Lookout 2015

A Journal of Undergraduate Research at

East Carolina University

Volume 3, Fall 2015

The Lookout: A Journal of Undergraduate Research at East Carolina University Volume 3, Issue 1

2015 Editorial Staff Agenda Team Amanda Dunn Kerchina Johnson

Logo Design Britney Bryan Production Team Amanda Adkins Melissa Herbert Audrey Thompson Abbie Wiegand

Art Team Jeremy Culb Taylor Gleason Grace May Communications Team Megan Brown Madison McMurray Alexander Prunka

Website Team Lorenzo Hall Julia Jensen Erin Steffens Evan Walsh

Design Team Ellen Franks Anh Ha Joshua Moore Darryl Niedentohl Mathew Tugwell

Consultant Suzan Flanagan

Copyright 2015 Š Department of English, East Carolina University ISSN (Print): 2372-580X

ISSN (Online): 2372-5834 Managing Editor

Donna J, Kain Email: lookout@ecu.edu

kaind@ecu.edu Website: www.ecu.edu/lookout

Additional Contributors Cover Design Brooke Faulkner

Brooke is a first year student majoring in biology and chemistr with a minor in art. She expect to graduate in 2019. The title of Brooke’s cover photograph is “Chapel on the Green.”

Table of Contents Illustration Alex "RojoPandero" Stoehr Alex is a fine arts Major with a concentration in Animation and Interactive Design. He is active in the Honors College LLC and the Animation Interactive Design Guild and plans to graduate in 2019. Check out other artwork by Alex at https://www.rojopandero.tumblr.com and https://www.instagram.com/rojopandero

Editorial Board We would like to than the following people for their support the journal and work with the student editors.

Don Palumbo, Professor and Chair, Department of English Margaret Bauer, Professor; Editor-inChief, North Carolina Literary Review Dr. Traci McLawhorn, Editor, The Online Donne Variorum: Digital Donne

Ken Parille, Associate Professor Jessica Bardill, Assistant Professor Cheryl Dudasik-Wiggs, Intructor Zachary Perkinson, Instructor

Table of Contents

An Investigation of Cognitive Delays in Early Childhood .........................1 By: Amanda Blakley

“Can Creativity be Taught?” An Analysis of a Common Belief.................7 By: Maya Williams

At the Crossroads of Empathy and Evidence in Modern Medicine .......13 By: Drew Navarro

Citizens’ Reaction toward E-government Systems in the USA and Russia: A Comparative Analysis ..................................................................19 By: Alena Nikitina

Voter Age and Political Participation in the U.S. .......................................33 By: Alexander Prunka

An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels ...........................................45 By: Sophronia Knott

Should Videogames Be Incorporated into Traditional Education? .........55 By: Audrey Thompson

Audience Inequality in Sport: Track and Field vs. Popular Sports ..........61 By: Pol Solanellas

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Blakley

An Investigation of Cognitive Delays in Early Childhood By: Amanda Blakley ABSTRACT: This research investigates the characteristics and implications of cognitive delays in early childhood. This research was ongoing over the course of one semester (15 weeks), and explored these characteristics and implications in relation to a focus child, a kindergarten student with cognitive, fine-motor, and speech/language delays. Identified in this research are characteristics and implications of cognitive delays, characteristics displayed/not displayed by the focus child, and appropriate expectations for cognitively delayed children in the general education setting.

There are a number of definitions of developmental delays, but one of the most appropriate is by Liu, Hsu, Chang, Chang, and Cheng (2015), who define developmental delay as "the occurrence of significant delay in one of the developmental domains (gross/fine motor, speech/language, social/personal, cognition, and activities of daily living)" (p. 42). Over the course of the Spring 2015 semester, I have worked with a child who has been diagnosed with developmental delays; the child will be referred to as "Jay." Jay has developmental delays falling in the domains of fine motor, speech/language, and cognition. He receives services for these delays, including occupational therapy, speech/language therapy, and special instruction for math and literacy. For the purpose of this research I have investigated characteristics/implications of cognitive delays in relation to Jay, and identified appropriate expectations for cognitively delayed children in the general education setting.

Cook, Klein, and Chen (2012) refer to cognition as "the mental action or process of acquiring knowledge through thought, experiences and the senses" (p.

322). For a child to develop cognition, he

must master three basic processes, including attention, perception, and memory (Cook et al., 2012). This means that the development of cognition requires a child to focus on the environment, interpret sensory information, and store and recall information at a later time. As stated by Cook, Klein, and Chen (2012), "the ability to learn is highly associated with memory," (p. 323) and "many factors can interfere with memory storage and retrieval" (p. 323). In a discussion about children with learning difficulties, Cook, Klein, and Chen (2012) say that children with learning difficulties "may exhibit excessive motion, find it difficult to attend or concentrate, lack coordination, experience difficulties in visual or auditory processing of information, have poor memories, or have difficulty in abstract reasoning and making generalizations" (p. 169). What this means is that learning difficulties and delays in cognition are directly associated, as children with learning difficulties may exhibit many behaviors that hinder the development of cognition. Cognitive delay, developmental delay, and intellectual disability are all terms used to describe children with learning difficulties that have inhibited the development of cognition. Note that Deiner (2010) does not use

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An Investigation of Cognitive Delays in Early Childhood

these terms interchangeably, and describes children as developmentally delayed until nine years of age, and then uses the term intellectual disabilities for a diagnosis lasting through adulthood. This can be deceiving to some individuals, as the word delay implies that these children can eventually catch up to their typically developing peers, although this is most often not the case.

Regardless of the term used to describe limits in intellectual functioning, this type of disability originates before the age of 18 (Deiner, 2010). Some causes of cognitive delays originate in utero, which are usually genetic in nature (Deiner, 2010). Teratogens during the prenatal period can also be cause for cognitive delays, such as drug and alcohol use or infection.

Other causes can be associated with complications during and shortly after birth.

The vast assortment possible of causes of cognitive delays were broadly described

by Cook, Klein, and Chen (2012), as genetic disorders, teratogens or viral infections during the prenatal period, perinatal complications, traumatic brain injury, asphyxia, or poisoning. However, this is not an exhaustive list of all possible causes of cognitive delays; causation varies on a case-by-case basis, and some causes are even unknown. Ultimately, the earlier the cognitive delay originates, the more severe the effect (Deiner, 2010, p.

337). Deiner (2010) then goes on to classify two overlapping categories of cognitive delays, which are mild, and moderate to profound (p. 337-378). 87 percent of children with cognitive delays/intellectual disabilities fall within the mild category, while about 13 percent fall in the moderate to profound categories, as these cases are more often linked to biological causes, which are less common (Deiner, 2010, p.

337-338). Though additional measures are now taken to assess children prior to as-

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signing a diagnosis, children were previously diagnosed based solely on IQ scores.

Using IQ scores alone, children with an IQ of 50-55 to 70-75 are classified as mild, 35-40 to 50-55 are classified as moderate, 20-25 to 35-40 are classified as severe, and IQ scores below 20-25 are classified as profound (Deiner, 2010, p. 336-337).

Whether a child has a mild delay or a profound delay, any type of cognitive delay is likely associated with delays in other domains.

Ghassabian, Rescorla, Henrichs, Jaddoe, Verhulst, and Tiemeier (2014) discovered in their work that "sociodemographic factors are important predictors of delays in language and nonverbal abilities as children enter school" (p. 78). Among these sociodemographic factors are low maternal education and non-western ethnic backgrounds (Ghassabian et al., 2014). This is important to note, as language development is strongly associated with development in other domains. This means that children from certain demographic backgrounds are not only more likely to be delayed in language, but they are also likely to be delayed in other areas, including cognition. The correlation between language delays and difficulties in other areas of development is looked at in an article by Chuang, Hsu, Chiu, Lin, Tzang, and Yang (2011), in which they state that "delayed language development in young children is associated with a range of ongoing social difficulties, psychiatric disorders, behavioral problems, and poor academic achievement" (p. 714), and they go on to state that "a high rate of associated cognitive impairment has been found in several studies" (p. 714). To measure the correlation between language delays and cognitive delays, Chuang et al. used the Mental Scale of the Bayley Scales of Infant Development; in their study, they

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found that subnormal mental development (scores of below 70 on the scale used) was "significantly more frequent in the language delay than in the nonimpaired group" (2011, p. 715). Additionally, Liao, Liu, Hsu, Chang, Chang, and Cheng (2015) discovered that performance IQ scores were significantly lower in their group of children who had a developmental language disorder (p. 42). What can be gathered from this study is that one characteristic of cognitive delay is likely language impairment (and vice versa), as the two developmental domains are strongly correlated. This finding is reiterated by Cook, Klein, and Chen (2012), when they state, "children with significant delay experience particular difficulty with language development" (p. 335). In cases where a child's language development has been significantly impacted by cognitive delays, a child is likely to have language abilities that are far below the child's mental age (Cook et al., 2012, p. 335). Here we note that while language delays and delays in cognition are not invariably linked, there is a strong possibility of a child with delays in one domain experiencing delays in the other as well.

Another characteristic strongly associated with cognitive delays is difficulty with manual dexterity, or fine motor skills (Liao et al., 2015). Liao, Liu, Hsu, Chang, Chang, and Cheng (2015) reviewed a neurophysiology study, which identified "a strong correlation of the excitability of the hand motor area, but not the leg motor area, with a speech event" (p. 46). In the study completed by Chuang, Hsu, Chiu, Lin, Tzang, and Yang (2011), they found that "fine motor delays were significantly more common in the language delay group" (p. 715). In fact, fine motor impairment was found in 8 children with language delays for every 1 child with normal development (Chuang et al., 2011,

Blakley

p. 715). From these two studies, it can be concluded that fine motor skills are closely related to language skills, and a delay in one can likely indicate a delay in the other.

Recalling the correlation between language development and cognition, it can be inferred that fine motor abilities, language, and cognition are all impacted by one another in regard to a child's development.

Among the characteristics commonly associated with children with cognitive delays is conduct difficulty.

Conduct difficulty is regarded as any type of behavioral or emotional difficulty faced by a child under abnormal circumstances (Emerson et al., 2011). Emerson, Einfeld, and Stancliffe (2011) found in their study that children who were diagnosed with cognitive delays were more often exposed to high levels of risk, including “low income households, deprived neighborhoods, comorbid emotional difficulties, poor pro-social behavior, poor maternal health, and harsh or inconsistent parenting� (p. 1190); these risk factors were strongly associated with abnormal conduct difficulties in children ages 4 and 5 (Emerson et al., 2011, p. 1189). Emerson, Einfeld, and Stancliffe (2011) also found that conduct difficulties were higher in children ages 4-5, 6-7, and 8-9 when those children had cognitive delays (p.

1188). What can be concluded from their study is that children who have cognitive delays are often exposed to higher levels of environmental risk, and as a result have a greater chance of struggling with conduct difficulties. If a child faces these behavioral and/or emotional difficulties, it will ultimately be more challenging for them to be placed in a regular education setting, as these behaviors can be considered disruptive to the other students.

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An Investigation of Cognitive Delays in Early Childhood

Now that some of the characteristics/effects of cognitive delays have been explored, Jay’s special needs can be looked at in more detail. Jay is a six yearold student in a kindergarten classroom, who has been receiving services since enrolling in NC Pre-K (state funded schooling designed to prepare at-risk children for elementary school) the year prior.

Like many other children with cognitive delays, the cause of Jay’s delays is unknown. It is speculated that premature birth may have been the root of Jay’s difficulties with cognition, but this has not been clinically confirmed. Jay is delayed not only in cognitive abilities, but also in the domains of fine motor skills and speech/language. He appears to be a generally happy child, he is often smiling and shows excitement to participate in activities (usually by jumping up while smiling or saying “oooooh!”). Jay is most interested in activities that involve gross motor movement and/or music. Though he has a positive attitude toward learning, Jay is not functioning at the same level as a typically developing kindergartener; he is behind in reading, writing, and mathematics and has an Individualized Education Plan to help meet his unique needs.

Jay often fixates on irrelevant stimuli, which makes it difficult for him to attend to material/concepts being taught.

Jay requires a special rocking chair for large group times due to his excessive motion and inability to sit still, and a bin of sensory objects to keep him occupied so that he does not disrupt the rest of the group. This occasionally seems to hinder his learning, as he fixates on the objects that he has to hold rather than attending to the teacher. This is to be expected from a child diagnosed with cognitive delays, as attention is the first of three basic processes that must be mastered for a child to develop cognition, and children with

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learning difficulties/cognitive delays struggle to master those three processes (Cook et al., 2012). Because he cannot master attending to the relevant stimuli in his environment, and has challenges with sitting still during groups, it is difficult for Jay to move on to interpreting information and storing it to recall later (i.e. learning is inhibited). When teaching a child with such difficulties in attention, it is important to present material in the context of his/her specific interests, as a means of helping him/her attend to the appropriate material.

Possibly the most prevalent characteristic of cognitively delayed children that can be noted in Jay is a language delay.

Though Jay’s speech has expanded over the course of his kindergarten year to strings of three and four words, often formulated into simple sentences, he began the year only using one or two word utterances. In addition to his limited vocabulary, Jay’s speech is quite difficult to understand, de to poor articulation. Similar to the studies identified in this research, Jay’s language abilities are far below what they would be for a typically developing child his same age. Since language abilities and cognitive abilities are closely intertwined, it is hardly surprising that Jay struggles in this domain. When teaching a child who has difficulty with vocabulary and articulation, it is important to provide methods other than only verbal communication to demonstrate what he/she has learned, in order to properly monitor growth and identify continued challenges.

As could also be expected, Jay’s fine motor abilities are delayed, which is common for a child who is delayed in both the cognitive domain and speech/language domain. It has been made apparent in this research that all three of these domains are

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closely intertwined. Jay has progressed from writing scribbles and circles at the beginning of the year to writing mostly letters with some letter-like forms at this point, however his skills have not yet matured to the skills of a typically developing kindergartener. The occupational therapy that he receives has helped to improve his fine motor abilities, although it is unlikely that he will “catch up� to his peers, given that this delay is so closely linked with both the cognitive and language delays.

The cognitive delays can make it difficult for him to remember what the letters look like, or what letters should be used to spell words phonetically. When teaching a child with such challenges, it is important to provide ample opportunities to practice writing and other fine motor skills, and provide models/visual representations of the end result of the task. For example, providing an alphabet strip when completing a writing activity will help remind the child of how to form the letters.

While it is true that Jay exhibits many of the characteristics commonly associated with a child who has cognitive delays, there is one characteristic with which Jay has not shown any correlation.

Jay does not appear to demonstrate any type of conduct difficulties. With his generally positive attitude toward learning and toward his peers, he does not act out or show any type of behavior problems at school, nor does he exhibit emotional unrest. As stated previously, one factor that puts children at high risk of conduct difficulties is low socioeconomic status; it can be inferred that Jay comes from a lowincome household (due to his enrollment in NC Pre-K), but it is unknown whether he has been exposed to the other environmental risks linked to cognitive delays and conduct difficulties. Although Jay does have difficulty sitting still or attending to large-group activities, these disruptive be-

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haviors are associated more with attention deficits than with conduct difficulties.

At this point, characteristics and implications of cognitive delays have been looked at in more detail, from which it was gathered that cognitive delays, language delays, fine motor delays, and conduct difficulties are all closely intertwined. These characteristics are portrayed on paper in other works of research as noted in this investigation, and also exhibited by the observed child diagnosed with cognitive delays in an inclusive classroom in an authentic educational setting. In accordance with this research, children diagnosed with cognitive delays are likely to need greater assistance mastering the basic processes of attention, perception, and memory associated with developing cognition (acquiring knowledge). It is also likely that children with mild to profound cognitive delays will experience delays in language abilities or fine motor dexterity. Teachers preparing to work with children with cognitive delays should familiarize themselves with indicators of these delays to make appropriate recommendations and provide adequate supports should these difficulties be observed. Especially when working with children who are cognitively delayed from underprivileged backgrounds, it is important for teachers to be cautious of possible conduct difficulties, and know how to respond appropriately to children displaying such difficulties. This does not mean that every child with cognitive delays will display these additional adversities, nor is this investigation meant to stereotype children with cognitive delays; this investigation has simply identified research-based knowledge regarding cognitive delays in relation to authentic observation of a focus student, and established expectations for those who may potentially work with a child diagnosed with cognitive delays.

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An Investigation of Cognitive Delays in Early Childhood

My name is Amanda Blakley, and I’m a twentyone year-old senior in the Birth-Kindergarten Teacher Education Program within the College of Health and Human Performance. I have a passion for working with young children and a desire to teach in an inclusive kindergarten setting. It is imperative that teachers become familiar with the needs of all children, not only those who are typically developing. I strive to understand children’s development so that I can meet the needs of all children with whom I cross paths, engage in continued research to broaden my awareness of challenges faced by at-risk children, and help them to become resilient in the face of adversity.

References Cook, R., Klein, M., & Chen, D. (2012). Adapting Early Childhood Curricula for Children with Special Needs (Eighth ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Chuang, Y., Hsu, C., Chiu, N., Lin, S., Tzang, R., & Yang, C. (2011). Other Impairment Associated with Developmental Language Delay in Preschool-Aged Children. Journal of Child Neurology, 26(6), 714-717. doi:10.1177/0883073810389331 Deiner, P. (2010). Inclusive Early Childhood Education: Development, Resources, and Practice (5th ed.). Belmont, California: Wadsworth.

Emerson, E., Einfeld, S., & Stancliffe, R. (2011). Predictors of the Persistence of Conduct Difficulties in Children with Cognitive Delay. The Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 52(11), 1184-1194. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7610.2011.02413.x Ghassabian, A., Rescorla, L., Henrichs, J., Jaddoe, V., Verhulst, F., & Tiemeier, H. (2014). Early Lexical Development and Risk of Verbal and Nonverbal Cognitive Delay at School Age. Acta Pediatrica, 103, 70-80. doi:10.1111/apa.12449 Liao, S., Liu, J., Hsu, C., Chang, M., Chang, T., & Cheng, H. (2015). Cognitive Development in Children with Language Impairment, and Correlation Between Language and Intelligence Development in Kindergarten Children with Developmental Delay. Journal of Child Neurology, 30(1), 42-47. doi:10.1177/0883073814535486

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Maya Williams

“Can Creativity be Taught?”

An Analysis of a Common Belief By: Maya Williams ABSTRACT: This paper is an analysis of the common belief of creativity being able to be taught. Regardless of common belief, although it is true that one can be taught on how to express their creativity, creativity itself cannot be taught. An important concept this cathartic could be perceived is trivial, or minimal, if people continue to say that it can be taught.

Through analyzing the definitions and perspectives of creativity, how young people grasp the concept, hindrances that can be placed on students who want to use it, and how it is used as a healing mechanism the reader can see exactly how damaging the assumption “creativity can be taught” is.

Introduction Michigan State University’s Punya Mishra and Dana Henrickson acknowledged how “creativity has long been recognized as a powerful force in shaping human society and driving progress and knowledge” (2013, p. 11). According to East Carolina University’s Randall Martoccia, “Creating can be incredibly cathartic” (Personal communication, April 9, 2014). Coming up with an idea can produce excitement and positive energy in pursuing and expressing that idea. It has become a common belief that this natural process can be taught (Dossey 2013). Many believe that creativity as a concept is so trivial to grasp and accept since they also believe it couldn’t be something one was born with. How has society come to undermine the human’s great potential? Each individual’s creativity is imminently measured when one first interacts with fellow peers

(Bronson and Merryman, 2010). There is no denying that one can be taught to express their creativity, for it does not come from some random, predestined disposition (Wycoff and Pryor, 2003, p. 34), but creativity itself cannot be taught.

What is Creativity?

Creativity is the cognitive act of producing something new (Anderson et. al, 2001). Martoccia distinguishes creativity in “a macro and micro way” (Personal communication, April 9, 2014). The macro perspective represents the works of art and science that are responsible for bringing new applicable ideas into the world. The micro perspective represents how new sentences, a new doodle, or any form of problem solving technique can exemplify creativity in virtually anyone (Martoccia, personal communication, April 9, 2014). In his article “Can Creativity be Taught?”

David Best believes that creativity 7

“Can Creativity be Taught?”

should be defined in an objective form, for the sake of every educational system (1982, p. 280), for the question of whether or not it could be taught has been exposed worldwide. Because his definition of creativity is to achieve something original without the sole need of specific rules (1982, p. 281), he believes creativity cannot be taught.

The word “creative” has often had a very loose cognate (Best, 1982, p.

280). Especially when using the term to describe original imaginings in an artistic view. The artistic cognate displays how creative products are not just viewed as the next big thing, or something of utilitarian purpose (Mishra and Henrickson, 2013, p. 11).

Mishra and Henrickson state how “they have a certain aesthetic sensibility” connected within its wholeness (2013, p. 11). Simple originality from a set of skills (RootBerstein, 2011) does not prove products creative, or even effective.

Knowing the differences between scientific creativity and artistic creativity contributes to knowing its dynamic definition (Gluck, Ernst, and Unger, 2002, p. 55). For example, art teachers often stress to their students to have an open mind when using imagination to create a masterpiece, while science teachers focus more on problem solving when using imagination (p. 56).

Creativity Starting at a Young Age Many individuals adapt creativity in their early childhood,

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when imagination primarily occurs in one’s development (Anderson et. al, 2001). In the “Creativity” chapter of Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, the authors report the general acceptance of “environmental influences in early childhood [that effect] later creative achievement” (Anderson et. al, 2001, p. 67). Children can form new ideas and their own theories on how to create by “imitating, emulating and modeling the behaviors of teachers and other adepts in the classroom” (Root-Bernstein, 2011). Young students are often tested in schools to see how well creativity is being taught, but often tests weren’t definitive because the students express creativity on their own. For instance, teachers from China and London performed science creativity tests on middle school students; they found that due to creativity being “domain-specific” (Hu and Adey, 2002, p. 390), it cannot be tested well, and more work must be done (p. 389). Therefore, Olivia Saracho’s article urges her readers to encourage young children to explore their individual creativity and motivate them to announce their divergent ideas regardless of influence (2002, p. 432). Teachers must be required to make a creative environment for children to use their imagination, because it helps them adapt the skills to solve problems on their own (2002, p. 435-436). However, could teachers actually block creativity rather than teach it properly, if that is what some believe they do?

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Hindrances on Creativity Some teachers fail to allow creativity in their classrooms. Saracho explains, “When the teachers’ concepts of creativity are more independent from existing creative behavior, teachers may fail to determine, much less nurture, creative aptitude” (2002, p. 433). The last few decades of research reiterate how teachers tend to not like creative students because of some their obnoxiousness despite how much they affirm how creativity is an important tool in one’s education (Saracho, 2002, p. 432). Teachers even state that no room for creativity is in the classroom due to the overbearing standards placed for them on how to teach (Bronson and Merryman, 2010).

Educators are responsible for helping students’ creativity, regardless of age, to help them fight the conformity pressured by the media and other societal demands. Teachers are to help students escape from “romantic illusions” (Best, 1982, p. 293) not necessarily reality.

Thus, an obstacle for one to display their creative idea or product is the belief that creativity does not regard the freedom from specific dogmas of how, what, and where to create (Bronson and Merryman, 2010).

Namely, a student of Dr. Schintel’s first creative writing class at Vienna’s University of Applied Arts, states how after their ideas are written and expressed, they’re forced to revert to his preconceived idea for the assignment (Lajta-Novak 2012).

Creativity is not a set of skills, a form of knowledge, or a list of familiar

Maya Williams

behaviors to abide by in an analytical fashion (Root-Bernstein, 2011). It is the induction of something original and beautiful without hindrance, and that is the student’s ultimate goal (Hagman, 2009, p. 164). Often the need to create only for the product to be rejected, to be graded, or to create it in a cramped up space, does not help them create the product well (Gluck, Ernst, and Unger, 2002, p. 55). A classroom can be modeled to be a nurturing environment for the student to create (Root-Bernstein, 2011), but that does not mean the student is being taught to create.

Creativity as a Healing Mechanism When providing that area of freedom to express creativity, one feels triumph when completing that expression. When completing the task well upon enjoying it individually or sharing it with others, it is the most rewarding (Archibald et. al, 2012, p.

26). Providing more nurturing environments as a way of expressing emotions safely, teachers and counselors have used creativity as a therapeutic technique for people (p. 7).

It gives people personal growth mentally and spiritually (p. 26). In fact “any activity that makes [people] feel better about themselves will enhance and support their healing process.” It is often preferred to help them find the answers for themselves through sublimation over telling them what to do (p. 29). Initially, many students experience fear when participating in a creative healing program, because

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“Can Creativity be Taught?”

they aren’t used to not having a set of instructions to complete a task.

However, they do their art anyway because it gives them the inner voice that was once taken away from them by their abusers (p. 27). Creativity is a great healing praxis, because teachers and counselors can’t teach to heal from histories of stress or mental/physical abuse (p. 7). They can only offer students advice already listed from past professors and textbooks and teach one to release any form of inner demons as self-help and expression. Only the student is capable of expressing his or her individual pain.

Those who suffered domestic abuse and other traumas need to express their pain in a healthy manner, so Josie Mendez-Negrete argues that creative counselors are in dire need (2013, p. 324). Mendez-Negrete herself was raised in a violent household where she used singing, writing, sewing, painting, and sculpting as her escape from the situation mentally (p.

315-316). She gives credit to the encouragement of authors and maternal figures as teachers along with artistic expression in order to heal from domestic abuse (p. 316), but she ought to give herself more credit.

Martoccia highlights how “teachers can give students situations in which they develop their creativity” (personal communication, April 9, 2014); it highlights how her teachers

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did not teach her how to express an area of her internal struggles. The techniques given to her are not irrelevant in how creative her work was (Best, 1982, p. 284), however her teachers did not tell her which piece of work should be the epitome of whichever stage in her life. For example, she created a sculpture from her own memory; it was “the figure of the man who had helped [her] to overcome [her] distrust of males,” (see figure 1) her husband (MendezNegrete, 2013, p.

319). Clearly, creativity is not a reflection her teachers. Rather, it is this particular student’s “aesthetic perfection” (Hagman, 2009, p. 169) that exemplifies her own triumph over the trauma she no longer had to accept in her life.

Figure 1: Mendez-Negrete, Josie. (2013). Dancing dream. [Clay Sculpture] doi: 10.1080/15401383.2013.821934

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Maya Williams

Author Biography: Maya Williams is currently a junior at East Carolina University double majoring in Social Work and English. Whether she intends on getting an MFA in Writing and Consciousness with a focus in the Arts and Social Justice, or an MSW in Social Work with a focus in Social Healing through the Arts, she is still deciding. Either way, she intends on making a career out of creativity and helping others. She is also a resident of Greensboro, North Carolina.

References Anderson, Daniel R., Huston, Aletha C., Schmitt, Kelly L., Lineburger, Deborah L., and Wright, John C. (2001). V. creativity. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development 66 (1): 67. doi: 10.1111/1540-5834.00125 Archibald, Linda, Dewar, Jonathan, Reid, Carrie, and Stevens, Vanessa. (2012).

Dancing, Singing, Painting, and Speaking the Healing Story: Healing Through Creative Arts. p. 7-29. Retrieved from http://www.ahf.ca/downloads/healing-through-creative-arts.pdf Best, David. (1982, October). Can creativity be taught? British Journal of Educational Studies, 30 (3). p. 280-293. doi: 10.2307/3121212 Bronson, Po & Merryman, Ashley. (2010, July 19). The creativity crisis. Newsweek, 156 (3). http://www.newsweek.com/creativity-crisis-74665 Dossey, Larry PhD. (2013, December 16). Where does creativity come from? The Huffington Post. Retrieved from http://www.huffingtonpost.com/dr-larrydossey/creativity_b_4440941.html Gluck, Judith, Ernst, Roland, & Unger, Foortje. (2002). How creatives define creativity: definitions reflect different types of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 14 (1). p. 55-56. doi: 10.1207/S15326934CRJ1401_5 Hagman, George. (2009, April). Art and self. New York Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1159. 164-169. Retrieved from http://eds.a.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=7ac02c0114a7-47a1-9f7a-447a5794c504%40sessionmgr4001&vid=2&hid=4213

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“Can Creativity be Taught?”

Hu, Weiping and Adey, Philip. (2002, November 26). A scientific creativity test for secondary school students. International Journal of Science Education, 22 (4).

P. 389-390. doi: 10.1080/09500690110098912 Lajta-Novak, Julia. (2012, July 1). Can creativity be taught? no, but skills can! in vienna, austria’s first-ever university programme in creative writing is entering its fourth year. Vienna Review. Retrieved from http://www.viennareview.net/news/austria/can-creativity-be-taught-nobut-skills-can Mendez-Negrete, Josie. (2013, July-September). Expressive creativity: narrative text and creative cultural expressions as a healing praxis. Journal of Creativity in Mental Health, 8 (3). p. 314-324. doi: 10.1080/15401383.2013.821934 Mishra, Punya & Henricksen, Dana. (2013, September/October). A new approach to defining and measuring creativity: rethinking technology & creativity in the 21st century. Tech Trends, 57 (5). p.11. Retrieved from http://download.springer.com/static/pdf/261/art%253A10.1007%252Fs115 28-013-06856.pdf?auth66=1397485489_538fdd0727f5f3c2f5e26ca536224f9f&ext=.pdf Root-Bernstein, Robert and Michele. (2011, April). Can creativity be taught? creative outcomes in the classroom can’t be mandated. Psychology Today. Retrieved from http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/imagine/201104/cancreativity-be-taught Saracho, Olivia. (2002, October). Young children’s creativity and pretend play. Early Childhood Development and Care, 172 (5). p. 432-436. doi: 10.1080/03004430214553 Wycoff, Edgar B. & Pryor, Burt. (2003). Cognitive processing, creativity, apprehension, and the humorous personality. North American Journal of Psychology, 5 (1). p. 34. Retrieved from http://eds.b.ebscohost.com/ehost/detail?sid=383697d4-aa9d-49b7-ad1fe3a0b4616d91%40sessionmgr111&vid=1&hid=110&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc 3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#db=a9h&AN=11056070

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Drew Navarro

At the Crossroads of Empathy and Evidence in Modern Medicine By: Drew Navarro ABSTRACT: While empathic and biomedical models of caregiving each command a presence in modern medicine, the empathic model risks being displaced by the technologically geared biomedical model. Scientific research and testing have provided dependable approaches to treating thousands of diseases, but it is fundamental acts of clinical empathy that treat the patient. Clinical empathy, though different from clinical evidence, remains vital to modern caregiving from all angles. Personal and professional anecdotes alike show that patients who perceive high levels of empathy within their physicians are likely to be satisfied and compliant during care. Physicians who exercise clinical empathy often experience gratifying social connection and a positive sense of control. Medicine has made leaps and bounds within the past century in terms of the diagnosis and treatment of disease. What remains constant is the usefulness of physician clinical empathy.

“Pain is a solitary truth that defies communication….To live in pain is to live in isolation”—these words underscore the painting Resonance: Erasure (Figure 1) by artist Susan Gofstein (Gofstein). It depicts a griefstricken woman, her face disfigured by angry blotches of paint that blend with the background. For Gofstein, the reality imposed by her infirmity is unforgiving, stripping away identity and fomenting isolation. An outside observer may inquire how one can be so hopeless and desperate. After all, is not modern medicine at the precipice of eradicating pain and disease? At first glance, this assumption may appear to be true. At the onset of the nineteenth century, knowledge of biochemistry and the human anatomy increased rapidly, revolutionizing the field of medicine (Morris 194). Some of the world’s most terrible diseases, such as smallpox, fell victim to vac-

cination and other inoculatory procedures, and the grave uncertainty surrounding even the most common illnesses was reduced in light of germ theory. Physicians modified their practices accordingly, giving birth to contemporary medicine: “The science or practice of the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of disease” (“Medicine”). Despite an ability to address disease effectively, modern medicine often struggles to treat the patient. In other words, the litany of biomedical examinations and pharmaceutics falls short of fostering patient-centered care (Ratzan 2). The obvious predicament faced by Gofstein and so many others, in this modern era of medicine, can be resolved by acts of clinical empathy.

Such empathy provides critical support to the biomedical methods of treatment and fosters a constructive environment, in which physicians can operate.

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Title of Paper

Before speaking to these impacts of clinical empathy, it may help to discuss what actually constitutes this form of empathy. Clinical empathy, not to be confused with sympathy, is an act or behavior by doctors that leads patients to feel understood and accepted. The sense of understanding and acceptance arises from the physician’s ability to take on a patient’s point of view and relate this perspective back to the patient in order to improve the patient’s emotional demeanor. (Kim, Klapowitz, and Johnston 237) While researchers and educators disagree on the exact details of this definition, all emphasize the contributions of empathy in modern medicine.

While doctors of the past readily embraced dialogue and relationship with their patients as a primary step in healing, modern caregivers increasingly rely on scientific, objective models during patient interactions, diagnoses, and treatments (Burke 133). This pathophysiological focus has reduced the danger of infectious disease and improved standard markers of public health, benefiting humanity as a whole (Engel 131). However, it remains an unbalanced approach. The great deal of emphasis placed on the technological aspects of medicine ousts the humanistic elements, stunting the overall effectiveness of care (Marcus 1211). It cannot be emphasized enough that this reductionism has in fact brought forth the most innovative and effective treatments; however, such treatments are not guaranteed to correlate with patient satisfaction or 14

compliance if clinical empathy is lacking (Engel 129). As George L. Engel, a pioneer in the effort to supplement modern care with empathy, notes, “clinical study amounts to the study of one person by another, and dialogue and relationship are its indispensable tools” (Hojat 78). To understand this point, consider empathy’s ability to reinforce evidence-based medicine in actual workplaces.

Dr. Dana Mathew, of Raleigh, North Carolina, who is an experienced emergency medicine physician with over twenty years of experience, regularly stresses that empathizing with “the person behind the patient” is fundamental in evidence-based medicine (Mathew). She recalls a moment as a medical student when she took the time to genuinely familiarize herself with one of her patients, despite his poor condition and her demanding schedule. He opened up to her over the course of the treatment period, speaking freely of his family, past career, and concerns. As her coworkers also entered into the dialogue, “how he was seen and treated changed immediately” (Mathew). Beyond feeling treated for his infirmity, the man simply felt appreciated. His compliance and satisfaction rose considerably as a result, paving the road for a shorter hospital stay and a longer period of good health afterwards. Amid the tests, examinations, and pharmaceutics that address the physical disease, empathy can extend an open hand for the patient to take.

Unfortunately, Dr. Mathew’s experience with the elderly man is not

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guaranteed in medicine. In fact, while many pathological conditions can be effectively diagnosed and cured with strong degrees of clinical certainty, chronic illness lacks such certainty. Patients, like Susan Gofstein, who are afflicted by nonmalignant chronic pain, are especially disadvantaged.

Despite suffering tremendously from bodily pain, the most proven biomedical procedures rarely provide closure and comfort to these patients. This situation represents a paradox that weighs on the shoulders of patients and caregivers alike: the esteemed biomedical model cannot explain or eradicate overwhelming pain. These patients seek more than biomedical answers as they realize that their infirmity cannot be accounted for by biochemical evidence; they seek to be understood and accepted (Engel 130).

As one may suspect, clinical empathy is the primary means of fulfilling this desire. Without this understanding and acceptance, the condition of any patient suffering from a seemingly irreparable disease can only worsen.

Having considered these points, it should be clear that a return to the fundamentals of caregiving not only supplements evidence-based medicine, but also stems the psychosocial strain of even the most debilitating diseases. Patients, such as Susan Gofstein, fall outside of the biomedical model’s scope. Therefore, it is purposeful, genuine, interpersonal relationships that restore hope and positivity in such advanced care patients (Hojat xv). While the biomedical model treats disease on the basis of

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scientific evidence, clinical empathy treats the patient on the basis of humanity. Bringing these two approaches together has the net result of effective, patient-centered care. Beyond anecdotal evidence, medical research routinely produces empirical evidence suggesting that two principle outcomes of health care — patient satisfaction and compliance — are strongly correlated with empathic, communicative behaviors between the physician and patient (Kim, Klapowitz, and Johnston 238). Patients clearly benefit from clinical empathy.

However, it must also be emphasized that physicians experience benefits as well.

Healthcare professionals bear witness to discomfort, suffering, and pain on a daily basis. The physical, mental, and social tolls are relentless, taking the form of fatigue, depression, anxiety, and irritability among other things (Gundersen 145). Over time, physicians come to associate these strains with patients, and the result is devastating to patient-centered care; because the patients become viewed as the fundamental source of distress for the physician (Ratzan 3). This pattern repeats and intensifies during the careers of medical professionals unless it is broken. Clinical empathy is the ideal tool for breaking this vicious cycle.

Mohammadreza Hojat, a distinguished researcher in the field notes, “an empathic clinician-patient relationship can improve the physical, mental, and social well-being of the clinician…” (Hojat XV). These words

15

Title of Paper

are noteworthy, for they suggest that empathy is in fact a two-way street.

To illustrate this point, it helps to first consider what fuels the working spirit. In other words, how are members of any profession able to persevere through years of relentless, hard work? The answer is two-fold: social connection and perceived control (Gundersen 146). From the standpoint of social connection, one sees an array of benefits for the individual. However, the most important of these for physicians is the sense of satisfaction. When physicians engage in empathic behavior, through communication with the patient or family, a degree of social connection is established. Through this connection, the fundamental human need for affiliation, understanding, support, and satisfaction is fulfilled. (Hojat 71) Doctors are not immune to the stressors that characterize their work environments. Practicing clinical empathy and developing social connections serve to buffer physicians from these stressors in much the same way that patients are comforted by the empathy of others.

In addition to preserving work satisfaction through social connection, clinical empathy also fosters a sense of control within the physician. As the hours of a single workday mount, healthcare professionals often feel subjected to the tide of incoming patients and unanticipated challenges. Physicians who practice clinical empathy are shown to exhibit higher levels of professional development, understanding, and perception of control 16

(Adams 56). This perceived control correlates directly with increased levels of physical, mental, and emotional resilience (Gundersen 146). The general efficacy of physicians hinges on resilience in these areas. It is logical that the more resilient a physician is, the more likely he or she is to provide balanced, patient-centered care.

It should be clear as to how impactful clinical empathy is in modern medicine. Its natural emphasis on humanistic elements of care offers critical support to the technologically geared biomedical model. The impact of this support is evident in research and professional anecdotes alike. Patients who perceive strong levels of empathy within their physicians are likely to be more satisfied and compliant with their care (Kim, Klapowitz, and Johnston 237). On the other hand, physicians who exercise clinical empathy experience a variety of benefits as well, including, gratifying social connection and a positive sense of control.

It must be stressed that the points made here are not intended to belittle the biomedical model of caregiving, nor are they intended to overemphasize the true utility of clinical empathy in modern care. They are intended to contribute to an ongoing discussion of how the medical field can be improved for the sake of patients and healthcare professionals alike. A primary step in developing such improvements may come from continued, genuine practice of clinical empathy by physicians.

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Drew Navarro

Author Biography: Drew Navarro is a Sophomore Biomedical Engineering student hoping to attend medical school after graduation in May 2018. He is involved in the Biomedical Engineering Society, the Dean’s Student Leadership Advisory Council for the College of Engineering and Technology, and is an EMT in Winterville, North Carolina. He is the Undergraduate Coordinator of Academic Programs for the Honors College.

During his free time, Drew enjoys spending time with family and friends and training for endurance sports.

Works Cited Primary Sources Gofstein, Susan. "Resonance: Erasure." Pain Exhibit. Pain Exhibit, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2015. http://painexhibit.org/en/galleries/portraits-of-pain/ag01_Gofstein.

Mathew, Dana. Personal Interview. 4 March 2015.

Secondary Sources Adams, Richard. “Clinical empathy: A discussion on its benefits for practitioners, students of medicine, and patients.” Journal of Herbal Medicine 2.2 (June 2012): 52-57. Science Direct. Elsevier. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 14 April 2015. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii.

Burke, Joanna. The Story of Pain. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014. Print.

Engel, George L. “The Need for a New Medical Model: The Challenge of Biomedicine.” Science. 196.4286 (April 1977): 129-136. Google Scholar. HighWire Press.

J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 10 April 2015. http://www.sciencemag.org/content/196/4286/129.short.

Gundersen, Linda. “Physician Burnout.” Annals of Internal Medicine 135.2 (July 2001): 145-148. Google Scholar. SilverChair. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 9 April 2015. http://annals.org/article.aspx?articleid=714658.

Hojat, Mohammadreza. Empathy in Patient Care: Antecedents, Development, Measurement, and Outcomes. New York: Springer, 2007. Print.

Kim, Soo Sung, Stan Klapowitz, and Mark V. Johnston. “The Effects of Physician Empathy on Patient Satisfaction and Compliance.” Evaluation and the Health 17

Title of Paper

Professions 27.3 (September 2004): 237-251. Sage Journals. Google Scholar. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 8 April 2015. http://ehp.sagepub.com/content/27/3/237.short.

Marcus, E. R. “Empathy, humanism, and the professionalization process of medical education.” Academic Medicine. 74.11 (November 1999). 1211-1215. Google Scholar. Ovid LLW Journal Definitive Archive. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 19 April 2015. http://jw3mh2cm6n.search.serialssolutions.com.

“Medicine.” Oxford English Dictionary. 2015. Oxford University Press. 8 April 2015. http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/115715?result=1&rskey=YZWqVc&.

Morris, David B. "An Invisible History of Pain: Early 19th-Century Britain and America," The Clinical Journal of Pain 14.3 (September 1998): 191-96. Ovid.

Wolters Kluwer. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 8 Mar. 2015. http://www.ovid.tx.ovid.com.

Ratzan, Richard M. "'Lives There Who Loves His Pain?': Empathy, Creativity, And The Physician's Obligation." Hastings Center Report 44.1 (2014): 18-21. Wiley Online Library. John Wiley & Sons. J.Y. Joyner Library. Greenville, NC. 20 Mar. 2015. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com.

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Alena Nikitina

Citizens’ Reaction toward E-government Systems in the USA and Russia: A Comparative Analysis By: Alena Nikitina ABSTRACT: For effective interaction between society and the state, government needs a new, streamlined e-government platform for the provision of public services. Currently, open government is implemented in the administration of the state in all developed countries to various degrees. This study discusses a theoretical definition of e-government and historical background of the Russian e-government. Furthermore, this study analyzes the citizens’ reaction on Russian E-government and readiness of Russian public officials for E-government. In conclusion authors examine practical solutions for e-government development problems.

Introduction Information and communications technologies (ICTs) are playing an increasingly vital role in the daily lives of people, revolutionizing work and leisure and changing the rules of doing business. In the realm of government, ICT applications are promising to enhance the delivery of public goods and services to citizens not only by improving the process and management of government, but also by redefining the traditional concepts of citizenship and democracy [1, pp.24-27].

The effects of ICTs on societies are both far-reaching and uneven. On the one hand, ICT is fueling the transition from industrial-based economies to knowledge-based societies. On the other hand, ICT still has little or no impact in the lives of people in many countries. This wide disparity in the impact of ICT around the world today underscores the uneven progress of economic development. It also

highlights the critical role of government in the information age.

Definition of E-government What is exactly e-government? Egovernment is defined as a way for governments to use the most innovative information and communication technologies, particularly web-based Internet applications, to provide citizens and businesses with more convenient access to government information and services, to improve the quality of the services and to provide greater opportunities to participate in democratic institutions and processes. 

Theresa A. Pardo outlined its functions as follows: Diam maecenas nunc est, sit erat sapien phasellus, eu leo amet.



Citizen access to government information. Providing access to government information is the most common digital government initiative. Facilitating general compliance. E-government can also 19

Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

mean providing electronic access to services that facilitate compliance with a set of rules or regulations. 

Citizen access to personal benefits.

Electronic benefits transfer and online application for public assistance and worker’s compensation are examples of services that provide the citizen with electronic access to personal benefits.



Procurement including bidding, purchasing, and payment.

Government-to-government information and service integration. Integrating service delivery programs across government agencies and between levels of government requires electronic information sharing and integration.



Citizen participation. Online democracy includes access to elected officials, discussion forums, “town meetings,” voter registration, and ultimately online voting. These services are intended to serve the community at large [2].

Ultimately, e-government aims to enhance access to and delivery of government services to benefit citizens. More important, it aims to help strengthen government’s drive toward effective governance and increased transparency to better manage a country’s social and economic resources for development with the advent of government reforms in a number of countries, ICTs are fast becoming an essential vehicle for public sector accountability, which 20

forms the bedrock of e-government initiatives on the continent [3, pp. 2942]. E-government presents a tremendous impetus to move forward in the 21st century with higher quality, cost-effective, government services and a better relationship between citizens and government.

United Nations Surveys and EGovernment Development Index (EGDI): Case of Russia and the USA The main driver of the United Nation’s e-Government Development Index is the basic requirement for human and social development [4].

That is, the United Nation believes that effective use e-government is a vehicle for human and social development. The E-government Development Index, therefore, measures the capacity and willingness of the public sector to deploy ICT for improving knowledge and information in the service of the citizen.

In the rating successful "Egovernment model", prepared by the UN in 2014 [5], Russia takes 27th place meanwhile the USA has 7th (Table 1).

Russian rank has changed compared to 2010 (59th rank) (Table 2). and 2008 (60th rank) (Table 2). Therefore, Egovernment leaders are still South Korea, the US and Canada.

In the rating successful "Egovernment model", prepared by the UN in 2014 [5], Russia takes 27th place meanwhile the USA has 7th (Table 1).

Russian rank has changed compared to 2010 (59th rank) and 2008 (60th rank). Therefore E-government leaders

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are still South Korea, the US and Canada Table 1: E-government system ranking in different countries (2014 гг.)

Country

Sweden Denmark Norway USA Netherlands South Korea Canada Australia France The UK Spain Ukraine Russia

2014 Rank

scores

14 16 13 7 5 1 11 2 4 8 12 87 27

0,8225 0,8162 0,8357 0,8748 0,8897 0,9462 0,8418 0.9103 0,8938 0,8695 0,8410 0,5032 0,7296

Table 2: E-government system ranking in different countries (2010 гг.)

Country

Sweden Denmark Norway USA Netherlands South Korea Canada Australia France The UK Spain Ukraine Russia

2010 Rank

scores

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 41 60

0,7476 0,7476 0,8020 0,8510 0,8097 0,8785 0,8448 0,7863 0,7510 0,8147 0,7516 0,5181 0,5136

Table 3: E-government system ranking in different countries (2010 гг.)

Country

Sweden Denmark Norway USA Netherlands South Korea Canada Australia France The UK Spain Ukraine Russia

2008 Rank

scores

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 41 60

0,7476 0,7476 0,8020 0,8510 0,8097 0,8785 0,8448 0,7863 0,7510 0,8147 0,7516 0,5181 0,5136

Nevertheless, Russia is in the high EGID group (between 0,5 – 0,75), while there are only 25 countries (13 per cent) ranked as very-high-EGDI (more than 0.75), the majority falls in the middle range, with 62 countries (32 per cent) ranked as high-EGDI (between 0.5 and 0.75) and 74 countries (38 per cent) ranked as middle-EGDI (between 0.25 and 0.5).

Based on an assessment of eparticipation features in national portals and social networking sites, a global ranking of government provisions was established. Russia is on this ranking. Russia is an active participator of the social network websites.

Statistic data demonstrate the numreous growth of Russian people using the internet. Figure 1, shows that since 2000 the number of Russian

21

Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

internet users has been increasing dramatically.

Figure 1 Change in percentage of people using the internet, selected countries

Speaking about language and content barriers, we could say that only 6% of Russian language content is used, while 56 % (Table 4) of English language content is used.

Table 4: Disparity in Internet content and language Language

% of Internet users by language English 27 Chinese 25 Spanish 8 Portuguese 4 German 5 Arabic 3 French 3 Russian 3

% of content on the internet 56 4 4 2 6 1 4 6

Therefore, the statistical data of UN shows us that Russian Egovernment system is growing up but still has small rating in comparing with other countries.

The legal and theoretical aspect of Egovernment in both countries To understand Russian and American E-government system, we must understand administrative 22

development and previous administrative reforms on government in Russia and the USA in 2006-2014.

In the United States, research on Egovernment was mainly fueled from two sources. Between 1998 and 2007, the U.S. National Science Foundation (NSF) encouraged and funded information technology (IT) research projects with a government focus [6, pp. 434-444], which led first to a stream of purely technical and later also sociotechnical research projects in digital government. NSF’s Digital Government Program, along with other crosscutting NSF programs, funded a total of 200 EG-related research projects with an overall volume of $74.7 million with single awards ranging from just under $10,000 to as much as $3.6 million [7, pp. 21-32]. Finally, the foundation discontinued soliciting research proposals with an explicit digital government focus in 2008 [8].

Of particular interest to this study is the United States E-Government Act of 2002. This key piece of legislation has had a significant impact on the role and usage of e-government services at the federal level in the United States [9, pp. 8-10]. Title III of the E-Government Act of 2002 known more commonly as the Federal Information Security Management Act (FISMA) provides security requirements for federal agencies employing e-government services.

This study will focus on the “Security Protocols to Protect Information” as required by Section 207 of the E– Government Act of 2002. Currently,

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only federal agencies are required to comply with the E-Government Act of 2002 and its provision to provide security protocols to protect information [10, pp. 476-481]. State and municipal government agencies are not subject to this federal act. This study uses the federal approach to egovernment security as a benchmark that municipal agencies should seek to attain. Federal agencies are required to comply with the security requirements of the act by following the guidance set forth by the NIST SP800-44 document published by the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). NIST is a recognized authority that publishes security guidelines, policies, standards and procedures used by government and private agencies.

Russian E-government initiatives are complex change efforts intended to use new and emerging technologies to support a transformation in the operation and effectiveness of government derived from government reinvention. New challenge of Russian public administration in 21st century is to create an e-government.

In November 2008, the Council of the development of information society and E-government under the President of the Russian Federation was established.

In 2009 was approved "Plan of transition of federal executive bodies in the provision of public services and performance of public functions in electronic form." It includes 73 basic public services, which in 2015 converted into electronic form. [11].

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In 2011 Long-term target federal program "Information Society 2011 2018" was established, which replaced the federal target program "Electronic Russia (2002 – 2010 years)" as the main financing mechanism of transition processes to "e-government"[12].

Nowadays annually amended the Russian legislation to the requirements of "electronic government". Adopted two important federal laws. Federal Law of 9 February 2009 No 8 "On ensuring access to information about the activities of state bodies and local self-government" [13] and the Federal Law of July 27, 2010 No 210-FZ "On the organization of public and municipal services" [14]. These laws regulate the provision of public and municipal services in electronic form.

However, this does not mean that essential for the functioning of "egovernment" legal framework is finally formed. For example, in the domestic legislation is still lacking the basic concept of "electronic paper." On the other hand the establishment of "electronic government" is definitely moving forward. In the future we are waiting for the federal law about "electronic digital signature". The Russian Federation’s Government Order No. 583 of 10 July 2013 [15] set out the rules for classifying public sector information as open data, the timeframe for updating this information, as well as other requirements concerning the publication of information as open data.

At a meeting of the Commission for Modernization and Technological 23

Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

Development Russian President Vladimir Putin instructed to step up efforts to introduce universal electronic card (UEC), a Russian citizen. The President said that this card "will be the second most important identification document in the country" [16].

Simultaneously with the formation of the legal framework is being created structures of "electronic government".

Since December 2009, was created the federal web-site www.gosuslugi.ru, allowing through the "My Account" receive public federal services. Webportals public services are formed at the regional level too, although they mainly provide a few quantity of public services.

Thus, the first web-site of public and municipal services of the Sverdlovsk region (Yekaterinburg) starts to provide such public services as doctor’s appointment, call for public applications, registration and enrollment of children in kindergartens, providing compensation for the payment of housing and Community Services and others.

Thus, in the field of state and municipal Russian public services in electronic form defined some progress.

However, as international experience shows, it is not enough to provide just a technical offer of electronic services.

It is required to form corresponding demand from Russian citizens. The approach of "let them, and they will take" in the field of "electronic government" is not working. Therefore we 24

need a clear understanding of which segments of the Russian population is already ready to use e-services.

Citizens’ reaction toward E-government in the USA and Russia This study is leading an analysis to the reaction of American and Russian citizens toward E-government.

Data source about American citizens bases on sociological survey. A questionnaire was administered to 356 American citizens who regularly accessed the internet and who were major users of ISTD and DVLD’s services, to obtain their perceptions about e-government adoption.

Purposive sampling was used in the current study. This kind of sample is used when the purpose is to gain information from particular target groups [17, pp.207-216].

Data source about Russian citizens bases on sociological survey of the E. Dyakova and A. Trahtenberg in Urals Federal District (Russia) in June, 2013 [18]. The study identified three main groups of users by their relation to the "electronic government": 1. "Active supporters." This group of respondents states that they are ready now to cooperate with the authorities in electronic form. 2. "Followers."

Respondents who reported that they were ready to work with governments in both electronically and in person, depending on the specific situation. 3.

"Enemies". Respondents who indicated that they prefer to interact with public authorities only in person.

USA: Of the respondents, 64.9% were males and 35.1% were females.

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Of the sample, 3.9% were less than 20 years old, 36% were in the age group of 20–29 years old, 30.1% were in the age group of 30–39 years old, 21.6% were in the age group of 40–49 years old, and % were over 50 years old.

Among respondents, 71.3% resided in urban areas in USA, while 27.2% of respondents resided in remote areas.

The majority of respondents were generally employees: 33.4% were employees in government services and 37.4% were employed in the private sector. Most of the respondents (52.8%) held a bachelor degree level of education. Internet usage at home and work recorded the highest percentage, 45.5% and 30.9% respectively. Of the respondents, 32.8% used the internet for email and chatting purposes, 5.9% used it for shopping, 22.7% used it for homework or checking educational study results, 41% used it for reading news, and 31.2% used it for obtaining information from government websites and downloading forms.

Most of the respondents (48.9%) accessed the internet one to three hours per week. Figure 2 shows a graphical presentation for some demographic characteristics of the current study’s participants.

Figure 2: Demographic Characteristics of Survey’s Participants The internal reliability of the main components of factor analysis was evaluated using Cronbach’s alpha.

Table 5, introduces the major components of the exploratory factor analysis and the reliability analysis.

Table 5: Reliability analysis of variables CONSTRUCT Trust in the internet Website design Religious beliefs Internet and computer skill confidence Word of mouth Resistance to change Perceived usefulness Relative advantage Complexity Adoption

NUMBER OF ITEMS 3

CRONBACH’S, α .807

8

.899

3

.917

4

.879

5 5

.783 .804

4

.804

5

.806

4 5

.838 .77

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Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

This section discusses the following significant factors as presented in Table 2: trust in the internet, religious beliefs, website design, internet and computer skill confidence, word of mouth, resistance to change, perceived usefulness, relative advantage and complexity.

The results related to trust in the internet showed that it is essential to incorporate the concerns of citizens in the developing country of US with regard to the privacy and security of their personal details and to consider their willingness to engage with egovernment. This study’s findings are in the line with previous research [19, pp.473-482] in the developed country of the USA as trust in the internet showed a strong loading in the factor analysis. This research paper showed the necessity of exploring this factor in relation to e-government adoption in developed and developing countries.

The factor, religious beliefs, was measured using different scale items which described different religious beliefs and views toward the internet, for example, immorality issues and adult themes. Although there is a lack of research on the role of religious beliefs in e-government adoption, the substantial body has leveraged a knowledge base in order to explain this role.

Website design emerged as a significant component of egovernment adoption in the USA. Different evaluation studies denoted the effect of government websites including adequate features to ensure users’ satisfaction [20, pp.109-118].

These studies provided a base for the 26

present study in its design of the main scale items for measuring website design: an example of these items is the availability of clear directions for navigating e-government websites. In terms of the factor, internet and computer skill confidence, this study presents the importance of considering the fundamental role of technical skills, that is, internet and computer skills, when researching the factors that influence people’s intentions to use e-government services. The varied purposes of using the internet, such as reading news and online shopping, mentioned by survey respondents indicated their different skill levels in interacting with the internet.

This study is in line with the literature as it reports the need to discuss the variation in citizens’ technical skill level and their enthusiasm for using e-government services. The nature of the survey respondent population, who were mostly employees, explained the strong loading in the factor analysis in terms of the resistance to change factor. Most of the scale items used to measure this factor reflected the changes that would occur with the introduction of e-government services.

Employees would be concerned about different kinds of changes related to egovernment as a technological innovation such as losing their jobs as they might be replaced by technology.

On the other hand, word of mouth recorded a strong loading in the factor analysis. The way in which this factor was measured showed how people would socialize and network about egovernment. Jordan is one of the

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Alena Nikitina

Arabic societies that are collectivist in nature [21, pp.97-122].

Russia: The distribution of the main groups of users is shown Table 6.

Table 6: Distribution of the main groups of users Main groups

% of respondents

Active supporters Followers Enemies Undecided respondents

16,5 30,3 48,2 5,0

As you can see, active supporters of the transition to "e-government" is a distinct minority. The young respondents have higher demand to Egovernment, and they would like to receive government services electronically. We also note that more men use public Internet service instead of woman.

Particular interest is the distribution of supporters and opponents of the transition to "electronic government" among different social groups. As can be seen from Table 7, the highest readiness for transition for public services in electronic form is characteristic of topmanagers. In this group, the proportion of active supporters was about one-third of the total number of respondents, two-fifths are followers, while opponents are in the vast minority.

Sufficiently, high level of preparedness was also recorded in the groups of specialists (managers)

engaged in intellectual work (one fifth of the active supporters, and two-fifths of followers).

Table 7: Distribution of supporters and opponents of the transition to E- government among different social groups

Topmanagers Managers Public Civil servants Factory workers Retired Students Unemployed

Active Supporters 34,7

Followers 45,3

Enemies 18,9

Undecided Respondents 1,1

22,6 17,9

42,7 31,3

32,6 46,8

2,1 4,0

14,3

25,7

54,3

5,7

5,8 16,3 14,1

7,5 40,7 30,8

78,8 38,2 46,2

7,9 4,9 8,9

These two groups of students are adjacent: In this segment, the share of active users of supporters and followers also exceeds the share of opponents of the "electronic government".

On the contrary, the retired group is clearly opposite to E-government, their share is about four-fifths of the total number of respondents, while the active supporters of this group was slightly more than 5%. Another group, where opponents are clearly more active than the active supporters and followers - a group of factory labors.

More than half of the respondents in this group said that they prefer to contact the authorities in person, without using any technological inventions.

Thus, a high level of preparedness for the "electronic government" showed the most socially adapted and successful members of society. These 27

Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

groups include top-managers with high education and high income. The lowest level of readiness is typical for such members of social groups as the retired pensioners with low incomes.

This situation is typical for the socalled "digital split" which is division of society into "information-rich" and "information-poor" and the emerging "Digital Divide". In the transition to "egovernment" tendency innovations circulate in the community from the "top-down" part of elite society (educated and affluent society) to all other [22].

However, this does not mean that the emerging demand for electronic services do not need to adjust the state. Representatives of socially vulnerable people that objectively need public services are not less than the representatives of elite groups. To change this situation, it is necessary to involve the purposeful work in the sphere of "electronic government" of pensioners, persons engaged in physical labor, etc. This conclusion confirms the position expressed by the President of the Russian Federation Vladimir Vladimirovich Putin at a meeting of the Commission for Modernization and Technological Development of Russia's Economy.

The Russian president stressed that the need to work with the fears and uncertainties of citizens, involving them in the scope of "electronic government" [16].

Some work in this direction in the Ural Federal District has underway.

So, since 2006 in Khanty-Mansi Autonomous District - Yugra, the 28

project "e-Citizen", aimed at training disadvantaged sections of the population computer literacy standard of the European Union. In the Tyumen region since the beginning of 2010 it has been working on the social program of the governor computer literacy "Expanding Horizons", whose main aim is the successful functioning of the "e-Government". Training is conducted similar programs in other federal entities that make up the Urals District.

However, it is clear that some regional initiatives are not enough.

Needed federal program of training citizens to move to the "egovernment". Such a program should be aimed not only at eliminating computer illiteracy, but also to actively explain the advantages of "electronic government", as well as a constant assessment of applied solutions tailored to the needs of citizens. As international experience shows, really becomes effective such a program only in the case of joint efforts of government, business and civil society institutions.

Next step of this study is to analyze the readiness of public civil servants to E-government.

Conclusion Analysis of E-government in the USA showed us that trust in the internet, religious beliefs, website design, internet and computer skill confidence, word of mouth, resistance to change, perceived usefulness, relative advantage, and complexity are

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Alena Nikitina

the main factors related to egovernment adoption.

This research paper has highlighted that the government in the USA should be sensitive to the dynamics of social and cultural life in Jordan when formulating the response needed from citizens when introducing e-government services Basing on the results of investigation we can formulate conclusion about E-government in Russia. We divided it into the several groups: 1. Computer and data security.

This problem contains different components such as: control security program, access control, and monitoring the development and replacement of software. The clarity of the division of responsibilities for operational control; fraud and misuse of data.

2. The low level of information about the E-government program

among Russian citizens. The lowest level of readiness is typical for such members of socialgroups as the retired pensioners with low incomes [23].

3. Psychological resistance to innovation. It is very important in the implementation of e-government to take into account the experience of ordinary employees, which, in fact, will provide services in electronic form. As international experience shows that in a particular organ of power culture adoption and implementation of the decisions may in certain circumstances block the transition to e-government. This is factual if the performers have the impression that the new rules will lead to the fact that they will lose power and influence. The situation is complicated in the conditions when the transition to many departments one state" will require an active interagency cooperation and information exchange.

My name is Alena Nikitina. I am Fulbright international graduate student from the Urals Institute of Administration – branch of Russian Academy of National Economy and Public Administration, Yekaterinburg, Russia. My major is public administration.

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Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

References Marchionini, G., Samet, H., and Brandt, L., "Digital Government", Communications of the ACM, 46(1), 2003, pp. 24-27.

Theresa A. Pardo "Realizing the Promise of Digital Government: It’s More than Building a Web Site", Information Impact, October, 2000.

Almarabeh, T. and AbuAli, A. (2010). A General Framework for E-Government: Definition, Maturity Challenges, Opportunities, and Success. European Journal of Scientific Research. ISSN 1450-216X Vol.39 No.1 (2010), pp.29-42.

United Nations (2012). E-government Survey 2012. E-Government for the People.

Opened January 15, 2014 http://www.unpan.org/egovkb/global_reports/08report.htm United Nations (2014). E-government Survey 2014. E-Government for the People. http://unpan3.un.org/egovkb/en-us/Reports/UN-E-Government-Survey2014 Ho, A.T.-K., "Reinventing Local Governments and the E-Government Initiative", Public administration review, 62(4), 2002, pp. 434-444.

Eglesias, S.a.a.J.C., "Towards a More Effective and Efficient E-government: The Importance of Shared Service", in (Editor, 'ed.'^'eds.'): Book Towards a More Effective and Efficient E-government: The Importance of Shared Service, Olten, Switzerland, 2010, pp. 21-32.

Scholl, Hans J., ed. E-Government: Information, Technology, and Transformation: Information, Technology, and Transformation. Armonk, NY, USA: M.E. Sharpe, Inc., 2010. ProQuest ebrary. Web. 28 September 2015.

Levack, K., "The E-Government Act of 2002: A Stab at Cyber Security", Econtent, 26(3), 2003, pp. 8-10.

Seifert, J.W., and Relyea, H.C., "E-Government Act of 2002 in the United States", in (Anttiroiko, A.-V., and Mälkiä, M., 'eds.'): Encyclopedia of Digital Government, Idea Group Reference, Hershey, PA, 2007, pp. 476-481.

Plan for the transition of federal executive bodies in the provision of public services and performance of public functions in electronic form. Approved by Decree of the Government of the Russian Federation dated Oct. 17 2009 No 1555-r Access: http://pravo.fso.gov.ru/cms/per_uopi/per_uopi/acts/1002_0.html. (the date of circulation: 15.11.2009 city).

The concept of the formation of the Russian Federation "electronic government" until 2010 [electronic resource]. - Access: http://www.ifap.ru/ofdocs/rus/egovconc.pdf (date of treatment 15.07.2010).

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Alena Nikitina

On providing access to information about the activities of state bodies and local selfgovernment: The federal law from 09.02.2009 N 8-FZ (ed. By 04.11.2014) // "Collection of the legislation of the Russian Federation", 16.02.2009, N 7, Art .

776.

On the organization of public and municipal services (rev. And ext., Joined. In force from 09.15.2015): The federal law from 27.07.2010 N 210-FZ (ed. By 07.13.2015) // ATP "Consultant -plus " On ensuring access to public information on the activities of government bodies and local authorities in the information and telecommunications network "Internet" in the form of open data: Government Decree of 10 July 2013 N 583 // Meeting of the legislation of the Russian Federation of July 29, 2013 , N 30 (Part II) Art. 4107 Putin V. Opening remarks at meeting of the Presidium of the Presidential Council of the Russian Federation on development of local self-government on the issue "On measures to improve the quality of public and municipal services to the population." Orenburg, January 28, 2011 [electronic resource] / VV Putin. Access: http://www.parlcom.ru/index.php?p=MC83&id=35616 (the date of circulation: 05.03.2011 city).

Alomari, M.K., Woods, P, & Sandhu, K. (2012). “Predictors for E-government Adoption in Jordan: Deployment of an Empirical Evaluation based on a CitizenCentric Approach,” Information Technology & People, 25 (2), pp.207-216.

Dyakova E. "E-government" and citizens: the results of complex sociological research in the Urals Federal District [text] / Dyakova, A. Trachtenberg. Ekaterinburg 2010.

Carter, L., & Weerakkody, V. (2008). “E-Government Adoption: A Cultural Comparison,” Information Systems Frontiers, 10(4), pp.473-482.

Dugdale, A., Daly, A., Papandrea, F., & Maley, M. (2005). “Accessing E-Government: Challenges for Citizens and Organizations,” International Review of Administrative Sciences, 71(1), pp.109-118.

Hung, S.Y., Chang, C.M. & Yu, T.J. (2006). “Determinants Of User Acceptance Of The E-Government Services: The Case Of Online Tax filing And Payment System,” Government Information Quarterly, 23(1), pp.97-122.

Norris P. A Virtuous Circle: Political Communications in Postindustrial Societies [Text] / P. Norris. Cambridge, 2000.

Nikitina A. Innovation and tradition in the work of social and professional groups of modern civil servants. Dissertation ... The candidate of sociological sciences: 22.00.04 / Russian Presidential Academy of National Economy and Public Administration. Ekaterinburg, 2014.

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Citizens’ reaction toward E-government system in the USA and Russia: Comparative Analysis

32

The Lookout

Alexander Prunka

Voter Age and Political Participation in the U.S. By: Alexander Prunka ABSTRACT: The purpose of this research study was to observe the relationship between age and political participation. The expectation was that age serves as a proxy to other socioeconomic factors allowing it to predict political participation. The findings supported the claim that age is a significant indicator of political participation. When regression was run with control variables, significance of age was extremely high; age remains a strong predictor of political participation. However, age is not simply a proxy because age still stands as significant when examined with the controls. This research is significant to political parties and candidates, and results can be applied to any organization that seeks the support of the politically active citizen. The overall aim is to establish strong predictors that can be used for targeting populations for certain activities.

Introduction Two of the trailblazers in the study of political participation are Sidney Verba and Norman Nie, whose 1972 book, Participation in America, is a thoroughly mastered handbook on what creates participation in America.

In Participation, they define political participation as: ‌those activities by private citizens that are more or less directly aimed at influencing the selection of governmental personnel and/or the actions they take‌ It indicates that we are basically interested in political participation; that is, in acts that aim at influencing governmental decisions. (Verba and Nie, 1972) This definition is important since political participation is generally equated with voter turnout (Leighley, 1995). In this sense, voter turnout can be separated into two

cohorts: those who vote and those who do not; but political participation is a much vaster topic.

There have long been questions about the political involvement of individuals over their lifespan. It is the aim of this study to see if there is a relationship between age and level of political participation. Levels of political participation are difficult to study empirically due to the fact that political participation is less something which can be marked by an exact yes or no indicator, and more something which is observed through a multitude of behavioral patterns (Crittenden, 1963).

Since participation can be measured through many different means, different studies reflect wide variation in variables, methods and conclusions drawn in on the subject. It is irresponsible and confusing to simply equate voter turnout with 33

Age and Political Participation

political participation, since within the two cohorts of voter turnout there is bound to be a wide variation in levels of political participation.

There are two main models of political participation: the standard socioeconomic status (SES) model, which was most fully developed through work by Verba and Nie, (1972) and the mobilization model (Leighley, 1995). The SES model is the most important model for research studying the relationship between age and political participation. Though it is noted that the SES model is the main basis for almost all empirical studies; studies investigating aspects of an individual’s social characteristics (a component of socioeconomic status) are possible through the use of multivariate analyses instead of the bivariate analysis typically used in standard empirical studies (Leighley, 1995).

Political participation has been studied and analyzed from many different angles by political scientists throughout the years. In terms of age, while there may not be a causal relationship with participation, it can certainly serve as a proxy to many socioeconomic factors which determine political participation. As it is later explained, an individual’s socioeconomic status usually rises as they age—to a point.

Background It was originally viewed through the life stage model of participation, that political 34

participation followed a somewhat parabolic curve over a citizen’s lifetime. This curve started out with low political participation in the earlier years, followed by an increasing amount of participation and engagement as a citizen approaches and lives through the midlife years of his or her life, and ending with a sharp decline in mid-60s. This model could be justified by the overall SES model, since a large part of one’s socioeconomic status has to do with income and monetary influence. As a citizen ages, income increases until it peaks around their midlife years. After the peak there would be a sharp fall as most Americans reach the normal retirement years of mid-60s (Jennings and Markus, 1988, Verba and Nie, 1972). In addition to a cut in income after retirement years, other socioeconomic factors such as children and property ownership tend to fall in importance for those in and beyond the mid-60s since children are grown and retirees often consolidate property ownership. Through their study, Verba and Nie realized that the downturn is not actually as sharp as was always thought, though there is some decline in activity in citizens over 66 years of age (1972). Verba and Nie’s information points them to the conclusion that exposure to politics over time results in higher levels of political participation.

In terms of young adult and midlife aged participation, there is evidence of upward trending political participation until the end of the middle age, as demonstrated by the

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life cycle model. The reason for the increase can be explained by socioeconomic factors for which age could serve as a proxy. It is a fact that younger people tend to be less involved politically than those in their midlife years or older (Conway, 2000).

The reasoning behind this is generally referred to as the problem of “startup,” (Conway, 2000 and Verba and Nie, 1972). As individuals in their young adult years are mobile and unsettled, they do not yet have deep rooted interests in their communities and are often tuned out of politics before they really find involvement in a community through property ownership and community ties (Verba and Nie, 1972). Another factor contributing to this unsettled lifestyle is marriage. Relatively speaking, very few individuals below the age of 25 are married. Marriage brings with it spousal influence which has a strong impact on political participation. In addition to spousal influence, marriage can bring children, which gives citizens a further stake in politics (Conway, 2000).

There remains to be seen, however, the complexity behind the slight decline in political participation of citizens over 66 years of age. There are three possible “theoretical perspectives,” (Jennings and Markus, 1988) to explain the phenomenon. The first is the theory of disengagement (Cumming and Henry, 1961). This widely believed and cited theory states that as by the mid-60s (retirement years) and beyond, individuals begin to lose involvement

Alexander Prunka

in the outside world, including politics, either by self-initiation or by societal imposition (Jennings and Markus, 1988). The second theory is selective withdrawal (Streib and Schneider, 1971). This theory finds that individuals choose aspects of their lives to emphasize or deemphasize in their later years. This could lead to either an increase in political participation or a reduction, depending on individual preferences or situational factors (Jennings and Markus, 1988). The final theory is cohort composition, which explains lower participation rates in older cohorts when compared with young adult age cohorts as a result of the older groups being less equipped with the educational skills of the younger groups, which is seen by some to be the critical component of participation, (Jennings and Markus, 1988 and Verba and Nie, 1972).

Regardless of which theory is accepted for the sake of research, political participation is so vast of a concept that there must be some sort of categorizing for variables. Jennings and Markus conducted a linear study of participation with a parental cohort, utilizing a system which places modes of participation in the categories of “passive” or “active” (1988).

In terms of passive participation, the research indicates citizens “following ‘what’s going on in government and public affairs most of the time’ increased with age,” (Jennings and Markus, 1988). This shows a direct increase in citizen interest in political affairs. Though 35

Age and Political Participation

there is a lowering in the percentage of individuals who “read about politics frequently in newspapers,” there is a similar decline in national studies (Jennings and Markus, 1988). These two indicators of passive political participation challenge the idea set forth in the disengagement theory since participation has stayed constant or risen. The only questionable contrasting data from the same study comes in the form of a decline in internal political efficacy through the years. A decline in this sense would seem to confirm the disengagement theory as valid because it points towards a reduced sense of ability.

Other indicators of political salience showed consistency in the case of political knowledge, a strong increase in the case of ideological sophistication, and a downward trend comparable to national averages in the case of external political efficacy (Jennings and Markus, 1988). The data then would largely contradict the disengagement or cohort composition theories.

Active political participation is a different case. Of the five indicators of active political participation, there was a decline in all over the years, with the sharpest decline coming in the area of influencing others, and the slightest drop coming from one of the areas requiring some of the least amount of effort: donating money (Jennings and Markus, 1988). Active participation requires effort on the part of the citizen. It can be expected that in the later years of one’s life, they will slow down and relax in many 36

respects of active lifestyles, so it is not a major surprise that modes of participation requiring effort would suffer declines during these years. The research and observations drawn from Jennings and Markus’ study tend to be reflective of the theory of selective withdrawal, since older citizens likely withdrawal from these activities either by choice, or because of the complications of aging.

Overall, the trend is that aging brings with it higher levels of political participation. The information from Jennings and Markus reflects that there is some drop-off in the mid-60s, around “retirement” age, but only in some respects since inactive participation generally grows.

Theoretically then, as a proxy to several other socioeconomic factors, age should generally be a fairly strong indicator of political participation.

Research Design The purpose of this proposal is to show the framework for a research project which will explore the relationship between age and voter participation at a point in time. The point in time for this study will be the United States presidential election in 2012. The data utilized in the research study will be from the American National Election Study of 2012 (ANES).

The 2012 ANES is the 29th installment in a series of election studies conducted during the years of each presidential election since 1948. The study in 2012 utilized a dual-mode

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survey of two independent samples: internet respondents and face-to-face respondents. The surveys were broken into two separate periods: pre-election and post-election. The surveying periods ran from September 8th, 2012 to November 5th, 2012, (Pre-election faceto-face period) October 11th, 2012 to November 6th, 2012, (Pre-election internet period) November 7th, 2012 to January 13th, 2013, (Post-election face-to-face period), and November 29th, 2012 to January 13th, 2013 (Post-election internet period). In the pre-election periods, there were 5914 interviews, (2054 face-to-face and 3860 online) and in the post-election periods there were 5510 interviews (1929 face-to-face and 3581 online). The population for the surveys was United States citizens age 18 years or older by the time of the November 6th, 2012 general election.

Respondents in the internet sample were chosen from members of the GfK group, a multifaceted market research company, using two probability based sampling methods: address-based sampling (ABS) and random-digit dialing (RDD). Prospective respondents without internet access at the time of contact were furnished with free internet access and associated hardware with which to connect to the internet. The sample was restricted by the established age criteria and was limited to one respondent per household. Internet respondents received the survey via

Alexander Prunka

an e-mail link after prior contact through ABS or RDD. Respondents for the face-to-face sample were chosen using “an address-based, stratified, multi-stage cluster sample in 125 census tracts,�

(ANES, 2012). This means respondents were chosen based off a carefully determined set of parameters. The sampling was conducted by random selection of residential addresses within each tract with calculated efforts for oversampling of Hispanics and African-Americans; all in an attempt to create the most representative sample of the American population, and for special analysis of those subgroups.

The goal was to take 1700 responses in the main sample (individuals of all backgrounds) and 300 responses in each the Hispanic oversample and African-American oversample for a total of 2000 responses. The sample, like the internet mode, was age restricted and limited to one respondent per household, and for the African-American and Hispanic oversamples was limited to individuals of those races only. Surveys were administered with the help of touch screen computers which would display questions to the interviewer, which were read verbatim to the respondent. Responses to the questions were marked on the touch screen computer by the interviewer.

Respondents were paid for their time to encourage participation.

For each survey completed, internet respondents received $10, and re37

Age and Political Participation

ceived a bonus of $25 for completing all four surveys. Face-to-face respondents were paid an increasing amount depending on the date the survey was completed. For the pre-election survey the initial offer was $25, then $50, (October 5th-24th) $75, (October 24th-26th) and $100 (October 26th until November 5th). For the post-election survey, respondents who were paid $25 or $50 for the pre-election survey were initially offered $50, which increased to $75 at the end of the field period.

Those who were paid $75 or $100 for the pre-election survey were initially offered $100, which increased to $125 at the end of the field period.

This research study is intended to show that age can predict political participation. While this is not demonstrating a causal relationship, it instead shows age to be a proxy for several other socioeconomic factors, which would support the SES model of political participation.

As previously stated, political participation is complex and best studied in a multivariate study. For feasibility concerns, rather than creating an extensive multivariate study, a Political Participation Index (PPI) will be created from the seven items from the 2102 Supplementary Empirical Teaching Unites in Political Science (SETUPS) Codebook, Section B, “Political Involvement and Participation Items,” using data directly from the 2012 ANES. The independent variable for this study will be respondent age.

38

The dependent variable will be the index score based off the following seven items from ANES and SETUPS, recoded as necessary: (1) attention paid to what’s going on in government and politics, (2) campaign involvement, (3) financial contributions to campaigns, (4) contacting a public official, (5) interest in political campaigns, (6) frequency of political discussions, and (7) community involvement. Each item will be labeled as an active or passive mode of political participation so further analysis can explain the drop-off in participation of individuals after typical retirement age. Each of the seven items will have a possible value of zero or one, meaning a respondent’s PPI index can score anywhere from 0-7 as described below. A higher score indicates a higher level of participation.

(1) Attention paid to government and politics is measured through the question “How often do you pay attention to what’s going on in government and politics?” with respondents having the options of: never, some of the time, about half of the time, most of the time, and always. For any answer indicating any attention paid, (some of the time to always) an index value of one will be added. For those who never pay attention, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

(2) Campaign involvement is measured as in index of five questions, those being:

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i. Did you talk to any people and try to show them why they should vote for or against one of the parties or candidates? ii. Did you go to any political meetings, rallies, speeches, dinners, or other things in support of a particular candidate? iii. Did you wear a campaign button, put a campaign sticker on your car, or a sign in your window/front of your house? iv. Did you do any (other) work for one of the parties or candidates? v. Did you visit any presidential candidates’ websites?

For those who committed any acts of campaign involvement, an index value of one will be added. For no acts, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

(3)For the purposes of ANES, respondents were classified as having contributed money to a campaign if they had given money during the election year to: an individual candidate running for office, a political party, or any group supporting or opposing any candidate(s). For those contributing to a campaign, an index value of one will be added. For those who did not contribute, an index value of zero will be assigned.

(4) Contacting a public official is measured through the question “During the past 12 months, have you telephoned, written a letter to, or visited a government official to express your views on a public issue?”

This means the motive for the contact must be issue-based and is not

Alexander Prunka

confused with any other contact the respondent may have had with the government official. For those who contacted an official, an index value of one will be added. For those who did not contact an official, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

(5) Interest in campaigns is measured through the question “How interested have you been in the political campaigns so far this year?”

Respondents answer with one of the following: not much interested, somewhat interested, or very interested. For those who answered somewhat or very interested, an index value of one will be added. For those who answered not much interested, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

(6) Political discussion is measured through the question “How many days in the past week did you talk about politics with family or friends?” respondents answer with one of the following: 0 days, 1-2 days, 3-5 days, or 6-7 days. For those who discussed politics with family or friends any time in the past week, an index value of one will be added. For those who did not discuss politics with family or friends, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

(7)Community involvement is measured by an index of two questions: i. During the past 12 months, have you worked with other people to deal with some issue facing your community?

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Age and Political Participation

ii. During the past 12 months, did you attend a meeting about an issue facing your community or schools?

The answers to the two questions are analyzed on an individual level then categorized as: did both, did one, or did neither. For those who did one or both, an index value of one will be added. For those who did neither, an index value of zero will be assigned for this item.

While the index is not a perfect reflection of participation, it is the only way to condense the seven items into one variable which can be analyzed in the timeframe of the study.

Control variables come from available data within the ANES 2012: (1) combined family income, (2) social class, (3) marital status, (4) employment status, and (5) education level.

(1) Combined family income is measured through the question “What was the total family income in 2011 for all of your family members living here?” Respondents answer with one of the following: less than $15k, $15k$30k, $30k-$50k, $50k-$75k, $75k$110k, more than $110k.

(2) Social class is a self-rated variable measured through the question “Most people say they belong in either the middle class or the working class. Do you ever think of yourself as belonging in one of these classes? Which one?” Respondents answer with one of the following: working class or middle class.

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(3) Marital status is set as a dummy variable, measured through the question “Are you now married, widowed, divorced, separated, or never married? Are you currently living with a partner, or not?”

Respondents answer with one of the following: married, living with a domestic partner, widowed, divorced/separated, or never married.

Those married or living with a domestic partner are coded as one, all others are coded as zero.

(4) Employment status is set as a dummy variable, measured through the question “Are you working now, temporarily laid off, or are you unemployed, retired, permanently disabled, a homemaker, a student, or what?” Respondents answer with one of the following: currently working, unemployed, retired/disabled, homemaker, or student. Those currently working are coded as one, all others are coded as zero.

(5) Education level is measured through the question “What is the highest level of school you have completed or the highest level of degree you have received?”

Respondents answer with one of the following: less than high school, high school diploma, some college, college graduate, or graduate degree.

It is expected that with greater age comes an increasing income, at least until the time of retirement.

Social class (working or middle) reflects that those who have been invested in the daily operations of life typically hope to and/or do transition

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Alexander Prunka

from working class to middle class as they get older. Marriage is more likely to come with age. When an individual is married, they tend to have children or own property, both significant investments of interest. Employment is another community investment, and in the younger years, individuals seek jobs, which they retire from at older ages. Finally, as one gets older, they typically are more educated and sometimes return to school, so as age progresses, education often increases.

Hypothesis This study proposes the following hypothesis under the assumption that all outside forces

remain constant: “The older an individual is, the higher they will score on the PPI.�

Findings In order to observe the relationship between age and PPI score, linear regression was run where PPI was selected as the dependent variable and age was listed as the independent variable..

Table 1 is quite telling. As expected, age is quite significant in predicting political participation. For each increment in age an individual

Table 1: Regression: Influence of Age on PPI Score

CONSTANT Age a.

b.

Coefficients Unstandardized 3.050 .126

Significance Standardized .138

.000 .000

Dependent variable: Score on Political Participation Index (Scored 0-7, with one point added for each of the following: Any attention paid to government and politics, any acts of campaign involvement, any contributions to any candidates, parties, or other support/opposition groups, any contact with public officials, any political discussion during the week, any work in the community/attendance of any community meetings to deal with some issue.)

Age is an ordinal scale of: 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64, 65-74, 75+

increases, they increase, on average, by .138 on the PPI. The significance test indicates a high level of significance for this relationship more than 95% of the time. Though this demonstrates strong links between age and political participation, it does not account for the relationship when accounting for certain socioeconomic factors. Using regression again, control variables were inserted alongside age in calculation (Table 2).

Containing questions relating to social class, employment status, marital status, family income, and education, ANES 2012 allows us to take several of these socioeconomic factors into consideration when analyzing the relationship between age and political participation. Based upon the original hypothesis, it would be expected that the influence of age on political participation would diminish as controls are included in calculations.

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Age and Political Participation

Table 2: Regression: Influence of Age on PPI Score (with controls)

CONSTANT Age Social Class Employment Status Marital Status Family Income Education a.

b. c. d. e. f. g.

Coefficients Unstandardized 1.748 .104 .162 -.163 .138 .066 .318

Standardized .113 .051 -.051 .042 .068 .229

.000 .000 .001 .001 .003 .000 .000

Dependent variable: Score on Political Participation Index (Scored 0-7, with one point added for each of the following: Any attention paid to government and politics, any acts of campaign involvement, any contributions to any candidates, parties, or other support/opposition groups, any contact with public officials, any political discussion during the week, any work in the community/attendance of any community meetings to deal with some issue.)

Age is broken into groups of: 18-24, 25-34, 35-44, 45-54, 55-64, 65-74, 75+ Social Class is either 1- Working Class, or 2- Middle Class (Self-identified) Employment Status is a dummy variable of either 0- Unemployed, Retired/disabled, homemaker, or student and 1- Currently working Marital Status is a dummy variable of either 0- Widowed, Divorced/Separated, or Never Married and 1- Married or Domestic Partner.

Family Income is an ordinal scale of: Less than $15k, $15k-$30k, $30k-$50k, $50k-$75k, $75k-$110k, or more than $110k.

Education is an ordinal scale of highest level of education completed: Less than High School, High School Diploma, Some College, College Graduate, or Graduate Degree

Though the influence of age is reduced from .138 to .113 in standardized terms, the result is still extremely significant. Indeed, the other variables included in this analysis prove to be quite significant as well, with all being significant in greater than 95% of casesConclusion The purpose of this research study was to observe the relationship between age and political participation. Specifically, does age indicate how politically active citizens are? The expectation was that age serves as a proxy to several other 42

Significance

socioeconomic factors, therefore allowing it to predict political participation. The findings supported the claim that age is a significant indicator of political participation.

When regression was run again with control variables, the coefficient for age was not drastically changed, and the significance of age remained extremely high. This demonstrates that age remains a strong predictor of political participation. Based off the background, however, it disproves the idea that age is simply a proxy, because age still stands as significant

The Lookout

Alexander Prunka

when examined with the available controls.

This research is significant to political parties and candidates because participating citizens are what fuels their campaigns. The results can be applied to any organization which seeks the support of the politically active citizen. The overall aim is to establish this as a strong predictor which can be used for further study and targeting of populations for certain activities.

Further research is necessary on this topic. This study was condensed and simplified. Each item from the PPI could be analyzed on the level of active or passive; specific research into the effect of retirement on political participation could also be done. At a minimum, however, this research has demonstrated that as of 2012, age is an important predictor of political participation.

Alex Prunka is a Junior pursuing a BS in Political Science with a minor in English, He is a member of Beta Theta Pi, Student Government Association, UNC Association of Student Government. Alex plans to graduate in May 2017.

References ANES. (2012). User’s Guide and Codebook for the ANES 2012 Time Series Study.

Ann Arbor, MI and Palo Alto, CA: the University of Michigan and Stanford University.

Conway, M. Margret. (2000). Political Participation in the United States.

Washington, D.C.: Congressional Quarterly, Inc. Cumming, Elaine and William E. Henry. (1961). Growing old: The process of disengagement. New York: Basic Books.

Crittenden, John. (1963). “Aging and Political Participation.” The Western Political Quarterly. Vol. 16, No. 2.

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Age and Political Participation

Jennings, M. Kent and Gregory B. Markus. (1988) “Political Involvement in the Later Years: A Longitudinal Study.” American Journal of Political Science. 32.

Leighley, Jan E. (1995). “Attitudes, opportunities and incentives: A field essay on political participation. Political Research Quarterly.

Streib, Gordon F., and Clement J. Schneider. (1971). Retirement in American society.

Ithaca: Cornell University Press.

Verba, Sidney, and Norman H. Nie. (1972). Participation in America. New York: Harper and Row.

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The Lookout

Sophronia Knott

An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels By: Sophronia Knott ABSTRACT: This paper is an Ecofeminist reading of Gulliver’s Travels. It examines the aversion and identification of the protagonist to both women and nature. This recurring theme allows for a critique of ideological distinctions between human and non-human nature as well as men and women. The research draws on Ecocritical, Ecofeminist, and Feminist writings to further explicate the position of women and nature as “the Other.” Women are seen as being closer to nature, more linked to their bodies, more animalistic than their male counterparts.

Biological differences between men and women are manipulated to fit ideological beliefs of female inferiority. Throughout Gulliver’s Travels, Gulliver finds himself as the Other, as nature and women, i.e. becoming a pet to royals and an object of sexual objectification. The themes of aversion and identification culminate at the end of the travel narrative when Gulliver makes the horrid realization that he is a Yahoo.

Introduction Satires and travel narratives offer a wide range of critiques and insights that have a unique way of challenging ideological constructs and beliefs. Gulliver’s Travels is no exception. During his journeys, Gulliver finds himself excluded from society and looked upon as less than the indigenous population. He is continually forced into the position of the Other, specifically by occupying the position of both women and animals. His voyages consistently prove that clear-cut distinctions between men, women, and nature are impossible to discern. An ecofeminist reading of Gulliver’s Travels highlights the interconnectedness of men, women, human and nonhuman nature. It is through consistent aversion and identification that

Gulliver ultimately rejects humanity altogether.

The Other: Women and Nature Historically, both women and nature have been defined through their position as “the Other.”

According to de Beauvoir, men have posited themselves as the only essential Subject, fundamentally separate and opposite from the inessential Other, woman. “The category of Other is as original as consciousness itself. The duality between Self (Subject) and Other can be found in the most primitive societies, in the most ancient mythologies… alterity is the fundamental category of human thought” (de Beauvoir 6). But the oppression of women is more than this, “it reflects a situation that depends on society’s economic 45

An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels

structure… her social oppression is the consequence of her economic oppression” (de Beauvoir 63). The patriarchal, capitalist structure of western society mandates that woman is Other.

This historical construct also sets up human and nonhuman nature in diametric opposition. According to Val Plumwood, “western culture has treated the human/nature relation as a dualism [that ] explains many of the problematic features of the west’s treatment of nature… especially the western construction of human identity as ‘outside’ nature“ (2). In this dualistic relationship, men are reasoned, enlightened beings wholly distinct and separate from nonhuman nature. “He would like to rescind his animal attachments; because of his birth, murderous Nature has a grip on him” (de Beauvoir 165). Man is the Subject, the active agent transcending his animal existence, whereas nature is the Other, the passive, the non-agent (Plumwood 4). Ultimately, this pervasive ideology serves as a sanction for domination of nature.

“Nature inspires ambivalent feelings in man [and so] he exploits it” (163).

Furthermore, the control over and exploitation of nature contributes to, or is even more strongly linked to, control over and exploitation of human beings. [The] exclusion from the master category of reason… explains the conceptual links between different categories of domination, and links the domination of humans to the domination of nature” (Plumwood 13).

46

Historically, women have been perceived as more animalistic and closer to nonhuman nature than men.

For the majority of women, motherhood started early in life, keeping them trapped in the domestic sphere. But men, unhindered by biology, were able to be active participants in society, receive and education, and hold political office.

Gradually, men became the Subject, and masculinity became synonymous with learning and culture. Conversely, women became “the Other” in need of domination, altogether inferior in every aspect to their male counterparts. To be feminine meant to be weak, unintelligent, submissive, and animalistic. “The female, more than the male, is prey to the species; humanity has always tried to escape from its species’ destiny… maintenance of life became activity and project for man, while motherhood left woman rived to her body like the animal… Male activity, creating values, has… prevailed over the indistinct forces of life; and it has subjugated Nature and Women” (de Beauvoir 75).

The historical connections between women and nature are the “main ground of women’s devaluation and oppression (Plumwood 8). In earlier agricultural societies, nature was conceptualized as an organic entity, a “nurturing mother [providing] for the needs of mankind.”

But as mercantile capitalism and industrialization became the dominant social and economic forces, “the metaphor of the earth as a nurturing

The Lookout mother gradually vanished” (Merchant 77). The industrial and scientific revolutions created a patriarchal hierarchy that served as a cultural sanction for the subjugation of both women and nature. “Women [and] those identified as less full human [are] the victims of… rational hierarchy, just as many humans are victims rather than the beneficiaries of the assault on nature” (Plumwood 12).

It is not coincidence that the domination over nature directly correlates with the subjugation of human beings.

The Travel Genre: Aversion and Identification In travel narratives, protagonists are continually forced to occupy the position of the Other. By encountering vastly different cultures and societies, Gulliver is forced to examine his identity as the Subject. As the Other, Gulliver is oppressed, dehumanized, and considered inferior.

But this phenomenon is central to traveling in general and is not exclusive to literary texts. De Beauvoir notes that “traveling, a local is shocked to realize that in neighboring countries locals view him as a foreigner [thus removing] the absolute meaning form the idea of the other [bringing] out its relativity; whether one likes it or not, individuals and groups have no choice but to recognize the reciprocity of their relation” (7). In Gulliver’s Travels, the ability of travel to blur ideological distinctions between men and women and nature is at the core of Gulliver’s

Sophronia Knott ultimate rejection of humanity. By the end of Book IV, he understands that there is nothing inherently superior or transcendent about the human species.

Throughout the novel, Gulliver continually finds himself in a state of “aversion and identification [that is] central to the ideological significance of the satire,” (Brown 360). During his travels, Gulliver occupies the position of both women and nonhuman nature which is represented in the novel as animals. “Swift’s satire registers the complex interdependency of categories of the oppressed,” (Brown 369). By proving that Gulliver is interchangeable with women and animals, Swift “suggests the contradictory nature of identity in… the colonialist fantasy” and “destabilizes any secure constitution of a distinct colonialist subject [and serves as] an implicit critique of such a position,” (Brown 369).

Gulliver as a Woman Swift writes, “nothing is great or little otherwise by Comparison,” (73). Gulliver’s position as the Other allows him to compare his situation with that of others, including women.

Gulliver is seen as a fashion doll and a sexual object, thus establishing an interchangeability between Gulliver and women.

In Brobdingnag, Gulliver finds himself amongst a race of people roughly seventy feet tall. Unable to tend to himself, he relies on women to take care of him, much like a doll.

“This young Girl was so handy, that… she was able to dress and undress 47

An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels

me… [and] she made me seven shirts [that] she constantly washed for me with her own hands,” (79). The depiction of Gulliver of being dressed evokes a “common contemporary female image,” (362). Furthermore, when he becomes the property of the Queen, he is given “an entire Set of Silver Dishes and Plates [that] were not much bigger than what I have seen of the same kind in a London Toy-shop, for the Furniture of a Baby-house,” (88). Not only is he dressed like a doll, but he must also live like a doll.

During the time Swift wrote the novel, fashion dolls were a way for women to preview new clothes. In an expanding capitalist market economy, fashion dolls were symbolic of the “commodified female figure,” (362).

But even more so, dolls represented an ideal woman—a silent, obedient object for physical objectification. When Gulliver serves as the Queen’s fashion doll, he is an embodiment of the patriarchal view of women.

Interestingly enough, A Doll’s House was the title Henrik Ibsen’s play about a woman’s inability to live within the confines of a patriarchal marriage. Although the wife’s clothes and house were as manicured and polished as a doll’s, she was acutely aware that her husband believed her to be his natural inferior (Ibsen). If Ibsen’s definition of a doll’s house is applied to Book II, then Gulliver is not only living the life of a doll, but of a married, oppressed woman as well.

Gulliver is also given clothes and a house, but he is undoubtedly viewed by the Queen as the inferior Other.

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Another scene in Book II feminizes Gulliver. In a patriarchal society, women are not only oppressed and commodified, but also sexualized. Western culture predominately views women and their physical bodies as sexual objects. At the hands of the Queen’s Maids of Honor, Gulliver’s is reduced in a similar way. “The Maids of Honour often invited [me] to their apartments [in order to] have the pleasure of seeing and touching me. They would often strip me naked from top to toe, and lay me at full Length in their Bosoms… like a Creature who had no sort of Consequence. The handsomest among these Maids of Honor… would sometimes set me astride upon one of her Nipples with many other Tricks, wherein the Reader will excuse me for not being over particular,” (99). The implication is that Gulliver’s entire body was used for penetration. And unlike Gulliver’s normal sexual encounters, the Maids of Brobdingnag had no use for his penis. Just like women, Gulliver was emasculated and objectified; he was nothing more than a source of sexual pleasure.

As a doll and a sexual object, Swift demonstrates that women and men are interchangeable and interconnected. In several instances, Swift explicitly details Gulliver’s awareness of his aversion and identification with women. In Book I on the island of Lilliput, Gulliver towers over the native population. His size makes him an easy target for criticism, as the inhabitants see him as they might under magnification, but

The Lookout he largely dismisses their words. But his experiences in Brobdingnag force him to analyze his position as the Other, and in doing so, reconsider his time in Lilliput.

I must confess no Object ever disgusted me so much as the sight of her monstrous Breast… It stood prominent six Foot, and cold not be less than sixteen in Circumference… Nothing could appear more nauseous… I remember when I was at Lilliput, the Complexions of those diminutive People appeared to me the fairest in the world… [but] an intimate friend of mine… said that my Face appeared much fairer and smoother when he looked on me from the Ground, than it did upon a nearer View when I took him up in my hand… he confessed [it] was at first a very shocking sight.

He said he could discover great Holes in my Skin, that the Stumps of my Beard were ten times stronger than the Bristles of a Boar, and my Complexion made up of several Colours altogether disagreeable (76-77).

By comparing these two situations, Gulliver recognizes that his criticisms of Brobdingnag are applicable to himself in the nation of Lilliput. Not only that, but the critiques apply to both men and women, further confirmation that they interchangeable. For “in nature nothing is ever completely clear: the two types, male and female, are not always sharply distinguished” (de Beauvoir 38).

Sophronia Knott Gulliver as an Animal Distinctions between human and nonhuman nature are examined in Gulliver’s Travels as well. In western society, one of the anthropocentric beliefs is that man is inherently superior and different to all other animals, and their ability to reason set them above and apart from all other animals and nonhuman nature. At several points in Gulliver’s journey, he is considered to be an animal. He becomes a household pet, and he quickly finds himself in danger of falling prey to once harmless rodents and insects.

When Gulliver arrives in Brobdingnag, he is immediately aware that he is the Other. Surrounded by giants, he realizes that at any “moment [he could] dash me against the Ground, as we usually do any little hateful Animal which we have a mind to destroy,” (73).

His captors decided to keep Gulliver and display him for money, and he was “shewn ten times a Day to the Wonder and Satisfaction of all People” (83). Gulliver was no longer a human, but merely an object of entertainment. Even though Gulliver was a means of income for his owners, they mistreated him and disregarded his basic needs. “I had quite lost my Stomach, and was almost reduced to a Skeleton,” (84). The King, after hearing of the diminutive creature, sent three scholars to examine the traveler. He then purchased Gulliver, after determining by his teeth that he was in fact a “carnivorous Animal,” (86).

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An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels

Gulliver is then given to the Queen is a gift, and she was “surprised at so much Wit and good sense in so diminutive and Animal” (85). And like a pet, she kept him by her side constantly.

But even The Queen’s fondness could not keep Gulliver safe, as his diminutive stature left him prey to other animals. While in the garden one afternoon, a small Spaniel grabbed Gulliver off the ground and held him in its mouth. “The Dog following the Scent, came directly up, and taking me into his Mouth rain strait to his Master” (97). Although uninjured, his caretaker resolved to keep a closer watch, and his already limited freedom became more restricted. “Like a pet, Gulliver is confined to a small space in an empty cage, and suffers from an insufficient space to feel free or to exercise,” (Deyab 296). But it’s not just mammals that attack Gulliver.

Prior to the Spaniel incident, twenty wasps attacked Gulliver from above.

“I had the Courage to rise and draw my Hanger, and attack them in the Air. “ [The wasps] flew about my Head and Face, confounding me with the Noise, and putting me in the utmost terror of their Stings… I dispatched four of them, but the rest got away” (92).

For Gulliver, these two encounters could have easily meant life or death. As an object of entertainment, Gulliver may have received audience admiration, but because his owners see him as something akin to a circus animal without sentient thought or feelings, 50

that justified their neglect. “[Swift] gives Gulliver the opportunity to live through animals’ conditions, and thus enables him to experience in person heir pains needs, and fears… This artistic device falls beautifully in line with contemporary ecocritical aesthetics” (Deyab 295). But his position does not improve as the Queen’s pet either. Even within the palace walls, Gulliver is in danger.

Animals once perceived as harmless or pesky are now deadly predators. By “ being placed in the situation of an animal, Gulliver has the chance to express the feelings of being ill-treated and badly exploited at the hands of humans” (Deyab 297). Before his travels, Gulliver anthropocentrically believed man to be at the top of the food chain, but his experiences directly contradict this ideology. But his journey to Brobdingnag proved that rather than transcending their animal, humans have simply been ignoring it, and given the right circumstances, their position at the top could easily disappear.

Synthesis Two scenes in Book IV highlight the interconnection of men, women, and animals. Gulliver’s time with the Houyhnhnms ultimately causes him to reject humanity. The Houyhnhnm’s society is an ecological utopia because the hierarchy imposed on human and nonhuman nature has been reversed. “Gulliver acknowledges that it is no longer acceptable to regard humans as

The Lookout something completely unique” (Deyab, 293).

During a trip to the river, Gulliver encounters a female Yahoo, who upon seeing him naked, quickly lunges towards him. “[She was] enflamed by Desire [and] came running with all speed… She embraced me after a most fulsome manner” (225). Gulliver recoils, realizing that he was a “real Yahoo.”

This scene simultaneously feminizes and naturalizes Gulliver. In western culture, it is women that are typically prey to lustful suitors, and men are the ones to initiate any sexual activity. But in this scene, the female is sexually aggressive. But because Gulliver believes Yahoos to be animals, her sexual advances are not only emasculating, but also dehumanizing.

If he is desirable to an animal, then he must an animal himself. “The Yahoos’ greatest threat to Gulliver is here epitomized in the figure of the female whose sexuality stands as proof of the identification with the other that Gulliver abhors… The anecdote in Swift’s text—where the human male is set upon by an apparently bestial female—stands out for its evident violation [of] sexual categories… The reversal of sexual roles in this scene could be seen as part of the persistent dynamic of identification or interchangeability [in] Gulliver’s relation to the female… By the logic of Swift’s satire the Yahoo’s lust for Gulliver proves them to be of the same species as well, equally human or nonhuman” (Brown 369).

Sophronia Knott When Gulliver decides to leave the Houyhnhnms, he builds a canoe to ferry him across the water. “I finished a sort of Indian Canoo, but much larger, covering it with the Skins of Yahoos well stitched together… My Sail was likewise composed of the Skins of the same Animal; but I made use of the youngest I could get, the older being too tough and thick” (237).

The use Yahoo’s skin as sails parallels the use of women and animals as resources. In a society dominated by industry and patriarchy, the physical bodies of both women and animals became resources to be exploited.

Trapped in the domestic sphere, women were reduced to baby machines and sex objects. Prior to developments in modern medicine, childbirth could easily result in the death of the mother. Similarly, animals were used for transportation, food, income and clothing. Their skins, meat, fur, bones, and offspring were all seen as man’s resources. Carolyn Merchant writes that during Swift’s time, “social transformations [had] already begun to reduce… female nature to a resource for economic production,” and that the “the earth as a nurturing mother and womb of life [transformed] into a source of secrets to be extracted for economic advance” (80). The systematic exploitation of women and nature as resources demonstrates their interconnectedness. “People suffer because the environment is damaged, and also from the process which damages it, because the process has disregard for needs other than those of an elite built into it. We die of the 51

An Ecofemenist Reading of Gulliver’s Travels

product… and also of the process” (Plumwood 13).

Conclusion Gulliver’s Travels offers a wide range of critiques and insights that has a unique way of challenging ideological constructs and beliefs as a satirical novel and travel narrative.

Excluded from society and looked upon as less-than the indigenous population, Gulliver continually forced into the position of the Other.

At various points in his journies , Gulliver occupies the position of both

women and animals. His voyages consistently prove that distinctions between men, women, and nature are cultural and ideological constructs created by a corrupted humanity. An ecofeminist reading of Gulliver’s Travels highlights the interconnectedness and interchangeability of men, women, human and nonhuman nature through consistent aversion and identification.

Author Biography: Sophronia Knott is a senior English major with a minor in Great Books, graduating in December 2015. She is the President of Sigma Tau Delta-English Honors Society, and involved with 5Ks for K9s. Sophronia is the Fall 2015 Outstanding Undergraduate Student for the English Department and the Spring 2015 Paul Farr Memorial Essay Scholarship recipient.

Works Cited Beauvoir, Simone De, and Constance Borde. The Second Sex. New York: Vintage, 2011. Print.

Deyab, Mohammad Shaaban Ahmad. "An Ecocritical Reading of Johnathan Swift's Gulliver's Travels." Nature and Culture 6.3 (2011). Print.

Garrad, Greg. Ecrocriticism. London: Rutledge, 2004. Print Merchant, Carolyn. The Death of Nature: Women, Ecology, and the Scientific Revolution: A Feminist Reprisal of The Scientific Revolution. San Francisco: Harper & Row, 1980. Print.

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Plumwood, Val. Feminism and the Mastery of Nature. London: Routledge, 1993.

Print.

Plumwood, Val. “Androcentrism and Anthropocentrism: Parallels and Politics.�

Ethics and the Environment 1.2 Fall (1996):327-355. JSTOR. Web. Swift, Jonathan, and Albert J. Rivero. Gulliver's Travels: Based on the 1726 Text : Contexts, Criticism. New York: Norton, Jan 2002. Print.

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54

The Lookout

Audrey Thompson

Should Videogames Be Incorporated into Traditional Education?

By: Audrey Thompson ABSTRACT: What if videogames were incorporated into traditional education? Videogames teach players many valuable skills – specifically, videogames teach players strong contextual problem solving skills. Videogames are an extremely viable candidate for use in the classroom because they are better than traditional education methods at engaging players. According to Edwards, many high school students felt disinterested in their schoolwork (2011), but games could be used not only to compensate for students disinterest in learning, but also to teach young students valuable problem solving skills that will assist them later in their academic careers.

Introduction Research is currently being conducted on the effects of video games, and how they could be used in the classroom. Games should be considered for use alongside traditional educational methods because they teach students strong problem-solving skills that will help them succeed in school. However, how do games teach students valuable skills that will help them succeed? How do games so effectively interest their players unlike most traditional school lessons?

Games teach their players processbased problem solving skills, and suggestthat video games could possibly be a viable tool for use in school to help young students develop strong problem-solving skills.

Why Games?

Games are a viable option for teaching students valuable skills because they engage gamers in ways

traditional school cannot. According to Jane McGonigal, games are intriguing to their players because they offer a regular stream of information on how one is performing in the game and never demand unachievable tasks.

Some games offer social environments for gamers to solve problems together in order to contribute to the story of the game narrative.

Now, consider the traditional classroom environment. Clifford H. Edwards, in his book Educational Change: From Traditional Education to Learning Communities asserts that many believe that the U.S. educational system is failing due to its “rigid, bureaucratic structure� (77). Our school system would not be deemed a failure if students participated in class and worked on assignments as diligently as gamers attempt to solve problems in games. For example, in 2010, the average young person logged 10,000 55

Should Videogames Be Incorporated Into Traditional Education?

hours of game play before the age of 21, but only spent about 10,080 hours in school from fifth grade through high school graduation (if they did not miss one school day) (McGonigal).

However, the likelihood that the average student would have perfect attendance is unlikely because, according to Edwards, many high school students felt disinterested in their schoolwork (2011). Games, unlike school, are something that people are eager to explore, become better at, and more knowledgeable about. In 2010, 67% of households played computer or video games (Entertainment Software Association, 2010). Nowadays, four out of five households have a device used to play videogames, and,

according to the Entertainment Software 2015 industry report, 42% of Americans play games three or more hours a week. Games are growing in popularity, and obviously have some captivating qualities that traditional educational environments do not offer.

Contextualized Problem Solving Games require players to learn contextualized problem solving skills, as Olga Dziabenko, Javier GarcíaZubia & Diego Lopez-de-Ipina discuss in their article, “Remote Experiments & Online Games: How to Merge Them”.

One notable component of games that contributes to how they educate their players is how the instruction and game structure are combined seamlessly (2011). The combination of game structure and instruction that Dziabenko and her colleagues are referring to works on multiple levels and, according to Gee, is something all videogames must accomplish in order to be a well-constructed game.

One way that games instruct their players is through didactic tutorials. Typically occurring at the beginning of a game, a gamer is led through these tutorials revealing how to perform actions within the game.

Some games educate through suggested tasks or experimentation (Gee, 2007). Often, games that encourage players to learn via experimentation utilize both tutorials and experimentation that require the application of skills introduced in the basic tutorials.

Complicated games, like the Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time, or simple games like Temple Run II, continue to educate their players with mid-game tutorials or through educational graphics to heighten player competency. Gamers must fully absorb the information pre-

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Why should games be incorporated into traditional education?

Player enjoyment and interest do not correlate with a student’s enjoyment and interest in gaining greater knowledge and skills. However, games are both fun and require their players to gain skills in order to advance so the use of them in traditional education would be successful in gaining the student’s interest in learning.

The Lookout

sented early on in the game, and apply that information to solve problems at later points. However, complete mastery of the controls of the game does not guarantee success. Some games even have problems that can be solved in multiple ways, which is a good skill to gain in school.

Problems gamers encounter in the virtual world will most likely not have obvious or simple solutions Problem solving is contextualized in game play because not all the skills the game teaches will be relevant to situations the gamer encounters. The gamer must consider context in order to make the best choice to solve a problem, such as what resources are available to them, or the pros and cons of making a particular choice. Games could be a possible alternative to some parts of traditional education because they teach players to make decisions based on the context of the problem similar to the methods used for solving problems in subjects such as math andscience. Gamers are willing to recognize and even exploit a given situation in order to solve problems (Gee, 2007). For example, in the game Grand Theft Auto, if a player is short on funds, they can murder characters in the game, and steal money off the body (Leonard, 2006). Although alarming, some gamers are willing to go to lengths such as murder (in the virtual world) in order to solve problems. Although the Grand Theft Auto example is extreme, imagine if students worked that creatively to solve problems in schools with the same amount of inventiveness and

Audrey Thompson

excitement. Situational context in games makes finding solutions more challenging and more rewarding for gamers, therefore, games teach students valuable problem solving skills. Students who can utilize their knowledge of a subject to find solutions are capable of solving problems in contexts outside of games – such as problems presented in school subjects. Instead of teaching students information or skills that will not be used every day, perhaps we should spend time teaching students contextual problem solving skills through games rather than following our current, traditional educational structure.

Teaching young students problem solving skills will give them the opportunity to approach new knowledge as a tool for possible gain or use later, rather than information that lacks context and is ultimately meaningless to the student. But what if games are teaching students to go to extreme lengths to solve problems? In an extreme case, couldn’t students learn that killing is an acceptable method of problem solving? Although more research is needed, with an understanding of how gamer identity functions, we can devise ways to encourage students to adopt productive and healthy problem solving methods, rather than methods that would be detrimental to society.

Gamer Identity Through increased consideration, we can encourage students to make better choices in 57

Should Videogames Be Incorporated Into Traditional Education?

order to solve problems. Some games require us to choose specific paths for a character we invent at the beginning of the game. We get to choose the identity of our character, and make decisions based on who we decide that character is, or how we believe that character should behave. The manner that we identify ourselves breaks down into three levels. These identities are: one’s “real-world identity”, one’s “projective identity”, and one's “virtual identity” (Gee, 2007). Our understanding of each of these identities is imperative because through these identities, we can help increase the amount of consideration students give when they select a method of problem solving.

applicable to their real-world experiences, do have effects and consequences. For example, reminding a student that their choice to play the game for less time than their classmates may cause them to fall behind in the game. Being behind in the game does not directly affect other students in the class, but may require the student to spend additional time compensating for their initial lack of attention to their assigned task. In short, students should be made aware of the cause-effect relationship of their choices via their real world identity.

Interestingly enough, one’s projective identity is another way to help students become aware of how their choices have consequences.

The “real world identity" is our own personal identity as a gamer playing a game. This identity is equivalent to any other identity one might have in their everyday life, such as a soccer enthusiast, or a heavy metal music fan, or avid theatregoer.

Therefore, success or failure of a gamer in the virtual world could serve as validation (or invalidation) of the identity of the gamer. For example, if a person who identifies as being good at a game performs poorly, their identity as someone with notable gaming skills may be called into question. But why is it important to know that a gamer's real world identity is effected by their performance in the game? How can this information help us encourage students to make considerate problemsolving choices? Students should be encouraged to realize that their choices, although not directly

One’s “projective identity,”(50) deals with projecting one’s self, thoughts, or ideas, onto the character in the game. Essentially this identity is like the bridge between one’s virtual and real world identity as a gamer, and is therefore most complicated. Gee explains that this identity is what shapes the choices we make regarding our character – what we raise our character to become based on our own values (2007). Our projective identities can be used to help ourselves consider more factors before making a decision by helping us realize that the values they project onto our characters have an effect on our success in the game.

For example, within the game League of Legends, players create a team whose goal is to take over the other team’s base. There are three lanes that players can use to attack the other team. Each character is suited for certain roles

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within a team based on their strengths and weaknesses as a fighter or healer.

Characters who are designed to play a specific role aren’t very effective in other roles, so players are forced, for the most part, to adopt the role designed for their character rather than one of the gamer’s choosing.

However, if one’s projective identity wants one’s character to take on a role that a specific character is not suited for, the character may not perform well in the game. This example of a player’s projective identity affecting a character’s performance is a great opportunity to teach students about how their choice affected their character in the game. Showing a student that their character might not be performing well in the game because the student is trying to force them to do something the character is not designed for is an opportunity for a student to learn how one’s values might not be the best or most valid in every context.

“Virtual identity” as Gee explains, is like a blend of personal responsibility for the success and failure of a character within the context of the game world. In some ways, the choices we make as the gamer affect our character, and sometimes the predetermined shortcomings of our “virtual identity” within the game are based on things that we as the gamer had nothing to do with. As mentioned earlier about the game League of Legends, each character is suited for certain roles within a team based on their strengths and weaknesses. With regards to one’s virtual identity, adopting the designated

Audrey Thompson

identity for one’s character makes the most sense because it is the likeliest route for success. Virtual identity, in short, is what ties a gamer to the success or failure of their character, avatar, or other representation of one’s self in the realm of the game. However, in a real world context, the gamer is not held personally responsible for the success and failure of their character via virtual identity. One’s virtual identity only functions within the world of the game, whereas one’s real world identity extends beyond the game (Gee, 2007). Virtual identity is less accessible for teachers to utilize during game play in order to help students to become more considerate about choices. However, one of the few ways that educators could help students gain more consideration is by limiting the kinds of virtual identities available to students. Therefore, careful selection of the non-educational games used in school should be made in order to increase student benefits obtained from games.

Conclusion Further research should be conducted regarding the incorporation of non-educational games in schools.

Games teach players useful skills – specifically contextual problem solving skills – that will be useful to them through their academic careers.

Teachers can use student’s real world and projective identities most effectively to teach students to be more considerate about their choices and actions by showing the effects of their 59

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actions in the real and game worlds.

Although one’s virtual identity isn’t quite as accessible as the other two identities, teachers can select specific games to best help students learn that careful consideration to their choices

should be made. Therefore, we can instill a culture of care and consideration in students, rather than allowing them to adopt the understanding that they may compromise others in order to solve problems

Author Biography: Audrey Thompson is a senior stage management major with a minor in English, graduating in May 2016. She is currently working as a consultant for the ECU Writing Center, and serves as the chair for the ECU USITT student chapter.

References Dziabenko, O., García-Zubia, J., & Lopez-de-Ipina, D. (2011). Remote experiments & online games: How to merge them. International Journal of Engineering Pedagogy, 1.1, 31-35. doi:10.3991/ijep.v1i1.1601

Edwards, C. H. (2011). Educational change: From traditional education to learning communiljties. Laham MD: Rowman & Littlefield Education.

Entertainment Software Association. (2010). 2010 essential facts about the computer & video game industry: Sales, demographic, & usage data. Retrieved from: http://isfe.eu/sites/isfe.eu/files/attachments/esa_ef_2010.pdf Entertainment Software Association. (2015). 2015 essential facts about the computer & video game industry: Sales, demographics & usage data. Retrieved from: http://www.theesa.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/ESA-Essential-Facts-2015.pdf Gee, J.P. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning & literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.

Leonard, D. J. (2006). Not a hater, just keeping it real: The importance of race- and gender-based game studies. Games & Culture, 1.1, 83-88. doi: 10.1177/1555412005281910

McGonigal, J. (2010, Feb.) Gaming Can Make a Better World. Retrieved from: https://www.ted.com/talks/jane_mcgonigal_gaming_can_make_a_better_world/transc ript?language=en#t-198789

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Solanellas

Audience Inequality in Sport: Track and Field vs. Popular Sports By: Pol Solanellas ABSTRACT: Track and field represents the oldest form of organized sport, yet it is not the most practiced or the most supported by the general public. Instead, contemporary sports such as football and soccer play primary roles in the lives and hearts of sport audiences. Particular dynamics influencing this emerge in different cultures, communities, and scenarios, and this article explores how changing these dynamics can be used to affect track and field's popularity in today's society. Several notable elements that may be involved in excluding this sport from its potential role include: team aspects; cultural differences between continents; the “game” element; personal identification with a team; approachability of the sport; and, finally, mass and social media. It is worthwhile to consider these aspects collectively rather than individually in order to allow track and field to gain an audience representative of the time, effort, and skill of its athletes.

Sports are open social phenomenon; they are integrated into society, flexible, and dynamic. Sports enable socializing and both plural and collective expression. They are inclusive and exclusive, mediatized, and politicized under an extremely capitalistic background (Caparrós 2004, 57). Track and field is recognized and played internationally. It represents the oldest form of organized sport. This primitive but complex sport requires mental and physical abilities like endurance, concentration, speed, and power, among others, combined with the appropriate technique. However, worldwide audience for this sport does not reflect the number of hours athletes invest; the general public has lost interest at an increasingly disturbing rate, even though athletes are running, jumping, and throwing with skill and panache. Although many have tried to change this dynamic, the intention of this review is to present ideas that will

allow track and field to become as renowned as soccer or American football around the world.

To infer the team aspect, the individual sport of track and field can be considered using a football-like approach. When the National Collegiate Athletics Association (NCAA) announced that the 2015-2016 Division I NCAA Men’s and Women’s Outdoor Track and Field Championships were to be held on alternating days in an attempt to better serve the viewing public, both via television and on-site, the potential for the team aspect to be brought to track and field was lost.

Sports journalist Toni Reavis believes that separating the men's and women's events can showcase talent but not connect these events or athletes to one another (Reavis 2015a). Also, for an audience, it is important to have a sports personality to follow. People will find a broader range of athletes to support in a team rather than when 61

Audience Inequality in Sport: Track and Field vs. Popular Sports

presented with just one athlete. A strong competitor such as Usain Bolt gets people’s attention. If Bolt runs with a team, it is likely that fans will follow that team, whereas most athletes alone may struggle with finding a following and support. Those who attend to watch Bolt run the 100-meter relay might have a reason to also enjoy Emma Coburn in the 3000-meter steeplechase (Reavis 2015b). Furthermore, the 2014 New Balance Indoor Grand Prix (NBIGP) men’s 4 x 800-meter relay, the inaugural International Association of Athletics Associations World Relays, and the 2015 NBIGP Women’s Distance Medley Relay are examples of how team competitions in this sport can raise interest and are able to attract a track and field audience instead of just the track and field event fans.

Next, as Reavis shares in another article, track and field may not be able to hold its audience because its competition does not "make it count" for something beyond the meet itself (2015b). Though this sport shows the excellence of human performance, world-class meets like the Diamond League are just a series of disconnected and separate events that lead to nothing at the end of the day. The “make it count” concept has been proven before. Because excessive winning is rewarded, refocusing the ultimate goal of track and field could be another solution. Although this concept has been demonstrated in the United States, perhaps this concept would only work in specific cultures

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Fans from around the world tend to support their teams unconditionally, yet approaching a sport becomes two different experiences on the continents of Europe and North America. The most supported sport in Europe is soccer. On this continent, athletes start competing at a very young age on teams. On rare occasions these players will compete for academic institutions. As a result, professional teams have a huge structure that allows them to recruit and train young players, whom can also earn a significant amount of money during that process hoping that, one day, they can play at a professional level. Countries in Europe split sports from academics. The most supported sport in North America is football.

Americans follow a dynamic where athletes also start competing at a very young age, but in most cases, it is on behalf of an academic institution.

Here, academics and sports go together in a complex and cohesive structure that allows student-athletes to study and train in the same environment, making the process easier. Although there are some advantages, studentathletes must maintain their amateur status throughout their career. There are also other differences in sports between these continents.

Similar to approaching a sport, approaching a game or a competition is a different experience as well. In Europe, sports media and soccer fans focus their attention on the game itself and the final result. After ninety minutes, everybody goes back home.

In contrast, football fans in the United

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States make a celebration of every game day and spend a whole day with their families or friends. An obstacle that prevents society from adopting this approach for track and field could be the game element. Alcohol use and betting, which are sometimes associated with sports, are permitted during soccer and American football events, but not at track and field meets; this may negatively affect audience participation for track and field. Also, track and field audiences cannot support or claim a team as "theirs," cannot appeal to the way their team has competed in the case of a loss, and do not have a reason to maintain interest for the next weekend when their team is going to compete again. Therefore, how can people spend a day devoted to this individual sport? Maybe we need to refocus the sport and make it more inclusive.

According to a study done in the city of Barcelona in 2010, track and field is only represented by 1.6 percent of the total population, whereas walking corresponds to 21.8 percent, and running to 8.3 percent (Jaume, Fernandez, and Pons 2010, 27). Walking and running combined (both physical activities beneficial to health and included in track and field) represent 30.1 percent of the population in Barcelona whom could potentially be track and field supporters. Perhaps the sport appears too specialized and exclusive to the normal population, an issue that causes the majority not to follow track and field. In order to engage more people, the sport needs to change the way people think about

Solanellas

track and field and target a broader audience.

Media can play a huge role when it comes to influencing opinions.

Perhaps the key to balancing audience inequality is in a new concept of media communication. As Manuel Castells discusses in his article Communication, Power and Counterpower in the Network Society, the institutional realm used to be where power was decided, but, nowadays, mass media and horizontal communication networks are converging (238). This means that mass media does not play the big role anymore, and, instead, social networking shares this responsibility.

A window might be open for more equal support in sports since institutions are not as influential as before and people have counter-power through using social media, social movements, and social mobilizations (ibid., 246). These agents of socialization that resist and challenge institutionalized power relations can achieve audience equality in sports in the future.

Agents of socialization in sports can change audience inequality by changing one of the biggest challenges: the meaning of sports. The great peak of interest in the Olympics is significant evidence of this. The men’s 100-meter in track and field was the most watched sporting event in the Olympic Games of London 2012, reaching a peak audience of twenty million (International Olympic Committee 2014). A survey of twentyfive subjects randomly selected among 63

Audience Inequality in Sport: Track and Field vs. Popular Sports

East Carolina University students asked to name the first sport thought of in association with the Olympic Games supports this as well. Of the twenty-five respondents, 48.6 percent answered "track and field," specifically the men’s sprint events, 29.5 percent named "swimming," and 16.3 percent replied "gymnastics" (Pol Solanellas, unpublished interviews, 2015). This data gives an idea of the link to and division from the Olympic Games and track and field (especially men’s sprint events). It also presents the relationship between the ultimate demonstration of sports and track and field that results in an ephemeral audience. Why does this heavy attention vanish as soon as the games are over? These cultural challenges bring us back to school where sports values are taught.

From early ages, athletes are taught that the outcome is what really matters and the learning process is unimportant. The power of the medal seems to bring about all the attraction, Contrary to what it would seem, societal pressure is not as important as the immediate environment of young people (Parry, Jones, and Wann 2014, 264). According to the U.S. AntiDoping Agency, more than 80 percent of children who play a sport do so because it is fun, rather than to win, and are likely to stop playing when the sport is no longer fun (USADA 2014).

Studies have shown that the key role friends and peers play as socialization agents is higher than that of parents, school, and community in development during the socialization process 64

(Parry, Jones, and Wann 2014, 253).

Agents of socialization could acquire a relevant role in the process of socialization of sports, and, therefore, actively influence the development of balanced audiences in sports in the long run. To break the intrinsic cycle and provide a broader culture of the sport, we need to teach sport as inclusive and not exclusive. This way, a different society will arise and the values of people will create more equal support for sports like track and field.

As is to be expected, it is very difficult to change the dynamics of the closed cycle in which society functions. When taking on this challenge, the team aspect, like that of football, can be applied to the sport of track and field. Connected events and athletes would make it possible for track and field event fans to become a track and field audience of devoted fans. As demonstrated in the different approaches the continents of Europe and North America take to sport, it is interesting to note that changes, such as the admission of alcohol and gambling at track and field meets, may produce positive results, and inspire people to devote more time to enjoying the sport. Clearly, it is essential to redefine the message of track and field as an inclusive sport to a broader audience to have a larger impact on society and attract new followers. With society's new power to communicate through social networks, agents of socialization have better prospects in the pursuit of equal support across sports. Those influences in the close environment of young people could go far towards maintaining the audience’s interest

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after events such as the Olympic Games and give a healthier meaning to sports while providing for increased

interest and support for track and field.

Author Biography: Pol Solanellas is an international student-athlete from Barcelona, Catalonia, graduating in May 2016. He is a Communication major with a concentration in Interpersonal and Organizational Communication and a minor in Physical Activity and Sport Science. Pol transferred from the University of Barcelona to East Carolina University as a junior last fall and joined the Cross Country and Track and Field team where he has since become the captain. He is very involved in the pirate community as an ambassador for the School of Communication and a member of the Student-Athlete Advisory Committee. In the future he hopes to work at the corporate level with people in the sports industry.

References Caparrós, Toni. “The Sport Network.” Apunts: Educación física y deportes 1577-4015.78 (2004): 56-67, http://www.revista-apunts.com/en/library?article=237.

Castells, Manuel. “Communication, Power and Counter-power in the Network Society.” International Journal of Communication 1 (2007): 238-266, http://ijoc.org/index.php/ijoc/article/viewFile/46/35.

Clapés, Jaume, Marta Fernández, and Manel Pons. “La pràctica físicoesportiva a la província de Barcelona, Explotació i anàlisi de l'enquesta d'hàbits esportius.” iermB. Diputacio de Barcelona. Bellaterra: Institut d’estudis regionals i metropolitans de Barcelona, 2010, http://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=e6729058-2cea4dd6-93a4-15a2dc0edc74&groupId=41289.

International Olympic Committee. “Marketing Report.” International Olympic Committee 2012 London. IOC, Touchline. Lausanne: International Olympic Committee, 2012.

Parry, Keith D., Ian Jones, and Daniel Wann. “An Examination of Sports Fandom in the United Kingdom: A Comparative Analysis of Fan Behaviors, Socialization Processes, and Team Identification.” Journal of Sports Behavior 37.3 (2014): 251267, Web. 65

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Reavis, Toni. “NCAA To Separate Men’s and Women’s Track and Field Championships.” ToniReavis (blog), 17 February 2015a, http://tonireavis.com/2015/02/17/ncaa-to-separate-mens-and-womenstrack-and-field-championships/.

———. “Make It Count.” FloTrack (blog), 19 February 2015b, http://www.flotrack.org/article/29956-make-it-count.

U.S. Anti-Doping Agency. “Why We Play Sport and Why We Stop." TrueSport Report. 2014, http://www.truesport.org/library/documents/about/true_sport_report/Tr ue-Sport-Report.pdf

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