be a way to make the plot productive on a temporary basis, e.g. as an allotment or community garden, as a small playground or football pitch, for art and cultural events or for the production of biomass. Temporary use can also generate new ideas, create a new dynamic and contribute to the future (re)development of a place.

This concept could be promoted and certain sites could be selected to be the object of a kind of ‘design lab’ for one or several years, a creative playground, not

Sustainable park management requires continuity, which includes making the best possible use of natural processes.

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only for designers from different disciplines, but also for local residents, where they can freely experiment with new ideas and strategies for parks in an urban setting.

Flexible and adaptable

F U R T H E R R E A D I NG www.natuurenbos.be/nl-BE/Natuurbeleid/

Groen/Harmonisch_Park_en_Groenbeheer/Visie.aspx

I

Sustainability does not equal inflexibility. On the contrary: more than ever, parks should be designed in such a way that they are flexible and adaptable and can evolve in time.

In a sense, this is part of the very essence of a green space: plants and trees grow, they grow taller and sooner or later, they die; their presence and shape differ from season to season; they are to a certain extent able to adapt to variable circumstances. This is why the desired final result needs to be taken into account during the design and management processes.

In addition, alternative uses and new functions together with demographic and social evolutions should be anticipated as from the design phase. In the design, space should be provided for uses and intended purposes to grow along with the users and user needs in the area, without the need for significant changes.

In some circumstances, e.g. in a coastal town, flexibility may also mean that the park is designed in such a way that it remains an attractive place both in the low and the high season, irrespective of the number of people present. Another possible meaning is that it can be easily adapted to a temporary use without any permanent damage being caused, e.g. in case of a major sports, tourist or cultural event.

Hedge Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend)

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Bryant Park (New York)

‘The best place-making is usually the result of determined civic leadership, combined with effective public involvement and a high level of professional skill.’ ▼

[ CABE (2005b) Start with the Park ]

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WHAT

M A K E S A PA R K S U CC E S S F U L?

It became clear during the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’ that the development and creation of parks for the 21st century not only concerns new spatial, urban development and ecological insights and concepts, but also new political and administrative planning programmes, forms of cooperation, design methods and participation processes. The conventional development models, planning methods and procedures, the traditional design processes and forms of cooperation and networks of stakeholders of spatial planning no longer suffice to deal with the versatility and complexity of urban and periurban landscape development and transformation.

The sectoral mindset and working method of many (semi-) public institutions, and their fixation on financial efficiency (due to a structural lack of financial means and the sectoral allocation of funding streams), are at odds with the need to create green infrastructure in an integrated manner and to interlink issues concerning water storage, climate change, biodiversity, new kinds of recreation and agriculture. The rigidity of existing institutions, rules and procedures and the emphasis on ‘urban planning policy’ and the functional zoning arrangements often restrain creative and innovative integrated area development.

Many local government administrations lack sufficient manpower, expertise and the necessary financial means and tools (e.g. to take care of their own land management) to get the often complex and long-term development processes on track, to guide them and to achieve the agreed quality targets.

In this chapter we formulate a number of recommendations or ‘best practices’, based on experiences gained and lessons learned from the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’.

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‘There is growing evidence that those local authorities that have published a comprehensive strategy are better able to make progress towards improving their green assets than those that have not. A piecemeal, reactive approach to providing and maintaining green space will deliver few, if any, benefits.

High quality, well-used spaces are possible only if those responsible for their planning, management and improvement think strategically.’ ▼

[ Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (2006) Green space strategies - a good practice guide ]

B

Ambition The development and creation of urban parks for the 21st century as described in this guide require vision and ambition. A vision of the role green infrastructure plays in the vitality and resilience of urban regions. A vision of the cohesion between the city and the periphery. A vision of the power that nature and the landscape have over urban development and transformation.

The ambition to make strategic choices and to translate

the vision into coherent plans and innovative projects. The ambition to aim not for spectacle and a quick win, but to focus one’s efforts on sustainable quality. The ambition to involve all citizens in the story.

It also requires realism and pragmatism. This is not a task for dreamers or utopians, but for those who will strive for the most feasible scenario without needlessly disrupting things that already work.

c

Strong management ‘The set-up, development and realisation of a city project always constitutes a social and political process during which statements are made on the state we wish to and can achieve. The city project aims at the achievement of a ‘collective’ target, i.e. public welfare, sustainability and quality in all its sociocultural, economic and spatial dimensions … The staging (the direction, the organisation of the appropriate roundtables, the political responsibility) and the general management (the completion, steering and management) of the city project lie in the hands of the government and cannot be delegated to the private sector’, state urban planners Andre Loeckx and Jef Van den Broeck in an essay on city projects in Flanders (Boudry et al 2006).

This is equally true for the 21st century park.

Integrated park projects as described in the present guide are simply not attainable if there are no strong managers with a vision, who fully commit themselves and who are prepared to take risks, and if there is no efficient and high-performing apparatus of government which functions as a commissioner, takes responsibility for the staging and the process and project management, and

controls quality. Steering a project requires the roles and responsibilities of all parties involved to be clear. A coordinating authority (e.g. a steering committee) that coordinates strategic objectives and makes sure that the projects contribute to the goals set is always an asset. For each project, it should be clear who is responsible for its implementation and what financing arrangements are in place.

This does not at all mean that the private sector or non-governmental organisations (such as heritage or nature associations) play no part at all or that they are doomed to simply carry out the works without having any say in the project. It just means that they do not play a leading role, at least not in the European context. They can make proposals and initiate projects, contribute their knowledge and skills and advise and assist public bodies, they can take responsibility for the project’s implementation and management, and they can even carry out sub-projects. However, they cannot take the same role as the democratically elected local authority for the town, city, county or metropolitan area.

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best practice example [ 63 ] Ost end |b |

Keys to success

The Emerald Necklace The project team for the Emerald Necklace in Ostend is composed of the mayor, responsible for public works, infrastructure and green space, and of representatives of the directorate of the public domain, the urban development and spatial planning department, the city’s sustainability and communications officer, and representatives of the autonomous municipal company for urban renewal (AGSO).

In 2004, the British Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment (CABE Space 2004d) published ‘Is the grass greener? Learning from international innovations in urban green space management’. In this publication, eleven cities around the world, each with an excellent reputation for public green space, were thoroughly examined.

This resulted in the following ‘keys to success’: -- Strong and continued political leadership and commitment to green space quality -- A strategic view of green space management that is integrated with other public services and priorities -- An effective and well-developed process of community engagement and involvement in green space management -- Adequate and reliable resources, with long-term and secure funding from independent sources -- A general focus on quality rather than quantity -- Strong and effective lobbying by green space advocates to demonstrate the value of green space and ensure that resources are not diverted elsewhere -- Well-trained and committed staff who operate in a stable organisational environment -- Efficient management structures that devolve management responsibility to the appropriate levels -- Good collaborative partnerships with a range of public and private stakeholders -- Co-ordinated and integrated responsibility -- Dedicated management models that have some degree of political and financial independence -- Effective monitoring of outcomes that feeds back into decision-making.

See also Part III, Case 4, p. 148. 

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An environmental strategy The elaboration of a strategic spatial policy, local plan or masterplan is a conditio sine qua non for achieving a successful green infrastructure policy.

Such a plan does not only concern the green infrastructure in the strict sense of the word; it is also geared towards other relevant policy areas (spatial planning, mobility, housing, environment, tourism, youth policy etc.).

The green strategy plan covers an entire area or at least coherent parts of an area. It encompasses both a long-term vision and a medium and short-term action programme with concrete projects and measures to convert the vision into reality. In other words, it is not a blueprint of an idealised image that needs to be realised, but a tool to start up, steer and guide spatial development.

The action programme describes the different steps that need to be taken, the timing, the necessary staff, the means and budgets to be allocated, etc. It is regularly evaluated and, if necessary, adjusted.

During the preparation of the green strategy plan, a (quantitative and qualitative) inventory is made of the needs and wishes relating to the green infrastructure and any shortcomings, on the basis of consultation with all relevant actors, among other things, and taking into account demographic and socioeconomic characteristics, while also bearing in mind the infrastructure already present and the opportunities the land offers.

F U R T H E R R E A D I NGe CABE Space 2009 | Grontmij, Smets B., Econnection 200 | Mayor of London 2012

Collaboration and integration 21st century parks are complex infrastructures, which not only should meet spatial and urban development challenges, but also be in line with recreational and tourist needs and trends while offering a solution to social, cultural, demographic and economic issues, serving as an answer to questions relating to biodiversity, water management, the quality of the urban environment, climate change, mobility etc.

This requires an interdisciplinary and integrated approach at every stage and at each level of the project.

Not only does this mean that the planning and design teams, both internal and external, should be made up on an interdisciplinary basis, involving all relevant depart-

d

E

ments and disciplines from the start; it also implies an integrated collaboration between the various levels of local government and the different relevant (semi-)public actors.

The latter in particular is not always easy, as the many levels of government cause upper and lower tier authorities and sometimes even European institutions to interfere with one another. They furthermore rarely appear to be willing to gear their rules to one another and to join forces and financial means. This was also shown by an analysis of the different planning tools for green infrastructure in Flanders and the United Kingdom that was carried out within the scope of the ‘21st Century Parks’ programme. [ practice example 63 ]

The regional dimension In quickly changing urban regions, a regional dimension of spatial planning and regional cooperation are essential. The impact of green infrastructure and the spatial structure of urban landscapes in many cases exceed local boundaries and require a regional perspective and approach. Authorities, designers and citizens need to look

F

beyond their boundaries and local interests and see and seize regional opportunities. Consultation and collaboration between authorities and flexible, programmed regional connections are required in order to reach an agreement on strategic matters. Spatial visions and regional projects can be an efficient aid in this respect.

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‘The success of a particular public space is not solely in the hands of the architect, urban designer or town planner; it relies also on people adopting, using and managing the space – people make places, more than places make people.’ ▼

[ Joseph Rowntree Foundation (2007) Social Value of Public Space ]

G

Design quality The importance of good design can hardly be underestimated. It concerns both the project as a whole, the network of green infrastructure and parks, and each sub-project separately.

Good design is important so as to be able to translate the visions and ambitions into feasible projects that can endure the lengthy process from idea to implementation.

This is also necessary to make a clear analysis and to get a sense of the landscape’s potential and qualities. To integrate the often conflicting expectations and the multitude of landscapes, scale levels and functions in a creative manner without losing diversity. To allocate the means available in the most efficient manner.

Good design can also fulfil a communicative role in a planning process. As it gives an idea of what the issues are, it appeals to the heart and mind, and it can inspire and foster the social debate on change in the environment. If it aims to fulfil an inspiring and consensual role, good design will be achieved within the framework of a social debate or process.

Finally, good design should respect the site’s historic dimension in case of the renovation of an existing park.

This requires an extensive inventory of the existing elements and a thorough study of the original design. In this case there is no room for a tabula rasa approach: the design plan for the renovated park needs to be realised through thorough consideration of the original designs.

In other words, the historic layers should shine through in the new layout of the renovated park. After all, such layers result in intriguing places full of character.

Within the scope of the ‘21st Century Parks’ programme, several design strategies and models were applied.

For instance, a number of cross-border and interdisciplinary workshops and local visits were organised in which urban planners and landscape experts, academics, officials, students and communications specialists from both countries participated. During these workshops, the six ‘21st Century Parks’ green projects were extensively discussed

and analysed. Not only did this result in an exchange of knowledge, it also led to the adjustment and enrichment of the various projects.

This is perfectly illustrated by the evolution of the Camber project in East Sussex. The project was initially limited to the regeneration of the Camber Central Car Park area near Camber’s sandy beach. During the workshops it became clear, however, that the project should not be limited to this one single site and to parking problems, but that the focus should be extended to encompass the entire area and other elements of green infrastructure. For example, the master plan also needed to pay attention to the impact of parking on the ecologically highly valuable and protected surrounding sand dunes. The spatial and landscape impact of the nearby holiday parks needed to be looked into. In addition, it turned out that the accessibility of the visitor infrastructure and Camber beach not only depends on the local parking facilities, but that all traffic infrastructure should be investigated, and that cycle and walking links, among other things, ought to be improved.

Any further tourist development in Camber should also go hand in hand with the improvement of the green infrastructure in the wider area.

This expanded focus also led to a significant design project in which students at Flemish Schools of Architecture drew up a number of stimulating future scenarios and practical proposals for the area.

The results of these workshops were integrated into the local planning process, constituting a big step towards the feasibility of the Camber MasterPlan.

See also Part III. Case 1, p 128. 

The project definition of Ostend’s Emerald Necklace was prepared by means of research by design. In the future, the method of research by design will fulfil a prominent role as well, as the basis for planning decisions and for the preparation and support of design processes.

The selection of the design team took place through

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the Open Call procedure of the Flemish Government Architect. The Open Call procedure is one of the tools used by the Flemish Government Architect in the search for architectural quality for the projects of the Flemish government and local authorities. After all, apart from an exemplary commissioner, selecting the right designer

a b lu e p r i n t

for every project is essential. The Open Call procedure is a selection procedure based on the principle of an architectural competition, and the procedure is in compliance with the public procurement legislation and the European competition laws. (­www.vlaamsbouwmeester. be/instrumenten/open_oproep/Open_Oproep.aspx) See also Part III, Case 4, p. 148. 

H

Take your time The development and implementation of a network of green infrastructure and parks takes time, a great deal of time. Several things need to be taken into account such as the stubborn reality of the urban landscape, the many structures and rules, the bureaucratic labyrinth, the conflicting views and sectoral or private interests, the fragmented nature of ownership and the lack of financial means. [ practice example 64 ] This inevitable slowness is not necessarily a problem: it also offers opportunities to let area development or transformation evolve in a more organic, less brutal and more publicly supported manner. To take the time for vision development and to leave space for new developments, new circumstances and new needs. Not to carry out everything at once, but to be able to work step by step, layer by layer, eventually creating a much more diverse picture. And finally, to realise that the work is never completed, that a city is and always should be in movement, and that the establishment of a dynamic and resilient green infrastructure network is a continuous process.

It could be referred to as a kind of slow urbanism.

This comes with a number of conditions, however. Firstly, you should know exactly what it is you want to achieve.

This does not mean that everything should be specified down to the last detail, but that an overall framework is established in which the broad outlines are specified and objectives are formulated. However, this framework needs to be sufficiently open and flexible to be able to anticipate changing circumstances.

Secondly, continuity should be established. Politicians come and go, officials vary, policy priorities and tools change, financing channels are adjusted … It is therefore important to provide an appropriate project structure and support that can endure this long process, and to enable appropriate support projects for external professionals.

Thirdly, positive use should be made of the long timescale. This means that an idea of the future should be formed. That people who live in the area or the future users of the park need to be provided with a view of the

future. The qualities of the future spatial structures will not be easily noticed and the hidden potential will not be comprehended without help.

This also means that even the ‘low-hanging fruit’ needs to be picked: that all opportunities need to be seized in order to make sure that pilot projects and projects that can be implemented in the short term or with simple means are indeed implemented. And that temporary or interim realisations and temporary uses ought to be promoted.

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best practice example [ 64 ]

Bexhill-on-Sea|GB|

Combe Valley Countryside Park The first plans to create a large sub-regional countryside park between the coastal towns of Hastings and Bexhill-on-Sea, currently known as the Combe Valley Countryside Park, go back to 1993. It was not until 2003 that an administrative Steering Committee was assembled to draw up a development and business plan for the area. A Management Board was put together in 2008 and since then, the first improvement works have taken place and a number of initiatives have been set up so as to actively involve local residents in the project. However, it will take several more years for all plans to actually be implemented.

best practice example [ 65 ] Ostend |B |

THE EMERALD NECKLACE

In addition, a cycle map and an interactive digital platform were developed and cycle tours and excursions along the Emerald Necklace were organised in the summer of 2012, making the route tangible to the local population.

As a first step in the cycle and walking route of Ostend’s Emerald Necklace, the route was indicated by means of signposts along the roads.

15 information panels were installed along the Emerald Necklace route. These panels provide more information on the various zones and contain items on points of interest in the immediate vicinity. Furthermore, the philosophy of the entire project is explained and, for every zone, a glimpse of the future is revealed.

See also Part III. Case 4, p 148. 

In the prelude to the Emerald Necklace project in Ostend, an artistic preliminary stage was set up in which a writer and a photographer showed the identity of the various places in pictures and text and appeal to the imagination. The literary text was conceived as an imaginary speech on the Emerald Necklace and will be incorporated into a movie.

This visual and text material is intensively used to create support among a wide public.

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Form partnerships 21st century parks emerge in the most unexpected places and often do so thanks to multiple use of space or on the occasion of other infrastructure works.

It is therefore important to forge coalitions with private and public partners in order to carry out joint green infrastructure projects and create added value. In this case, added value means more than each party benefitting from it. It means that synergy is sought, making one and one equal more than two. Prevent an overlap with existing plans and look for interaction or complementarity instead.

That may mean involving developers working on a housing, shop or office project, a tourist project, road works, coastal defence works, etc. (See also chapter 2 ‘Where do we find space for them?’).

For the development of regional or metropolitan parks, coalitions with other public and private actors are crucial: parks of such scale and based upon such a philosophy can only exist if all actors, i.e. private and public owners, investors and local entrepreneurs, work closely together.

Participation and consultation The various projects that were carried out within the scope of the ‘21st Century Parks’ programme emphasise the crucial importance of involving residents, users and other stakeholders (companies, property developers, schools, social organisations, …) in the elaboration and realisation of park projects to the greatest possible extent, in order to make sure that they act as participants through words and actions.

Not only does this benefit the eventual quality of the project in terms of use and amenity value, it can also provide unexpected perspectives and insights. It furthermore increases the chance that, as participants, they will eventually regard the project as their own and be prepared

J

to bear greater responsibility, e.g. as investors, fundraisers, voluntary guides, organisers of events or maintenance help. Participation as a source of commitment and creativity.

Participation encompasses much more than informing or inquiring. It means dialogue and debate, thinking, examining and working together, learning from each other, giving and taking.

What participation does not mean is to ‘take the place of’. The local authority remains the director of the entire participation process and still assumes final responsibility for the project; final responsibility for the design is always assumed by the head of the design team.

1)

Promotion It does not suffice to develop a good vision, create magnificent designs and lay out wonderful parks; those visions, designs and realisations also need to be ‘sold’.

This can be limited to the provision of information to (potential) users through informative meetings, leaflets and social media. However, it can also go beyond this, e.g. by organising guided tours and all sorts of events such as festivities, spectacles and photography competitions.

For example, the opening of the new playground in Egerton Park was the occasion for a ‘Party in the Park’ which included a festive parade from the beach to the park and various activities in the park.

See also Part III. Case 2, p 136. 

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Party in ther Park (Bexhill-on-Sea) Pa ken voor de 21ste eeuw

Local park â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Eilandje (Ostend)

Maria-Hendrikapark (Ostend) Allotments Nieuwe Stad (Ostend)

Local park â&#x20AC;&#x2122;t Eilandje (Ostend)

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1 MasterPlan and Walking Routes Camber 2 Play-zone Egerton Park [ Bexhill-on-Sea ] 3 Sensory garden Egerton Park [ Bexhill-on-Sea ] 4 Emerald Necklace [ Ostend ] 5 Duinenkerkje [ Ostend ] 6 Nieuwe Koers [ Ostend ]

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cases

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MasterPlan and

Walking Routes

Camber East Sussex [â&#x20AC;&#x2030;GBâ&#x20AC;&#x2030;]

Camber is a coastal village set in a distinctive and outstanding landscape.

With its beautiful sandy beach adjoining the English Channel, the extensive Romney Marsh to the northeast and the impressive sand dunes Camber has become one of the most popular natural resorts on the south coast.

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Project background Camber is located some four miles from the historic town of Rye, and with the best sandy beach in the south east of England the village has naturally evolved as a popular tourist resort destination for holidaymakers and day-trippers. The settlement really grew in a piecemeal fashion from the 1920’s onwards when cars began to make remote parts of the coastline accessible. People began to build holiday homes which eventually were occupied on a permanent basis. From the late 1940’s Camber began to invest in the seaside holiday tourist trade with accommodation being provided in a purpose built holiday camp and caravan sites. This form of holiday accommodation remains today, and the tourist economy is also supplemented by significant numbers of day visitors.

Although the village has a permanent population of around 1,300 this increases to a summer population of some 13,000 with tourist accommodation being mainly provided in chalets and caravans. With day-trippers arriving by car on a fine day in July and August it is estimated that there can be as many as 20,000 people in Camber at any one time. The beach is also becoming popular for various forms of extreme sports such as kite surfing etc.

Whilst the natural environment around Camber is outstanding, the existing settlement could benefit from regeneration to provide a visitor experience that meets 21st century needs and expectations. Much of Camber currently presents a poor quality offer that is targeted at its traditional ‘bucket and spade’ visitors at high season, and is not yet geared towards attracting and retaining higherspending visitors.

However, Camber is also gaining a reputation as a quiet

retreat for more affluent visitors, particularly in the quieter months, attracted by its setting of dunes, beach and the Romney Marsh, as well as being close to Rye. Beachfront properties have become increasingly sought after and some have been redeveloped into stylish beach houses.

Camber is one of the more deprived communities in Rother, being geographically and economically isolated, and dependent on a highly seasonal tourist trade, with local employment opportunities being mainly low-wage, seasonal and/or part time.

The Camber Visitor Management Initiative published in 2004 confirmed that Camber has the potential to improve its economic fortunes by investing in its facilities, extending the visitor season and attracting higher-value customers. However, future investment needs to be carefully managed and balanced with environmental considerations, including the protected status of the dune system and surrounding land as part of the Dungeness and Romney Marsh Site of Special Scientific Interest, and flood risk management issues.

The development of walking routes was chosen as a pilot project to highlight and enhance the links between Camber and its natural surroundings. The initial project proposal was for three walking routes in and around Camber, including one link through to Rye. The aim was to improve access to visitor facilities and linkages between green-spaces and to provide a recreational activity for visitors to enjoy. The project would include information panels at key locations to provide details of the walks and history/ heritage/flora and fauna of the local area. Way-marking, additional signage and vegetation clearance would also be considered as part of the project.

Transfrontier cross collaboration Through the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project 21st Century Parks, in conjunction with Stad Ostend, a number of workshops were held which explored the opportunities, issues and constraints affecting Camber and considered how best to reconcile these. These workshops involved a wide range of local stakeholders, including the relevant statutory bodies and community representatives. They also involved representatives from Belgian partners including civic authorities, regeneration and design professionals.

At the first workshop at Ostend in November 2010, delegates were asked to consider the issues that would

influence the preparation of the development brief for the Central Car Park and Putting Green sites in Old Lydd Road adjacent to the beach. From our discussions it quickly emerged that the development of these sites could not be considered in isolation, and that the scope of the work needed to be broadened to provide a spatial framework in the form of a MasterPlan for the overall village and its environs.

The findings of the workshop also concluded that the walking routes should form an integral part of the MasterPlan. The objectives should be to provide clearer

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Plan of the walking routes and enhanced links to the environs of Camber.

linkages between Rye and Camber and to also provide more informative visitor information within the resort and surrounding countryside. Subsequent to these recommendations from the workshop the focus of the project changed from three routes to two circular routes: A route to include a link to Rye both by foot and via the shared cycle path, ■■ A shorter route from the Camber car parks to include some of the shared cycle path, crossing the Golf Club and onto the beach/dunes themselves.

■■

At the second workshop delegates were asked to consider a brief for the preparation of a MasterPlan for Camber that would have formal status as a planning policy document. They were also asked to give thought to the key character areas of Camber and to consider the functional relationships between different areas in the village and their interaction with tourism and the environment.

The group agreed that the brief needed to articulate a clear vision that would provide a blueprint for the ‘green’ regeneration and enhancement of the village and its

tourism function, and that reflected the needs of residents, as well as those of visitors.

The third workshop considered issues around consultation with key partners and stakeholders and where there might be conflicts or differences of opinion relating to their priorities. This workshop also involved the consultants who had by that time been appointed to prepare the MasterPlan. Partners also considered questions of sustainability, and how the MasterPlan might strike the right balance between commercial viability and the need to protect the environment.

Town Planning, Garden Design and Landscape Architecture students from the University of Brighton, Plumpton College and Hogeschool Gent were invited to join the workshops and to use the projects to develop case studies as part of their course work. The Landscape Architecture students from the Hogeschool Gent presented their own ideas and solutions to a panel of the project stakeholders. The panel were greatly impressed by the quality of work and presentations, and some interesting ideas and suggestions emerged that have subsequently been included in the MasterPlan.

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Ongoing outcomes Rother District Council commissioned consultants Allies & Morrison to prepare a MasterPlan as a Supplementary Planning Document (SPD) for Camber for formal adoption.

This has involved widespread research and consultation with stakeholders including residents, the Parish Council, and other statutory agencies. It builds on the aspirations of the original Camber Visitor Management Initiative and pulls together the various issues that have emerged from the discussions in the workshops.

In winter 2013 the draft MasterPlan (SPD) underwent a formal public consultation period prior to adoption by the Council as a formal planning policy document. This will therefore provide greater clarity to investors and developers, and will also guide future public sector investment.

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The key objectives of the Camber Village Masterplan (SPD) are: ■■ Establish a ‘heart ‘ to Camber with shop/cafe/ community use at a central location that relates to the beach ■■ Increase the shops and amenities offer in the village ■■ Improve local connections to Rye and wider public transport links to Ashford, Hastings and Lydd ■■ Address summer congestion resulting from visitor demand ■■ Improve cycle links through the village and wider locality ■■ Improve pedestrian links through the village including the holiday parks ■■ Identify means of extending the visitor season in the village ■■ Develop new walking routes to the north of the village relating to landscape quality ■■ Encourage a broader mix of visitors to the village ■■ Carefully develop the extreme sports offer in the locality in conjunction with management of impact on the natural environment ■■ Provide a small number of new homes for the area

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which are affordable, sustainable and safe from flood risk Ensure that new development responds to the ‘seaside vernacular’ of Camber Assess development opportunities in the village including the Central Car Park and Former Putting Green Preserve and enhance the sensitive dune landscape and ecology Raise the profile of the local ecology as integral to a sustainable tourism offer Promote more sustainable/sensitive transport options in the area Support and enhance the bio-diversity and ecosystem of the area in conjunction with improved signage, interpretation and education for the landscape environment Establish new green infrastructure alongside new development.

At the same time discussions with land owners and East Sussex County Council’s Rights of Way team have taken place to develop the walking routes and secure the necessary permissions to complete the footpaths. Further discussions are being held with the Environment Agency and Sustrans in preparation for promoting the walking routes to visitors.

The project will include: ■■ Interpretation panels at the start of the routes.

The need for additional panels will be reviewed as the routes are implemented; ■■ Way-marking/vegetation clearance; ■■ Additional signage where required; ■■ Information will be posted online on the www.visit1066Country.com website for visitors to download before their visit; ■■ Other options for future consideration include bicycle racks within the two car parks in Camber.

Lessons learned Camber presents a complex range of challenges, due to its location, the high volumes of visitors on peak days, its seasonal economy and its unique and protected environment. Whilst all those involved in the process welcomed positive change, their priorities varied considerably.

The priorities of residents may vary depending on who they are and why they choose to live in Camber. A high proportion of the new housing development at White Sands, for example, are second homes. How do residents feel about the natural environment there? Do they take

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Overview of the different zones with their functions and target groups, and recommendations for future interventions and layouts within the scope of the Camber MasterPlan.

Old & New Lydd Road

' ) ( ' (*' ' ( $ %$ ' + " "%%& ' *" ) %$ . ' ( $ ) '% (*' )% ! ' " + " $ &' %' ) ( . " $ & ()' $ #%+ # $)

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- () $ )% " ) "% ! )% ' *' ( Opportunity for seasonal pop up Cafe to be run by local companies/ temporary *( $ ( (%$

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$)' " ' & '! %+ '0%, ' & '! + "%&# $) %&&%')*$ ) ( % $(%$( " Jubilee Green/ + '0%, ' & '!

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CAMBER VILLAGE DRAFT SUPPLEMENTARY PLANNING DOCUMENT DECEMBER 2012

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a pride in it or is it taken for granted? For many other residents the top priority is managing the high volumes of traffic on peak days.

The methodology below illustrates the lessons learned from transfrontier working on this project. The workshops undertaken early on in the project helped greatly to shape its direction and engagement with the key stakeholders from the outset helped to arrive at shared objectives and priorities. â&#x2013; â&#x2013; Prepare concept and background materials for discussion â&#x2013; â&#x2013; Set up workshops with varying disciplines, academics, students, professionals and be prepared to brainstorm the issues â&#x2013; â&#x2013; Take note of international differences in urban design thinking and consider whether such approaches can be incorporated into the project

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Prepare brief for the MasterPlan and use workshops to gather comments and suggestions Involve local politicians and local community in initial discussions on the proposals and gain feedback Review feedback at workshops and finalise the MasterPlan brief for commissioning Commission the preparation of the MasterPlan; ensure that the MasterPlan has formal status as a planning policy document Undertake survey work and research Consult with local politicians, local community and stakeholders Prepare draft MasterPlan, liaise with local planning authority and relevant statutory bodies, obtain feedback and amend where required Prepare final document for adoption by local authority Publish the MasterPlan and promote to all stakeholders

par t 3 â&#x20AC;&#x192;

Conclusion The Interreg IVA project has proved highly valuable in bringing stakeholders together and stimulating debate and discussions. The involvement of our partners from Ostend has also enabled us to get a different perspective on the project and draw from their own experiences.

Due to the transfrontier collaborative workshops and local community engagement and consultation, the scope of the Camber project has considerably expanded and improved, resulting in a blueprint for the development and enhancement of the coastal resort through the MasterPlan (SPD).

The interaction between professionals, academics and local groups with experience of working in relation to town planning, coastal and green infrastructure matters enabled the original proposals to be reviewed and recommended that a MasterPlan for Camber should be the way forward.

The MasterPlan will form part of the formal planning policy for the future development of Rother District in East Sussex.

This project is also discussed on page 121.

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6 Best Practice cases

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Play-Zone

in Egerton Park Bexhill-on-Sea | East Sussex [ GB ]

Egerton Park is a small, but much valued urban park which came into being in the late 1800’s at which time the 7th Earl De La Warr was seeking to transform the small rural village of Bexhill into an exclusive seaside resort.

The park was created around two large ponds which were formed in order to drain the low lying, marshy land. The lakes became the central feature of the park with other areas and activities developing around them as the park evolved.

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Covering some 55,000 m2, the park is set in a residential area within an easy walk of the seafront, the town’s main shopping streets and the De La Warr Pavilion - a Grade I listed building of national reputation and Bexhill’s main visitor attraction. The Bexhill Museum, a family learning centre and an indoor bowls centre all lie within the park.

Project background The park offers a range of active and passive recreational opportunities as well as simply being a place for relaxation, contemplation and socialising. The facilities and features have changed over the park’s lifetime, but today include tennis courts, an outdoor gym, a public bowls green and boating on the lake.

Although maintenance operations have always been carried out in the park, the need to renew key infrastructure and provide modern, innovative facilities and services fit for a 21st century audience became clear with the turn of the century. The children’s garden project was one of a number of improvement projects identified and approved by the council in consultation with local people with the aim of regenerating the park.

A children’s play area was already in existence in the park and historically attracted users from neighbouring towns and villages as well as from the residents of Bexhill and visitors to the town. However, although still quite popular, the facility had become staid and out-dated and was failing to satisfy local need.

Comprising equipment for young children set in areas of rubber surfacing all surrounded by a fence, its play value

was limited and far below its potential. Furthermore, it contributed nothing positive to the parkscape in terms of aesthetics.

The project sought to create a flagship children’s play facility moving away from ‘traditional’ local authority play provision towards a more welcoming, inclusive and attractive environment with a ‘garden feel’ and in context with the surrounding park.

The playground prior to the refurbishment.

Transfrontier cross collaboration Through the Interreg IVA 2 Seas project 21st Century Parks, in conjunction with Stad Ostend, a number of workshops were held enabling those with relevant expertise to influence the design of the new facility. Visits to MariaHendrikapark in Ostend provided an insight into Belgian play provision within green spaces.

Discussions covered the need for a holistic approach taking into consideration the immediate surrounds, the character of the park and the wider coastal environment, segregation versus integration of different age groups, landform and planting to create sensory and play interest, shelter from the elements, the extent to which play equip-

ment should be used, choice of materials and maintenance implications.

An issue for discussion at the workshops was whether there was a need to provide a secure boundary around all or part of the facility and the alternatives to fencing in demarcating boundaries. It was established that there are cultural differences in relation to fencing play areas in the UK as opposed to other European countries, where play facilities integrated into the surrounding green space or townscape are commonplace.

National initiatives to improve public play provision in the UK in recent years have placed increasing importance

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Design plan for the new playground with an overview of the planting, the landscape elements to be used and the selected play equipment.

on creating less sterile play environments that are physically and visually connected with the local environment and which facilitate more diverse, imaginative and stimulating play opportunities. Design to provide challenge and risk within a safe, managed environment for the long term benefit of children and young people has been actively

encouraged and with careful planning this has been achieved in Egerton Park.

A final design with landscaping rather than fencing was arrived at following the workshops and further community engagement.

Outcomes Work to transform the existing play area into the new childrenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s garden began in April 2012. With the exception of the new trees and planting, the facility was completed in July 2012 and opened as part of a special celebratory â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Party in the Parkâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; event on August 2012 attracting some 5000 very excited children, parents and other park users who had been watching the transformation of their park over the months.

Levels of use throughout the summer and early autumn exceeded all expectations putting the facility to the ultimate test. The majority of children and parents were delighted with what was provided, but a few expressed concerns about the facility not being contained within a fence, an issue that was then debated for many weeks through local media and social networks.

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Lessons learned The methodology below illustrates the lessons learned from transfrontier working on this project. Common themes run through the UK projects as follows: ■■ Prepare concept and design plans for discussion ■■ Set up workshops with varying disciplines, academics, students, professionals and be prepared to brainstorm the proposals ■■ Note international differences in design thinking and ascertain whether such approaches can be incorporated into project designs ■■ Prepare briefs for design work and resubmit drafts for workshops for comment ■■ Involve local politicians and local community in initial discussions on the proposals and gain feedback ■■ Review feedback at workshops and proceed with preparation of draft final design brief ■■ Continue dialogue with local politicians and the community in order to develop the plans to final designs

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Commission the works and project plan Obtain relevant consents and permissions Commence project works on site Inform local politicians and the community of progress with the project, including any unforeseen delays or alterations Prepare a strategy for promoting the project Create an identity for the project, (e.g. the innovative play public art sculptures) Formulate a programme of events to promote the project to capture the public imagination, (ParkLife photographic competition and children’s design workshops) Open the project with a high profile and well publicised launch event, (Launch of the Playzone, ‘Party in the Park’ and Flotilla Parade)

Conclusion Thanks to the transfrontier collaborative workshops and local community engagement and consultation the overall impact of the Egerton Park Playzone has resulted in a completed project that has considerably expanded and improved from the original concept. The interaction between professionals, academics and local groups with experience of working in relation to parks and green infrastructure amended the original concept into a project which has been enthusiastically received by the local community and visitors. The project has culminated in enhancing and regenerating the park by the provision of a green space area for the 21st century.

This project is also discussed on p. 35, 95, 110, 124.

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 Poster and photo impressions of the festive opening of the refurbished playground on 11 August 2012.

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Sensory Garden in Egerton Park Bexhill-on-Sea | East Sussex [ GB ]

In 1951 a scented garden for the blind was created in the northwest part of Egerton Park. The garden – probably the first of its kind in England – originally consisted of a raised border running along the edge of the park and planted with a mix of annuals, herbs and shrubs.

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Aspirations for a 21st century sensory garden After the opening of the garden, a hard surfaced path was constructed alongside the raised border joining the one of the main paths that run through the park from west to east. The small grass area to the south of the raised border and dissected by a short path leading to the shelter now forms part of the garden.

The grass is retained by a low red brick wall that runs alongside the main pedestrian path and along which lavender is planted. Much of the planting is now over-mature and offers little sensory stimulation.

The project seeks to create an attractive, user-friendly garden that stimulates all of the senses, thereby appealing to all park users, not just those with visual impairments.

Achieving this will involve a rethink of the garden’s layout, giving consideration to accessibility issues, aesthetics, planting, materials, facilities and features.

Desk study sensory gardens included the following examples ■■ Hunstanton Sensory Garden, Norfolk ■■ Fareham Borough Council, Sensory Garden of Reflection ■■ Delta Centre Multi-Sensory Gardens, Strawhill, County Carlow, Ireland ■■ Clarence Park, Sensory Garden, St Albans, Hertfordshire ■■ Victoria Park. Sensory Garden, Stafford Borough Council.

Whilst all gardens can stimulate the senses in sensory

gardens, plants and other design elements are selected with intention to provide experiences for maximum sensory stimulation.

The ill or weakened can be enlivened and renewed physically, mentally, or spiritually by sensory gardens.

Individuals with impairment of one or more of their senses may find special enjoyment because they may have enhanced perception in their other senses.

Designers must not presume that they know what the needs of the users and how they will engage with the multi-sensory environment.

Egerton Park sensory garden opportunities ■■ To increase the sensory and amenity value of the existing garden for the blind ■■ To extend the sensory experience into the wider park ■■ To draw people into the space by making it more accessible and welcoming ■■ To produce a more coherent design for this area of the park ■■ Presence of water Egerton Park sensory garden constraints ■■ Limited budget ■■ Restricted space within which to work ■■ Changes in level ■■ Functions of adjacent park areas ■■ Proximity to residential area

Transfrontier cross collaboration In conjunction with Stad Ostend, a number of workshops were held enabling those with relevant interests and expertise to influence the design of the sensory garden.

Various observations and suggestions were made during discussions at workshops. The overriding view was that the original project scope, to refurbish the existing garden was too restrictive and that inadequate consideration had been given to the garden’s relationship to

the surrounding park areas in terms of their character, function and layout. Participants in the workshop called for a more holistic approach that would make the whole park a sensory experience.

Whilst it is fair to say that the adjacent children’s garden does affect the tranquillity of the space their close proximity will facilitate interaction between people of different ages and abilities.

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Local consultation Attendance at consultation events included representatives from East Sussex Disability Association (ESDA), East Sussex Association of Blind and Partially Sighted People (ESAB), Hastings & Rother Disability Forum and Rother

Senior Forum facilitated by the Rother District Council’s Equalities Officer.

A simple and boldly coloured plan was produced to facilitate consultation.

Outcomes ■■

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Seating in the sensory garden should be placed strategically for functionality and to maximize enjoyment of the space. Seating should give the opportunity for quiet enjoyment of the garden, watching the activities of others and for socializing.

As in any garden, plants should be selected that will thrive in the environment particular to each garden.

A primary objective in sensory garden design is to encourage users to interact with the plants.

Colour, visual texture, form, movement, light and shadow all stimulate the sense of sight. Flowers are the traditional, effective way to add colour. Plants with interesting visual texture also add to the sensory garden experience.

Opening the ears in a garden expands the senses and broadens the garden experience. Many plants offer sounds with a small amount of wind or jostling. Sounds of animals and birds also engage the senses.

The sense of smell is deeply emotional and associative.

Scent in the garden can create a lasting sensory experience. This can be especially meaningful for the visually impaired.

■■ In a sensory garden, people should be encouraged to touch plants. Plants should be chosen that are durable enough to withstand frequent brushing or handling.

A valuable addition is a lawn where people can lie down.

■■ In a sensory garden, the taste buds can be stimulated by edible fruits, vegetables and herbs. Including plants that can be tasted in the sensory garden provides teaching opportunities and is an excellent way to evoke reminiscences and cultural exchange over food plants.

■■ Water is an important element in the sensory garden.

As well as the water itself there are significant associated benefits from the sound and movement of the wildlife that will be attracted to the water. To fulfil its potential in terms of hearing and touch it needs to be fully accessible.

Design summary Reduction in height of raised border to make planting accessible to wheelchair users and children.

■■ Refurbishment of existing planted areas and creation of new areas of planting.

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Alterations to hard surfaced areas.

Improved visual and physical connectivity between the different garden areas.

■■ Retention of intimacy of the space.

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Signage Braille plant labels and braille mapping will be used.

A recorded audio system will also be considered to provide information to the visually impaired and include those who do not read braille.

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Lessons learned Prepare concept and design plans for discussion Set up workshops with varying disciplines, academics, students, professionals and be prepared to brainstorm the proposals ■■ Note international differences in design thinking and ascertain whether such approaches can be incorporated into project designs ■■ Prepare briefs for design work and resubmit drafts for workshops for comment ■■ Involve local politicians, disability groups and the community for initial discussions on the proposals and gain feedback ■■

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Conclusion The interaction between professionals, academics and local groups with experience of working in relation to public access and infrastructure amended the original restoration concept into a project which will result in contributing to enhancing and regenerating the park by providing a sensory garden for the 21st century.

It is accessible to all park users and improves visual and physical connectivity between the distinct garden areas in this northern part of the park, whilst at the same time retaining the intimacy of the space for park users.

Further work on the provision of playful and sculptural elements will ensure the integration of the two adjacent projects and serve as a core from which the sensory experience of the wider park will continue to develop.

This project is also discussed on page 105.

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Review feedback at workshops and proceed with preparation of draft final design brief Continue dialogue with local politicians, disability groups and the community in order to develop the plans to final designs Commission the works and project plan Obtain relevant consents and permissions Commence project works on site Inform local politicians, disability groups and the community of progress with the project, including any unforeseen delays or alterations Prepare a strategy for promoting the project

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Draft design for the renovation of the Sensory Garden, used as a starting point for the workshops.

The original garden for the blind in the 1950s.

The garden’s lawn prior to the refurbishment.  The garden after the renovation works, ready to be planted (March 2013).

Adjusted design plan with planned interventions and planting instructions to be carried out.

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c a s e 1 Pa r k e n vo o r d e

The Emerald Necklace Ostend | West Flanders [ B ]

The ‘Emerald Necklace’ project is based on the political ambition to organise the green zones west of Ostend (Nieuwe Koers and Duinenkerkje) and integrate them into the urban fabric. After careful consideration, this wish expressed by policy makers turned out to be a far from simple designing challenge.

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Before it was possible to draw up a design, reflection was needed on the functions that these locations on the western outskirts of Ostend were to perform. In other words: what types of green space do 21st century city dwellers need?

In addition, an investigation took place into what extent this green zone could be connected to the other green zones, also located on the outskirts of Ostend. How could a connection with the training race track, the De Schorre sports park, the forest on the edge of the city, the creek area etc. be established?

During the search for an answer to these questions, the idea of the Emerald Necklace was conceived.

The required funds and professional staff were sought so that the study could be conducted thoroughly. The Interreg IVA 2 Seas project ‘21st Century Parks’ provided the opportunity to further develop the project in collaboration with UK partners and external experts.

Project objectives and mission Preparation of a development vision and strategy: ■■ Formulation of proposals for an urban strategy to include the urban landscape fringes.

■■ Delivery of a long-term vision for the development of a 21st century landscape. In this vision, the landscape is a structural part of the urban and neighbourhood development. How can the forces of nature be interpreted, applied and integrated so as to achieve sustainable development?

■■ Protection of the rural-urban fringe’s potential in the short term. When spatial interventions are made on

certain sites in the future, the general vision & strategy will serve as a point of reference. What developments are acceptable and how can they be satisfactorily integrated into the sites allocated within the overall green framework?

■■ Further defining the identity of the various zones while simultaneously ensuring their continuity and linkage within the overall green framework.

■■ Implementation of an innovative and sustainable project within the green belt around the city.

Workshops The identity of the Emerald Necklace was the main topic discussed at the first workshop. How can the city of Ostend’s green peripheral zones be unified? And is it advisable to unify them? In addition, discussions took place on matters relating to a communication strategy, mobility, connectivity at different administrative levels, public art initiatives and the requirement to set up a project team. The project team that was eventually put together is multidisciplinary and consists of the autonomous municipal company AGSO (Autonoom Gemeentebedrijf Stadsvernieuwing Ostend), the Ostend City Council departments for communication, urban development, spatial planning and public realm, as well as a curator.

The principal added value of the first workshop was without a doubt the question: how can we integrate

sustainability and climate change into this project?

During the second workshop the idea of a twofold artistic preliminary stage was conceived: collaboration with an art photographer and with a writer, who could open up new perspectives on the area through their artistic contributions.

As far as the aspect of sustainability was concerned, the decision was made to collaborate with the Greenbridge science park/incubator (www.greenbridge.be).

The project was also revised to include the industrial zone of Plassendale in the Emerald Necklace. How can this industrial estate be enhanced with a green layer?

Finally, the interpretive materials to be designed for the Emerald Necklace were discussed.

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Green infrastructure as a necklace, encircling the city GROENEDIJK

OOSTEROEVERDUINEN PARK+BIKE

PARKBOS 13

14

‘T EILANDJE 15

‘T PADDEGAT

12

PARK+BIKE

Schematic route overview of the Emerald Necklace with 15 zones / stopping places.

During the third workshop, which consisted of three lectures, the focus was mainly on sustainability, maintenance of green spaces and urban agriculture.

Finally, the results of the first and second workshop were integrated in the project specification for the Emerald Necklace. This project specification was the basis for the open call organised for this project in collaboration with the Flemish Government Architect. From 60 candidates – interdisciplinary teams who proposed to carry out the assignment – five teams were selected to formulate a proposal.

This assignment was rather exceptional for Flanders. This was probably the first time an assignment had been issued in which teams got the opportunity to work on periurban landscapes on such a large scale. This explains the wide interest shown in the call, both in Belgium and abroad.

The eventual project definition resulted in a bulky document; all Ostend City Council services contributed a chapter to it. What can the Emerald Necklace mean for young people, sports, community life, economy, nature, north-south alliances, etc.?

a summary of the PROJECT DEFINITION: Ostend is primarily associated with its compact city centre and the sea. A less-known fact is that the centre is surrounded by seven districts and by a belt of various

high-quality landscapes. The strong urban development structure which integrates green spaces – shaped under the influence of King Leopold II of Belgium – becomes blurred further away from the city centre and gives way to a typical rural-urban fringe.

The Emerald Necklace is an ambitious project that aims to give a new significance to the green areas and landscapes around the city. The objective is to interconnect parks, woodlands and green areas so that they form a green necklace around the city on the one hand, and to link the urban periphery to the open landscape on the other.

The ‘rear’ of the city needs to become a second ‘front’.

The Emerald Necklace will become a new driving force for urban development onto which a comprehensive, innovative and sustainable programme can be grafted. The key words in this respect are: landscape, opening up, connection, sustainability, climate change, innovation, surprise, recreation, art, experience, inspiration, healthy food, water retention, education, nature development, discovery and heritage.

The social significance of the Emerald Necklace is considerable. Not only does it meet the urban population’s current need for green space, it also provides added value in the field of tourism and recreation. The project turns Ostend into a green, livable city by the sea, an attractive living and working environment for young families.

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SPEECH Doorluchtige Koningin, Is dat erg? Koningin klinkt zo elitair, en van elitair krijgen we de tijd van vandaag aambeien. Sorry dat ik het zo plastisch uitdruk, Koningin, maar u weet natuurlijk ook dat wij, Ostendnaars, altijd een beetje ons wilde zeebloed hebben behouden. Iedereen die hier in de haven aankwam, heeft iets van zijn avontuurlijkheid en ruwheid en geestigheid aan ons doorgegeven. Wij hebben graag een grote mond, omdat we vinden dat iemand die stil spreekt en stil lacht niet weet wat leven, leute en ambiance zijn. En wij lachen zo graag, Koningin. Wij lachen zo graag met u en met onszelf. Wat heeft een mens anders aan zijn leven, Koningin, als hij niet kan lachen? Wat is er aan het leven als het niet bruist? En het minste dat een mens van Ostend kan zeggen, is dat het hier bruist. Soms kookt het hier over, maar zo zijn we. Niets aan te doen.

Herkent gij zelf uw naam nog? Die naam van lang geleden? Wat is er met u gebeurd? Met ons?

We leven in een tijd waarin koningen, koninginnen, prinsen en prinsessen terug moeten naar waar ze vandaan komen: naar de sprookjes. En tegelijk hebben we in deze tijden meer dan ooit nood aan sprookjes. Dat soort tegenstrijdige tijden, daar leven we in, Koningin.

Wij, de middenstanders en de aannemers en de vissers en de skaters en de kitesurfers en de hoteliers en de krabbenvangers en garnaalpellers, wij hebben u zien veranderen. Er was een tijd dat u vol juwelen hing. Ons Genie, Leopold met de witte baard, versierde u met een Koninklijk Chalet, met Venetiaanse gaanderijen, met een Royal Yacht Club en de Petrus- en Pauluskerk, het kon niet op, kortom: Leopold gaf u, en ons, plekken waar we zonden konden begaan en plekken waar zonden ons vergeven werden – wij hadden tussen ons gezegd en gezwegen altijd een lichte voorkeur voor de zondige plekken. Er bestaan foto’s van Leopold met de sjah van Perzië op de Wellington en aan hun blik kun je zien hoe de sjah naar de paarden en onze vorst naar de vrouwen keek. Foto’s van Leopold, wandelend over de dijk, slank, sjiek, met een elegante wandelstok in zijn handen terwijl visserskinderen met open mond naar zijn baard keken.

Of een foto waarop hij onder een tros bloemen zit, al op leeftijd, over zijn licht opbollende buik een gouden ketting voor zijn gouden horloge, met de blik van een oude deugniet. Waar is de tijd dat de adellijke heren en dames uit Engeland, Italië, Spanje, Griekenland en Frankrijk hier in hun glanzende koetsen reden? Dat politiekers, wetenschappers en ingenieurs hier kwamen discussiëren.

Dat Stanley over Congo kwam vertellen in het Koninklijk Chalet? Congo, het persoonlijke goudreservoir van Leopold waarmee hij u, Koningin, van kop tot teen onder de juwelen hing. (Soms leken die juwelen op druppels bloed, maar daar gaan we het hier niet over hebben.)

Maar omdat wij, Koningin, in het geheim een heel klein beetje heimwee naar u hebben, hebben wij het volgende bedacht: laten we rond onze stad, van Raversijde tot het Duinenkerkje, van de Nieuwe Koers, naar de Schorre en het Geuzenbos, via de kreken naar de Zwaanhoek en Plassendaele, ’t Paddegat en Spuikom, Parkbos,’t Eilandje en Groenedijk, tot aan de Oosteroeverduinen en Fort Napoleon en ten slotte weer tot aan ons zeetje, ons geliefde zeetje... Laat ons daar, om u en vooral onszelf plezier te doen een nieuw kroontje vlechten van planten en bloemen en struiken en bomen. En laat ons dat weelderige, welriekende, wellustig groene kroontje op uw hoofd zetten zodat u opnieuw Koningin kan worden genoemd. En zodat wij, ter uwer ere en voor ons eigen plezier in de winter, de lente, de herfst en de zomer, vertrekkend van Raversijde in een grote cirkel rond onze stad, met de fiets of te voet, in het groen kunnen zitten kijken naar de vogels die elk jaar naar het Zuiden trekken of van het Zuiden terugkeren. En laat ons daar dromen, of als het echt moet joggen en fietsen, en nog liever barbecuen en – een glas heffend – naar de paarden kijken of naar de zeilers op het Spuikom. Helemaal in het groen rond Ostend. Om, als we dan weer aan het zeetje, ons zeetje, gekomen zijn, in het water te gaan staan en met de woorden van een van onze grote filosofen te zingen: I wanna swim with you / in the moonlight / Je veux nager / nager avec toi / in the moonlight.

De tijden zijn veranderd, en misschien is dat niet erg. We zijn allemaal veranderd, want wie niet verandert is dood.

We zijn iets minder adellijk geworden, we hebben iets minder manieren en maniertjes. Alles hebben we gekend: vissers, schaapherders, overstromingen, belegeringen en plunderingen, Duitse duikboten en bommen van de Britten.

En na de oorlog: de bombardementen van de aannemers die ongeveer elk belle-époquehuis op de dijk als een rotte tand uittrokken en vervingen door appartementen.

Koningin, uw naam werd vervangen door... Stad aan zee.

Tekst: Peter Verhelst

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 The artistic preliminary stage: a text by author Peter Verhelst and images by photographer Katrien Vermeire. 

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The Emerald Necklace consists of a variety of landscapes (dunes, polders, farmland, creeks, a forest on the edge of the city, wet meadows) and has a variety of functions. The challenge is to preserve this variety while seeking coherence.

The Emerald Necklace is not only a ‘recreational red carpet’ (cycle path and walking trail) interconnecting the different zones, a recognisable identity and a strong brand.

It is also a structural green-blue component of the city and it meets the demand for public green spaces in the 21st century.

The city of Ostend signed the Covenant of Mayors, whereby local authorities undertake to exceed the energy objectives of the Europe 2020 Strategy.

The Emerald Necklace is an important project in the implementation of the city’s policy vision on sustainability.

Various aspects of sustainability are the ‘fil vert’ of the project: mobility, climate change, energy, food sustainability, nature development and education, and the North-South link..

The emphasis of the fourth workshop was on the Rother District partner projects. Students from Hogeschool Gent formulated suggestions for the renovation of Egerton Park and for the MasterPlan for Camber.

In July 2012 a designer was appointed to draw up the master plan for the Emerald Necklace: TV Technum (Ghent)

/ ADR Architects and Georges Descombes (Switzerland).

During the fifth and sixth workshop, the detailed plans as well as the development vision and strategy of the Emerald Necklace were evaluated. The content of the present best practice guide ‘Park for the Future’ and the final conference of 25 April 2013 were also discussed at these workshops.

The final master plan that was drawn up by Technum/ ADR Architects and Georges Descombes contains several structuring elements: ■■ the development of new cycle routes with links to the different neighbourhoods; ■■ local interventions, like: the construction of new platforms, passages, plateaus, gardens, banks and lanes; ■■ the designation of three strategic zones: Les Hortillonages, Nieuwe Koers and the marshland of Gouwelozekreek. These zones will be further developed in close collaboration with the stakeholders (e.g. Ostend airport, the polder management board, VMM (Flemish Environment Agency), ANB (Agency for Nature & Forests), schools and private owners). More often than not, Stad Ostend is not the owner of these designated zones. Furthermore, it has no decision-making power in matters relating to forests and water.

Conclusion The standard of this project has been raised considerably thanks to the collaboration with our UK partner and the additional European funds. The green spaces on the outskirts of Ostend are no longer considered to be residual spaces but have become a second city frontage.

The original key words – nature, nature development, heritage and soft recreation – have been supplemented by relevant contemporary topics such as urban agriculture, energy, water retention and mobility.

In the end, the Emerald Necklace has become our answer to the question: “What is a 21st century park?”

The presentation of the Emerald Necklace project in New York at the International Urban Parks Conference in July 2012 and at the UK & Ireland Planning and Research Conference at the University of Brighton in April 2012 put the project in an international context and made it clear

that 21st century urbanisation is evolving towards landscape urbanisation, whereby the landscape becomes the motor of future urban planning developments.

This project is also discussed on p. 20, 35, 37, 39, 77, 119, 122 en 123.

Follow the progress of the Emerald Necklace project on www.Ostend.be/groenlint

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Some of the numerous diagrams, registrations, sketches and design proposals produced within the scope of the Emerald Necklace master plan  1. Computer simulation of an lane with three rows of trees in the Geuzenbos woodland near Karperstraat 2 Section of the airport, Torhoutsesteenweg and Les Hortillonages zone 3. Sketch of an alley in the sports park 4. Photo of the Oosteroeverduinen dunes 5 and 7. Photos of ‘t Paddegat 6. The Circular Line: a circular overview of the different elements of the Emerald Necklace 8. Sketch of the banks for Noord-Ede (Bredene) 9. Overall map of the Emerald Necklace

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Duinenkerkje Ostend | West Flanders [â&#x20AC;&#x2030;bâ&#x20AC;&#x2030;]

The area around the Duinenkerkje church is one of the green beads in the Emerald Necklace of Ostend, located in the transitional space between dunes and polder. The area covers about 12 hectares and is currently primarily used as farmland.

This zone will become a natural area in the future in accordance with the spatial zoning plan.

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The paintings of this location by James Ensor, one of the best known Flemish painters of the late 19th and the early 20th century, have become part of the Belgian collective memory. His grave next to the church is an important memorial to his life and work in Ostend.

Project objectives The project aims to create a green space that respects the cultural heritage, the landscape relics and the specific ecological values of the area between dunes and polder.

The organisation of the space needs to make it accessible for a soft form of recreation and enable visitors to experience nature.

Workshops A first draft was presented as a starting point for discussions at the first workshop.

General conclusions of the first workshop: ■■ The elements determining the site’s identity need to be reinforced. In this process, the focus is on the Duinenkerkje church with its cemetery, the garden wall of the old rectory and Ensor’s grave. The location in the dunes which Ensor painted on several occasions also plays an important part.

■■ The area is not of great ecological value, but it has an important scenic value. However, the role nature plays here could be enhanced.

■■ The site needs to be made more accessible. The paths and the opening up of the area are preferably to be based on the historic pattern of the fields.

■■ The Duinenkerkje church plays an important part as the starting point of the Emerald Necklace. Consequently, it should be the first Emerald Necklace project to be implemented. This is a logical strategy since the Emerald Necklace requires a strong starting point like the Duinenkerkje church by the coastline (where the biggest concentration of recreational visitors and tourists is to be found).

Evolution of the project after the first workshop: ■■ Phasing of the project, in line with the various zones selected by the city of Ostend from 2012 onwards. The first zones to be dealt with are those that are owned by the city, e.g. the surroundings of Duinenkerkje and Dorpsstraat. The remaining zones will be developed later on, when there will be a clearer view on the Emerald Necklace in its entirety.

Refurbishment of the Dorpsstraat streetscape, with a new square in front of the Duinenkerkje church and a separate footpath and cycle path.

■■ The construction of the paths through the area and the location of the developed wetlands will completely fit in with the historic landscape structure.

■■ Installation of a physical ‘starting point’ on the esplanade near the Duinenkerkje church: the work of art ‘I, James Ensor’ by Swiss artist Daniel Spoerri.

Spoerri reconstructed Ensor’s studio in bronze.

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Conclusions of the second workshop: ■■ Participants in the workshop focussed on the elements determining the park’s identity and discussed in detail the surroundings of the Duinenkerkje church with the cemetery, Ensor’s grave and the wall of the old rectory surrounding the vegetable garden.

■■ This site is of great historical and cultural significance.

The design plans need to be drawn up with sufficient caution and tact to do justice to the heritage. ‘Showy’ new design is inappropriate in this case.

■■ Interpretation of the historic remains: the cemetery could be enclosed again like a ‘campo santo’. However, this does not have to be a literal reconstruction: the low wall could remain open at certain locations.

■■ Integration of art projects. James Ensor’s work is still an important source of inspiration for contemporary artists.

An ‘artistic’ reconstruction of the landscape as viewed

by Ensor is an option. The evolution and the colours of Ensor’s work could also be translated into a modern work of art or a spring flower bed next to his grave.

■■ Tourists, not residents, usually take centre stage in this area. The project would gain considerable added value

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through the participation and consultation of the local community with a view to the organisation of the public space south of the cemetery. This would increase the involvement of local residents.

Computer simulation of the Duinenkerkje site with a focus on wetland development

A draft containing eight focal points to be dealt with in the short term was prepared on the basis of the workshop: 1. The installation of Daniel Spoerri’s work of art ‘I, James Ensor’ on the esplanade near the Duinenkerkje church.

2. The organisation of the cemetery as a ‘campo santo’.

3. The restoration of the wall around the ‘campo santo’ 4. Integration of the vegetable garden of the old rectory (and convent) into the site. Currently it is completely closed off and isolated. Emphasis on the social significance. Making the vegetable garden visually (and physically) accessible. Integration of the boundaries.

Connection to the hollow in the dunes.

5. Deepening of the old ditch around the old rectory and convent. Stimulation of wetland development. Opening up of the hollow in the dunes.

6. Creation of a vista on the spot where Ensor painted the Duinenkerkje church several times. A contemporary artistic interpretation of this cultural-historical dimension of nature.

7. A multifunctional space for the neighourhood for low-level, dynamic usage, e.g. a lawn for temporary use during neighbourhood festivities, jumble sales, sports activities,… To this end a participation process has been started in collaboration with the Information service / Community Development service.

8. Refurbishment of the Dorpsstraat streetscape with a square in front of the church. Use of appropriate materials and textures for the square and pavement of the cemetery, vegetable garden, …

This project is also discussed on page 37.

Photo of the recent refurbishment of the Dorpsstraat streetscape: the car park has been converted into a leisure zone

Overview of the sheep paddock and zones for wetland development Sketch of a platform near the Duinenkerkje church as a possible location for block parties, events, child-friendly activities etc. (Technum-ADR Architects and Georges Descombes)

Section of the Duinenkerkje zone

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Nieuwe Koers Ostend | West Flanders [ b ]

Two continuous areas covering over 35 hectares in total and located west of the city and north of the airport have been designated as parks in Ostend’s regional plan.

One part is currently used as farmland; another part consists of a horse training race track.

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At present, the areas of Nieuwe Koers are difficult to access and are only used sporadically. The Duinkerkseweg road between the airport and the park areas is oversized in proportion to its use and function within the road system. The park areas constitute the transition between the builtup area and the airport, with a largely open view of the polders.

Project objectives The park areas flank part of the Emerald Necklace. The city of Ostend wishes to explore the potential of these designated park areas so that they can play a functional role in the urban fabric. The functions the zone can perform are investigated taking into account the area’s size. However, there are several preconditions with regard to height, reflection, light pollution and elements that could hinder aircraft taking off and landing due to the proximity of the airport.

The city is looking for locations to launch a CSA (communitysupported agriculture) project, to set up an astronomical observatory, a site to host large-scale events, etc.

A study needs to be carried out as to what functions the area can support and to what extent these are compatible with the intended green character at the level of the neighbourhood, city and region.

Workshops The main topic of discussion at the first workshop was the selection of an identity for the site.

The Emerald Necklace connects various locations that each have or could develop their own identity. The area around the Duinenkerkje church is more linked with nature while the area around the ‘De Schorre’ sports park is linked with sport. The park areas around the training race track can establish a link with agricultural activities and equestrian sports. The key words from the first workshop include interactivity, involvement and development, polder experience, sense of belonging, working landscapes, food production, vegetable garden / demonstration garden, community and land trust.

Although the original focus was on the western park area, the conclusion soon followed that the larger area needed to be involved in the thought processes as well.

The suggestion to construct a building on the site was included in the further deliberations.

During the second workshop the main considerations centred on the possibilities of a CSA project. However, the proximity of the airport was viewed as a factor that would probably be hard to reconcile with the idea of

healthy food production. The participants did agree that a point of attraction was necessary to make the area more appealing.

This was discussed further at the third workshop. The possibility of setting up an ‘Astrolab’ would create opportunities to establish a link with the airport as well as a link with nature – which could be integrated into the park layout. The airport buildings could perform complementary functions in this respect.

The CSA scenario was rejected for this site. The surroundings of the children’s farm near the sports park and the farm of Buitengoed Cvba seemed a better location for this purpose. The suggestion to upgrade the training race track and equip it for more intensive usage by creating more facilities for equestrian sports was a very useful contribution for future consideration.

Opening up the area towards the adjacent residential areas and functionally embedding the area into circuits for sustainable transport will greatly contribute to the attractiveness and more intensive usage of this designated park.

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Lessons learned The brainstorming sessions have resulted in numerous useful ideas. The workshops have provided us with a clear insight into the area and have clarified its place within the Emerald Necklace. All these elements have now found

their way into to the project definition drawn up within the scope of the open call for this project area.

This project is also discussed on page 77.

Sketch of an lane in the Nieuwe Koers zone (Technum-ADR Architects and Georges Descombes)

General plan with zoom-in on the Nieuwe Koers zone drawn up within the scope of the Groen Lint master plan (Technum-ADR Architects and Georges Descombes)

General plan of the Emerald Necklace with definition of the Nieuwe Koers zone (Technum-ADR Architects and Georges Descombes) Photograph of the training race track

Aerial photograph with design sketch for workshop Proposal by the Ostend astronomical observatory for a new building on the Nieuwe Koers site

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The 21st Century Parks project is an international collaboration between two coastal local authority partners who have shared the ambition of enhancing the quality of life in their respective areas by improving the design, use and accessibility of green spaces.

The availability of good quality sustainable green spaces is recognised as an important attribute, particularly in coastal towns.

Such open spaces contribute significantly to the quality of life, attractiveness and economies of seaside resorts. In addition, the European health and wellbeing agenda encourages more healthy and active lifestyles and the provision of accessible green space is a key component of these initiatives.

This transfrontier project has resulted in some key findings for the conception and design of 21st century parks and green spaces. The workshops relating to a total of six projects in England and Belgium involved dialogue with international professionals and students, which improved and enhanced the design briefs and masterplans for the parks and green spaces. The outcomes included innovative ideas for improving accessibility and facilities along with proactively encouraging the use of parks and green spaces through positive design and themed activities for specific usergroups.

A successful 21st century park includes a number of key dimensions such as: a strong, clear concept and highquality design that need to be strictly observed by the developer (maybe this is the most important component of all). Contemporary parks are often

existing open spaces whose potential needs to be realised in the correct manner. This usually means: establishing connections with the urban fabric and providing the space with appropriate basic facilities. Artistic preliminary stages or tailored activities for specific user groups can create a positive link between the general public and the space. Involving younger generations (e.g. students) in the design process will also no doubt produce better results.

The provision of various forms of green infrastructure that respond to 21st century needs will result in an increased usage and ultimately better health amongst the resident population. Another result will be a better quality of life and a more attractive environment, encouraging local seaside tourism and inward investment. By encouraging a range of users to engage in the development of parks

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and green space and the enjoyment of alfresco activities the 21st Century Park concept can promote community interaction and social cohesion.

Throughout the project a significant amount of knowledge and information about â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Green Infrastructureâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; was accumulated. In conclusion it was felt that the standards of the design of all forms of green spaces should be raised to meet the social and environmental challenges of the 21st century. The Interreg IVa Two Seas project provided the opportunity to work together with many experts from different disciplines and allowed partners to attend and present at international conferences where the importance of green infrastructure, planning, landscape design and health were topics under discussion.

From those experiences and the 21st Century Parks project workshops it was agreed that our findings on new approaches to 21st century parks and green spaces should be brought together into a Best Practice Guide.

The intention is that the Best Practice Guide will assist everyone who is involved in providing or enhancing any form of green infrastructure to view the process in an innovative way.

The aim of the guide is to provide an insight into the many exciting opportunities to create new and differing 21st century forms of linked open spaces, improved public realm, landscape corridors, urban parks, and green and blue infrastructure. Using examples of various approaches to parks and green infrastructure design along with the 21st Century Parks case studies the Best Practice Guide can provide ideas and inspiration for new thinking as to the purpose and benefits of green spaces within and around our cities and towns.

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