The Southeast's Affordable Housing Crisis

Raleigh Charleston Wilmington Charlotte Greenville Myrtle Beach Savannah Columbia

The Southeast’s

Affordable HOUSING CRISIS Andrea L. Gomez, National Organization of Minority Architects Fellow, with guidance from LS3P

Introduction

Rising land values, stagnant working class wages, lack of transportation options, zoning laws, “not in my backyard” mentalities, gentrification, reverse white flight or new attraction to urban living, developers not partaking, and lack of federal funding are just some factors that contribute to the growing affordable housing crisis in the United States.

The purpose of this paper is to create a resource guide to the issues around affordable housing in each of LS3P’s eight cities: Charlotte, Wilmington, Greenville, Myrtle Beach, Raleigh, Savannah, Charleston and Columbia. The extent of the problem- and it is an astronomical problemand the underlying causes of how we got here will be determined. Specific main challenges pertaining to each city will be discussed, as well as each city’s actions and corresponding outcomes. Furthermore, analyzing the extent to which solutions are effective and successful is integral to tackling the crisis.

LS3P is rooted in the Southeast and is a large stakeholder in the design and construction of these city’s communities. Better comprehending the affordable housing crisis and analyzing potential solutions will allow the firm to create strategies to engage with other stakeholders like city councils, nonprofits, and developers, in order to take action.

HUD gives funds through: HUD is the driving force nationally of writing rules and providing funding for housing.

The three most used federal programs are: Community Development Grant (CDBG), HOME Investment Partnership, and Emergency Solutions Grant (ESG) (for homelessness)i Affordable Housing Affordable housing is generally defined as housing on which the occupant is paying no more than 30 percent of gross income for housing costs, including utilities.ii Low Income Housing Affordable housing is generally defined as housing on which the occupant is paying no more than 30 percent of gross income for housing costs, including utilities.iii Low Income Housing Tax Credit (LIHTC) The Low-Income Housing Tax Credit is an “indirect federal subsidy designed to incentivize private developers and investors with tax credits to construct and rehabilitate affordable housing for low- and mid-income tenants.” It is deemed by HUD as the number one source for creating affordable housing.

Almost 1,400 projects and 106,400 units were created by LIHTCs annually between 1995 to 2018. One of the qualifications for the tax credit is that no units are occupied by tenants with income greater than 80% of AMI.iv Housing Vouchers Housing Vouchers are funded by the U.S Department of Urban Development (HUD) and target families making up to 50% of AMI. Housing Vouchers are the largest rental subsidy program.v

Workforce Housing or Middle Income Housing Some households earn too much to qualify for traditional affordable housing subsidies.

Workforce housing is most commonly intended for households with incomes between 80 and 120% of AMI.vi Typical middle-income occupations include teachers, police officers, janitors, and social workers. Some workforce housing programs (aimed at teachers and police officers) are tied to household income and to occupations/ industries. Local governments require those workers to live close to their jobs.

Mixed-income housing Mixed-income housing supports a community of housing units at different levels of affordability. Mixed-income developments typically include market-rate units and units for low- and middle-income households.vii Naturally Occurring Affordable Housing Naturally occurring affordable housing is rental housing that is affordable, but is unsubsidized.

Their rents are relatively low compared to the regional housing market, and it is the most common type of affordable housing.viii Inclusionary Zoning Local inclusionary zoning policies “tap the economic gains from rising real estate values to create affordable housing for lower income families. An inclusionary housing program might require developers to sell or rent 10 to 30 percent of new residential units to lower-income residents.” Even though many cities have employed inclusionary zoning requirements, they simply haven’t produced much housing. For example, New York only produced 2,500 units in its first decade, in a city with over eight million people.ix

Comprehensive Plans A Comprehensive Plan is “a policy document that has recommendations for land use decisions like rezonings, but it does not change the zoning itself.”x They create guidelines of the future growth of a community.

Terms

the root of the p Established by the Housing Act of 1949 that lasted through the 1950s and early 1960s, the federal policy of urban renewal had devastating consequences: it displaced more than a million people. The legislation gave loans and grants to cities to acquire and clear blighted areas and sold them to private companies for redevelopment, and consequently displacing millions of people. Urban renewal had limited success as a redevelopment strategy and for black Americans the results were disastrous. According to the report on urban renewal policies published by the University of Richmond, 13 billion in federal urban renewal policies grants were awarded to more than 1,200 municipalities, and in half of those cities, 330,000 families were displayed. In many of these cities, at least two-thirds of them were people of color. xiv

In 1933, The New Deal federally funded housing through the Public Works Administration. The first public housing community, Techwood Homes in Atlanta, only allowed white residents.

In 1937, Congress established the US Housing Authority, which became the Department of Housing and Urban Development (HUD) in 1965. xi

The New Deal 1930s

Urban Renewal 1950s-1960s

Redlining Redlining was often used to deny minorities customer loans and housing. Policies of redlining were color-coded maps that indicated where it was safe to insure mortgages, essentially banning black people from living in certain neighborhoods. In the 1930s, the Home Owners Loan Corporation classified neighborhoods in maps based on resident’s ethnicity, race, economic class and employment status. Lenders utilized this information as an indication of credit risk and would redline or block off certain neighborhoods and deny investment in them. This limited the ability for Black people and other minorities from economic and homeownership opportunities, the path to the middle class. Exclusionary zoning is still prominent today, and a main reason why many neighborhoods remain segregated. xii xiii

problem: Jim Crow Laws

A homeownership boom sent homeownership rates from 30 to 60 percent. 98 percent of the loans approved by the government between 1934 and 1968 were given to white applicants. xv

Existing for about 100 years, from the post-Civil War era until 1968, “ Jim Crow Laws were meant to marginalize African Americans by denying them the right to vote, hold jobs, get an education or other opportunities.” Those who defied them faced arrest, fines, jail sentences, violence, and death. xvii

Homeownership Boom 1968 Fair Housing Act Even though The 1968 Fair Housing Act prohibited discrimination regarding the “sale, rental and financing of housing based on religion, national origin, or sex,” housing remained segregated in many areas in following years.

Section 235 of the Fair Housing Act started giving direct supply-side subsidies to the private sector, shifting aid away from local housing authorities for building public housing. The housing subsidy program permitted a great number of white families to buy suburban homes, while black families bought existing homes in racially transitional neighborhoods in the inner city. xvi

Now Discriminatory policies like redlining created a lower rate of appreciation for real estate in redlined neighborhoods.

Consequently, the Black and white homeownership gap remains as wide as it was at the beginning of the 20th century. Over the last 40 years, a homeowner in a previously redlined neighborhood has gained “52 percent less in property value increase than a typical homeowner in a neighborhood that was not historically redlined.”xviii

racist laws.

in the US: A Massive Shortage To meet growing demand, the US needs to build 328,000 new apartment homes each year.

However, annual housing production is always short, which immensely increases rents. Housing has become so expensive that minimum wage workers cannot afford rent. According to a study from the National Low Income Housing Coalition, there is no city, county, or state where a full-time, minimum-wage worker working 40 hours per week can afford a two-bedroom rental. There are 7.5 million renters who are extremely cost burdened, spending more than half their income on housing. xix

Federal Expenditures on Housing Programs (2020)

The government consistently favors funding to middle and upper-middle class homeowners. xx

A National NIMBY Mentality Zoning codes often discourage construction and densification, which suppresses housing supply as demand increases. These restrictions correspond to the “not in my backyard” or NIMBY mentality, which harms affordable housing growth. A NIMBY mindset is based on the assumed characteristics of a population that will be living there: residents and city officials with a NIMBY mindset typically don't want affordable housing as they associate it with crime and minorities, which is ultimately a sentiment of racist behavior. xxi

Gene Nichol, a professor at the UNC School of Law, describes how this mentality is addressed in the South. He says that the biggest problem is that city officials in the South are not interested in addressing poverty, which is the real problem. He says that people in the South believe poverty is a “problem that black people have,” not supporting programs that fight poverty as they’re targeted at Black people. He states that once Black people were able to get into welfare and other programs, these efforts were cut back, saying “states that had the largest share of Black people on welfare programs adopted some of the most stringent policies in the wake of welfare reform of 1996.”xxii

Charlotte

City Population

912,096

Metropolitan Population

2.4 million

2020 Growth Rate

1.47%

Population Growth since 2010

24.70%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

2,969

Average Median Income

$94,516

Poverty Rate

12.82%

Median Rental Cost

$1,135

Median House Value

$220,300

% of County that is Cost Burdened

30% or 122,809

Last in Upward Mobility Out of all the major cities in the US, Charlotte is ranked dead last in upward mobility, according to a 2014 study

by Harvard University. This is extremely troubling: mobility is the ability to find a good job, provide for your children, and do better than your parents -essentially what is known as the American Dream. The same study also concluded that in Charlotte, children born into the bottom 20 percent of the income distribution had just a 4.4 percent chance of making it to the top 20 percent of the income distribution. This is especially striking when compared to San Jose, California, where the percentage is 12.9, almost three times more. xxiii

Disproportionately Affects Minorities

Main Challenges

The lack of upward mobility disproportionately affects minorities: household income correlates with race. In the first image below there is a clear, stark line dividing low and high household income groups that is directly reflected in the second image which shows the same dividing line between predominantly white and Black populations. xxiv Therefore, segregation by race and segregation by income directly correlate. High income neighborhoods tend to be more white, while low income neighborhoods tend to be more Black.

1. Charlotte Current Housing Situation

Adopted on June 21, 2021, the nearly 320 page land-use document promotes equity by getting rid of single-family-only zoning, requiring developers to pay for community benefits and infrastructure improvements, and mandating some affordable housing in new developments. The comprehensive plan has been in the works since 2018 and will guide Charlotte’s growth in the next 20 years. City staff will engage with the community in mapping the land use policies within the plan and create a Policy Map, which will be voted on by Council to provide guidance on land use and public investment decisions and the zoning districts within the new Unified Development Ordinance (UDO). xxv

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10 Big Policy Ideasxxvi 1: Develop a robust network of food cooperatives (co-ops), community gardens, and neighborhood based food sharing networks. • Create a culture of developercommunity collaboration through Community Benefit Agreements.

4: Prioritize equitable TOD (E-TOD) along high-performance transit and trail corridors.

Action/Outcomes

2040 Charlotte Comprehensive Plan

5: Set an aggressive mode shift goal that determines how the City 1) prioritizes investment in different modes of transportation, 2) allocates limited rightof-way space among different modes of transportation, 3) manages growth and travel demand, 4) sets new policies, and 5) supports equity and affordable transportation choices in all areas of the City.

6: Institute a program for local grassroots shared management or adoption of and programming of public open space, and encourage development of organizations throughout the City to create additional

opportunities to engage in active living and help develop healthy neighborhoods.

7: Implement the Strategic Energy Action Plan by implementing Resilient Innovation District (RID) programs throughout the City that are responsive to different Place Types and contexts and promote net zero development and carbon neutrality.

8: Develop Regional Activity Centers, especially in East and West Charlotte (see Implementation Strategy) with a mix of jobs, housing, schools and daycare services . • Create a Citywide Strategic Jobs Plan for the City of Charlotte to ensure a coordinated strategy for increasing employment opportunities throughout the community.

9: Protect Naturally Occurring Cultural Districts (NOCDs), especially in underserved neighborhoods, established neighborhood serving commercial areas, and ETODs • Become a leader in neighborhood-influenced placemaking, public space, public art and other cultural installations.

2. Charlotte Actions Taken and Outcomes

Eliminating Single Family Zoning

Affordable Housing

2: Allow more housing types in traditional singlefamily zoning districts to encourage housing diversity everywhere in our community.

2.1: Allow duplex and triplex housing units on all lots where single-family housing is allowed and require conformance with residential lot size requirements, setback requirements, and other site development standards specified within the Unified Development Ordinance (UDO).

2.2: Allow fourplexes on all lots fronting arterials where single family detached dwellings are permitted when key city priorities are advanced and community benefit is provided such as affordable and/or workforce housing.

2.3 Provide opportunities for single family attached and small-scale multifamily housing developments (15 units or less) along arterials in lower density, predominantly residential areas 2.6 In the development regulations, reduce barriers to development of new high quality middle density housing units such as reducing the need to rezone, reduced application fees, expedited processing, density bonuses, reduced or eliminated parking requirements, and reduced or waived inspection fees.

2.15 Continue to eliminate or reduce parking for transit supportive development, pocket neighborhoods, cottage clusters, and development in Activity Centers to reduce the cost of development and encourage development of more mixed housing types in areas with a parking management strategy

3.1 Investigate new City-wide regulatory programs that require or incentivize development of affordable housing in mixed-income developments, in standalone affordable housing developments, and in targeted neighborhoods as defined by the Equitable Growth Framework and consistent with the Plan. This may include advocating changes to state law to enable conditional zoning to require the inclusion of affordable housing units in areas lacking affordable housing options, and applying the bonus program for affordable housing currently included in TOD districts to other Activity Centers and other targeted Place Types.

3.2 Encourage changes to state law that hamper the development of affordable housing, or that block City efforts to increase the stock of affordable housing, such as allowing fee waiver programs for affordable housing, broadening the allowable uses of tax increment, or fee reimbursement for projects that meet affordability standards 3.3 Develop market-focused regulatory and administrative changes to encourage production of affordable housing.

3.4 Implement neighborhood character overlay districts where appropriate to encourage preservation of existing smaller footprint and Naturally Occurring Affordable Housing (NOAH) units.

3.5 Encourage development of a variety of housing product types, including affordable and workforce units, in Activity Centers by reducing or eliminating parking requirements and/ or using shared parking, increasing height or density allowances when these units are built, or providing other development incentives

Private Investments 10: Leverage private investments and direct at least half of public infrastructure spending over next 20 years to the most vulnerable neighborhoods and businesses, especially those within the Vulnerability to Displacement Overlay.

10.1 Develop and maintain a process that ties the Community Improvement Program (CIP) and Bond Package projects to framework policies and objectives in the Charlotte Future 2040 Comprehensive Plan.

Prioritize projects deemed to better support equitable community goals.

10.5 Prioritize funding from a variety of mechanisms and tools for reinvestment in non-high growth areas.

”

But It Barely Passed

Action/Outcomes

However, the reform to eliminate Single-Family Only Zoning was a very contentious debate: it barely passed, with the vote being 6-5, while other cities like Portland, Minneapolis and Berkeley were near unanimous. Critics believed the higherdensity housing options would only accelerate gentrification and destroy neighborhood character.

Councilman Driggs, who is against eliminating single family zoning, stated that legal discrimination has been outlawed for decades and that there are values of single-family neighborhoods that need to be protected. As previously stated, decades of discriminatory policies like redlining and urban renewal denied Black people from homeownership and created generational poverty into the urban fabric. It is an essential step to increase the supply of affordable housing and desegregate neighborhoods.

The fact that this barely passed shows that people value preserving the look of a neighborhood over desegregating them, which inevitably has many racist biases.

Public-Private Partnership: Housing Impact Fund The $58 million fund will buy units in order to keep rents low, aimed at saving 1,500 affordable apartments from disappearing in rapidly changing neighborhoods. It includes $15 million from Charlotte-based Truist, who will buy apartments and restrict rents for low and moderate income households. It is the largest concentrated investment to save Naturally Occurring Affordable Housing, which is a great stride in the right direction. The Housing Impact Fund also has investments from Atrium Health, LendingTree, Movement Mortgage and nine local real estate development firms. xxvii

Action/Outcomes

Fund leaders say they will buy apartments in neighborhoods at risk of or actively gentrifying and displacing current residents, targeting main corridors like Central Avenue, Monroe Road, and South Boulevard where there are many apartments built in the 1960s through 80s. The pilot property is the 144-unit Lake Mist Apartments off Old Pineville Road, located near a Lynx Blue Line stop.

The fund will also use $20 million from the Charlotte Housing Opportunity Investment Fund, the private fund created to be used with public affordable housing investments.

https://www.fastcompany.com/90597128/charlotte-may-have-cracked-the-code-on-affordablehousing-heres-how

2040 Plan: Light Rail A great portion of new light rail serves high-income neighborhoods. Analyzing a map with household income overlaid with the light rail map, the north/south line (Lynx red line) goes all the way to Mooresville, a higher-income area in which most households already own cars. This is very disadvantageous for low-income households with limited accessto light rail, and recources could have been allocated for their more pressing needs. xxviii

Wilmington

City Population

126,000

Metropolitan Population

304,053

2020 Growth Rate

0.90%

Population Growth since 2010

18.34%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

2,451

Average Median Income

70,904

Poverty Rate

22.19%

Median Rental Cost

$998

Median House Value

$246,400

% of County that is Cost Burdened

32% or 30,078

Short Supply of Land Residents increasingly can't find homes they can afford due to the very short supply of land in Wilmington and New Hanover County.Habitat for Humanity's Director Steve Spain gives an example of how the hot housing market has impacted moderate- and low- income residents: in Habitat’s new development on Goard Road, a home was appraised almost 16% more than an identical one that was completed last year. Moreover, Spain states that the rapidly rising cost of building materials is also a factor, not just demand that’s rising prices. xxix

Main Challenges

NIMBY Mentality in Action Patrick Bowen of Bowen National Research conducted a study in Wilmington to show the depth of the affordable housing problem.

The Bowen Study depicted the NIMBY mentality in tremendous levels: it showed that even though 93% of residents believe affordable housing is key for the regional economy, 46% believe affordable housing decreases property values, 33% think it increases crime, and 23% believe affordable housing negatively affects the community’s character. This mentality can also be shown in the lack of high density zoning. xxx

Current Zoning: Lack of Density David Spetrino, president of PBC Design Build and committee chairman, said that a factor that’s making developing affordable housing difficult is the city’s density and height restrictions. He contrasts downtown Wilmington’s Sawmill Point and Flats on Front apartment complexes, where density approaches 600 units on 9 acres to the norm for suburban style apartment projects, where density is limited to 17 units per acre. Spetrino points out that no one can answer why that is the case. Seventeen is in fact, just an arbitrary number, saying “density is all wacky in the city and county.”xxxi According to the Comprehensive Plan Growth Factors Report, “Nearly half of the current zoning in Wilmington is for low-density, single family development. While some zoning districts allow for mixed-use development, many do not accommodate it or it is prohibited.”

Specifically, 48% is low density residential, only 10% is Medium Density Residential, 8.3% is multi-family residential and only 4.5% is mixedused. Since 2000, only 3,578 acres have been rezoned (Wilmington is 33,900 acres)- these include rezoning from residential to mixeduse, residential to higher density residential, commercial to mixed-use, and residential to commercial. There has not been a land development code in place. xxxii

Hurricane Florence The lack of affordable housing has been exacerbated because of Hurricane Florence.

Nearly three years after the Hurricane, Wilmington and the surrounding region are still recovering. At least 1,200 rental units were damaged, displacing many lowerincome families.

Case Studies Hillcrest Community Built as temporary housing after World War II, Hillcrest Community is now 80 years old and decaying, housing 200 impoverished families. The masonry one-story buildings will be torn down and replaced with a mixed-use housing community, where all the affordable housing units will be replaced. It is funded by HUD’s Choice Neighborhoods program, which reinvents public housing throughout the US. Wilmington Housing Authority is currently searching for a developer. Wilmington Housing Authority has been trying to obtain funding since 2013, when they lost to a larger city for a 30 million dollar grant. The current process to revitalize a neighborhood is extremely long, which is astonishing because it has been in great need for years.

Eden Village: Tiny Homes

Action/Outcomes

Eden Village of Wilmington will be a 32 unit tiny home community, providing homes for chronically homeless individuals. It is based on the model of tiny home communities in Springfield, MO. Each house costs approximately $40,000 and is sponsored by donations from individuals or companies. xxxiii

https://www.starnewsonline.com/story/news/2021/06/30/ wilmington-public-housing-hillcrest-apartments-could-demolished-new-development/7814904002/

https://edenvillageusa.org/wilmington-nc/

New Hanover County Comprehensive Plan 2016-2040 Housing Policiesxxxiv

Action/Outcomes

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3.1 Diversity of Housing Options 3.1.1 “Mixed-income neighborhoods should be promoted throughout the city, particularly within identified high density centers and corridors, downtown, and near employment centers, and by dispersing rather than concentrating low to moderate income housing.”

10.43 Mixed- income housing, including market rate, workforce, and affordable housing should be encouraged downtown.

Financial and development tools and regulations should be considered to incentivize the inclusion of workforce and affordable housing 3.1.2 “Dispersal and production of affordable and workforce housing units, housing with universal design elements and senior housing units should be promoted throughout all areas of the city 3.1.4 Zoning policies should provide opportunity and incentives for developers to build a variety of housing types from single family to multifamily, including accessory dwelling units, at a range of price points.

3.2 Affordability City should work in partnership with nonprofit housing providers to expand their capacity to provide housing The construction of accessory dwelling units should be allowed to provide housing options in areas with existing infrastructure and access to goods and services Acquisition and assembly of vacant and substandard residential lots for new affordable/ workforce/ mixed-income housing

should be considered The location of affordable housing in areas with access to transit services including current and future transit stations including current and future transit stations should be incentivized, including, but not limited to, zoning and development incentives 3.3 Special Needs Housing Agencies and organizations that address the root causes of homelessness including re-entry, deinstitutionalization, and poverty should be supported 3.4 Fair Housing, Universal Design, and Aging in Place Universal design and lifecycle housing should be encouraged to facilitate the ability of homeowners and neighborhood residents to age in places in their homes and neighborhoods.

Housing rehabilitation programs that assist elderly homeowners to repair, modernize, and improve the energy efficiency of their homes should be supported.

”

Urban Growth This map shows several mixed- use centers across Wilmington, with higher densities surrounding each center, and lower intensities surrounding those. xxxv

Zoning New Land Development Code After not having a land development code in place for around 40 years, the city has plans to adopt a new one in January of 2022. Some changes in the new Land Development Code make affordable housing development easier. The rewritten code will permit more multi-family housing like duplexes and townhomes in residential zoning districts. It also incentivizes workforce housing in its multi-family zoning districts in the same way it has in the city’s Commercial District Mixed-Use (CDMU) zoning.

In October of 2020, the city council approved the change of density to 17 units per acre. However, if developers make 10% of the units affordable, then they don’t have to follow the density cap. xxxvi

Action/Outcomes

NC Eliminating Single- FamilyOnly Bill Not Passed The 349/House Bill 401 titled Increasing Housing Opportunities seeked to give more affordable housing options by allowing multi-family complexes, like duplexes, triplexes and townhomes, in any residential zoning district with water and sewer services in North Carolina. Leaders from Wilmington-area towns and throughout the state have criticized the bill, which failed to move forward. Sunset Beach’s mayor stated,“I think it would be a disaster for single family home areas as anything could pop up in the neighborhoods,” about the Brunswick County community.

This is a clear example of the NIMBY (not in my backyard) mentality, which inhibits the development of higher density residential housing, something that is a must to increase much-needed supply. xxxvii

Nonprofits and Developers

Cape Fear Collective Cape Fear Collective is a nonprofit that is utilizing investment to buy and rehabilitate housing, and then renting and selling the units to reobtain the capital. This new capital will then allow them to purchase and repair even more housing. Live Oak Bank invested $2.5 million at 2% interest, which allowed the nonprofit to buy 21 houses. xxxviii

Developers In Wilmington there is a small group of local developers, but they don't do affordable housing at all.

Greenville

City Population

74,207

Metropolitan Population

947,375

2020 Growth Rate

2.47%

Population Growth since 2010

27.05%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

2,503

Average Median Income

$92,204

Poverty Rate

13.43%

Median Rental Cost

$984

Median House Value

$292,400

Severely Cost Burdened

13,163

City Continues to Grow Greenville is a fast-growing city. The current population of 66,000 is estimated to grow to 128,000 by 2040. The population just beyond the city will grow by 160,000, and many will commute to the city daily. Housing units will double, from 32,000 to 66,000. Clearly, there is a strong demand for housing and limited land supply. The number of households per residential acre- which is the main indicator of housing demand and price trajectories because growing demand is needed to make density profitable-shows continued growth.

If the city’s Comprehensive Plan’s goal of making 10% of new housing affordable is achieved, there would only be 3,400 new units by 2040. While this is a good achievement, it does nowhere meet the demand. xxxix

Main Challenges

Wage Dispersion and Inequality Are Rising Along with prices, wage dispersion and differences in socioeconomic dynamics are rising. Greenville is constantly in the national stage for top places to live. Thus, people move to the city with different socioeconomic dynamics: they pay more for housing, which contributes a great deal to this displacement cycle. According to the Comprehensive Plan, the trend line for inequality in the housing market is likely to worsen: the reserved affordable units per 1,000 units over time is declining. xlii

Gentrification Pressures Near Downtown Neighborhoods are gentrifying near Downtown Greenville. This is displacing low-income households, and without any intervention, African American neighborhoods will be lost. If this continues, valuable affordable housing locations will be lost. Furthermore, employees working downtown will need to commute, creating congestion and increasing transportation costs. xl

Spatial Distribution Challenges Affordable housing is poorly distributed in the city. Most of Greenville’s lowest cost rentals, unit’s with rents under $500, are located in the weakest housing markets. According to the Balancing Prosperity and Housing Affordability in Greenville report, “Many of these areas – especially on the West Side and to the east of downtown (including Nicholtown) have far more than their fair share of these units – indeed some have nearly one-and-a-half times the share of these units than they would if low-cost units were distributed evenly across the city.” The distribution supply challenge creates economic issues as the spatial distribution of jobs and housing is inefficient. The report also states, “If the city were to no longer have employers that needed low-wage employees, this would not be an issue, but downtown – and other parts of Greenville as well – absolutely hinge on a strong service sector and thus on a viably housed lowwage labor pool.”xli

Lack of Public Transportation According to Greenville’s Affordable Housing Strategy document, “among renters, 18% of households in low-income census tracts do not have access to a vehicle.” In 2017, 80.9% drove alone, 7.7% carpooled and only 1.2% used public transportation and 3.6% walked. This is very detrimental as limited transportation options restrict access to jobs, services and neighborhoods, which creates more cost burdens for low-income individuals. xliii

Supply and Demand of Housing There are more rental units priced at 80% AMI and below than owned units, with the greatest amount being at 50%-80% AMI. Higher prices and taxes are concentrated around the City and at the northern part of the County. There are many constraints on the housing demand including: the amount of active listings is decreasing, the length of residency in rental units is above average, and the variety of unit sizes and for-sale products in several locations is limited.

The amount of cost-burdened households is a problem at the city and county level, especially with very low income renters. xliv

GVL 2040 Comprehensive Planxlv 3 Main Goals The plan’s main goals are to: 1. Preserve land: preserve 35% of Greenville’s vacant land as open space/ parks to quality of life and protect environmental assets.

2. Support Affordable Housing: Designate at least 10% of all new housing as incomerestricted to preserve access to high-quality affordable housing. We have to keep in mind that in 2020, 8.5% of all housing units in Greenville are income-restricted to provide affordable housing to eligible households, so this is not much of a difference.

3. Expand Mobility Options: Make a range of appealing and safe mobility options possible along major corridors to reduce car dependence.

Action/Outcomes

Node/Corridor Framework The plan emphasizes Increasing Density through a Node/Corridor Framework.

Because land supply is meant to be preserved, the goal is to steer growth to designated nodes and corridors. Nodes are areas that are meant to evolve into a mixed-use community hub: housing (some designated as low-income), job opportunities, and other services. Corridors are major streets that connect nodes to one another and to Greenville’s traditional neighborhoods, hosting a variety of transportation options and lined with new developments. Nodes and Corridors are meant to develop over time at an average density of 30 dwelling units per acre. The vision is to create higher densities and mixed uses in nodes and corridors in order to create more jobs and amenities and decrease dependence on cars. Instead of determining where new nodes will be, the plan wants to focus on how to make the ones that already exist become more high density, mixed used, urban forms.

Implementation of the Framework Urban Form and Design

Affordable Housing Implementation

Update Zoning Code: The zoning ordinance is the primary tool available to help implement the comprehensive plan. The land use element in the comprehensive plan provides the legal basis for the zoning code and focusing growth in nodes and along key corridors including: “A district framework that allows higher density growth” “Encourage, if not require, mixed-use development with commercial/retail uses on the first floors of buildings that front significant streets” “Street and accessway layout- grid, modified grid and/ or other urban patterns” Density: No less than 30 residential units per acre Typical height range: 4, 5, and 6 stories Phasing plans for large developments

Phase 1 (2021-2022): Further develop the empirical data needed to guide implementation of affordable housing actions, Establish a public-private task force to design the program features for how the 10% minimum inclusion goal will be achieved

Outside of nodes and corridors, the plan states to “maintain traditional neighborhood character while allowing appropriate infill to address “missing middle” gaps,” as well as “Provide transition zones to limit the impact between higher density nodes and corridors and established neighborhoods.”

“Decide how to allocate resources to jumpstart implementation activities and finalize criteria that will guide land preservation efforts, node and corridor designations, target markets for affordable housing, and the types of transportation improvements to pursue on specific corridors.”

Create a GVL2040 Capital Projects Fund This has been successful in Oklahoma City.

It includes “setting aside revenue from nodal growth, issuing bonds in anticipation of this revenue, and creating a dedicated county sales tax to support implementation of County and City comprehensive plans.”

Phase 2 (2023-2025): Monitor early project and evaluate outcomes, Catalog and track newly developed affordable units to ensure compliance.

Phase 3 (2026-2040): Annually asses production volumes, outcomes, and markets served, making adjustments as needed, Incorporate the work of the task force into update of the city’s zoning ordinance, Continue to track and monitor affordable units.

Action/Outcomes

Future Land Use

Greenville Housing Fund + Nonprofits The Greenville Housing Fund is a nonprofit that is in charge of investing money from public and private sources, and was created by the city in 2018. That same year, GHF gave $863,000 to Habitat for Humanity, Homes of Hope, and Bywater Development to build and preserve affordable housing. xlvi According to their website, “Habitat for Humanity is building six homes and developing seven rental homes in the Sterling community, Homes of Hope is developing nine rental homes on scattered sites throughout the city and Bywater Development is renovating Stratham Place, preserving 88 affordable rental homes. In October 2020, they worked with the Greenville County Redevelopment Authority to create an affordable housing strategic plan. xlvii

Action/Outcomes

Affordable Housing Strategyxlviii • • • • •

Housing Preservation: Direct Loan Program, Housing Production Housing Tools Housing Location Organizational Capacity

Case Studies Unity Park The Unity Park project is a 60 acre, 61 million project that will open in the Spring of 2022.

Surrounding the park, the city will reinforce high densities as part of the land development guidelines that were set. The goal is to promote urban design and affordable housing, which is threatened as investment increases.

A great amount of land around the park is cityowned, and certain portions are designated for affordable housing. In the Southernside neighborhood, The Greenville Housing Fund plans for 400 affordable housing units in the area. The group created a feasibility study to better understand how Unity Park will impact the people who live in surrounding areas and the future of these neighborhoods. xlix Clearly, Unity Park is an area that is at risk for gentrification, with high land value. Thus, the area is attracting luxury condos. More than 100 condominiums were proposed by Stanley Martin Homes, called Wimbledon Heights.

This proposal does not include any affordable housing units, and was rejected by the Greenville City Planning Commission.l

Myrtle Beach

City Population

36,459

Metropolitan Population

528,733

2020 Growth Rate

2.48%

Population Growth since 2010

34.49%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

1,547

Average Median Income

$70,369

Poverty Rate

21.63%

Median Rental Cost

$913

Median House Value

$216,100

Severely Cost Burdened

9,214

Population Growth: Vacationers and Retirees Population growth is driven by older adults, due to new residents moving to Myrtle Beach and to existing residents aging in place. In 2019, approximately one out of every five Myrtle Beach residents (21.5 percent) was age 65 or older. The ratio of working-age population to retirement-age population in the city has been decreasing significantly. This is detrimental because residents will be relying on fewer residents of working age to support the local economy. Even though Myrtle Beach has always attracted older populations, the increase in the residents over 65 has been significant in recent years because of the aging of the Baby Boomer population broadly and the continued attractiveness of Myrtle Beach as a retirement destination.

Main Challenges

Tourism Industry and Wage Disparity Myrtle Beach relies heavily on the tourism industry. A substantial share of jobs in Myrtle Beach are visitor/ tourist-supporting or resident-supporting jobs, such as accommodation and food services, retail, arts, entertainment and recreation, and health care and social assistance jobs. Furthermore, the Imagine 2040 (comprehensive plan) study found Horry County’s economy is limited by a great number of low paying positions and disability among individuals in the workforce.

There’s a great wage discrepancy between people who serve and vacationers: low wages create disparity between income levels and access to housing. Moreover, a major disadvantage of the tourism industry is that Horry County loses 12 to 15 percent of all jobs between July and January.lii Therefore, it is very likely that low income households will fall behind on rent, creating additional costburdens.

The footprint of homes is large, but actual residents are few due to vacationers: a lot of people that own a home don’t live there.

Seasonal Vacant Units, defined as those that are “intended for occupancy only during certain seasons of the year’’ occupy 26 percent of housing units, or 6,510 housing units.

Furthermore, this population growth is driven by retirees, many who buy a home to vacation and then move to Myrtle Beach when they retire.The amount of retirement communities and their demand impact the economy and housing: as jobs and income increase, housing values also rise, which is detrimental for low- or medium- income workers.li

Workers Can’t Afford to Live Within City Limits The lack of affordable housing within the City of Myrtle Beach has forced many earning average wages to move to cheaper housing outside of the city. This is because wages have not gone up as housing prices have skyrocketed, so many hotel and service workers have long commutes. A report from Habitat for Humanity states that less than 15% of workers live in the city, while 56% of renters within the city are cost-burdened or severely cost-burdened.

To top it all off, Myrtle Beach’s public transportation system is very limited: the system does not operate 365 days a year and does not operate at all hours workers need transportation. This is very disadvantageous to the majority of the workforce in the city, as many need to acquire cars, an additional cost burden. The report also states that those who work in Myrtle Beach travel longer distances than commuters in Horry County and Conway, with one in five commuting at least 50 miles each way.

Action/Outcomes

City Council and Habitat Partnership- Workforce Housing Program Through a workforce housing program, Myrtle Beach and Habitat for Humanity Horry County have teamed up to make housing more affordable for hospitality and government workers. This population makes up a big portion of the workforce but most cannot afford to live within the city.

This program will construct or rehabilitate buildings for single and multi-family homes, which will then be sold or rented to workers in the program.

The program also includes a homeownership assistance element, where “a city employee can choose a goal amount to save for a down payment, closing expenses or the interest rate (with a maximum of $10,000) and a date for achieving that goal (the maximum is 52 pay periods). The city will then withhold money from the employee’s paycheck until half of the target amount is reached. Once the employee reaches 50% of the goal amount (or 40% if the home is in one of the five targeted neighborhoods), the city will match it at a rate of $1 to $1 ($1.50 to $1 if in one of the five targeted neighborhoods.)”There is also additional financial assistance: employees can apply for $100 per month ($150 per month in one of the five targeted neighborhoods) for up to three years.

Habitat is responsible for detailing the need for affordable housing and home ownership, which can be seen in their report titled “Workforce Housing Needs Assessment.”

Habitat is also responsible for finding funding sources to purchase land and existing housing. The fund currently has more than $700,000 in the bank.liii

One Grand Strand Revitilizes Downtown One Grand Strand is a nonprofit group that presented a plan to Myrtle Beach City Council in December 2020 to revitalize downtown Myrtle Beach. The group has established a public-private partnership with the city, and will appoint a Place Management Organization Board consisting of 11 community and business representatives and three leaders of non-governmental organizations. The plan will make the area more walkable, connect the oceanfront to downtown neighborhoods, and add infill residential housing.

Their goal is to “attract greater developer interest and investment, support and address the needs of small businesses, create quality job opportunities, and increase the amount of housing options available downtown.”liv Currently, Downtown Myrtle Beach does not have a lot of activity: it only has 4.5 residents per acre, with 3,300 residents within 1,438 households, while the average downtown has 13 residents per acre. One Grand Strand is aiming to attract investment and retain the young population.lv The CEO of OGS, Michael Clayton, addressed concerns of rising rents and consumer costs by saying that the city will work to make sure residents are included in the expansion, wanting to make the end product equitable and inclusive. He stated, “we are working closely with the city’s Neighborhood Revitalization Program and Habitat for Humanity to make sure that the existing businesses have support to succeed and to the extent possible residents are not displaced, but can take advantage of funding to improve homes and businesses.”lvi As of April 2021, Lauren Clever, the Director of the city’s Downtown Development Office, said that they don’t know exactly what they will build yet but will start with a market study, stating that the city wants to include diverse demographics and incomes.

Comprehensive Planlvii Goals and Strategies: Community character Develop and implement a community beautification and branding program Develop and amend regulations that contribute towards distinct community character Develop, update, and implement plans to ensure the character and form of communities are preserved and enhanced.

Rural preservation Preserve the historic properties, agrarian and natural landscapes, and way of life in western Horry County.

Revitalization, redevelopment, and infill - Develop, update, and implement neighborhood plans to encourage stabilization and revitalization.

- Decrease the number of blighted residential properties throughout Horry County.

Identify and develop targeted commercial revi-talization areas Promote revitalization and infill efforts.

- Revise the Horry County Zoning Ordinance and Land Development Regulations to support a full range of land uses and form Revise the Multi-Residential Zoning Districts to allow for greater variation in residential form and density that will coincide with the Future Land Use Map. [short-term] - Discourage residential down-zoning and encourage a vertical mixture of land uses, especially in Mixed Use and Community Activity Centers, to promote more urban form and support the Future Land Use Map. - Encourage safe, affordable housing throughout Horry County.

Create developer incentives to incorporate affordable housing into new developments. [mid-term] - Direct HUD funds towards the purchase of homes in existing and new developments that are in close proximity to public facilities, transportation, and job centers. [mid-term] - Assist with the establishment of a nonprofit organization dedicated to fair housing education and assistance in the region. [mid-term] host a fair housing and first time home buyer education program annually. [midterm] - Encourage multifamily infill and redevelopment in urban areas by providing a mechanism to reduce or eliminate parking requirements, especially when public parking, transit options, and bicycle and pedestrian networks are available. [midterm]

Raleigh

City Population

483,579

Metropolitan Population

1,449,180

2020 Growth Rate

3.40%

Population Growth since 2010

19.73%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

3,315

Average Median Income

94,359

Poverty Rate

12.60%

Median Rental Cost

$1,121

Median House Value

$248,300

% of County that is Cost Burdened

31% or 39,582

Rapid Population Growth Leads to Rising Costs Raleigh has a substantial unmet affordable housing need. With Raleigh being one of the fastest growing cities in the US, land values and housing costs have increased rapidly. Very-low (50% AMI) and extremely-low (30% AMI) income households are most affected, with 16,685 extremely low-income households experiencing severe cost burdens, spending more than 50% of their income on housing and utility costs.lviii Raleigh’s fast growth has created higher land prices.

Raleigh’s housing market is a seller’s market: sales prices are increasing as much as 10% annually year after year, and most of the new developments are luxury rentals. Developers are also obtaining older rental communities and replacing them with upscale apartments. This creates an upward pressure on rents while removing affordable living options.

Main Challenges

Increasing Housing Costs Are Outpacing Rising Incomes When a household expends more than 30% of its gross monthly income on housing it is “cost burdened” and when it expends more than 50% it is “severely cost burdened.” Of Raleigh’s 170,375 households, 32.7% or 55,755 households are cost or severely cost burdened. Racial and ethnic minorities, mostly Black, are disproportionately affected. The city has not required a percentage of affordable housing units to be present in new developments, which does not help in the lacking supply of affordable rentals.

Need for Decent and Safe Affordable Housing Housing problems are found in all income groups at or below Area Median Income.

Raleigh has a total 170,375 households and 55,155 of those households (32.4%) are at or below Area Median Income (AMI) with one or more housing problems.

HUD describes four housing problems as: lacks complete kitchen facilities, lacks complete plumbing facilities, more than one person per room, cost burden greater than 30%.

City of Raleigh Consolidated Plan 20212025lix

The City of Raleigh Consolidated Plan included three priorities:increasing the supply of affordable housing, enhancing the homeless to housing continuum, and increasing services to build selfsufficiency and sustainability (mainly in College Park, Citywide, Downtown Neighborhoods).

Action/Outcomes

Strategies: Connecting transit to housing A cross-departmental group is identifying potential housing site along transit lines and creating funding strategies.

The city will develop transit overlay districts for compatible development along transit corridors The city places a priority for tax credit funded affordable housing for housing that is walking distance from a transit stop.

In May 2021: $6.35 million was granted for affordable housing along future bus lines.

Focusing on producing more affordable housing With 30 million of funding over the next five years, the city is prioritizing building additional housing.

Zoning and regulatory changes will improve housing and affordability, with an emphasis on “missing middle” housing types like duplexes, triplexes, and townhouses (representing the middle ground between houses and large apartment buildings) that are common in older neighborhoods but are often prohibited by zoning.

Alternative housing: Accessory Dwelling Units were allowed in 2019 but required property owners to petition their neighbors for permission to enter into an overlay zone. In 2020, the Raleigh City Council approved new rules- residents can now build ADUs by right.

Continue to create and preserve affordable housing The goal is to produce 5,700 affordable units from 2015-2025, including area rental production, new single-family homes, homebuyer assistance, and homeowner rehabilitation.

The Community Development Division in the Raleigh Housing and Neighborhoods Department strives to produce 570 affordable units per year.

Penny for Housing is an Ad Valorem tax increase that funds affordable rental development and single-family housing rehabilitation (2016)- $23.75 million.

A new workforce development training program recognizes the need for many different types of job training programs such as white-collar, tech, and apprenticeship jobs.

Past and Future City-sponsored Production 5 year projection: Total units: 2,840 (Rental production: 2,250 units, Homeownership new construction: 90 units, Homebuyer assistance: 250 units, Homeowner rehabilitation: 250 units) Last 5 years: Total units: 1,689 (Rental production: 1,156 units, Homeownership new construction: 68 units, Homebuyer assistance: 278 units, Homeowner rehabilitation: 187 units) Agency consultations The city met with over 40 different organizations and found that developers wanted expedited permitting and plan review for affordable developments so that money is not lost when waiting for approvals. Organizations wanted to continue the funding for gap financing through the city for tax credit development. Agencies stated they needed more bedrooms- 2 and 3 bedroomsin order for larger families living together to be satisfied.

Raleigh 2020 Affordable Housing Bond The City of Raleigh received an $80 million affordable housing bond, approved November of 2020. The city has committed to creating 5,700 affordable units by 2026. The bond will also help in funding existing programs such as homebuyer assistance and neighborhood revitalization, create rental developments, and give owneroccupied loans to create proper living standards in existing homes. Other priorities include creating partnerships with the private sector, and acquiring land for affordable developments near planned transit routes like Bus Rapid Transit.lx

Public-private Partnerships The City of Raleigh is establishing public-private partnerships with developers, including Habitat for Humanity, Evergreen Construction, CB Pugh Enterprise, and RD Construction.lxi In East College Park, the city is partnering with six builders to create 98 single-family homes and 51 townhome units. 60% of units are reserved for income-restricted buyers as defined by HUD guidelines. For the Duplex Village project on New Bern Avenue, the city bought 24 out of 66 existing units for affordable housing. In the Martin/ Haywood area, the city partnered with Evergreen Construction and Habitat for Humanity of Wake County to develop 11 single-family homes reserved for first time buyers. Two projects are planned for Idlewild Avenue. For the Idlewild Jonez project, the city is partnering with CB Pugh Enterprise, Habitat for Humanity, and RD Construction to develop 23 single-family homes reserved for income restricted buyers.

In the West Lane-Idlewild neighborhood, the city will sell a plot of land for one dollar in exchange for affordable housing. The city is seeking innovative affordable housing concepts from developers.

Zoning As part of its affordable housing strategy, Raleigh is the latest american city to decrease zoning restrictions in residential areas. In June 2021, Raleigh created efforts to increase housing options and density through the Comprehensive Plan Amendment CP4-21.lxii Higher density developments like duplexes and townhomes are now legal to build by right throughout most of the city. However, unlike Charlotte, Raleigh is not eliminating single-family only zoning.lxiii

Nonprofits and Developers In the future, we will see more wellfinanced developers from out of state, such as Hoffman & Associates. This is applicable to all cities, not just Raleigh.

Some nonprofits in Raleigh include DHIC and NC Housing Coalition.

Homebuyer Assistance Program To qualify, homeowners must be first time home buyers, and income must not exceed certain thresholds that depend on the household size. The maximum loan amount is $20,000 and the loan is forgiven after 20 years of ownership only. This program is beneficial as it provides entry-level options to homeownership, which is the path to the middle class.lxiv

Case Studies

https://www.apartmentguide.com/apartments/ North-Carolina/Raleigh/Washington-Terrace/46673/

Washington Terrace Redevelopment DHIC obtained $2.1 million from the city and bought the massive 23-acre property and the aging 245-unit low-income housing project. DHIC is redeveloping the whole site in order to increase the overall housing supply in four phases. The first phase, the Villages at Washington Terrace, has been built and contains 162 units for families below 60% of the area median income. The project integrates a business center, child care center, community center with on-site management offices, and social gathering areas. This is a great example of mixed-use development, which elevates the quality of life of the residents through more amenities and resources.

The second phase is the Booker Park North project, which houses 72 units for the elderly, with the same income restrictions as the first project. Future phases will include Booker Park South, in which DHIC received Low-Income Housing Tax Credits in 2020 to help complete it.lxv

https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/ growth/2020/12/18/raleigh-s-downtown-south-projectgets-rezoning-green-light--it-could-reshape-the-city

https://www.thehitimes.com/3073/news/gentrification-disrupting-raleigh-neighborhoods/

Downtown South Project

Gentrification in South Park

The Downtown South Project is a 140acre project that will include a stadium and entertainment complex, 12 million SF of office space, 9 million SF of retail, and 16,000 residential units. The rezoning that was approved by City Council also allows the developer Kane Realty to build 40-story towers.lxvi

White families are moving to South Park, a historically Black neighborhood, with three times the income of a typical household already there. This phenomenon is seen across the country. White buyers got a head start in mortgage lending and “by the time more lending returned for minorities, these neighborhoods were increasingly priced out of reach.” Even though it has created more job opportunities and created a more integrated neighborhood, lower-income families are forced to move out because the cost of living has increased.lxviii

The project proposes only 100 affordable units in its first phase. The developer has said that a percentage of the total amount of units will be affordable. However, since it will be only a small percentage, the proposal be inadequate in eliminating the housing shortage.lxvii This is an example of a massive development that will supposedly bring several advantages to the city, but will be inaccessible to the majority of the population. It will also inevitably increase the costs of the area surrounding it, which is incredibly detrimental to the people living in the area already as it increases their rental costs.

Negative Effects of Public Policies in North Carolina

The Raleigh Consolidated Plan reported on how current public policies are negatively impacting affordable housing production. Firstly, North Carolina law doesn’t permit inclusionary zoning. North Carolina is a Dillon Rule state, like Georgia and unlike South Carolina. This means that municipalities only have the powers given to them by the state legislature.

Therefore, the city of Raleigh and other North Carolina cities are limited in the ways they can innovate new forms of affordable housing. Most traditional methods require the city’s financial investments.

Secondly, the requirements of the state’s Qualified Allocation plan requirements make it hard for a city to acquire more than two low-income housing 9% tax credit development a year. According to the report in Raleigh’s Consolidated Plan, “The LIHTC scoring system discourages mixed income housing and redevelopment of inner city sites, and has a clear suburban bias.”lxix Thirdly, public policies reinforce a lack of funding: the state's housing tax credit program for the development of low-cost housing was eliminated, decreasing funding statewide. Furthermore, federal funds have not kept pace with inflation or the need for housing. Moreover, when HUD allocates funds through CDBG they include age of housing as a priority. As previously stated, private developers are removing many older unsubsidized yet affordable housing communities, which could reduce the funding that is available to Raleigh. Overall, federal funding for preserving and building housing has been on a longterm downward trend.

Savannah

City Population

141,758

Metropolitan Population

401,153

2020 Growth Rate

-0.95%

Population Growth since 2010

4.02%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

1,364

Average Median Income

$63,984

Poverty Rate

21.86%

Median Rental Cost

$1,019

Median House Value

$156,500

Severely Cost Burdened

Tourism Industry The hotel boom in the past years is bringing Savannah money.

According to The Savannahians affordable housing report, 4.8 million people visited Savannah in 2019, which produced $3.1 billion in visitor spending. Due to the lack of affordability in the city, many citizens have to live in other municipalities or counties. Tourism has taken over downtown, so the affordable housing problem has to do with the tourism market. Mayor Van Johnson stated, “we really did not have affordability in mind when we let the market do what it did, but we didn’t have a plan.

Hence, we’re in this situation where rent is high, mortgages are sky high, and the average Savannahian cannot really live in Savannah anymore.”lxx

Lack of Public Transportation Outside the City Limits The many workers that live out of the city due to high prices are now even more negatively affected due to the lack of public transit outside of the city.

Most need to commute to the city with cars, negating the savings from having a more affordable apartment or buying a home because they have to purchase and maintain a car. It costs over $8,500 annually to maintain a motor vehicle. What is ironic is that there is a Chatham Area Transit (CAT) shuttle within the city, so mostly tourists use it.lxxi

Developers Buy Housing Complexes

Increase in AirBnbs Drives up Housing Prices Savannah has seen a significant increase in short-term rentals such as AirBnbs, due to its tourism industry. However, this greatly impacts the surrounding area as it drives up housing prices. According to a Harvard Business Review study, a 1% increase in Airbnb listings is associated with a 0.018% increase in rental rates and a 0.026% increase in housing prices. In the long-term, Airbnbs contribute to a fifth of the average annual increase in U.S. rents.

Furthermore, the Harvard Business Review paper presented a very detrimental situation that can arise: due to the financial benefits that AirBnbs bring, landlords may begin to change properties from long-term to short-term rentals if that increases their revenues, which displaces residents out of their homes.lxxii

A 69 year old low income housing complex was sold to real estate company QR Capital, which aims to “acquire, renovate and operate conventional multifamily and student housing projects.” They displaced over 200 residents, then sold it to SCAD in November 2020.lxxiii

Zoning Doesn’t Allow for High Density An increase in density will allow for more people to be housed and for rents to stay down. Most are TN2: traditional neighborhoods that are zoned to be a row home or a two-story Victorian home.

Housing Savannah Action Planlxxiv

The Housing Savannah Task Force was established in the summer of 2020 by Mayor Van Johnson, and created an action plan to address the crisis. lxxv

Raise Awareness and Support for Housing:

Creating an NGO to implement the plan and educational initiatives will raise awareness of the issues.

Help 15,000 Households by 2032: The plan will help 500 households avoid eviction, repair 1,000 homes annually, ensure the existing 5,000 units are safe, and demolis 1,000 blighted or abandoned properties. The task force assigned nonprofits (such as the United Way of the Coastal Empire, Family Promise of Greater Savannah, the Salvation Army, and Economic Opportunity Authority) to tackle the first item. The city will utilize its Affordable Housing Fund for renovations, which currently has $2 million. The nonprofit that operates the fund is hoping businesses to invest, trying to raise $500,000.

Invest $100 Million Annually in Housing Needs by 2032:

The plan calls on the city, county, nonprofits, private donations, and federal grants to invest, and recommends the City Council provide $7.5 million of its $400 million budget for housing. The task force also requests Chatham County to invest $2 million annually from 5% of its property tax base to help low-income families purchase homes. The Task Force also expects businesses and private colleges to invest this same amount. Specifically

the Task Force calls out Savannah College of Art and Design to invest in the fund in order to create workforce housing downtown for the college’s workers.

Increase the Amount of Housing for Savannah Stakeholders:

The task force says that the city will help more people by relying and expanding Savannah’s network of institutions, nonprofits, and civic organizations. The strategy includes dozens of existing and recommended organizations that will work to create home repairs, low-income housing, among other operations for homeowners, renters and landlords. Who will pay for and staff these operations is unclear.

Support Housing Through Policies:

These have been synthesized by a Savannah Now article, listing: - “The City of Savannah needs to develop and adopt a neighborhood planning tool that helps Housing Savannah identify areas with need.

- Urge the city, county and school board to sell available land it owns for the creation of low- or middle-income housing. Use the sale revenue for the Affordable Housing Fund.

- Incentivize the development of affordable housing by waiving costs and fees associated with building permits, plan reviews, water fines and other construction-related costs charged by the city.

- Create a team of city staff to review and

recommend new codes, zoning and ordinances related to housing.

- Research opportunities for inclusionary zoning, which aims to desegregate neighborhoods along race and wealth lines and promote affordable housing policies.

Look into policy that would help property owners clear up deed-related issues and confusion.

- Establish CAT bus routes to lower-income projects and communities.”

State and Federal Level Recommendations: Statewide, these recommendations include establishing a statewide housing fund and new urban zoning practices, and pursuing more funding from HUD.

Public-private Partnership: Sustainable Fellwood

Built in 2010, Sustainable Fellwood is the first LEED certified public housing development in Georgia, created by the public-private partnership of the City, Housing Authority of Savannah, and private and nonprofit developers.

It highlights the important role of publicprivate partnerships as well as the benefits of sustainable design in creating innovative housing strategies.

The project reserves 35% of units for households with less than 30% of AMI, 45% of units for households earning up to 60% of AMI, with the remainder being market-rate units.

Sustainable Fellwood has a total of 220 mixedincome housing units, a 100-unit senior housing complex, and 13 single-family homeownership units. All units are organized around a four-acre park, and connected with pedestrian-scaled streets, with oak trees throughout the 27-acre parcel.

Hotel/Motel Tax: A big source of revenue has been the hotel/motel tax. A 6% tax was put on each hotel, which acquired $27.7 million in revenue. This also applies to short term vacation rentals and AirBnb rentals, which as previously stated, have grown tremendously since they were approved seven years ago.lxxvi

Sustainable Fellwood’s design promotes resource efficiency and sustainability. Even though the LEED standards created additional costs, they were offset by savings from efficient unit design, less off-street parking, and not having outdoor balconies. Also, the project includes rooftop solar panels and is close to public transportation. The investments in cost efficiency are important because they reduce operating costs for residents, as units are 21 to 30% more efficient than a typical building, which will be beneficial in the long-term.

The project was financed by LIHTCs ($10 million), Tax Credit Assistance Program funds ($5.9 million, tax credit financing ($26.2 million), the city of Savannah ($3.5 million in in Special Option Local Sales Tax funds), and the Housing Authority of Savannah ($7 million in replacement housing capital funds).lxxvii

https://www.savannahnow.com/article/20120516/NEWS/305169727

Other initiatives Other programs in place in Savannah include the Dream Maker Home Buyer Assistance Program, which assists citizens in making down payments on housing. Furthermore, The Savannah Affordable Housing Fund was established in 2011 to assist low- and modest income workers through low-interest loans or grants for emergency repairs, and The Chatham County Housing Coalition consists of citizens and community leaders that advocate for affordable housing, which was formed in 2018. The Tiny House Project was created by The Chatham Savannah Authority for the Homeless: homeless veterans are able to move into small, permanent homes for just $240 a month, utilities included.lxxviii

Charleston

City Population

140,476

Metropolitan Population

830,122

2020 Growth Rate

1.05%

Population Growth since 2010

16.98%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

1,270

Average Median Income

$98,288

Poverty Rate

13.23%.

Median Rental Cost

$1,257

Median House Value

$330,600

Severely Cost Burdened

16,259

Flooding

Flooding is a significant issue in Charleston. Charleston is a land-locked peninsula in the Lowcountry, and is highly susceptible to flooding. Rising seas will continue to increase due to the effects of climate change. Flooding has even occurred with no rain at all, coined “sunny floods.” In 2019, Charleston and the South Carolina coast flooded a record-breaking 89 times.lxxix

https://www.postandcourier.com/news/charleston-and-the-south-carolina-coast-floodedrecord-89-times-in-2019/article_7c18ee5e-2e3b-11ea-8784-23ddbc8d4e0c.html

Housing for a Fair Charleston Report The report, completed by multiple city departments and released in January 2020, outlines a five-year plan with recommendations for affordable housing. Key recommendations include creating incentives for developers who implement affordable housing zoning incentives, and allowing tiny homes and ADUs. The report also establishes connections between transportation and affordable housing. The goal is to plan housing initiatives around future public transportation, specifically with the Lowcountry Rapid Transit Plan, which is in the works and will connect the city to Summerville. Furthermore, the report lists ways to employ existing bond, state, and federal funding in the next five years, which are necessary since a major challenge is the cost of building in Charleston.lxxx

Charleston Housing Authority Repairing and Replacing Public Housing CHA will renovate and replace all of Charleston’s existing public housing.

The ambitious plan will also add 800 to 1,000 affordable apartments. Each apartment building will involve a publicprivate partnership: these will be funded by state and

federal LITHCs. This financial framework is called the Rental Assistance Demonstration program. Started in 2012, RAD uses tax credits to incentivize developers to build and revitalize public housing. This is occurring but CHA will own the properties.

Some apartment complexes that were built very well in the 1930s like Meeting Street Manor and Robert Mills Manor will be renovated, since the quality of their construction is very high.

The list of housing projects are depicted in the following image:

Mixed-use Workforce Housing Fee

Charleston requires developers to set aside 20% of their project as affordable, donate land to the city, or pay a fee.

The funds from the fee are used by the city to create affordable housing units.

Out of 14 developments in the past three years, only one chose to incorporate affordable housing, and the rest paid the fee. This trend should incentivize the city to increase the fee to make sure affordable housing units are built.lxxxi

Habitat for Humanity Partnership with Community First Land Trust Over the last three decades, Habitat for Humanity has built around 90 homes.

Because rising land prices inhibit their efforts, Habitat is partnering with the Community First Land Trust in North Charleston: the land trust keeps the land and Habitat works with families to build the homes. The partnership allows Habitat to give families affordable homes. Habitat is also emphasizing helping people with repairing their homes, since as rents increase, people don’t have as much money for maintenance.lxxxii

City Creates New Affordable Housing Roles

County Will Receive $80 Million, No Plan Yet

In Charleston County, officials are creating new positions to start the conversation on affordable housing.

Firstly, the city will hire a consultant to develop a comprehensive plan for the city. Secondly, the County Council will create the new role of Director of Community Revitalization and Housing Affordability. This individual will manage federal funds and any money related to affordable housing, and will work with developers to develop affordable housing.lxxxiii

Furthermore, the county will receive $80 million from the American Rescue Plan fund that comes from the federal government as COVID-19 relief funds. The city is still figuring out what to do with the money; Council members have expressed interest creating a housing fund, but this is yet to be determined, and it also depends on final rules by the US Treasury Department on how the money can be spent. Charleston County Councilwoman Jenny Honeycutt stated that the city does have a list of possibilities to fund with that money but plans have not been finalized. Conversations are underway and the Council will submit a list of priorities in by fall of 2021. However, she did state that “if there are shovelready projects that we can invest in that can happen and it filters up as a priority in this list, we’ll definitely be looking at that.”lxxxiv

County Budget lacks Affordable Housing Initiatives + Other Initiatives Don’t Pass First-term Councilmen Kylon Middleton and Rob Wehrman, both Democrats elected in November, repeatedly called for creating an affordable housing fund with as much as $10 million. However, the only affordable housing initiatives in Charleston County have been creating the positions that were described previously, and the funding for that was only $142,000 out of the $271.6 million general fund budget.

Furthermore, in November 2020, a county referendum that sought a special property tax to create the Local Housing Trust Fund failed to pass.

Even though it received much support from realtors and business groups, it narrowly failed.lxxxv

Charleston City Planlxxxvii The main focus of the Charleston City plan, the new 10- year Comprehensive Plan, is flooding and affordable housing. It’s the first time in the city’s history that the plan takes into account the water: where to build and where not to build, for both existing and projected sea level rise. A study done by the city concluded that the city needs 16,000 new units by 2030, which is a huge undertaking.

The City Council still needs to approve the plan, which is expected to happen by the end of summer 2021.lxxxvi

Land-Use Recommendations Zoning: “Create a new zoning ordinance that is based on elevation, tied to the dynamic nature of sea level rise” Flooding: “Pursue further studies of middle ground areas (between TIdal Flood Risk and High Ground Zones) and develop land use strategies based on analysis of individual drainage basins and stormwater easements” “Make the best use of the highest land around the city for residential, commercial and mixed-use developments” “Reduce densities on low-lying, areas vulnerable to flooding and eliminated development in future marsh migration areas”

Housing Recommendations Continue to implement recommendations from the Housing for a Fair Charleston Report Encourage diversity of housing types: “Strongly encourage and create incentives for a diversity of housing types within neighborhoods citywide, including attachedstyle housing, such as townhomes, condominiums, flats, duplexes, triplexes and fourplexes and allow by right in more base zoning districts” Percentage of affordable housing: Increases in maximum residential densities must include a percentage of affordable housing Reduce regulatory barriers: Allocate resources and implement policies to decrease regulatory barriers that hinder development of affordable housing, including: “expedited review and permitting, reduced fees, affordable materials standards, flexibility for design and architectural standards, flexibility for design and architectural standards when appropriate, and allocating staff devoted to shepherding projects through

the development process.”

“Create a dedicated funding stream for affordable housing development through zoning and other planning tools” Preserve NOAH: Develop strategies for preserving existing affordable housing set to expire and NOAH units throughout the city Partnership with Land Trust: Expand partnership with the Charleston Redevelopment Corporation (Palmetto Community Land Trust) and establish a land bank for future affordable housing development ADUs + Missing Middle: Charleston approved ADUs in 2020 in all base zoning districts. “In the future, changes to zoning should encourage “missing middle” housing types in more base zoning districts and City staff should research ways to further promote diverse housing types and support affordability around the city.”

Public-private Partnerships

ADU Incentives for Homeowners

In February 2021, Standard Communities led a public-private partnership and acquired Osprey Place Apartments in North Charleston.

The developer partnered with South Carolina State Housing Finance and Development Authority (SC Housing) and the nonprofit Housing on Merit to acquire a long-term ground lease for the 108 units. Financed with Low Income Housing Tax Credits, the transaction capitalized $22 million and included renovations of over $82,000 per unit.lxxxviii

The City’s Department of Housing and Community Development will give out $200,000 to 20 homeowners in order for them to build Additional Dwelling Units, or small apartments next to or behind people’s homes. The goal is to increase ADUs in order to allow for more affordable housing options in single family zoning areas. The City Council passed a zoning code change to allow for the 850 SF ADUs in August 2020, and the city will begin to accept applications for the grants a year later.lxxxix

Non-profits

• One 80 Place (Only non profit that’s developing) goal to eliminate homelessness- mixed use building, women’s shelter, 80 units of transitional housing • Delayed by a year and a half by financing issues- don’t want to borrow money from the bank- bought by fundraising, donations, and tax credits- partner with aff housing developer who will manage the projects • Set budget: finance this much, borrow this much- cut 2 fourths of the building to meet budget, reduce materials • If this was a market rate projectthese cuts wouldn’t have happenedxc

Columbia

City Population

129,482

Metropolitan Population

851,919

2020 Growth Rate

-0.84%

Population Growth since 2010

0.16%

Population Density (people/sqmi)

952

Average Median Income

$76,118

Poverty Rate

21.77%

Median Rental Cost

$933

Median House Value

$181,100

Severely Cost Burdened

17,890

Existing Affordable Housing Is Unsafe

In January of 2019, two men died due to carbon monoxide poisoning at a Columbia Housing property, Allen Benedict Court. The housing complex also received two dozen violations in a Columbia Fire Department letter to the Columbia Housing Authority, including missing smoke alarms, infestations, and charred closets.

Due to the dangerous and life-threatening code violations conditions the fire officials discovered, residents were told they could never go back to their homes; more than 400 residents were displaced as a result. As of 2021, the Allen Benedict Court, the oldest of the agency’s properties, will be demolished. In May HUD processed the Housing Authority’s request of providing residents housing vouchers and for some of them to relocate at Marion St. High rise.

However, for many, options and time to use the vouchers rapidly ran out. In February of 2020, CHA pleaded guilty to 24 of 26 violations, and was fined $11,000. This situation shines a light on the maintenance issues of Columbia Housing properties, and the importance of investing in quality housing. xci

https://www.columbiamissourian.com/news/local/columbia-housing-authority-to-start-massive-renovation-project-downtown/article_c248cc9c-fa82-11e4-932d-e3da60b76582.html

History of Columbia Housing Authority

Established under the 1937 Housing Act, CHA, now renamed Columbia Housing, serves 6,500 lowincome households and over 16,000 individuals throughout the City of Columbia, Cayce and Richland County, making it the largest housing authority in South Carolina. Historically, CHA was successful in creating a vast number of affordable housing properties, creating most between the 1930s through 90s. Many of its housing complexes, however, are decaying because they were built decades ago, and some are even unsafe to occupy as outlined with the Allen Benedict Court instance.

Section 8: CHA started the Section 8 housing program in 1976, when the government gave the organization $247,000 a year for five years in order to pay rent supplements on 150 private rental units. Officials said they could give even more funding if CHA could handle the units, which they did, and since then the number of households has grown to 2900.

Columbia Housing Authority Development, Inc (CHAD): In 1982, CHA created CHAD to obtain more alternative financing. Back then, only nonprofit organizations could apply for certain HUD grants.

Organizations were also restricted because when they received income, HUD funds were counted against the subsidy the housing authority got from HUD. Since 2015, the city has given out more than $2 million in loans and mortgages, which has constructed 145 multifamily housing projects at Lorick Place and the Pointe at Elmwood. xcii

Vision 2030 Plan

https://www.abccolumbia.com/2017/10/04/gonzales-gardens-saying-goodbye-to-an-era/

CHA announced a new plan to demolish, renovate, and add new affordable housing and to transition the entire public housing portfolio to HUD’s Rental Assistance Demonstration program. The RAD program will permit the CHA to turn to the private market and investors to obtain the money that is necessary to improve the current state of affordable housing. In South Carolina, RAD has raised $53.3 million and developed 1800 units.

Over the next five years, CHA will make a $500 million investment through public and private partnerships that will do the following: - Oak at St. Anna’s Park will replace former Gonzales Gardens - Haven at Palmer Point will replace Marion Street High Rise - Allen Benedict Court will be demolished and rebuilt, creating 168 senior units and 195 Family Units in 2022 - Oak Read highrise will be redeveloped - Latimer Manor, Arrington Manor, Reserves at Faraway and Dorrah Randall will be demolished and rebuilt on the same site.

- Hammond Village and Lewis Scott Court will both undergo substantial rehabilitation - 18 Smaller Properties: 70 units will be demolished, 476 units rehabilitated - 140 Single Family Homes demolished or sold, 155 getting repairs - 4 new developments to add 902 affordable units in Columbia and Richland Court All residents affected by this plan will be contacted

by CHA to start plans to relocate if needed. CHA says that by 2030, they hope to have 3,000 affordable homes, matching numbers from the late 90s. xciii

Private-public Partnership: Haven Group Partnering with CHA As of January 2021, Haven Group, made up of Haven Home, a nonprofit, and Realty Haven, a real estate business, are establishing a public-private partnership with Columbia Housing. They are striving to buy single family homes in areas that need the investment. They will invest and rehabilitate those properties and then rent them out, or do a rent-toown program back to the community at affordable prices. Realty Haven will manage properties owned by the Columbia Housing Authority; they will make sure resident’s concerns are heard, and that properties maintain the proper upkeep. Realty Haven will serve as a liaison between CHA and their residents. Right now, Realty Haven is raising funds through grants and donations, which will help provide additional liquidity for Haven Home to buy single family homes. According to CEO of Realty Haven Lauren Taylor, she hasn’t been able to find another model like what they are trying to do in the nation. xciv

Summary of Plans + Actions

Charlotte

Eliminates single-family-only zoning; Housing Impact Fund

Wilmington

Future land use map permits more multi-family housing- set to be adopted January 2022

Greenville

Designates 10% of all new housing as affordable, creates a node/corridor framework

Myrtle Beach

Future land use map incentivizes higher density along corridors; public-private partnership to revitalize downtown

Raleigh

Permits more multi-family housing; $80 million Housing Bond to create 5,700 units through publicprivate partnerships

Savannah

Aims to help 15,000 households by 2032; calls upon the private sector to invest

Charleston

Zoning based on elevation; “encourage” diversity of housing types; CHA using RAD to renovate/replace all existing public housing

Columbia

$500 million investment through public-private partnerships to redevelop and build housing developments

Solutions

There is no entirely successful city in affordable housing in the United States because it is a crisis nationwide. However, analyzing different successful approaches from cities is helpful to better understand how this issue can be solved.

Strategies to Keep Existing Housing Affordable: Boston, Massachusettsxcv Boston is successful in finding multilayered strategies to keep existing housing affordable. Suffolk County is the top-performing county to provide low-income families housing, and another four counties are in the top 10 largest counties with the smallest affordable housing gaps.

Early HUD Beneficiary Massachusetts’ strong performance was seen in the 50s through 80s and was an early beneficiary of HUD. The state historically put money into affordable housing, through vouchers and into state public housing, which didn’t occur in the rest of the nation. Furthermore, under HUD’s programs, the government financially incentivized developers to build affordable housing and in return developers agreed to keep that housing reasonably priced for many decades. Moreover, Massachusetts distinguished itself by investing in its own resources, creating state public housing and state housing voucher programs, which were a separate entity from the government.

Other programs included the state’s own low-income housing tax credit program in the late 90s, and even created state financing for affordable housing called Section 13A, similar to HUD’s Section 236 program.

The deals between developers and HUD - to pay off their mortgagesexpired after 20 years, so developers

were not required to provide housing to low income households and could rent units on the open market. By the late 1980s, many developers were tempted to opt out of HUD programs and rent to middle class families who wanted to move back into the city. However, national measures that created new incentives saved these temptations from fully developing. Particularly in this first crisis, Boston created what would become a strong network of organizations that work to preserve housing affordability, like CEDAC.

A Strong Nonprofit and Developer Network Now, Boston distinguishes itself from other cities because there are many nonprofits that work with smaller developers known as community development corporations, missiondriven for-profit developers, and financial intermediaries. They work together to buy and increase atrisk properties and keep them affordable. In the late 1990s, another wave of risk hit Boston as many HUD Section 8 housing units’ agreement’s expired. However, much of the housing stock was preserved because city and state officials, developers, and CEDAC came together, strategized, and negotiated with the private owners. This shows one of the many advantages of having a strong public-private organization network.

Establishing other sources of funding In 2006, “the Massachusetts Department of Housing and Community Development, CEDAC, and the MacArthur Foundation in 2009 created a fund that provides bridge loans to affordable-housing buyers looking to preserve properties, so they can act quickly when the alarms go off and these properties come to market.”

Right of first refusal Through 2009’s Chapter 40T law, the city can stop owners from selling their affordable housing properties if they don’t commit to preserving their affordability. This law has been essential in preserving several affordable housing developments, such as the Wilshire Apartments for low-income families.

Turning to Rental Assistance Demonstrations However, after HUD declined funding, they turned to Rental Assistance Demonstrations or RAD, which “was created in order to give public housing authorities (PHAs) a powerful tool to preserve and improve public housing properties and address the $26 billion

nationwide backlog of deferred maintenance.”

RAD also gives owners of three HUD "legacy" programs (Rent Supplement, Rental Assistance Payment, and Section 8 Moderate Rehabilitation) the opportunity to enter into long-term contracts that facilitate the financing of improvements.

The success of Suffolk is due to the astute players that figured out how to combine policy tools and other collaborative initiatives. However, it is also important to note the importance of public investment: Suffolk was a population center that directly benefited from public investment, which was much greater than it is nowadays.

Start Buying Buildings: Berlin, Germany+ American Citiesxcvi

A solution is that cities should obtain housing stock by buying it, so that it gets in the hands of nonprofits and public owners and not-for-profits. Even through fundraising and political challenges, cities throughout the nation have made it work. In Dallas, the city’s housing authority bought a 347 unit apartment complex in May 2020. According to longtime commissioner of the Cambridge Housing Authority in Massachusetts James Stockard, not many have realized that it’s an option, focusing their resources on more typical actions, like providing police services or paving streets. HUD has helped by allowing a few dozen housing authorities flexibility in how they spend their funding through a program called Moving to Work.

Before, housing authorities from these cities could only spend a certain amount of funding per specific section, like housing vouchers or maintenance, but now these restrictions are gone. HUD plans to do this with another 100 housing authorities by 2022.

Buying existing housing complexes is beneficial as it will help control housing prices, which is necessary as cities continue to grow and prices continue to exponentially

rise. In Berlin, Germany, the city owns a high share of all rental units, managing more than 325,000 units or roughly 17%, and can therefore control housing prices. Because the city controls the housing companies, it can control and stabilize the price of housing. It’s not simply a holdover from East German communism, but rather a direct response from the city of Berlin to rising housing prices.

The city was able to gather more housing stock through a state law that permits it right of first refusal on residential properties being sold.

Of course, this approach is more aggressive than others, but it makes sense because of the high amount of rental apartments: the proportion of who rents versus who owns is higher than 70%. This percentage is very similar to the United States, where 29 cities out of the largest 50 cities in the US have renter households in the majority.

Public-private Partnerships As previously mentioned, public-private partnerships are collaborations between a government agency (including nonprofits) and a private sector company.

The housing market is divided into the two groups: developers seeking profits and big budgets, and mission-driven nonprofits that have limited financial options like LIHTCs. Public-private partnerships establish the best of the two: mission-driven and heavily financed affordable housing developments.

Buying NOAH

Social impact investors have established the Charlotte Housing Impact Fund, which is a great example of buying NOAH. Also, in Arlington, Virginia, the nonprofit Washington Housing Conservancy plans to preserve or create 1,300 affordable housing units near the new Amazon HQ2, utilizing below-market funding from Amazon’s new $2 billion Housing Equity Fund. These efforts are successful in comparison to the slow pace of action at the city level. These partnerships have also been tried in other cities, including Austin, Washington DC and Minneapolis through public and private sectors working together.

NOAH Investments are powerful but rare. According to National Housing Trust policy associate Moha Thakur, most investors hope “to receive a rate of return that is higher than what is generated by affordable housing which poses a problem for developers who are trying to seek out funding but also maintain some level of affordability.” The return on investment for for-profit real estate investments is 15% or more, while the

return on investment for NOAH is in the single digits. The challenge is therefore finding investors that are willing to accept the lower return on investment. xcvii

Zoning Changes Obviously, without private sector investing and lack of funding, cities cannot just start buying huge numbers of housing quickly. However, they can change policies like zoning that permit more affordable housing, which is what many cities across the nation are doing.

These changes include: lifting restrictions on more affordable muti-family housing, permitting and incentivizing ADUs and tiny homes, and even eliminating singlefamily-only altogether. Other zoning changes can be to focus development near transit corridors and re-investing in neighborhoods where there’s affordability but no jobs. These changes are depicted in many of the strategic plans described previously.

Tax Credits As previously stated, LIHTC gives developers the ability to build low-income family homes through federal tax credits.

Although Low Income Tax Credits are beneficial in providing funding- and have been the leading source of federal funding- they can bring limitations through creating an unnecessarily long and complex process. A Public Source article describes Oakland Planning and Development board member’s Jason Vrebel’s six-year experience dealing with the LIHTC process. Design challenges, construction delays, and the need to meet strict deadlines are some of the challenges that the program brings, he describes.

The application process for LIHTCs is highly competitive and costly. For a $16.3 million LIHTC-financed Oakland Affordable Living project, consultant fees totaled $125,000. Because there is a limited supply of credits that don’t meet the high demand, first-time applications are often denied. This adds up to several developers wasting money in the application for a single tax credit.

What is most detrimental about LIHTCs is that although they provide high-quality affordable housing in the short term, it does not mean this is the case in the long-term: they don’t guarantee that housing stays affordable permanently.

The program used to require housing to remain affordable for 15 years and then 30 years. However, when this time period

ends, owners can increase rents to their and the market’s wishes. This is incredibly disadvantageous as it results in the loss of affordable housing and can also cause rents nearby to increase. xcviii

Framework for Developers Developers do not invest in affordable housing because they want to make large profits. However, If all developers in the market invest equally in affordable housing, they will be eager to compete.

There has to be a consistency for all developers involved. How do cities engage developers in producing affordable housing? The only potential solution would be for the government to make it a requirement for them to produce a certain amount of affordable housing, which is very unlikely to occur because developers will push back. However, if certain policies that majorly increase the cost of production are changed, then they are more likely to produce affordable housing. For example, acquiring state tax credits and the building’s review process takes a long time, which means they are spending more money that could have gone to creating the affordable units.

Framework for Architects The architect works for the client, who in many cases is a developer. Architects can press developers to go a certain direction to incentivize affordability, but not completely. As we know, most developers are not building affordable housing because they want to make a profit. So what can architects do as an integral member of the design and building process?

Architecture firms need to take ownership of affordable housing projects, whether it is by giving their employees time to do that type of work, buying land so that developers don’t have to, or advocating for policy changes that permit more affordable housing. Architects are limited by current policies that create unnecessary challenges, and advocating for these changes is essential. Policy changes like reducing the number of parking spaces can decrease the cost of a building substantially. Making the development process less complicated, shorter, and more transparent will also reduce costs. Apartments should be allowed to be built as-of-right, because more time means more money spent.

Also, many zoning regulations require preserving neighborhood characteristics and do not allow for economic, cheaper materials. xcix Furthermore, architects can create innovative design solutions that reduce costs. Prefabrication and modularity

decrease costs substantially, which can be seen through the Los Angeles Star Apartments. A crane lowered and fixed 102 wood-framed prefabricated housing units onto a structure, which saved months of construction work.c Other design solutions include taking advantage of sustainable construction practices and features that will reduce resident’s cost of living in the long run, like in the Sustainable Fellwood development in Savannah.

Endnotes i

U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (n.d.). Helping You Meet Your Housing Needs. Retrieved September 28, 2021.

From https://www.hud.gov/

ii Houston Housing Authority. (n.d.). Housing Definitions. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from http://www.housingforhouston.com/ about-hha/housing-definitions.aspx iii Houston Housing Authority. (n.d.). Housing Definitions. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from http://www.housingforhouston.com/ about-hha/housing-definitions.aspx iv Preferred Compliance Solutions. (n.d.). LIHTC at a Glance. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://www.preferredcompliance. com/post/what-is-low-income-housing-tax-credit v U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development. (n.d.). Housing Choice Vouchers Fact Sheet. Retrieved September 28, 2021.

From https://www.hud.gov/program_offices/public_indian_housing/programs/hcv/about/fact_sheet vi Turner, S. (2018, July) 12. What Exactly is Workforce Housing and Why is it Important? UNC School of Government. https://ced.sog. unc.edu/what-exactly-is-workforce-housing-and-why-is-it-important/ vii Houston Housing Authority. (n.d.). Housing Definitions. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from http://www.housingforhouston.com/ about-hha/housing-definitions.aspx viii NOAH Impact Fund. (n.d.). Preserving Existing Naturally Occurring Affordable Housing by Connecting Developers and Owner-Operators with Social Impact Investors. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://noahimpactfund.com/ ix Inclusionary Housing. (n.d.). What is Inclusionary Housing? Grounded Solutions Network. Retrieved September 28, 2021. From https:// inclusionaryhousing.org/inclusionary-housing-explained/what-is-inclusionary-housing/ x Schwab, K. (2018, January 4). The Racist Roots of “Urban Renewal” and How it Made Cities Less Equal.” Fast Company. https://www. fastcompany.com/90155955/the-racist-roots-of-urban-renewal-and-how-it-made-cities-less-equal City of Raleigh, NC. (2021, July 6). Missing Middle: Adding More Affordable Housing in Raleigh. https://raleighnc.gov/news/2021-07-06missing-middle-adding-more-affordable-housing-raleigh xi Flynn, K. (2020, August 4). The Housing Problem. Architect. https://www.architectmagazine.com/aia-architect/aiafeature/the-housing-problem_o xii Badger, E. (2017, August 24). How Redlining’s Racist Effects Lasted for Decades. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes. com/2017/08/24/upshot/how-redlinings-racist-effects-lasted-for-decades.html xiii Ally. (2020, September 15). Let’s Talk: What is Redlining and How Does it Affect the Homeownership Gap Today? https://www. ally.com/do-it-right/home/what-is-redlining-how-does-it-impact-communities-today/ xiv Schwab, K. (2018, January 4). The Racist Roots of “Urban Renewal” and How it Made Cities Less Equal.” Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany.com/90155955/the-racist-roots-of-urban-renewal-and-how-it-made-cities-less-equal xv Badger, E. (2013, August 16). The Dramatic Racial Bias of Subprime Lending During the Housing Boom. Bloomberg. https://www. bloomberg.com/news/articles/2013-08-16/the-dramatic-racial-bias-of-subprime-lending-during-the-housing-boom xvi The United States Department of Justice. (n.d.). The Fair Housing Act. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://www.justice. gov/crt/fair-housing-act-1 xvii History. (2018, February 28; updated 2021, March 26). Jim Crow Laws. https://www.history.com/topics/early-20th-century-us/ jim-crow-laws xviii Ally. (2020, September 15). Let’s Talk: What is Redlining and How Does it Affect the Homeownership Gap Today? https://www. ally.com/do-it-right/home/what-is-redlining-how-does-it-impact-communities-today/ xix Bahney, A. (2021, July 15). Minimum Wage Workers Can’t Afford Rent Anywhere in America. CNN. https://www.cnn. com/2021/07/15/homes/rent-affordability-minimum-wage/index.html xx Sisson, P.; Andrews, J.; and Bazely, A. (2020, March 2). The Affordable Housing Crisis, Explained. Curbed. https://archive.curbed. com/2019/5/15/18617763/affordable-housing-policy-rent-real-estate-apartment

xxi We Are Apartments. (2019, June 28). What Experts Say About NIMBYism and How to Deal With It. Medium. https://medium. com/we-are-apartments/what-experts-say-about-nimbyism-and-how-to-deal-with-it-f96bf1acfa8d xxii Semuels, A. (2017, April 4). Why It’s so Hard to Get Ahead in the South. The Atlantic. https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2017/04/south-mobility-charlotte/521763/ xxiii Worth Advisors. (n.d.). 50 Out of 50: Social Mobility in Charlotte. https://worthadvisors.com/50-out-of-50-social-mobility-incharlotte/ xxiv Best Neighborhood. (n.d.). Race Map for Charlotte, NC and Racial Diversity Data. https://bestneighborhood.org/race-in-charlotte-nc/ xxv Spencer, S. and Samuel, K. (2021, March 23). Charlotte 2040 Is About Choosing to Be Better. Charlotte Observer. https://www. charlotteobserver.com/opinion/article249914623.html xxvi

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xxvii Lindstrom, L. (2020, November 4). This $58 Million Fund Will Buy, Save Affordable Housing from Vanishing in Charlotte. Charlotte Observer. https://www.charlotteobserver.com/news/local/article245597360.html xxviii City of Charlotte. (n.d.). The Transit Corridor System Plan. https://charlottenc.gov/cats/transit-planning/2030-plan/Pages/ easy-to-miss.aspx xxix Callison, J. (2021, March 24). No Way Home? WilmingtonBiz. http://www.wilmingtonbiz.com/wilmingtonbiz_magazine/2021/03/24/no_way_home/21620 xxx Nunn, C. (2021, April 6). Affordable Housing Studies Show Depth of Problem. WilmingtonBiz. http://www.wilmingtonbiz.com/ real_estate_residential/2021/04/06/affordable_housing_studies_show_depth_of_the_problem/21699 xxxi Callison, J. (2021, March 24). No Way Home? WilmingtonBiz. http://www.wilmingtonbiz.com/wilmingtonbiz_magazine/2021/03/24/no_way_home/21620 xxxii City of Wilmington. (2016, March 1). Create Wilmington Comprehensive Plan: Growth Factors Report. http://flipbook.wilmingtonnc.gov/pdt/growthfactors/ xxxiii

Eden Village. (n.d.). Building a City Where No One Sleeps Outside. https://edenvillageusa.org/wilmington-nc/

xxxiv New Hanover County Planning and Land Use. (2016, July 11). Comprehensive Plan. https://planning.nhcgov.com/long-rangeplanning/comprehensive-plan/#collapse1 xxxv City of Wilmington. (2016, March 1). Create Wilmington Comprehensive Plan: Growth Strategies Report. http://flipbook.wilmingtonnc.gov/pdt/growthstrategiesreport/8/ xxxvi Williams, A.S. (2021, March 16). How Wilmington’s New Development Code Could Save Trees, Polish Aesthetics. Port City Daily. https://portcitydaily.com/local-news/2021/03/16/how-wilmingtons-new-development-code-could-save-trees-polish-aesthetics/ xxxvii Jordan, C. (2021, June 21). Bill for “Increasing Housing Opportunities” Sees Criticism from Some Wilmington-Area Towns.

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xlv CZB. (2020, December). GVL2040: Comprehensive Plan for Greenville, SC. City of Greenville. http://gvl2040.com/DocumentCenter/View/16721/GVL2040-Adopted-Comp-Plan-PDF?bidId= xlvi Connor, E. (2021, July 8). Greenville Delays Affordable Housing Incentives to ‘Get it Right,’ Mesh with Long-Term Plan. Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/greenville/business/greenville-delays-affordable-housing-incentives-to-get-it-right-meshwith-long-term-plan/article_9268e23c-db59-11eb-9231-e3a94d342614.html xlvii

City of Greenville. (n.d.). Greenville Housing Fund. https://sc-greenville2.civicplus.com/1275/Greenville-Housing-Fund

xlviii Miller, T. P. & Associates. (2020, September). Housing Strategy. Greenville Housing Fund. https://greenvillehousingfund.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/10/ghf-gcra-affordable-housing-strategic-plan.pdf xlix Fox, W. (2020, August 6). Unity Park Construction Continues as Southernside Prepares for a Transformation. Greenville Journal. https://greenvillejournal.com/community/unity-park-construction-continues-as-southernside-prepares-for-transformation/ l

Contino, G. and Atkinson, M. (2021, July 7). A Developer Is Proposing to Build More than 100 Condominiums Near Unity Park in Greenville. Greenville News. https://www.greenvilleonline.com/story/news/local/2021/07/06/developer-proposes-104-condos-southernside-greenville-sc-gentrification-affordable-housing/7841650002/

li Kummerer, S. (2019, August 1). Study: Myrtle Beach Job Growth Not Keeping up with Housing Dvelopment; Leaders Disagree. WMBF. https://www.wmbfnews.com/2019/08/01/study-myrtle-beach-job-growth-not-keeping-up-with-housing-development-leaders-disagree/ lii Norkol, M. (2020, August 22). In Horry County, There’s a ‘Substantial Disconnect’ Between What People Make, Can Afford. The Sun News. https://account.myrtlebeachonline.com/paywall/stop?resume=245136585 liii City of Myrtle Beach. (2020, April 27). Workforce Housing Needs Assessment. https://cms6.revize.com/revize/myrtlebeachsc/ WFH%20Needs%20Assessment%20Presentation%205.pdf liv Strong, H. and Fleming, T. (2020, December 1; updated 2021, August 13). One Grand Strand: Myrtle Beach Council Hears Plans for a New Downtown Development Plan. The Post and Courier Myrtle Beach. https://www.postandcourier.com/myrtle-beach/news/ one-grand-strand-myrtle-beach-council-hears-plans-for-a-new-downtown-development-plan/article_529df968-3351-11eb-ae438b04675e310c.html lv Hucks, D. (2021, March 23). Will the City Finally Let the Private Sector Lead Downtown Re-Development? MyrtleBeachSC. https:// myrtlebeachsc.com/will-the-city-finally-let-the-private-sector-lead-downtown-re-development/ lvi Haynes, J. (2021, April 16). Myrtle Beach Hoping Public-Private Partnerships Will Draw Locals Downtown. My Horry News. https:// www.myhorrynews.com/news/local/myrtle_beach/myrtle-beach-focused-on-public-private-partnerships/article_e250fca2-9f05-11ebacf8-070c06ff3ec9.html lvii Horry County Council. (2019, December 10). Comprehensive Plan: Imagine 2040, Your County, Your Voice, Our Future. https:// www.horrycounty.org/portals/0/docs/PlanningandZoning/Imagine2040/ADOPTED%20IMAGINE%202040%20with%2012-082020%20Amendment-compressed.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A825%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22Fi tR%22%7D%2C-10%2C-75%2C1233%2C868%5D lviii The City of Raleigh, Housing and Neighborhoods Department, Community Development Division. (n.d.). Consolidated Plan FY 2021-2025. Retrieved September 29, 2021. from https://cityofraleigh0drupal.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/drupal-prod/COR19/ConsolidatedPlan.pdf lix The City of Raleigh, Housing and Neighborhoods Department, Community Development Division. (n.d.). Consolidated Plan FY 20212025. Retrieved September 29, 2021. from https://cityofraleigh0drupal.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/drupal-prod/COR19/ConsolidatedPlan.pdf lx City of Raleigh. (n.d.). Affordable Housing. Retrieved September 29, 2021. from https://raleighnc.gov/affordable-housing lxi City of Raleigh. (2021, September 24). Current Project Areas for Community Development. https://raleighnc.gov/Community/content/ HousingNeighborhoods/Articles/CDProjects.html lxii City of Raleigh. (2021, June 25). Staff Report, Comprehensive Plan Amendment CP-4-21: Missing Middle Housing. https://cityofraleigh0drupal.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/drupal-prod/COR22/CP-4-21.pdf lxiii City of Raleigh. (n.d.). Strategic Plan: Safe, Vibrant, & Healthy Community. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://strategic-plan-ral.opendata.arcgis.com/pages/safe lxiv City of Raleigh. (2021, July 26). Homebuyer Assistance. https://raleighnc.gov/Community/content/HousingNeighborhoods/ Articles/Homeownership.html lxv DHIC. (n.d.). Washington Terrace Redevelopment. Retrieved on September 28, 2021.from https://dhic.org/properties/under-development/village-washington-terrace/

lxvi Duncan, C. (2020, December 18). Raleigh’s Downtown South Project Gets Rezoning Green Light. It Could Reshape the City.

Spectrum News 1. https://spectrumlocalnews.com/nc/charlotte/growth/2020/12/18/raleigh-s-downtown-south-project-gets-rezoning-green-light--it-could-reshape-the-city lxvii Parker, J. (2021, January 4). Land Now in Hand, Downtown South Developers Aim to Break Ground this Year. WRAL. https:// www.wraltechwire.com/2021/01/04/land-now-in-hand-downtown-south-developers-aim-to-break-ground-this-year/ lxviii Badger, E., Bui, Q, and Gebeloff, R. (2019, April 27). The Neighborhood is Mostly Black. The Home Buyers Are Mostly White. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2019/04/27/upshot/diversity-housing-maps-raleigh-gentrification.html lxix The City of Raleigh, Housing and Neighborhoods Department, Community Development Division. (n.d.). Consolidated Plan FY 2021-2025. Retrieved September 29, 2021. from https://cityofraleigh0drupal.blob.core.usgovcloudapi.net/drupal-prod/COR19/ConsolidatedPlan.pdf lxx Flora, R. (2020, December 14). Special Report: Affordable Housing in Savannah. The Savannahian. https://www.thesavannahian. com/special-report-affordable-housing-in-savannah/ lxxi Flora, R. (2020, December 14). Special Report: Affordable Housing in Savannah. The Savannahian. https://www.thesavannahian. com/special-report-affordable-housing-in-savannah/ lxxii Flora, R. (2020, December 14). Special Report: Affordable Housing in Savannah. The Savannahian. https://www.thesavannahian. com/special-report-affordable-housing-in-savannah/ lxxiii Flora, R. (2020, December 14). Special Report: Affordable Housing in Savannah. The Savannahian. https://www.thesavannahian. com/special-report-affordable-housing-in-savannah/ lxxiv Evans, S. (2021, July 13). Comprehensive Action Plan from Savannah Task Force Ready for Review. WTOC11. https://www.wtoc. com/2021/07/13/comprehensive-action-plan-housing-savannah-task-force-ready-review/ lxxv Nicholson, Z and Nussbaum, K. (2021, August 3). Housing Savannah Task Force Aims to Help 15,000 Households by 2032.

Here’s What Comes Next. Savannah Now. https://www.savannahnow.com/story/news/2021/08/03/savannah-ga-housing-task-forceunveils-ten-year-plan-address-home-affordability-crisis/8057349002/ lxxvi Flora, R. (2020, December 14). Special Report: Affordable Housing in Savannah. The Savannahian. https://www.thesavannahian. com/special-report-affordable-housing-in-savannah/ lxxvii PD&R Edge (n.d.). Public Housing Redevelopment Leads Sustainability Efforts in Savannah, Georgia. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://www.huduser.gov/portal/pdredge/pdr_edge_inpractice_090612.html lxxviii The Tiny House Project. (n.d.). Welcome to the Tiny House Project in Savannah, GA! Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://www.homelessauthority.org/tiny-house-project/ lxxix Peterson, B. and Porter, M. (2020, January 3). Charleston and the South Carolina Coast Flooded Record 89 Times in 2019. The Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/news/charleston-and-the-south-carolina-coast-flooded-record-89-times-in-2019/ article_7c18ee5e-2e3b-11ea-8784-23ddbc8d4e0c.html lxxx Donahue, L. (2020, January 31). Report Outlines Charleston’s Housing Crisis; City Planners Respond with Goals in Affordable Housing. Live 5 WCSC. https://www.live5news.com/2020/02/01/report-outlines-charlestons-housing-crisis-city-planners-respondwith-goals-affordable-housing/ lxxxi Brown, A. (2021, March 9). Charleston City Council to Raise Fees on Developers That Sidestep Affordable Housing. The Post and Courier.https://www.postandcourier.com/business/charleston-city-council-to-raise-fees-on-developers-that-sidestep-affordable-housing/article_fbb6e756-801a-11eb-a67f-37f886f9f659.html#:_:text=City%20Council’s%20new%20plan%20creates,pay%20 %247.50%20per%20square%20foot. lxxxii Dennis, R. (2020, July 31). Collaboration Key Part of Charleston Area Efforts to Provide Affordable Housing. The Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/features/collaboration-key-part-of-charleston-area-efforts-to-provide-affordable-housing/article_14a08b64-efa6-11eb-a027-cb28fdefbafd.html lxxxiii Arruda, P. (2021, July 14). Charleston County Hiring New Roles to Address Affordable Housing. Live5 WCSC. https://www.live5news.com/2021/07/15/charleston-county-hiring-new-roles-address-affordable-housing/ lxxxiv Slade, D. (2021, July 30). Charleston County Considers How to Spend $80 M in Federal Rescue Funds. The Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/news/charleston-county-considers-how-to-spend-80m-in-federal-rescue-funds/article_e6dc7c90efe3-11eb-94e8-3b2fa2595ed2.html lxxxv Slade, D. (2021, July 30). Charleston County Considers How to Spend $80 M in Federal Rescue Funds. The Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/news/charleston-county-considers-how-to-spend-80m-in-federal-rescue-funds/article_e6dc7c90efe3-11eb-94e8-3b2fa2595ed2.html

lxxxvi Charleston County Council. (2018, July 9). 2017-2018 Comprehensive Plan Ten-Year Update. https://www.charlestoncounty.org/ departments/zoning-planning/comp-plan.php lxxxvii

Charleston Planning Commission. (2021, July 13). Charleston City Plan (Draft). https://www.charlestoncityplan.com/

lxxxviii Yield Pro. (2021, July 8). Standard Communities Expands its Affordable Portfolio in South Carolina. https://yieldpro. com/2021/07/standard-communities-expands-its-affordable-portfolio-in-south-carolina/ lxxxix Brown, Andrew. (2021, June 13). Charleston Wants to Pay Homeowners to Help Create Affordable Housing on Their Properties.

The Post and Courier. https://www.postandcourier.com/news/charleston-wants-to-pay-homeowners-to-help-create-affordable-housing-on-their-properties/article_6d594cf6-b18e-11eb-ae60-d7cf5e02767a.html xc Coello, S. (2020, December 9). Charleston’s One80 Place Gets $5M Grant to Help End Homelessness. The Post and Courier. https:// www.postandcourier.com/news/charlestons-one80-place-gets-5-million-grant-to-help-end-homelessness/article_00a56af8-3a3411eb-8500-2374545cdd48.html xci Kurzyna, J. (2021, January 17). Columbia Affordable Housing Task Force to Shine Light on Issue in Midlands. News 19. https:// www.wltx.com/article/news/local/allen-benedict-court/columbia-affordable-housing-task-force-to-shine-light-on-issue-in-midlands/101-c248a817-ea04-4258-833e-84dcdf476b0a xcii Columbia Housing Authority, South Carolina (CHASC). (n.d.). History of the Cha- Columbia Housing Authority, South Carolina.

Retrieved on September 28, 2021. from https://chasc.org/history-of-the-cha/ xciii WLTX.(2020, June 2). Columbia Housing Authority Shares New Affordable Housing Plan. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=LBVQbN0J4sg xciv Neaves, A. (2021, January 17). Local Group Wants to Change the Way People Think About Affordable Housing. News19. https:// www.wltx.com/article/news/local/local-group-wants-to-change-the-way-people-think-about-affordable-housing/101-166da8db-50e04c6b-afc9-d60d880b3c8c xcv Johnson, M. (2015, June 16). Stepping Up: How Cities Are Working to Keep America’s Poorest Families Housed. Urban Institute. https://www.urban.org/features/stepping-how-cities-are-working-keep-americas-poorest-families-housed xcvi Berg, Nate. (2021, April 27). The Radical Way Cities Are Tackling Affordable Housing. Fast Company. https://www.fastcompany. com/90618596/the-radical-way-cities-are-tackling-affordable-housing xcvii Berg, Nate. (2021, January 5). Charlotte May Have Cracked the Code on Affordable Housing. Here’s How. Fast Company. https:// www.fastcompany.com/90597128/charlotte-may-have-cracked-the-code-on-affordable-housing-heres-how xcviii Vrabel, J. (2020, January 6). Developing Affordable Housing Isn’t Easy. The Story of this Oakland Complex Shows What it Takes.

Public Source. https://www.publicsource.org/developing-affordable-housing-isnt-easy-the-story-of-this-oakland-complex-showswhat-it-takes/#:~:text=While%20Oakland%20Affordable%20Living%20is%20a%20success%20story%2C,nearly%20a%20century%20to%20fill%20its%20current%20shortage. xcix Hoyt, H. (2020, June 18). Thoughtful Design Can Create High Quality Affordable Multifamily Housing. Joint Center for Housing Studies of Harvard University. https://www.jchs.harvard.edu/blog/affordable-housing-doesnt-have-to-look-cheap-inside-or-out c National Equity Fund. (n.d.). Star Apartments. Retrieved September 28, 2021. from https://www.nationalequityfund.org/property/star/