Criterion, Volume 40, 2022—Loyola Marymount University's Literary Journal

C R Ī TE R ION A

L I T E R A R Y

J O U R N A L

2

2 VOLUME 40

Copyright © 2022 Loyola Marymount University.

Special thanks to Dr. Barbara Rico, Maria Jackson, and Ash Good.

Cover image by Maksim Goncharenok. Interior images by Engin Akyurt, Cotton Bro, Drigo Diniz, Maksim Goncharenok, Sergey Katyshkin, Polina Kovaleva, Sinitta Leunen, Martin Lopez, Adrien Olichon, Mathias Reding & Salomon V. All images sourced from Pexels.com

C R Ī TE R ION A

L I T E R A R Y

J O U R N A L

C O -ED ITO R S-I N- C H I EF

Alexandra Paradzick Comer Wadzeck M A N AG I N G-ED ITO R

Alexandra Paradzick ED ITO R I A L TE A M

Jonathan Amiri Taylor Dischinger Andrew Garcia Kyra LaFitte Izabel Mah y Busch Madeleine Malcolm Lois Peach Antonio Radic Remy Smith Cameron Tobias Veronica Urubio A DV I S I N G P R O FES S O R

Sarah Maclay D ES I G N & T Y P ES E T TI N G

Ash Good VO LU M E 4 0

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2022

LOYO L A M A R Y M O U N T U N I V E R S I T Y

Contents Editors’ Introduction

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A L E X A N D R A PA R A D Z I C K & C O M E R WA D Z E C K

Beyond Traditional Literacy: Using New Media to Develop Traditional and Multimodal Literacy

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A LY S S A B O B I C H

Confronting Naturalism: The Need for Imagination in Modern Shakespearian Film Adaptations

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GABRIELLE JOHNSEN

Feminist Reclamation of Women from Greek Myth

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A L E X A N D R A PA R A D Z I C K

“As Crooked as the Other”: Representations of the Psychological Effects of Internal Colonialism in Bronte’s Wuthering Heights

34

SIERRA CREDICO

Wild Outsiders: How Sorrowland Examines Social Issues Through Nature SOPHIE JONSSON

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Isolation and the Immigrant Experience: An Analysis of Jhumpa Lehiri’s “Mrs. Sen’s”

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M A D E L E I N E M A LC O L M

A Historical Walk-Through of Olvera Street

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D A N I E L A AV I L E S G O N Z A L E Z

Teaching the Tongue to Desire

60

IZABEL MAH Y BUSCH

Natalie Diaz: Native American Identity through Poetry

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A N TO N I O R A D I C

Sisyphean Virtue: Existentialism as a Critical Lens for Reading A Farewell to Arms J A C O B LO N G I N I

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2 VOLUME 40

C R Ī TE R ION A

L I T E R A R Y

J O U R N A L

Dear Reader, W E LC O M E TO T H E 2 0 2 2 E D I T I O N O F L M U ’S CRĪT ERION , a literary journal dedicated to

putting forth the best of the year’s academic essays by students of Loyola Marymount University.

The ten works in this year’s collection—which span a range of genres, topics, eras, approaches, and critical lenses—were written amidst the continuing difficulty and tumult of a global pandemic and a world in crisis. Also present, however, is the resilience of a student body that seeks to use our collective voice in pursuit of positive change and deepening understanding, striving to overcome our difficulties by looking toward the example of literature.

We would like to thank our contributors, for entrusting us with their essays, and those on the editing team for their careful consideration and deliberation process, and for taking the time to make sure the best possible versions of those works are being presented to you.

We’d also like to extend our gratitude to our faculty advisor, Sarah Maclay, and our graphic designer, Ash Good, for her work over the past years in the creation of our website. It is our hope that, through our efforts in digitizing the collection, these talented voices will reach a wider audience than ever before. As always, continuing thanks to the English department for their tireless support of our magazine and its contributors.

Thank you for taking the time to seek out our journal . . . and now, enjoy the read!

Alexandra Paradzick Comer Wadzeck C O - E D I TO R S - I N - C H I E F

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Beyond Traditional Literacy: Using New Media to Develop Traditional and Multimodal Literacy A LY S S A B O B I C H

FOR DECADES, professors have lamented a

In the thirteen years since this study was

growing number of students who enter college

published, new media, including social media,

without the basic literacy skills necessary

online videos, and text messaging, has ingrained

to perform well in a rigorous academic

itself into our everyday lives, transforming

environment. Yet a 2008 study comparing

how we communicate and express ourselves.

writing errors in first-year college student

Students are no exception to this evolution.

essays across the past one hundred years found

Although once again there has been a public

that, on average, “the rate of student error…

outcry against new media’s detrimental effects

has stayed stable” (Glenn 360). Compositions

on writing skills of the generation growing up

have, however, changed: “emphasis on personal

with the Internet in their pocket, I argue that

narrative has been replaced by an emphasis

these new forms of media have simply reshaped

on argument and research” and papers more

the type of writing in which students engage,

than doubled in length compared to data from

even offering opportunities for an expanded

1980 (Glenn 351-352). Student writing has not

literacy. New media both familiarizes students

deteriorated in quality; it has simply taken a

with traditional literacy skills and introduces

different form.

new, multimodal literacies invaluable to their

A LY S S A B O B I C H is a Los Angeles native studying English and Finance at Loyola Marymount University, where she was recently recognized as the 2022 English Program Scholar. Her fascination with the role of linguistic conventions in creating meaning within discourse communities inspired her essay “Beyond Traditional Literacy." Written in Fall 2021 for Dr. Aimee Ross-Kilroy's Theory of Teaching Writing and Literature class, the essay examines the stylistic conventions of digital communication and their application in

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teaching traditional writing. After graduation, Alyssa plans on completing her first novel and continuing her education at Loyola Marymount University's School of Education.

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future life in an increasingly connected world.

roommates,” he portrayed himself as “an over-

Additionally, bringing new media into the

committed and engaged college student” with

classroom presents an opportunity for teachers

a passion for music through “stream of con-

to connect with students’ existing literacy skills

sciousness” tweets (Buck 15-16). In comparison,

and expand on them using these everyday

on Facebook, where he had a wider audience, he

multimodal forms of communication.

maintained a similar image through posts about event information and profile photos related

NEW MEDIA AND LITERACY

to music as well as selections from his Twitter

In a reflection on teaching style and grammar,

content (Buck 17). By taking into consideration

Professor Kate Ronald discusses how, despite

the audiences on both of these platforms, the

the attempt to eliminate style as a grading

story of himself he wanted to convey, and the

metric in the move towards process pedagogy,

conventions of the platforms influenced by their

teachers “are still influenced by your writing

capabilities (for example, Facebook’s format

style more than we admit, or perhaps know,”

is more conducive to photos and long forms of

but often fail to teach it in class (Ronald 171). To

information, whereas Twitter focuses on short

help remedy the situation, she suggests stu-

text posts), Ronnie developed skills attributed

dents “need to write much more than just what’s

to traditional literacy and used them towards

assigned in your classes to develop a beautiful

his own goals on these new media platforms. He

writing style” (Ronald 179). In fact, students are

analyzed his audience and the conventions of

already engaged in many extracurricular writing

the discourse community in order to create ef-

activities through social media, text messaging,

fective written and visual compositions to con-

blogging, and even multimedia projects like You-

vey his message.

Tube videos and podcasts. One study showed

Another major way new media helps

that “38% of the writing that the student partic-

students with traditional literacy skills is by

ipants completed happened outside of the class-

bringing them into a variety of discourse com-

room, and much of this writing happened online”

munities, each one with unique conventions

(qtd. in Buck 35-36). Although these multimodal

to master. A 2011 study analyzed the language

forms of communication do not follow tradition-

features of college students’ instant messag-

al literacy formats, they still demand abilities in

es, or IMs, and found that punctuation, letters,

traditional forms of literacy—audience aware-

words, dialect, and metadiscursive markers all

ness, adapting to conventions, style—and have

diverged from traditional use in order to com-

provided students with the opportunity to prac-

municate more effectively in the online environ-

tice outside of the classroom.

ment (Haas 384). For example, “repeated and

For example, a case study of social media

non-conventional punctuation appear in IM as

use tracked the ways in which one student, Ron-

ways to indicate pausing and a kind of emphasis

nie, utilized different media platforms to con-

(as in, what model?????)” (Haas 384). Tradition-

nect with different audiences. On Twitter, where

al punctuation rules would deem the extra punc-

he “connected primarily with close friends and

tuation unnecessary and incorrect, especially in

9

formal, matter-of-fact compositions focused on

immediately understand the nuance added by

conveying information. However, for the pur-

that extra punctuation. And punctuation is only

poses of IM, a type of writing that often mimics

one of various conventions online communi-

the immediacy and informality of conversation,

ties have developed: both textual elements like

the users of IM adapted traditional writing rules

slang, metadiscursive markers, and spelling, as

in order to better convey their tone, creating an

well as visual elements like emojis, memes, and

avenue to relay sarcasm or seriousness, jokes

gifs add layers of nuance to online communica-

or information, depending on the social or in-

tion (Haas 384). Through casual participation

formational demands of conversation. This new

in these communities, students have developed

communication format required the creation of

the same skills of analysis and adapting to con-

new conventions for clarity’s sake, and the par-

ventions as they learn in traditional literature

ticipants in the discourse community collective-

analysis of word choice, sentence structure, and

ly created them.

literary devices.

Interestingly, there has been a genera-

The value of mastering these conventions

tional divide regarding the adoption of these

has been amplified by the shareability of online

updated conventions. Younger generations who

composition. Traditional composition classes

have grown up communicating through these

often teach students how to research and eval-

instant forms of online communication under-

uate sources as well as how to write persuasively,

stand these new conventions implicitly, whereas

taking into consideration elements of style, con-

older generations who have had to acclimate to

vention, and audience. Through their participa-

these new writing formats largely carry over tra-

tion in online communities, students are seeing

ditional writing conventions and may be resist-

how influencers, social media activists, and news

ant to “breaking” rules of composition. A study

organizations effectively craft messages that

from 2005 comparing academic versus personal

reach large audiences and have personal and

writing found that “for younger people, e-mail is

emotional as well as political and civic impact

more analogous to a print form of speech than it

(Talib 56). The potential for a viral video and

is to a short letter,” while older generations tend

its associated popularity or influence, whether

to “still feel as if I’m writing a brief letter because

through written compositions on Twitter, vid-

I’m typing out words” (Williams 705). This is just

eo compositions on YouTube, or musical/per-

one of many differences in the ways generations

formance compositions on TikTok, encourages

view new media compositions, resulting in dif-

students to think strategically about crafting

ferent conventions for various online discourse

their own posts for greatest impact and viewer-

communities. In the example of using punctua-

ship (Talib 56).

tion for emphasis, older generations that may

Perhaps

most

importantly,

students

read IMs as if they were letters likely would be

feel more “deeply engaged and satisfied by

confused as to the addition of “unnecessary” ad-

self-sponsored writing” compared to in-class

ditional punctuation, whereas younger users fa-

assigned writing (Fishman 231). Despite new

miliar with the community’s conventions would

media being more casual and “fun” compared

10

to traditional academic assignments, these mul-

author James Baldwin’s “lasting impact… on

timodal forms of communication are complex,

other media forms” by taking his students on

challenging for newcomers and demanding of

a “spontaneous multimedia tour” through You-

participants. Students who eagerly engage in

Tube (Vasudevan 363-364). In collaboration

these communities develop a variety of skills

with the students, he started by showing a video

associated with traditional literacy and compo-

of Baldwin before branching out to other clips of

sition, including one of the most important ele-

works analyzing Baldwin’s work or inspired by it

ments of strong writing: voice. Importantly, by

(Vasudevan 364). This sort of research is unique-

building these abilities through new media use,

ly enabled by multimodal forms of communica-

students also strengthen their multimodal lit-

tion and clearly enhances the learning experi-

eracy—their ability to write and comprehend

ence by tangibly showcasing the far-reaching

meaning-making conventions of various modes

impact of this author and making his existence

of communication. The role of teachers, then, is

real to the students. This teacher, in melding ac-

to help students translate these traditional and

ademic materials with “out of school literacies,”

multimodal skills into an academic setting.

“strived to construct a hybrid space constructed of shared understandings towards the realiza-

INCORPORATING NEW MEDIA INTO THE CLASSROOM

tion of common goals” (Vasudevan 365). In using

By becoming more versed in these new forms of

help students understand how the multimedia

media and communication, students are simul-

tools students already use in their free time can

taneously building on traditional literacy skills

be used to their advantage in an academic set-

as well as applying them to multimodal sce-

ting as well.

this form of research in the classroom, teachers

narios. However, because this exposure comes

Alternatively, new media can also directly

through casual use of new media for leisure or

replace traditional texts in the classroom to help

personal projects rather than in the context of

students practice applying traditional literacy

academic analysis, “they are not particularly

skills to multimodal online texts. For example,

skilled or critical users” (Talib 64). This presents

teachers can have students select a post on a

an opportunity for teachers to build on the sub-

celebrity’s social media account and ask them to

conscious skills students have built and expand

analyze the goal of the post—whether to enter-

their literacy in a classroom setting using new

tain, to persuade, or to inform; the audience the

media’s unique attributes.

post targets; the elements of the photo and cap-

Teachers already have begun incorpo-

tion that effectively convey the message; and the

rating new media into classroom learning, uti-

ways additional tags, audio, and location support

lizing videos, podcasts, and other new media

or enhance the message. While new media texts

formats to supplement textbook readings. One

obviously should not replace the canon of liter-

case study with students participating in an al-

ature, taking skills students previously saw as

ternative to incarceration program (ATIP) de-

solely academic—analyzing works for audience,

scribed a teacher sharing African-American

purpose, and rhetorical strategies—and meld-

11

ing them with out of classroom mediums trains

and writing aspects of literacy education, teach-

students to think critically about what informa-

ers prepare students to communicate critically

tion they consume. By looking at multimodal on-

and effectively in an increasingly multimodal

line texts through this analytical lens, students

discursive environment.

strengthen traditional literacy skills while also becoming more aware of what stylistic choices are used in the content they interact with every

WHY NEW MEDIA SHOULD BE INCORPORATED INTO THE CLASSROOM

day, ideally making them more critical consum-

These attempts to incorporate new media into

ers and intentional participants in online media.

the classroom bring up new questions regard-

Students cannot only critically analyze

ing assessment and often require more ener-

this sort of media, however; they also must

gy, time, and nuance compared to traditional

intentionally and skillfully craft their own

assignments, especially on the teacher’s end.

multimodal

to

These challenges are not new; grading has al-

incorporate these skills in the classroom would

ways been a struggle against the subjective, and

be to reimagine traditional projects like essays

time and energy is always required to create a

or research papers as multimodal projects such

strong new assignment. However, in the end, it

as video essays, podcast episodes, or social

will be worth it because students will

compositions.

One

way

media collections. In a case study examining a research-based podcast project, students practiced traditional research-based skills— reading, writing, designing—but used them in concert with multimodal skills—talking, listening, viewing, use & manipulation—once again taking advantage of the opportunity for building various literacies afforded by new media (Walsh).

Alternatively,

integrating

1.

be more invested in what they have learned,

2. be better versed in traditional literacy skills, 3. be more prepared to think critically about the media they consume in their everyday lives, and 4. be more prepared to engage in the discourse communities we collectively share on the Internet.

multimodal

While the students’ final compositions may dif-

forms of composition could be as simple as al-

fer from what we typically expect to find in an

tering an assignment to be written in the form

English classroom, the students will have the

of a blog post or text message exchange. These

underlying skills necessary to navigate a varie-

more informal modes of writing could help

ty of discourse communities with confidence in

students think more critically about audience,

their own voice and ability. «

conventions of different discourse communities, and the ways new media platforms offer opportunities or limits on communication, as

WORKS CITED

well as making them more comfortable shifting

Buck, Amber. “Examining Digital Literacy Practices on

between academic and casual prose. By incor-

Social Network Sites.” Research in the Teaching

porating new media texts into both the reading

of English, vol. 47, no. 1, Aug. 2012, pp. 9–38.

12

EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?dir

42, no. 2, July 2008, pp. 101–108. EBSCOhost,

ect=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.41583603&site=e

doi:10.1111/j.1741-4369.2008.00495.x.

ds-live&scope=site.

Fishman, Jenn, et al. “Performing Writing, Performing

Williams, Bronwyn T. “Leading Double Lives: And Technology in and out of School.” Journal of

Literacy.” College Composition and Communication,

Adolescent & Adult Literacy, vol. 48, no. 8, May

vol. 57, no. 2, Dec. 2005, pp. 224–252. EBSCOhost,

2005, p. 702. EBSCOhost, search.ebscohost.com/

search-ebscohost-com.electra.lmu.edu/login.aspx?

login.aspx?direct=true&db=edsglr&AN=edsglr.

direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.30037914&site

A132746288&site=eds-live&scope=site.

=eds-live&scope=site.

Glenn, Cheryl, et al. “‘Mistakes Are a Fact of Life’: A National Comparative Study.” The St. Martin’s Guide to Teaching Writing, 7th ed., Bedford/St. Martin’s, Boston, 2014, pp. 342–364.

Haas, Christina, et al. “Young People’s Everyday Literacies: The Language Features of Instant Messaging.” Research in the Teaching of English, vol.

45, no. 4, May 2011, pp. 378-404. https://www.jstor. org/stable/23050580?seq=7#metadata_info_tab_ contents Ronald, Kate. “Style: The Hidden Agenda in Composition or One Reader’s Confession.” The Subject Is Writing: Essays by Teachers and Students, edited by Wendy Bishop, 2nd ed.,Boynton/Cook, Portsmouth, NH, 1999, pp. 169–183.

Talib, Saman. “Social media pedagogy: Applying an interdisciplinary approach to teach multimodal critical digital literacy.” E-Learning and Digital Media, vol. 15, no. 2, Feb 2018, pp. 55–66. https://doi. org/10.1177%2F2042753018756904.

Vasudevan, Lalitha. “Performing New Geographies of Literacy Teaching and Learning.” English Education, vol. 41, no. 4, July 2009, pp. 356–374. EBSCOhost, search-ebscohost-com.electra.lmu.edu/login.aspx? direct=true&db=edsjsr&AN=edsjsr.40607890&sit e=eds-live&scope=site.

Walsh, Maureen. “Worlds Have Collided and Modes Have Merged: Classroom Evidence of Changed Literacy Practices.” Literacy, vol.

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Confronting Naturalism: The Need for Imagination in Modern Shakespearean Film Adaptations GABRIELLE JOHNSEN

RECENT EFFORTS abound to adapt the plays

Shakespearean film adaptation through an

of William Shakespeare to the screen, although

examination of the camera’s role in mediating

they often fail to bridge the cultural dissonance

the thematic and theatrical complexities

between Elizabethan London and modern

of Shakespeare’s plays on the screen. I will

Hollywood. In order to justify such a permanent

examine three recent film adaptations of

and costly endeavor as a film adaptation of a

Shakespeare plays through the lens of this

Shakespeare play, a director should offer a

theory: The Merchant of Venice (2004), The King

definitive artistic perspective on the selected

(2019), and Titus (1999). I will thus demonstrate

play which both embraces the complexities

the link between each adaptation’s quality and

of the original text and frames the story in a

the ability of its director to balance respect for

manner that engages the contemporary viewing

Shakespeare’s original play with a willingness

audience. In this essay, I will first examine

to disrupt tradition in order to make an artistic

how challenges in adapting Shakespeare’s

statement that necessitates the format of a

theatrically dynamic style to the screen stem

film adaptation.

from the current trend of cinema into a realm

The primary challenge that Shakespeare

of naturalism nonexistent in Shakespeare’s

plays present to filmic adaptational efforts

era. I will then formulate an ideal theory of

stems

from

how

expectations

regarding

G A B R I E L L E J O H N S E N is a senior majoring in English and Theatre Arts at Loyola Marymount University. She is currently completing her final semester of college in Germany, where she is studying abroad with an ensemble of LMU actors. Gabrielle’s creative work centers around her interest in the intersections between art forms and the interplay

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between aesthetics and emotions. She wrote this essay for Professor Theresia de Vroom’s Shakespeare: The Comedy of Forgiveness class in the spring of 2021.

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the degree of naturalism in storytelling

both the rant and the whisper encouraged

differ between the original and adaptational

Shakespeare to develop a structural technique

mediums. Philippa Sheppard explains in

which exploited both” (Styan 37).

Devouring Time: Nostalgia in Contemporary

In Shakespeare’s Stagecraft, J.L. Styan

Shakespearean Screen Adaptations that “the

dubs the entertainment culture that so shaped

film medium’s intense drive towards realism”

Shakespeare’s technique “total theatre” (196).

functions as “[t]he chief obstacle to adapting a

In the total theatre of the Elizabethan era,

Shakespeare play to the screen” (57).

the visual and aural components of the play

This insidious ability of the camera to

culminated in an individualized theatrical

present fiction as fact has the potential to

experience, one in which multiple realities were

lull the audience into believing that there is

not only possible, but integral to the dramatic

only one perspective to a story. However, as

form.

Sheppard warns, “There are multiple realisms,

non-naturalistic elements as Shakespeare’s

not one. As soon as we put a camera in front of

interchange of verse and prose in his dialogue,

a real experience, it becomes mediated reality,

use of direct address to the audience, and “[t]

shaped by the selection of the lens” (Sheppard

he simple sweep of the Elizabethan platform

59). Particularly in an adaptation, the film

[that] not only lent the playwright the freedom

director takes responsibility for directing

he wanted, but also cleared the mind of the

the focus of the film’s realism by selecting

spectator for conjuring up visions” (Styan 29-

which reality from the many possible options

30). This process of exercising the spectator’s

to present to the audience, as well as how

own creative instincts further distinguishes

ambiguous to leave the intention behind the

Shakespearean dialogue from filmic dialogue.

selection. The adaptational film’s effectiveness,

The

therefore, depends on the definitive selection

to

of a compelling directorial point of view and the

from personal imagination into the given

integration of that perspective with the focus

performance onstage sharply contrasts with

of the camera’s lens.

the filmgoer’s expectation of being swept

These

components

Shakespearean interpolate

any

included

spectator’s creative

such

freedom

input

born

Shakespeare’s plays, however, resist the

away into the fully-realized world of a film.

singular reality of the camera, as they were

Therefore, the tension between the perceived

written for a theatre which encouraged the

reality of film and the participatory fantasy of

participation of the audience’s imagination

Shakespeare’s total theatre demands that the

in defining the world of the story. These plays

adaptational director make the decision to

were written under assumption that the varying

prioritize either the filmic illusion of reality or

distances between each seat in the theater and

the theatrical engagement of the spectator’s

the playing area constitute inherently different

imagination when crafting an adaptation.

viewing experiences for each member of the

As film directors continue to persevere

audience. While the camera allows for only one

in adapting Shakespeare to the screen despite

reality at a time, “[a] theatre which could permit

this tension between the two mediums,

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directorial intent serves as a gauge by which to

Sheppard’s

second

approach,

the

evaluate the quality of their efforts. The ideal

filmic essay, is the option better suited to a

adaptational director understands the inherent

holistic Shakespearean film adaptation. In

differences between stage and screen and

its emphasis on the directorial point of view,

seeks to take advantage of filmic qualities which

this adaptational strategy takes advantage

cannot be realized onstage in order to craft a

of both the mediated reality of the camera

cinematic, artistically inventive Shakespearean

and the inherent potential for exploring the

experience. Sheppard divides directors of

imagination inherent to Shakespeare’s writing.

Shakespearean film adaptations into two groups

In this regard, Sheppard’s concept of the filmic

“based on what kind of experience they aim to

essay connects to Greg Colón Semenza’s

give their audiences. The first group are most

definition of a reflexive adaptation, in which he

concerned with telling Shakespeare’s story in

posits that “reflexive cinematic adaptations

the most transparent and effective way they

of literature very often dissect their own

know; the second are providing a filmic essay

practices of adaptation, and they just as often

on the play, a very personal reinterpretation”

include complex critical discourses on their

(60). Based on what I have established about

own modes and priorities of adaptations”

naturalism’s current inextricability from the

(149). The reflexive adaptation thus contains

desired level of transparency and effectiveness

the potential for commentary on its source

in filmic storytelling and the Shakespearean

by means of cinematic spectacle. Due to the

resistance to translation into that naturalism,

intricacy of Shakespeare’s language, the

I find that the first method falters as an

modern filmgoing audience cannot entirely

adaptational strategy. In “Towards a Theory of

lose themselves in the cinematic illusion of a

Shakespearean Film,” Patricia Ferrara argues

Shakespearean adaptation as they may in that

that “[e]ach age, and indeed, each viewer has

of a typical film; therefore, by emphasizing the

a conflicting desire to see a Shakespearean

inherent theatricality of the play rather than

production which is both fresh and faithful, and

diminishing it, the director may approach

our standards of faithfulness are questionable

emotional truth in the extremes of visual

and fickle” (168). The current standard that

spectacle. This adaptational strategy may

prioritizes naturalism in film limits the range

complement the richness of Shakespeare’s

of language and imagination necessary for

language

giving full value to the emotional life of the

emotions more profoundly than the most

Shakespearean text. If the adaptational director

historically accurate or naturalistic approach.

prioritizes naturalism, even the most committed

Thus, the filmic essay is the stronger of

performances and exquisite costume and set

Sheppard’s two modes of adaptation, as it

design may be rendered emotionally ineffective

lends itself to Shakespeare’s total theatre

onscreen due to the utter incongruity of

and does not run the risk of replacing the

Shakespeare’s complex language and themes

text itself, but offers something new to the

with the director’s desired cinematic realism.

tradition upon which it builds.

16

and

influence

the

audience’s

The relationship between intertextuality

associations of the filmic essay adaptational

and postmodernism in the current landscape

strategy, since the postmodern filmmaker

of film further supports the adaptational

consciously uses the intertextuality of casting

strength of Sheppard’s filmic essay. The

to support the thesis of the filmic essay. The

combination of both concepts activates the

director

associative potential of filmgoers in a manner

adaptation relies on the audience’s natural

which

the

an

intentionally postmodern

active

imagination

tendencies towards intertextual association

original

audiences.

in order to build an abstract layer of emotion

Intertextuality, a term “generally understood

upon the concrete visuals of the film, much in

to connote the structural relations between

the same way that Shakespeare’s audiences

two or more texts” (Landwehr 2), “has been

filled in the scenery of the blank stage with

appropriated and adapted by non-literary

their imaginations.

of

resembles

of

Shakespeare’s

art forms so that it is not—despite the

Having established Sheppard’s filmic

embedded word ‘text’—exclusively related

essay as the theoretical paragon of successful

to works of literature or other written texts”

Shakespearean film adaptation, I will now

(Martin 149); thus, the concept readily applies

analyze how three recent Shakespearean

to associations between films and other visual

adaptations vary on the spectrum between

mediums as well as between works of literature.

Sheppard’s two modes of adaptation. In

Intertextuality is aided by the associative

each of these films, the delineation between

potential of the postmodern tradition. Within

transparent and effective storytelling and the

the postmodern artistic landscape, in which

filmic essay shifts; the camera’s singular focus

works

dependence

forces each director to choose which reality to

representation”

highlight out of the multiple possibilities, but

(Landwehr 7), the casting of certain actors

the extent to which each filmmaker explores

often takes on intertextual significance based

alternative framing devices or nontraditional

on the other well-known roles of those actors,

design elements as extensions of the directorial

whether intentional or unintentional on the

vision varies. I will examine these three films in

director’s part. This tradition began in the

order from least to most imaginative in their

days of Old Hollywood, during which “the

translations of Shakespeare to the screen. I will

number and frequency of similar roles played

begin with Michael Radford’s 2004 adaptation

by America’s durable repertory company of

of The Merchant of Venice and analyze how its

major studio stars and contract players, and

realistic approach and emphasis on historical

the loyalty of their audiences, [made] the

detail succeed in communicating some of

Hollywood years an exemplary period in which

the text’s more dramatic themes, but fatally

to study such intertextualities” (Fried 304).

undermine the comedic elements present in

Casting is a vital process in both of Sheppard’s

the text. Then I will discuss David Michôd’s

modes of adaptation, but the intertextuality of

2019 film, The King, which condenses events

casting particularly shines in the postmodern

from Shakespeare’s 1 Henry IV, 2 Henry IV,

on

“acknowledge

established

forms

their of

17

and Henry V into one narrative. I will explore

adaptational alterations to Shakespeare’s

how Michôd combines both of Sheppard’s

script stylize Shylock as a sympathetic, tragic

methods, as he aims for the naturalism of the

figure and offer him more predominance in the

transparent and effective mode of adaptation,

narrative than Shakespeare originally grants

yet ultimately presents a filmic essay through

the character. The first scene of the film is

his heavy revisions of Shakespeare’s language

of Radford’s invention, not Shakespeare’s:

and reinterpretation of key character traits

written messages on the screen which denote

and plot points in his pursuit of naturalism. I will

the extremity of anti-Semitism in 1596 Venice

conclude with Julie Taymor’s 1999 film Titus, an

are intercut with dramatizations of that

adaptation of Titus Andronicus, which resides

prejudice, culminating in Antonio spitting on

firmly in Sheppard’s filmic essay category. I will

Shylock when they meet on the Rialto Bridge

discuss Taymor’s film as an exemplar of how to

(The Merchant of Venice 1:04-3:28). This

holistically integrate a filmic point of view into a

scene provides necessary historical context,

Shakespearean text and take advantage of the

but also establishes the tone of the film as

non-naturalistic tendencies of the postmodern

socially-conscious and prioritizes Shylock in

artistic landscape in order to translate the

the audience’s sympathies. Further on in the

heightened emotions of Shakespeare’s play

narrative, Radford’s illustration of Shylock’s

into a language recognizable to the modern

grief after Jessica’s disappearance similarly

filmgoer. I will analyze each film on three

builds upon Shakespeare’s description of the

main criteria: the cohesion of the director’s

event; Radford juxtaposes Solanio’s report of

adaptational

original

Shylock’s fixation on money—“O my ducats!

play text; the detail and vision of the world-

O my daughter!” (MV 2.8.15)—with visuals

building, as communicated by the tone of the

of Shylock weeping in Jessica’s abandoned

cinematography and texture of the set and

room and sulking in the rain (Merchant 45:08-

costume design; and how the intertextuality of

45:53). This usage of filmic visuals to qualify

the casting and the performances of each film’s

Shakespeare’s language reveals Radford’s

major actors combine to realize the director’s

artistic intent regarding anti-Semitism with

vision.

that,

clarity and precision. By endowing Shylock

regardless of how naturalistic the filmmaker

with more humanity than the text alone

attempts to be, each film reveals directorial

provides,

impulses toward the filmic essay style of

strengthens the emotional resonance of the

adaptation, and those impulses create the

character’s tragedy.

strategy

Overall,

I

will

with

the

demonstrate

most compelling aspects of each adaptation.

The

significant

strategy

By latching so straightforwardly onto Shylock’s plot, however, Radford denies the

Radford makes in adapting The Merchant

inherent ambiguity of the tension between the

of Venice into a film is his emphasis on the

relationships of the play’s other characters.

anti-Semitism

Venice

While Radford’s approach to anti-Semitism

and centralization of Shylock’s plight. His

is concrete and opinionated, his treatment of

of

decision

adaptational

that

18

most

Radford’s

Shakespeare’s

the competition between Portia and Antonio

naturalism to Shylock’s plot alone, his staging

for predominance in Bassanio’s heart fails

of these kisses further muddles the inherent

to take such a definite stance. His approach

confusion regarding gender and sexuality in

to dramatizing the text’s tension regarding

Shakespeare’s text rather than declaring any

this

vaguely

discernible point of view on the topic or crafting

culminates in two homoerotic kisses: one

intentional ambiguity from a defined dramatic

between Antonio and Bassanio (Merchant

perspective.

subplot’s

gender

dynamics

12:19 - 12:26), and the other between Portia and

Radford further identifies the bond

Nerissa (Merchant 2:00:28-2:00:31). While the

between Antonio and Shylock as the film’s core

kiss between Antonio and Bassanio is private

by using dark lighting and color to emphasize

and establishes the link between the two men

the gravitas of the Venice plot. The dreary

as something ambiguously intense, Radford

decadence of the Venice setting plays into the

situates it in a scene in which Bassanio declares

solemnity of the grim conflict set there, further

his intention to court Portia. Hence, the kiss

underscoring Radford’s sympathies towards

could be interpreted as Bassanio’s attempt to

Shylock. Under the cover of darkness, Radford

placate Antonio after requesting funds from

contrasts the hypocrisy of many Christian

him, or it could be seen as an illustration of

characters, who carouse masked among half-

routine tenderness in the men’s relationship.

naked courtesans, with the piety of Antonio,

Either way, Radford does not make explicit

who attends his church, and of Shylock, who

what the nature of their bond is. Conversely,

attends his synagogue (Merchant 3:39-6:00).

the kiss between Portia and Nerissa is clearly

While nighttime vices attract characters

performative, taking place as the two women

who will prove to be the play’s lovers, notably

tease their new husbands about infidelity while

Bassanio, the equal devotion that Shylock

withholding the secret that they were disguised

and Antonio independently demonstrate to

as men in the courtroom. Again, Radford’s

their warring faiths indicates the men to be

staging of a kiss in this scene lacks the same

more similar to one another than they realize.

clarity he grants Shylock’s arc; perhaps

In the daytime scenes, Radford continues to

Radford intended this kiss to decry female

emphasize the darkness of Venice through the

sexuality as manipulative when juxtaposed

consistency of clouds and rain over the city,

with the seemingly more tender kiss between

exaggerating the ubiquity of water in the city’s

Bassanio and Antonio, but there is not enough

canals. Radford situates Shylock’s famous “I

evidence in the rest of the film to either prove

am a Jew” speech (MV 3.1.53-73) in gray-blue

or disprove this claim. Furthermore, the two

mist, including the running water of the nearby

kisses between the two men and the two

canal in the edge of the frame (Merchant 52:35-

women somewhat discredit the heterosexual

54:30). Amid the surplus of water, the drear

union between Portia and Bassanio. Since

of the situation is evident, and the sense that

Radford chooses to style his film in naturalism,

Shylock’s character is on a moral precipice

yet selectively apply the psychological weight of

is implicit. The visual language of this scene

19

absorbs the audience into Shylock’s mood

casting of Al Pacino as Shylock and Jeremy

as the world appears to sympathize with his

Irons as Antonio affirms the importance

extremes.

of these characters by the merit of these

In contrast, Portia’s court at Belmont

actors’ recognizability when compared with

remains drenched in sunlight, such that, when

the other members of the cast. Known for

intercut with the Venice scenes, the cheer of the

playing iconic antiheroes in films such as The

location underwhelms in its sudden contrast

Godfather (1972) and Scarface (1983), Pacino’s

with the prior pathos. Radford ostensibly

household-name

centers his interpretation of Portia’s situation

playing volatile characters contrasts with

around Nerissa’s early comment that Portia’s

Irons’ ease in communicating self-contained

“miseries [are not] in the same abundance

abnegation and track record of playing a range

as [her] good fortunes are” (MV 1.2.3-5).

of villainous or otherwise morally ambiguous

Immediately following the aforementioned

characters in films such as Lolita (1997) and

scene, which ends when Shylock walks off into

The Lion King (1994). Radford frames Pacino’s

the mist with the vengeful knowledge that he

Shylock as a tragic figure raging against

can demand Antonio’s pound of flesh, Radford

an unfair system that Irons’ self-martyring

cuts jarringly back to Portia’s plot at its most

Antonio

optimistic: Bassanio’s successful selection of

contrast, the casting of Lynn Collins as Portia

the iron casket (Merchant 58:56-1:06:28). When

and Joseph Fiennes as Bassanio deflates the

juxtaposed with the drear of Venice, Portia’s

engrossing potential of their romance. Both

chief fear that she might have to wed a man she

actors comport their characters with a level of

does not want is undercut by the sunny, gilded

affectation at odds with the efforts of Pacino

palace in which she worries. Radford frames

and Irons. Intertextually, Fiennes may be

her struggle as laughable and her happiness

welcomed in this role by viewers on account of

in marriage as a foregone conclusion; his

his prior role as a lovelorn William Shakespeare

near-disdainful treatment of Portia prevents

in Shakespeare in Love (1998), yet he defines

the exploration of any emotional depth in her

his interpretation of Bassanio by shallow

plot. Shakespeare weaves a natural interplay

smirking and artificially raised eyebrows,

between the comic and the dramatic in the

while Collins sighs repeatedly and speaks

play’s text, but Radford’s directorial approach

affectedly; the climactic courtroom scene, in

esteems the dramatic so far above the comic

particular, loses believability due to Collins’

elements that he disrupts the balance of the

utter inability to convincingly comport herself

story through this jarring coding of lightness

like a man (Merchant 1:32:22-1:49:55). Both

against darkness.

actors come across as though their characters

fame

manipulates

and

to

penchant

his

benefit.

for

In

Perhaps most obviously to the viewing

are performing love, rather than experiencing

audience, Radford’s casting decisions cement

it. This could have been an interesting choice,

the status of the feud between Shylock

playing off the manipulative codependency

and Antonio as the film’s top priority. The

that Shakespeare writes into their courtship,

20

but Radford’s repeated demonstrations of

detail which is yet another change from the

directorial disinterest in their relationship and

original Shakespeare (The King 28:03 - 31:06).

preference for the dynamic between Shylock

Throughout the film, Hal’s characteristic

and Antonio is a likelier explanation for the

concern with the English people is recast as

disconnection between the lovers. Ultimately,

a theoretical concern as he leads his nation

Radford’s direction explores The Merchant of

from afar, surrounded by significantly older,

Venice’s message regarding the role of hate in

often dishonest advisors. He does not seek to

fostering vengeance but routinely overlooks

become acquainted with the governed people,

Shakespeare’s proposed solution to revenge:

as Hal does in 1 & 2 Henry IV, and he does not

mercy, fostered by love.

go to war out of ambition, as Hal does in Henry

In

The

King,

another

attempt

at

V, but he is dragged along reluctantly by his

naturalistic Shakespeare, Michôd drastically

advisors at each major decision. The effect

revises Shakespeare’s dialogue, such that his

is a Hal unmoored from the concreteness of

film constitutes a variation on Shakespeare’s

Shakespeare’s details in order to better fit the

themes rather than a true adaptation of his

recognizable character type of the estranged

plays. While the opening scenes skim over

son in a dysfunctional family.

major events from Shakespeare’s 1 Henry

Likewise, Michôd’s Hal doesn’t cast off

IV and 2 Henry IV, the film spends most of

Falstaff as Shakespeare’s does, but rather seeks

its runtime concerned with the events of

out his counsel after assuming the throne.

Henry V, culminating in a muddy, visceral

This rendition of Falstaff is considerably

conceptualization of the Battle of Agincourt.

less “fat-witted” (1H4 1.2.2) and worldly than

In contrast to the calculating, ambitious Hal

Shakespeare’s Falstaff. The character’s comic

of Shakespeare’s plays, Michôd’s Hal earnestly

tendencies are almost entirely erased in favor

despises his duty as crown prince. At his

of framing the knight as Hal’s only trustworthy

father’s deathbed, this film’s Hal rips the covers

advisor in a court full of treachery; comedy

off and calls the dying king “Wretch” (The King

only lightly enters the scene when otherwise

31:45 - 32:09), a stark contrast to the response

accompanying wisdom, such as in a late scene

of Shakespeare’s Hal after his father berates

when Falstaff constructs the winning battle

him for assuming the crown prematurely: “O

strategy for the Battle of Agincourt based

pardon me my liege! […] There is your crown, /

on the assumption that it will rain overnight,

And He that wears the crown immortally / Long

which he is certain of because his “right knee

guard it yours!” (2H4 4.5.137,142-144). Michôd

is aching. It only does that when rain is near”

reverses the power dynamic in this key scene,

(The King 1:25:35-1:29:46).

yet does not provide a concrete explanation for

Likewise, Michôd does not kill Falstaff

Hal’s deep hatred of his father in his alterations

off in the same way that Shakespeare does—

aside from the immediate circumstance before

from a broken heart after Hal rejects him (H5

this death scene, wherein Hal learns of his

2.3)—but he endows him with a hero’s death

younger brother’s death on the battlefield—a

after leading the most perilous charge at the

21

Battle of Agincourt, complete with Hal weeping

France arriv’d more happy men” (H5 4.8.126)

over his corpse (The King 1:51:11-1:52:53). These

upon victory at Agincourt, the Hal of The King

basic reversals in the key characters of Hal

cannot bring himself to answer affirmatively

and Falstaff diminish Shakespeare’s themes

to Catherine of Valois’ inquiry, “Do you feel

of chosen fatherhood and responsibility in

a sense of achievement? […] In any regard?”

exchange for a meditation on the unstoppable

(The King 1:59:40-2:03:20). Michôd’s voice

course of fate, in which Michôd’s Hal is a

rings louder than any one of the individual

“chosen one” figure who must rise to his destiny,

characters, conveying a distrust for all systems

and Michôd’s Falstaff is the sage guide who

of monarchy and violence that exist, as well as a

aids him on his path to self-fulfillment.

fatalistic view of destiny’s role in shaping a life.

The illusion of gritty historical realism

He transforms Hal from Shakespeare’s

further bolsters the film’s tendencies toward

cunning politician to a victim of circumstance.

naturalism and disguises the adaptation’s

Michôd consummately strips Hal of his agency,

infidelity to the text, even as the adaptation fails

and, while this decision is crucial to the message

to completely establish the intended portrait

he wishes to convey with the film, it dulls

of a king’s ascent. The impression of the film’s

the film’s central character and pointlessly

visual world is one of weak light illuminating

confuses his once-clear motivations.

steady darkness. The most sunlight in the

The casting of Timothée Chalamet as

film shines on its most violent scenes: Hal’s

Hal intertextually links the film to coming-of-

defeat of Hotspur (The King 19:36-25:33), the

age stories. At the time of the film’s release,

execution of the traitors Grey and Cambridge

Chalamet had recently risen to prominence

(The King 59:10-59:45), and the Battle of

for playing a range of roles in critically-

Agincourt (The King 1:38:00-1:51:00). The

praised coming-of-age stories such as Call

harsh light shows the plain nature of the

Me By Your Name (2017), Lady Bird (2017),

violence, exacerbated by the absence of a

and Beautiful Boy (2018). His bony frame and

score in the fight between Hal and Hotspur,

gawky carriage thus correlate intertextually

the gore of the beheading in the execution

to teenage naiveté and the discovery of new

scene, and long takes of choreographed

circumstances, which fits with Michôd’s vision

violence in the climactic battle. Contrary

of an unwilling, predestined Hal, as opposed

to the plays, in which grand battles and

to Shakespeare’s plotting prince.

executions take place offstage, Michôd’s

Noticeably absent from the film is any

camera lingers on the cruel interplay of blade

version of Hal’s famous 1 Henry IV speech

and flesh. He insists that the audience follow

about shining brighter after revealing his

each blow, but pulls away just as the repetitive

hidden

violence

Chalamet’s Hal is forthcoming, rather than

becomes

mind-numbing.

This

kingly

nature

deceptive,

notion of satisfaction in battlefield victory;

his

while the Hal of Henry V proclaims “ne’er from

motivation in Shakespeare’s original writing;

character

the

this

1.2.195-217).

approach refuses to support Shakespeare’s

22

although

(1H4

change

compelling

denies

depth

of

such inconsistencies mark the character’s

nature of her film’s world. The identical,

transformation within the film. When Hal

choreographed movement of the soldiers as

discovers at the film’s end that he had been

they assemble not only fascinates the young

deceived into waging war, he kills the advisor

boy, an audience surrogate, but establishes

who had tricked him in one stab (The King

the link between the grotesqueness, beauty,

2:03:35-2:09:51). This cold-blooded violence

and violence that dominate the rest of the

bookends the film with a reversal of Hal’s first

film. Taymor’s disinterest in naturalism does

violent deed—his reluctant killing of Hotspur,

not erase the film’s potential for moments of

which Hal undertakes only in the hopes that

emotional effectiveness, however. She notably

“there will be no battle” (The King 17:29-18:01).

orchestrates tension and terror in the prelude

Michôd thus uses violence to describe Hal’s

to Lavinia’s rape through theatrical means in

loss of innocence as he transforms from near-

keeping with Shakespeare’s text, capitalizing

pacifism to discovering the need a king may

on the animalistic movement of the villainous

have to kill. Chalamet’s internal, slow-burning

Goth boys, which is theatrically physicalized

approach to the role fits with Michôd’s vision

through their entire bodies and cinematically

of a stark landscape stripped of Shakespeare’s

heightened by disorienting camera maneuvers

humor. In this regard, The King amounts to

(Titus 54:38-59:48). The direction of this

little more than a character study of Henry V at

scene makes use of movement in a manner

his coming-of-age, wherein the consequences

that is unconventional for film, yet equipped

of Hal’s actions are further heightened in

for communicating the visceral disgust of the

consideration of his youth.

situation. Taymor’s theatrical focus on the

Contrary to both Radford and Michôd,

whole body functions as an alternative to the

Taymor’s postmodern approach to adapting

naturalistic extreme closeup shot as the default

Titus Andronicus wholeheartedly leans into

means of emoting on film. For the story of Titus

theatricality in a grotesque extreme, and in so

Andronicus especially, the bodily dynamics

doing realizes the full imaginative potential

of Taymor’s approach prefigure the violence

of the original play without sacrificing its

subconsciously, so that the audience becomes

emotional impact. A director of the stage as

complicit in the crimes of the characters, much

well as film, Taymor embraces the imaginative

as the young boy from the opening scene

potential of her source material, and her

becomes absorbed into the story itself.

efforts result in a film that remains cinematic

Taymor’s collage of influences from

without sacrificing the theatrical absurdity

miscellaneous

present in Shakespeare’s text. The opening

distinguishes her characters and locations

sequence, which steals a child away from play-

in order to elucidate the plot within the

fighting at a 1950s-style breakfast table and

abnormality of the film’s world. The wardrobe

thrusts him into the ritual proceedings of a

visually codes the loyalties of the two feuding

post-victory Roman coliseum (Titus 0:46-

families,

6:30), immediately establishes the heightened

individuals. The transformation of the Goths’

but

eras

also

and

styles

distinguishes

visually

between

23

clothing displays their reversal of fortune from

(Titus 14:26-15:33, 53:05-59:48). The children

prisoners of war to royalty, as well as their

proclaim their duty through their clothes, and

unalterable natures in both circumstances.

visually retain their familial identity, even as

Their introductory clothes, shaggy animal

they are brutalized by the Goths for holding

furs (Titus 10:36-13:00), initially preview their

fast to their morals of truth and honor. The

animalistic appetites for sex and vengeance.

importance of tradition to this family’s clothing

After Tamora weds Saturninus, Tamora wears

reflects their disillusionment after being failed

the gaudy gold gown of a self-styled warrior

by the Rome that they had so wholeheartedly

goddess—regal, yet distasteful—while her

served. Taymor emphasizes the animalism of

sons bound about in tones of silver and gold,

the Goth family and the traditionalism of the

the disparity between the colors reflecting

Andronicus family in order to exaggerate the

both their sibling rivalry and the degree

downfall of each family into the worst extremes

to which they mirror their mother (Titus

of these natures: the insatiability of the

34:06-36:46).

Goths consumes them, while the honor of the

Their animalism then transfers from their

Andronicus family shatters them when they

clothes to their actions, most notably in the

cannot adapt to a world that disobeys their

physicality of Chiron and Demetrius as they

standards.

spar with one another and unabashedly gorge

Taymor’s casting of her key players

their appetites both for food and sex. As their

further builds upon established visual coding

clothes affirm, the Goths prize self-satisfaction

by making use of identifiable character types

above all else.

that suit each actor’s strengths yet resist

In contrast, the styling of the Andronicus

total surrender to Hollywood tropes. The

family reflects their traditional values. Titus

most obvious intertextual connection in this

identifies himself as a military man either in

film is the casting of Anthony Hopkins as

full traditional Roman battle gear (Titus 6:43-

Titus, given his career-defining performance

8:11) or in a more contemporary military jacket

in The Silence of the Lambs (1991). When

(Titus 1:08:40-1:10:23), but when he begins to

Titus reveals to Tamora that her sons are

lose his sanity, he dresses in the comfortable

“both baked in this pie; / Whereof their

cardigans of a grandfather, showing his age

mother daintily hath fed” (Tit. 5.3.60-61),

and withdrawal away from the public and

Hopkins relishes in the absurdity of the

professional circuits and descent into the family

cannibalism, here played not psychologically

sphere (Titus 1:29:27-1:33:39). His children

subterranean, but fully unhinged, as Titus

follow his visual example: Titus’ military

walks the line between performing madness

sons sport buzzcuts like modern American

and

soldiers and don full Roman battle gear (Titus

2:30:01). The rest of the cast is not as solidly

32:00-34:05), and Lavinia wears dresses

associated with a singular role to the degree

simultaneously reminiscent of ingenues from

that Hopkins is, yet Taymor continues to

both midcentury America and ancient Rome

take advantage of their suitability to certain

24

succumbing

to

it

(Titus

2:23:55-

archetypes in order to exaggerate themes

of the texts, often compromise the integrity of

within the text. As the royal odd couple,

the text by so thoroughly revising it. However,

Jessica Lange leans into a strange sensual

directors like Taymor, who embrace the

maternity in Tamora, which Alan Cumming

inherent discord of a modern filmic attempt at

counters with a juvenile dependency as

Shakespeare, paradoxically uncover the human

Saturninus. As Tamora’s sons, Jonathan

truths of his plays more completely in the

Rhys Meyers and Matthew Rhys combine the

chaos of their visions. Shakespeare’s capacity

uncomfortable sexuality of their mother with

for such perennially truthful characterizations

the juvenile idiocy of their adoptive father in

and situations results from the unique manner

an exaggerated, volatile extreme. As Aaron,

in which he reassembled the familiar. His works

Harry Lennix’s physical strength lends him a

thrive in their nuances; his plots cannot be

commanding presence which he matches in

condensed into a simple good-vs.-evil binary or

cold ambition and eventually transforms into

transferred intact into the modern framework

steadfast dedication to his son. He leans into

of the hero’s journey. A robust understanding

his isolation as the only character of color in

of the human condition, one that encompasses

the play, finding more freedom within it as

the

his plot progresses. The thoughtful wildness

spectrum of emotions, lends his plays their

of Taymor’s visuals allows her actors the

immortality, and an interest in deepening that

authority to imbue their larger- than-life

human understanding through further artistic

characters with the intrinsic gifts at their

experimentation is therefore necessary for

natural command as actors. The result of

creating Shakespearean film adaptations with

such a varied assemblage of performances

the same potential for longevity and emotional

is a dynamic film that enthralls the audience

impact as the original texts. «

surprising

and

often

contradictory

by merit of its utter unpredictability, but still maintains the comforts provided by intertextual association.

The thematic complexities and varieties within Shakespeare’s plays offer a wealth of material for aspiring adapters to build upon, but those same opportunities for experimentation challenge directors who find themselves unable

WORKS CITED Beautiful Boy. Directed by Felix Van Groeningen, performance by Timothée Chalamet, 2018.

Call Me By Your Name. Directed by Luca Guadagnino, performance by Timothée Chalamet, 2017.

Ferrara, Patricia. “Towards a Theory of Shakespearean

to wholeheartedly commit to a definite artistic

Film.” Literature/Film Quarterly, vol. 16, no.

perspective. Some directors, like Radford, who

3, 1988, pp. 167–173. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/

intend to produce a straightforward adaptation,

stable/43798321. Accessed 2 May 2021.

cannot help but bias the text towards their own

Fried, Debra. “Hollywood Convention and Film

perspectives and communicate a vision only

Adaptation.” Theatre Journal, vol. 39, no. 3,

halfway. Other directors, like Michôd, who seek

1987, pp. 294–306. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/

to exclude the more Shakespearean elements

stable/3208151. Accessed 2 May 2021.

25

Hoesterey, Ingeborg. “Postmodern Pastiche: A

Shakespeare, William. The Merchant of Venice. The

Critical Aesthetic.” The Centennial Review, vol. 39,

Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore

no. 3, 1995, pp. 493–510. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/

Evans et al., Houghton Mifflin, 1997, pg. 288-317.

stable/23739359. Accessed 3 May 2021.

Lady Bird. Directed by Greta Gerwig, performance by Timothée Chalamet, 2017.

Landwehr, Margarete. “Introduction: Literature

Shakespeare, William. Titus Andronicus. The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans et al., Houghton Mifflin, 1997, pg. 1069-1096.

Sheppard, Philippa. Devouring Time: Nostalgia in

and the Visual Arts; Questions of Influence

Contemporary Shakespearean Screen Adaptations.

and Intertextuality.” College Literature, vol. 29,

McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2017. JSTOR,

no. 3, 2002, pp. 1–16. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/

www.jstor.org/stable/ j.ctt1q1xtgk. Accessed 2 May

stable/25112655. Accessed 3 May 2021.

2021.

Lolita. Directed by Adrian Lyne, performance by Jeremy Irons, 1997.

Martin, Elaine. “Intertextuality: An Introduction.” The Comparatist, vol. 35, 2011, pp. 148–151. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/26237266. Accessed 3 May 2021.

Scarface. Directed by Brian De Palma, performance by Al Pacino, 1983.

Semenza, Greg Colón. “Radical Reflexivity in

Styan, J.L. Shakespeare’s Stagecraft. Cambridge University Press, 1967.

The Godfather. Directed by Francis Ford Coppola, performance by Al Pacino, 1972.

The King. Directed by David Michôd, performance by Timothée Chalamet, 2019.

The Lion King. Directed by Rob Minkoff and Roger Allers, performance by Jeremy Irons, 1994.

The Merchant of Venice. Directed by Michael Radford,

Cinematic Adaptation: Second Thoughts on

performances by Al Pacino, Jeremy Irons, Joseph

Reality, Originality, and Authority.” Literature/

Fiennes, and Lynn Collins, 2004.

Film Quarterly, vol. 41, no. 2, 2013, pp. 143–153.

JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/43798943. Accessed 2 May 2021.

The Silence of the Lambs. Directed by Jonathan Demme, performance by Anthony Hopkins, 1991.

Titus. Directed by Julie Taymor, performances by

Shakespeare in Love. Directed by John Madden,

Anthony Hopkins, Jessica Lange, Alan Cumming,

performance by Joseph Fiennes, 1998.

Jonathan Rhys Meyers, Matthew Rhys, and Harry

Shakespeare, William. Henry V. The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans et al., Houghton Mifflin, 1997, pg. 979-1015.

Shakespeare, William. The First Part of Henry IV. The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans et al., Houghton Mifflin, 1997, pg. 889-923.

Shakespeare, William. The Second Part of Henry IV. The Riverside Shakespeare, edited by G. Blakemore Evans et al., Houghton Mifflin, 1997, pg.

928-965.

26

Lennix, 1999.

Feminist Reclamation of Women from Greek Myth A L E X A N D R A PA R A D Z I C K

was

Medusa is perhaps one of the most well-

steeped in misogyny, and as women were being

known mythic monsters of the modern world.

mistreated in real life, so were female characters

In the ancient world, the story of her murder by

in their mythos. Even as these characters were

Perseus was known as a true hero’s story, with

forced into the role of wives or mothers, or

the dashing young man killing the beast and

punished for crimes committed against them, or

saving the young princess. When taking into

killed for a moral lesson, women in modern day

account, however, that Perseus killed Medusa

have started to reexamine these characters and

in her sleep, some modern audiences have

rewrite them to be more empowering. Of all the

taken a problem with it. An example of the

various women in Greek myth, modern female

“modern Medusa” was made by Matt Rhodes in

audiences have latched onto two: Medusa and

2013, in which Medusa is depicted as an injured

Artemis. Both of these characters have been

woman hiding in her own home from Perseus

taken into the feminist fold, and now symbolize

in a work of digital art. The hero in question

something many women experience: sexual

is presented in the background, hulking and

assault and lesbianism. While examining how

angry, hunting down the bleeding and crying

these women’s stories were used to put down

woman in the foreground. Medusa’s backstory

the female population of Greece, it is important

also gives some credence to this idea of her

to recognize how the very ones meant to be

being a victim. The story goes that Medusa,

oppressed have taken these myths and changed

a devout priestess of Athena, was raped in

them into something much more powerful.

Athena’s temple by Poseidon. In response to

SOCIETY

IN

CLASSICAL

GREECE

A L E X A N D R A PA R A D Z I C K is an English Major at Loyola Marymount University, graduating this year with the rest of the Class of 2022. The following essay was written for Professor Christopher Gibson’s Classical Myth class in the Fall Semester. She had been interested in Greek Mythology since a young age, and read not only the original myths, but many modern adaptions put out as fiction novels. These adaptions became the inspiration for the paper’s topic, in which she decided to explore which myths woman had decided to adapt, and why these specific mythological women were so fascinating to the modern audience.

27

»

her temple being defiled by the crime, Athena

important to note that before Medusa was a

cursed Medusa, changing her from a beautiful

gorgon, she was a priestess who served a virgin

woman to a hideous monster with snakes for

goddess, and implied to be a virgin herself.

hair and a gaze that turned living creatures to

Religion was important in ancient society, and

stone. For the ancients of the time, Medusa

even if women were treated badly, priestesses

was constantly depicted in art as a frightening

were given a certain amount of respect. Raping

monster that killed indiscriminately, and

one, especially one who had sworn a vow of

Perseus killing her was considered something

chastity, was punishable by death. Poseidon,

akin to a rabid animal being put down rather

then, is the male stand-in, and Medusa, the

than a murder. Modern women have changed

subject of “repressed sexual violence” that

the story a bit. Generally, women believe that

the men of the time wanted to act on without

instead of a curse, Athena was helping Medusa

facing consequences (Schultz 332). Even

by giving her the ability to protect herself from

after the rape is committed and Medusa is no

other men that would wish to harm her. A lesser,

longer seen as sexual, she is still continually

extremely modern change to the story, is that

mistreated, first by being murdered by Perseus,

Medusa’s stone gaze only affected men, though

and then by having her head inlaid upon

there is no evidence from Greece that this claim

Athena’s shield. In this way she becomes “a

has any basis. One could attribute the ancient

triple, if not quadruple, victim of patriarchal

view of Medusa being victim-blamed to the

violence” (Schultz 337). Rather than being a

misogyny of the times, though there are those

character, she became something solely erotic

that offer a much darker reason to the myth’s

in nature: a rape fantasy masquerading as a

construction.

hero’s story, a way for men to imagine raping a

There is no set author of the Greek

virgin priestess and avoiding the consequences.

mythos that we know of, and there is no name

The trend of men seeing Medusa as erotic did

to credit the story of Medusa and Poseidon in

not stop with the Greeks, but carried on into

Athena’s temple. However, due to the subject

later art and study. When discussing what the

matter and the Greek norm of not teaching

symbolism of Medusa’s severed head might

women to read or write, it is safe to assume

have been, Ferenczi stated that “the head

that it was a man that originally presented the

of Medusa is a terrible symbol of the female

story of the gorgon. There has been an idea

genital region” with her mouth open in a scream

presented that, since Medusa’s story focuses

being seen as an image matching that of a vulva

on sex in particular, it could have originally

(Spector 35). Obviously, there is nothing sexual

been someone’s own sexual fantasy. As men of

about a severed head. Even in the original story,

the time were used to controlling women, they

her head is still said to be hideous enough that

could have “taken possession of the female

she is able to turn people to stone from beyond

image, which always gives its intermedial

the grave. Medusa is just generally, by the male

texts overtones of pornographic writing and

audience, seen as an exclusively sensual being.

masturbatory fantasy” (Schultz 332). It is

Spector points out that despite her being

28

written as a horror, despite many women being

it is argued that she is actually a lesbian—as is

written as horrors or violent beings, “men have

every single hunter in her group. Rather than

in general viewed women sexually even when

hate every woman who has sex with a man, she

the women performed violent or heroically

is primarily angry with Aphrodite, the goddess

militant acts” (28). Medusa, in the sense of the

of love and beauty; she is rewritten to hate

male gaze, has always been seen as sexual from

the cause rather than the symptom. Modern

her fictional conception. The important thing

writers still allow her to keep her wildness,

to point out is that she shouldn’t be, because

something that in Greece was a sign that she

even if her story is based in sex, it is not sex she

had not been “tamed” by a man, and changed it

willingly partook in. Feminine audiences have

to mean that she is more free and able to make

looked at this story and instead made her more

her own choices, as compared to her siblings

powerful, more able to protect herself, and

or other female relatives. Instead of focusing

not so much cursed as blessed. The modern

on the stories in which she punishes women,

Medusa is not seen as a sexual being because

modern writers focus on when she punishes

of her rape, but a survivor of rape who becomes

men who try to force her into marriage. There

stronger and gets her revenge on the male

is a pair of giants that she tricks into killing each

heroes that try to murder her.

other, a river spirit that she punishes, and there

As myths have remained in the cultural

is even an instance in which she reads the mind

sphere, so too have the gods that inspired

of a god—who thought about raping her—and

those myths in the first place. Of the twelve

smites him instantly. This idea of Artemis being

Olympian gods, Artemis has become a favorite

a queer woman may not actually be the modern

of retellings in which her manner and sexuality

take that some seem to think it is. Due to the

are brought into question. In the original myth,

way the myths were presented, it is possible

Artemis is the goddess of the hunt and virginity,

women of the times may have been identifying

often seen with a group of women simply known

with Artemis as a lover of women for years, even

as her hunters; all the hunters, of course, have

as the men of the times tried to stop them.

taken the same oath of virginity that she

The most promising myth that shows

did before she got her Olympian throne. In

Artemis as a lesbian is that of Callisto. Callisto

association with her domain, Artemis herself is

was one of Artemis’s hunters, known for being

somewhat wild and uncontrollable, and most of

Artemis’s favorite, and was tricked by Zeus.

her well-known stories are about her punishing

Zeus, disguising himself as his own daughter,

men, women, and most often her own hunters.

raped Callisto, which resulted in her being

She transforms men into deer, or changes their

kicked out of the hunters and then turned into a

gender; she has a special hatred for women

bear. The detail that draws attention is the fact

who have sex, and if any of her hunters break

that Zeus chose to pretend to be Artemis to get

their oaths, they are ostracized or turned into

closer to the girl, almost as if he knew the two of

animals as well. The more modern Artemis has

them were that close from the outset of his plan.

been taken in by the queer community, in which

Downing suggests that this story proves that

29

“Callisto had already been initiated by Artemis,

women she may have possibly “been imagined

that they were lovers, as witness Callisto’s

as the goddess who might initiate girls into the

ready acceptance of intimacies she believes

mystery of their own sexuality” (Downing 179).

come from the goddess” (180). Within the story,

In a sort of ceremony, if one pledged themselves

Callisto actually realizes it is Zeus, most likely

to Artemis they could have “sacrificed their

due to the fact that her Artemis suddenly has

virginity to the virgin goddess—and thus

male genitalia, and fights against him. Callisto

[kept] it,” in the sense that they could have

is consenting to sex, but only with Artemis,

had sex with a priestess of Artemis as proxy

only with a woman. This draws attention to

(179). This is all theory, of course, as not much

the fact that in ancient times, being a virgin

of the ceremonies are recorded or known. This

meant you had not been penetrated by a man.

could be because ceremonies are meant to

The insertion of a penis into a woman was what

stay secret, or because women finding sexual

defined her as a virgin or not. Theoretically,

pleasure with each other made the men of the

this creates a loophole in Artemis’s oath that

times afraid. Afraid, because in a sense this

she and her hunters took: they would never

was a type of power for them, the ability to

marry or lie with a man, remaining virgins

find pleasure without a man. In Greece, sexual

forever. Said oath says nothing about women,

prowess was something men found extremely

and two women bringing each other pleasure

important, the ability to have children and how

would not qualify as true sex in these times.

many children you could have being something

After all, if Callisto and Artemis were lovers, it

that they constantly attributed to themselves.

is only once Callisto is penetrated by Zeus that

If women could love each other, and not need a

Artemis expels her from the hunters. There

man, then it took some male power away from

is little evidence of women loving women in

them. This fear may in fact be why the sole

ancient times, to the degree that it really was

evidence of lesbianism we have from Greece

not known. While there was common etiquette

comes in the form of Sappho of Lesbos, from

concerning male homosexual love, there was

which we get the words “sapphic” and “lesbian,”

“no definition of a code pertaining to women

respectively.

loving women,” and it may have never been

Sappho’s poems, though primarily found

addressed in writing due to the fact that “it

in fragments, are one of the earliest examples of

may have inspired male anxiety” (Downing 175).

a woman finding pleasure with another woman.

This is just another section of the misogyny

Of course, some argue that Sappho is a man

apparent in Greece at the time, in which women

pretending to be a woman, or that Sappho has

were barely represented at all. This interaction

a daughter and is therefore heterosexual; these

between Callisto and Artemis actually inspired

arguments have fallen out of fashion. Now,

a ceremony for young girls. At her temple in

most people know Sappho as the “first lesbian,”

Brauron, young girls stayed there just before

in the sense that she constantly wrote about

they reached marriageable age. It is possible

having sex with and loving those of her gender.

that since Artemis was associated with young

The most notable goddess she calls upon is

30

Aphrodite, the goddess of love and beauty, as

compared her own feelings towards women

well as Eros, Love Himself. Many poems exist in

with that of the goddess. This is not that far a

which Sappho states that the two of them have

stretch, considering the fact that “Sappho’s

infected her with longing for a woman, in the

well-known argument is that [whatever one

sense that she is so full of desire that she can

loves] is the most beautiful thing on earth”

do nothing else. However, there exists evidence

(Robson 358). Easily, she could be talking about

that Sappho may have also called on Artemis,

Artemis loving a woman, and how this divine

even if the evidence is a single fragment. The

lesbianism proves that not only should women

fragment in question is labeled Fragment 84

be allowed to love other women, but it should

and just reads “Artemis” (Robson 358). This

instead be common knowledge. Not only does

is not to say that any poem of Sappho’s that

the fragment exist, but there are other poems

contains reference to Artemis was destroyed.

of hers where she constantly mentions deer

One of her fully intact poems is about a girl

and fawns. It should be noted that “deer are

taking care of Artemis’s shrine, which then

sacred to Artemis. Which is yet another reason

raises the question why this particular poem

not to believe those that diminish Sappho’s

was not allowed to survive past one word.

love of Artemis, insisting that she is an acolyte

People argue that there are any number of

of Aphrodite” (Robson 366).

reasons as to why a majority of Sappho’s works

men to associate Sappho with Aphrodite.

are fragmented—the primary one being that

As the goddess of beauty and love, she was

she and her writings are from so long ago that it

consistently portrayed as somewhat sex-

would be impossible to still have them all intact.

crazed and fickle, petty and annoying, weak

To that, it is important to remember Homer and

in strength but still able to control others. In

his works that have existed for ages. Aeschylus,

this way men are able to label Sappho as such,

Euripides, Apollonius of Rhodes, Ovid, Virgil—

just like they labeled many women as far more

all of these poets and playwrights with their

sexual beings than men. In this way, they turn

work mostly intact and taught in schools—

Sappho from someone to be taken seriously to

what do they have in common? All are men.

a woman just wanting to find her own pleasure.

When it comes down to it, Sappho existed in a

Aside from the mention of deer, and the poem

misogynistic time, and her work was inevitably

about the shrine girl, Fragment 84 is all we

going to be controlled by men; they were the

have in reference to Artemis by Sappho. It is

majority who had the ability to read and write.

entirely possible that there were more poems,

“The fragments of Sappho did—or did not—

but that the men of the time destroyed them,

flourish by the whims of men” (Robson 356)

deeming them unfit to be read—possibly even

and at the time, men were concerned with their

blasphemous, implying that Artemis had sex

own work and their own power. It is entirely

with women; or perhaps the fact that Sappho

possible that Sappho herself read the myth of

took it to be something mortal woman could

Artemis and Callisto as queer in nature, and

participate in was the blasphemous aspect. In

resonated with it, perhaps writing poetry that

the end, as most ancient things are, it was most

It is easy for

31

likely a way to control women and their ability

times, she can instead be analyzed as a revenge

to express themselves.

fantasy, in which she goes against men who

When it comes to rewriting Greek myth,

would want to hurt her. While men of the time

there are certainly a large number of examples

saw Medusa as something to sleep with and

to choose from. There are a number of video

own, modern women see her as someone to

games, movies, books, and comics that all make

be viewed with “the female gaze, in order for

use of characters and stories from the period

women to reclaim their own sexuality,” in a

of Classical Greece to create more modern and

sense of reclamation of the self after an assault

engaging tales. The question arises, then, as to

(Palmer 80). It should also be noted that even

why modern women have clung to Artemis and

her image has become a part of the reclamation,

Medusa so intensely. Some may come to the

in which sexual assault survivors are getting

conclusion that it is because they match our

her visage tattooed onto their bodies—the

more modern idea of a “strong woman,” in the

meaning, of course, being that she is “meant as

sense that they are able to fight off dangerous

a figure of strength and empowerment” after

threats alone. Compared to other women

the crime; therefore, making her a symbol for

from their stories—say, Andromeda and

survivors everywhere (Allen). As for Artemis,

Aphrodite—they could be considered more

she has become incredibly important to the

powerful. Andromeda, compared to Medusa,

female queer community. When looking at her

is simply put into the story to fill a damsel-in-

and her interaction with Callisto, many want

distress role. She exists simply so Perseus has a

to find “images and language which may help

woman to marry by the end of his story, and the

illuminate [their] own experience as a lesbian”

reader is never aware of her thoughts on the

(Downing 170). There is a need for people

matter. In art, Aphrodite is constantly depicted

to see themselves in media, whether it be

nude; her primary attribute that draws those

ancient or not, in the sense that it makes them

to her is her physical appearance. She is known

feel seen and appreciated. This is especially

for sleeping with men, having children, and

important for lesbians, as for a long time they

not much else. Medusa and Artemis, on the

were excluded from any other feminist activity

other hand, are independent and able to defeat

throughout history. The idea of seeing Artemis,

dangers by themselves, rather than wait for

a goddess whose name is still recognized by

a man to come and save them. The truth of

many today, as a lesbian makes them feel as

the matter is that it is not this strength that

if they are part of history itself in a rather

draws the female audience to them, but rather

significant way. Greece is an important place

what they experience. Medusa and Artemis

to look for same-sex love, especially because

both experience and represent activities that

of Sappho. Downing states that “because we

the majority of women in the modern world

call ourselves lesbians, we imply that Sappho

face: sexual assault and lesbianism. Medusa,

of Lesbos serves as our foremother, a near

as previously explored, may have served as a

mythical prototype” (170). Given that Sappho

rape fantasy for men of the times. In modern

may have written poems giving a queer reading

32

of Artemis, this link becomes even stronger. If

it comes to the lesbians of Greek times. These

Sappho is the mythical prototype of female

reclamations have taken over the old ideas that

queerness, and she saw Artemis as a lesbian

men used to have, and have been taken over

just like the modern lesbian, then it becomes

by the very population that they were trying

commonplace. Men, in the past, used the

to silence. Modern women have drawn their

stories of these two women to try to control

strength from Medusa and Artemis, and, in

their own female population—Medusa as a

a way, these characters have drawn strength

sexual fantasy and way to blame women for

from the modern woman. «

their own assault; Artemis as a goddess who was written to hate sex-having women, the story of her and Callisto one of same-sex

WORKS CITED

female love incurring divine rage. Nowadays,

Allen, Joseph. “Medusa Tattoos Have Become Popular

women have taken them and reversed them,

on TikTok—Here’s What the Tats Represent.”

turning them into power icons that they can

Distractify, Distractify, 10 Nov. 2021, https://www.

see themselves reflected in. Men, at the time,

distractify.com/p/medusa-tattoo-meaning-tiktok.

“were focused on the flourishing of men,” and,

Downing, Christine. “Lesbian Mythology.” Historical

finally, “we are interested in the flourishing of

Reflections / Réflexions Historiques, vol. 20, no. 2,

women” (Robson 356).

Berghahn Books, 1994, pp. 169–99. Print.

Women in Greek myth are many things.

Palmer, Helen. “Mythorefleshings.” Queer

Mainly, they are mothers and wives, victims or

Defamiliarisation: Writing, Mattering, Making

monsters. In a time when the patriarchy was

Strange, Edinburgh University Press, 2020, pp.

unbending, mythical women were depicted

65–90. Print.

as badly as the real-life women were being

Schlutz, Alexander M. “Recovering the Beauty of

treated. As society progressed, the stories

Medusa.” Studies in Romanticism, vol. 54, no. 3,

stayed the same, and were carried along as

Boston University, 2015, pp. 329–53. Print.

progress continued. Nowadays, women have

Spector, Jack J. “Medusa on the Barricades.” American

taken a look at female mythological figures, and

Imago, vol. 53, no. 1, The Johns Hopkins University

shaped them into mirrors and icons. Medusa

Press, 1996, pp. 25–51. Print.

and Artemis, two of the most rewritten women,

Rhodes, Matt. “Medusa.” Tumblr, July 15 2013, https://

have become poster examples of what it means

mattrhodesart.tumblr.com/post/55515224050/

to be reimagined by feminists. Medusa has

medusa-my-brothers-friend-suggested-we-draw

been taken from a victim blamed for her own

Robson, Ruthann. “Before and After Sappho:

sexual assault and turned into a survivor who

Eudaemonia.” Law and Literature, vol. 21, no. 3,

is still strong, a symbol that women ink onto

[Taylor & Francis, Ltd., Cardozo School of Law],

their skin instead of degrading to the rank

2009, pp. 354–70. Print.

of monster. Artemis, known to be petty and disapproving of women, has become a symbol of queerness, joining the ranks of Sappho when

33

“As Crooked As the Other”: Representations of the Psychological Effects of Internal Colonialism in Brontë’s Wuthering Heights SIERRA CREDICO

of Emily

Southern landowners “grew rich from coal-

Brontë’s Wuthering Heights in 1845 and

mining on their property and exploiting

1846, the British empire was embroiled in

other natural trade resources” and “had the

the controversial practice of colonialism, “a

capital to industrialize the weaving trade,

centralizing of power, capital, and control in

and to build the mills and factories that

a core, with peripheral groups exploited for

became the defining feature of the North

their labor, materials, and natural resources”

of England,” while the North struggled with

(Markwick 128). This was occurring on several

“the inhumanity of the mill owners and the

fronts, including in India, in Ireland, and even

sufferings of the laboring poor” ushered in

in the poorer, less developed regions within

with the urbanization (Markwick 128). In other

its own country. The outset of the Industrial

words, Britain’s South raked in enormous

Revolution in Britain pitted wealthy Southern

profits from the mills, factories, and coal

regions against the rural Northern regions in

mines that simultaneously exploited and

a practice referred to as internal colonialism.

abused poor laborers in its North.

DURING

THE

CONCEPTION

S I E R R A C R E D I C O wrote this essay for Dr. Molly Youngkin’s "The Nineteenth Century Novel" class. Sierra is originally from Las Vegas, NV, and is a Senior Psychology and English major at Loyola Marymount University. She will be

34

attending the University of San Diego’s School of Law in Fall 2022.

»

Perhaps equally as damaging as the

as a social commentary on the colonial shift

South’s capitalistic exploitation of the North was

occurring within Britain and the ‘othering’ of

its domination over social and emotional facets

her “beloved” Yorkshire and other Northern

of Northern culture, as “the colonists [did] not

regions. Wuthering Heights, in its rugged,

simply remove resources and wealth from the

untamable depiction, seemingly represents

new land… but actually [occupied] the territory,

the similarly rugged and untamable North,

[built] settlements, and often [dominated]

colonized and dominated by the softer, upper-

agriculture and industry” (Markwick 128). As

class Thrushcross Grange. Interestingly, “by

aspects of affluent Southern culture seeped

making Wuthering Heights her center and

deeper into Northern territory, the working-

Thrushcross Grange the seat of imported and

class Northern lifestyle was looked down upon

suspected values, Brontë inverts the received

and labeled negatively in comparison. The

position; Wuthering Heights is the power center,

South was often distinguished by impeccable

and Thrushcross Grange the periphery—her

manners and even temperaments, portrayed

‘other’” (Markwick 126). Since Wuthering

as delicate, elegant, and highly educated. In

Heights, the center of the novel, represents the

contrast, the Northern region, particularly

North, it follows, then, that Hareton Earnshaw,

Yorkshire, became synonymous with rough or

its longest inhabitant, represents the Northern

wild lifestyles and its people were characterized

man—a hardworking, earnest, inherently

as uneducated, simple, and odd. Evidence of this

good man, a man exploited and victimized by

can be found in Elizabeth Gaskell’s biography,

the practice of internal colonialism. Through

where she “describes Yorkshire people as

his relationship with Heathcliff, who takes the

‘interesting as a race,’ a ‘wild rough population…

form of both the colonized and the colonizer at

Their accost is curt, their accent and tone of

different points of his life, and Catherine Linton,

speech blunt and harsh’” (Markwick 126). In

a physical embodiment of the South, Brontë

this sense, the North and South became polar

comments on internal colonialism’s complex

opposites: one representing high society and

psychological effects on its perpetrators and

cosmopolitan culture, the other representing

victims and highlights both its pitfalls and

simplistic, rural habits; one respected, the

positive outcomes.

other ridiculed.

From Lockwood’s first introduction to

Despite the negative public opinions

Hareton Earnshaw at the beginning of the novel,

surrounding Northerners, Emily Brontë grew

it is clear that Hareton physically embodies

up a “Yorkshire woman so rooted in northern

both Wuthering Heights and, more broadly,

soil that she became physically ill whenever

Northern stereotypes altogether, as “his thick,

she left it” (Markwick 125). She admired

brown curls were rough and uncultivated, his

the Northern lifestyle, feeling deeply and

whiskers encroached bearishly over his cheeks,

personally connected to its hearty, earnest

and his hands were embrowned like those of a

roots and hard-working values, leading many

common laborer” (Brontë 12), plainly similar

scholars to understand Wuthering Heights

to Gaskell’s description of the Yorkshire

35

population. He lives “as a diligent farmhand”

Meanwhile, in spite of his brutish upbringing, his

with references often “made to his going off to

parental figures often acknowledge moments

work, being away at work, or returning home

that his inner worth shines through, as Nelly

from work” in the fields (Tytler 125). Early in his

notes in “his physiognomy a mind owning

childhood, Hareton is robbed of his position as

better qualities than his father ever possessed”

“the first gentleman of the neighborhood” and

and calls his admirable qualities “good things

is “reduced to a state of complete dependence

lost amid a wilderness of weeds” (Brontë 196),

on his father’s inveterate enemy,” living “in

Joseph reiterates that “the bairn was every bit

his own house as a servant deprived of the

as gooid” and “every bit as wollsome” as his

advantage of wages, and quite unable to right

counterparts at Thrushcross Grange (Brontë

himself, because of his friendlessness, and his

141), and Heathcliff compares him to “gold put to

ignorance that he had been wronged” (Brontë

the use of paving stones” (Brontë 196). Although

188). Hareton’s situation, which lacks any sort

his inherent value is sometimes recognized

of autonomy, power, or freedom, is distinctly

and the misfortune of his plight unquestioned,

reminiscent of the lack of sovereignty many

Hareton is still expected to remain a working-

Northern laborers faced while being colonized,

class servant and to become little more than a

which is furthered still when considering the

victim to his circumstances.

mocking and degradation Hareton faces as a result of his entrapment.

Nevertheless, however, Hareton endures.

Despite

being

purposefully

misled

and

However, despite his rough appearance and

mistreated by those around him, he consistently

the apparent hopelessness of his environment,

maintains a sense of integrity, self-control, and

it becomes quickly evident that, at his core,

superior morality in his interactions throughout

Hareton is undoubtedly and unshakeably good,

the novel, even when such actions directly

as Brontë seeks to use Hareton as a “paradigm”

contradict what he has previously been taught.

for her “dissection of what internal colonialism

Especially when compared to other characters,

is doing to her beloved Yorkshire, as southern

namely Heathcliff or Cathy, who more often

imperialism exploits the North and fails to

succumb to their compulsions and learned

recognize its true worth” (Markwick 136). The

behaviors, Hareton’s actions become a sense

tragedy of his situation lies in his inherent sense

of moral high-ground, as he seems to be the

of compassion, intelligence, and righteousness,

“only character not only to show remorse for

as he appears to lack the ability to reach his full

his violence to others but also to exercise self-

potential and is continually taught to be less

control in the very moment when he bids fair to

than what he is capable of becoming. Under

hit someone for antagonizing him in some way or

Heathcliff ’s supervision, Hareton leads a lonely,

other” (Tytler 271). He works tirelessly to combat

simple life, deprived of socialization, education,

his trained urges, “[labouring] under a severe

and other means of self-improvement and is

sense of mortification and wrath, which was no

encouraged instead to resort to physical and

easy task to suppress” (Brontë 302). If Hareton’s

verbal violence in order to express himself.

tragedy lies in his circumstance, his heroism,

36

then, lies in his ability to overcome it, rising above

endure his own victimization, leading Heathcliff

his own exploitation and victimization through

to, in turn, impose “loneliness on others in

the sheer strength of his inner spirit. Through

revenge against the lack of love he himself was

Hareton, Brontë seems to express a sense of

forced to endure” (Levy 171).

hope for the enduring Northern spirit as a whole,

It is this principle that drives Heathcliff

indicating that, despite the harsh realities of

in his subsequent relationships, particularly

colonialism and the severe mistreatment they’ve

with Hareton, in which he adopts the role

suffered at the hands of Southern colonization,

of both a tyrant and a father. Heathcliff, in

the Northern morality will persist, the Northern

a sense, becomes “both perpetrator and

spirit unconquered.

victim of colonialist attitudes” (Markwick 135),

In contrast, Heathcliff, who suffers

translating the twisted notion of love he learned

similar exploitation and degradation in his

from his relationship with Cathy and Hindley

early life, is overpowered by his victimization,

onto Hareton. While he subjects Hareton to

ultimately adopting the role of a colonizer

an equivalent amount of the degradation and

within his relationship with Hareton. As a

exploitation that he endured, he also protects

child, through his tumultuous relationship

Hareton as Cathy used to protect him, as Hareton

with Cathy Earnshaw, Heathcliff learns to

describes Heathcliff “[paying] Dad back what he

associate love with loss, personal sacrifice, and

gives to me—[cursing] Daddy for cursing me”

pain—essentially, he is taught that he must be

(Brontë 110). While he seeks to breed Hareton

overpowered and exploited to remain worthy

to “grow as crooked” as himself “with the same

of Cathy’s love, that his ability to be loved by

wind to twist it” (Brontë 187), Heathcliff also finds

her is rooted in his ability to remain a victim.

a “pleasure in him” and an ability to “sympathise

Though their bond initially develops as “Cathy

with all his feelings, having felt them [himself]”

taught [Heathcliff] what she learnt” to bear

(Brontë 187). It is in Heathcliff’s duality that

Hindley’s degradation and “played with him

Brontë allows herself to elaborate on the effects

in the fields” while he laboured (Brontë 46),

of victimization within internal colonialism, to

Cathy emotionally and physically dominates

highlight its ability to breed notions of revenge,

Heathcliff, as well, “exceedingly, [acting] the

hatred, and suffering within its victims. Heathcliff

little mistress; using her hands freely and

becomes both compassionate and callous in his

commanding her companion” (Brontë 42). For

opposing roles, at once maintaining sympathy

Heathcliff and Cathy, “their love is founded on

as a victim of colonization and degradation while

a paradox” (Levy 164): without suffering and

also developing into a merciless, unforgiving

anguish, there is no pleasure or companionship;

tyrant in his furthering of the evil that had once

without pain and victimization to be protected

damaged him. Heathcliff comes to represent

from, there is no love to be shared. “The

what Hareton is threatened to become: a power-

very condition in which [Heathcliff ’s] love for

hungry, selfish colonizer.

Catherine originally depended” was “his own

To further the complexity in their

isolation,” his ability to be conquered and to

relationship, Heathcliff does not consider

37

Hareton as an individual worth loving. Rather, he

and degrades Hareton, “[fancying] him an

is “a personification of [his] youth… the ghost of

idiot,” joining in on jokes about “his frightful

[his] immortal love, of [his] wildest endeavours

Yorkshire accent” (Brontë 302), and mocking

to hold [his] right, [his] degradation, [his] pride,

his attempts to learn to read, and yet, it is the

[his] happiness, and [his] anguish” (Brontë 323).

“shame at her scorn, and hope of her approval”

While Heathcliff acknowledges the immorality

that act as Hareton’s “first prompters to

behind his treatment of Hareton, he pursues

higher pursuits” (Brontë 303). Catherine is the

his

viewing

first “Southern” person Hareton encounters,

Hareton as merely a pawn to achieve his larger

therefore kickstarting his first encounters

goal—which, through his own victimization,

with predominantly Southern traits, such as

is what he was taught to believe himself to be,

politeness, literacy, and elegance. Hareton is

as well. This warped thought process mimics

initially “content with daily labour and rough

a colonizer’s objectification of their victims,

animal enjoyments, till Catherine crossed

the self-serving nature acting as the driving

his path” (Brontë 303), introducing Hareton

force behind the practice. Hareton becomes

to the education and socialization, to the

the symbolic representation of Heathcliff ’s

development and enlightenment, necessary

victimhood, a status that brought Heathcliff

for him to thrive in the quickly evolving society.

both enormous anguish and “the whole joy of

Catherine’s presence plays a major role in

[Heathcliff ’s] life” (Brontë 178), Cathy. Though

pulling Hareton out of his provincial, almost-

Heathcliff regards his past both fondly and with

animalistic lifestyle and guiding him into the

hatred, attributing to his complicated feelings

land of civility. Similarly, Brontë seems to use

about Hareton, the fact remains: Hareton is

Catherine’s positive influence on Hareton to

still less than a person to Heathcliff, serving as

ponder the positive influence of Southern

an object, as a means to an end.

colonization on the North, understanding the

revenge

scheme

regardless,

While Heathcliff demonstrates the evils of

inevitability of change and industrialization

colonization, Brontë utilizes Catherine Linton,

and the South’s unique capability to thrust

an embodiment of the South, as a physical

the North forward with them in this evolution.

representation of its ability to bring forth

Catherine becomes Hareton’s potential, just as

positive change. Much like Heathcliff, Catherine

the South becomes the North’s potential.

also represents a version of Hareton he could

While Catherine surely ignites change in

potentially become: a polite, upstanding,

Hareton, Hareton’s character has a valuable

Southern gentleman. Upon Catherine and

effect on Catherine as well, as she recognizes

Hareton’s first meeting, Catherine’s unfamiliar

Hareton for the righteous man he is and grows

beauty and intelligence amazes Hareton,

kinder, softer, and more compassionate in his

“[staring] at her with considerable curiosity and

presence. Where she previously maintained her

astonishment” (Brontë 193), and her presence

headstrong, domineering personality, refused

inspires a desire within Hareton to improve

to acknowledge Hareton’s rightful status as

upon himself. Catherine persistently insults

her relative, and “had done her utmost to hurt

38

her cousin’s sensitive though uncultivated

transforms into a more sympathetic, down-to-

feelings” (Brontë 302), Catherine is ultimately

earth individual. Together, the unification of

forced to abandon her pride and apologize to

Hareton and Catherine exemplify the admirable

Hareton for her misjudgment and ill-treatment

qualities in both the North and the South, with

of him, admitting, “I’ve found out, Hareton, that

the rugged, wholesome charms of the Northern

I want—that I’m glad—that I should like you

people and the refined, headstrong civility in the

to be my cousin, now” (Brontë 312). She is, in

Southern people. Brontë posits that both have

essence, forced to see him as her equal. Even

recognizable value and the ability to improve one

the conclusion of the novel, in which “Hareton

another, that one is not obviously good or bad,

achieves what he desires, but will not admit

nor is one fit to dominate the other completely.

to, in the opening chapters—Catherine’s

The end of the novel—which sees

attention—and [Catherine] is free to return

Hareton and Catherine engaged to be married,

to the house where she was born,” suggests

Catherine set to “inherit her father’s estate”

that the novel is “in some important way about

and “Hareton, with the mortgagee dead…

a change of attitude by Catherine” (Dawson

installed as the rightful owner of Wuthering

293), more so than a change in Hareton. Just

Heights” (Markwick 137)—furthers Brontë’s

as Catherine inspires Hareton to evolve,

contemplation of the benefits of a unified

encouraging him to become more mild-

Southern and Northern front. Hareton and

mannered, agreeable, and educated, Hareton

Catherine’s partnership acts as the proverbial

inspires a change within Catherine to improve

‘nail in the coffin’ to trigger Heathcliff ’s

upon her morality, stubbornness, and empathy.

death, as Catherine exposes Hareton to

She becomes lighter and happier in Hareton’s

Heathcliff ’s exploitation and signals an end

presence, “smiling…singing upstairs, lighter of

to his domination and, symbolically, to his

heart… than she had ever been under that roof

colonialist actions. Oddly, despite being “the

before” (Brontë 296), embracing the simple

most wronged,” Hareton mourns Heathcliff ’s

pleasures in life and acting with sensitivity

death regardless, “weeping in bitter earnest”

and compassion as Hareton continually does.

and “kiss[ing] the sarcastic, savage face that

Hareton does not simply succumb to the

everyone else shrank from contemplating”

changes Catherine ignites in him—rather, he

(Brontë 335). Perhaps Brontë sought to utilize

incorporates her education and civility into his

this interaction as another demonstration of

own morality and kindness, becoming a better

Hareton’s enduring empathy and his inherent

person, but not an altogether different one.

goodness, or perhaps she is suggesting that

The relationship between Hareton and

Hareton not only connects and empathizes

Catherine, their profound impact on each other,

with Heathcliff, but that Hareton holds the

demonstrates a “marriage between the North

ability to forgive Heathcliff for his victimization

and South… [uniting] the best properties of both”

and understand that Heathcliff ’s actions were

(Markwick 137). As Hareton becomes more apt

simply a reaction to his own victimization in

and prepared for societal change, Catherine

his past. In a “cyclical” ending (Dawson 303),

39

Heathcliff ’s victimization of Hareton, which

his relationship with Catherine, becomes

gives Hareton his own ability to simultaneously

domesticated, becomes happy. Ultimately, it is

understand and combat his own victimization,

both Hareton’s inherent value partnered with

is what ultimately prevents the cycle of violence

Catherine’s belief in him and her respect for him

and colonialist underpinnings from continuing

that restores peace and prosperity to Wuthering

into future generations.

Heights and Thrushcross Grange, defying the

Despite enduring Heathcliff’s mistreatment

cycle of violence Heathcliff initially sought to

and the brutalities of his circumstance, Hareton’s

continue and prompting readers to consider

“honest, warm, and intelligent nature shook off

both the importance of the value of victims

rapidly the clouds of ignorance and degradation

of colonization and to appreciate the positive

in which it had been bred” (Brontë 322), and

change colonization brings forth. «

“the hero (Hareton) and the heroine (Catherine) overcome the obstacles of an obstructive society and withdraw into the private realm

WORKS CITED

of domesticity” (Baldys 62). The two become

Baldys, Emily M. “Hareton Earnshaw and the shadow

the epitome of a traditional, ‘happy’ ending,

of idiocy: disability and domestic disorder in

maintaining a content, heterosexual relationship,

Wuthering Heights.” Philological Quarterly, vol. 91,

living up to their birthrights, and staying firm

no. 1, 2014, pp. 49-72.

in their morals, suggesting that a partnership between the North and South—a combination

Brontë, Emily. Wuthering Heights. Penguin Books, 2002.

of Northern and Southern ideals—will ultimately

Dawson, Terrence. “The Struggle for Deliverance from

suit Britain the most. Through their union, Brontë

the Father: The Structural Principle of ‘Wuthering

predicts that internal colonialism does have the

Heights.’” The Modern Language Review, vol. 84,

ability to usher in positive, prosperous changes

no. 2, 1989, pp. 289-304.

instead of oppressive and violent behaviors.

Levy, Eric P. “The Psychology of Loneliness in

When Lockwood visits Wuthering Heights for the final time, the property itself is described

‘Wuthering Heights.’” Studies in the Novel, vol. 28, no. 2, 1996, pp. 158–177.

with “a fragrance of stocks and wall flowers,

Markwick, Margaret. “‘Gold put to the use of paving

wafted on the air, from among the homely fruit

stones’: Internal Colonialism in Wuthering

trees… a fine red fire illuminat[ing] the chimney”;

Heights.” Victorians: A Journal of Culture and

Hareton, similarly, becomes “a young man,

Literature, no. 134, 2018.

respectably dressed, and seated at the table,

Tytler, Graeme. “The Presentation of Hareton

having a book before him” and his “handsome

Earnshaw in Wuthering Heights.” The Journal of

features glowed with pleasure” (Brontë 307).

the Brontë Society, vol. 39, no. 2, 2014, pp. 118-129.

Hareton,

who

“physically

[embodies]

the

Tytler, Graeme. “Violence in Wuthering Heights.” The

disordered nature of the domestic environment

Journal of the Brontë Society, vol. 46, no. 3, 2021,

at Wuthering Heights” (Baldys 50), is, at

pp. 262-273.

first, wild, tough, and aggressive, but through

40

Wild Outsiders: How Sorrowland Examines Social Issues Through Nature SOPHIE JONSSON

IN THE GENRE of Dystopian Literature, the

the feelings and actions Vern is criticized for

examination of a dystopian society is often

in that society are normalized and prevalent

paired with commentary regarding the social

throughout the natural world.

issues of our current world. In Rivers Solomon’s

Through the character of Vern, Solomon

recently published novel Sorrowland, the

examines life as a black person in America,

main character, Vern, is forced to live in both

more specifically a black woman, and even more

the dystopian society of Cainland, as well as

specifically,

the wild woods. Through interactions and

on a personal journey of self-discovery and

experiences in these places, Vern explores

acceptance. In Sorrowland, readers are taken on

many social issues that our society is grappling

multiple “journeys” through Vern’s character:

with today, particularly those related to gender

the first being the physical traveling journey

and sexuality, as well as ancestral trauma.

that Vern takes, the second being the journey

Throughout Sorrowland, Solomon connects

she takes mentally to discover and accept

Vern’s personal journey to self-discovery

herself, and the third journey being the bodily

and self-acceptance to elements of nature,

transformation that Vern undergoes as she is

particularly mushrooms and other fungi, as

enveloped by fungus and other earthly beings.

well as the idea of wildness in general. In doing

a

black-intersex-albino

Throughout

Sorrowland,

after

woman

Vern

so, Solomon argues that many marginalized

has escaped Cainland, she is reminded of the

groups have to look beyond human society to

memories of others in that place, degrading any

find peace and acceptance because, ultimately,

sexual orientation besides cis-heterosexuality.

S O P H I E J O N S S O N is an English major in the class of 2022. This piece was written for Dr. Alexandra Neel’s Postapocalyptic and Dystopian Fiction class she took during the Fall 2021 semester.

For her final paper of the class, Sophie wanted to write about how the genre of dystopian fiction compares and contrasts human society and the natural world, as well as challenge herself by writing about a work that has been minimally referenced in scholarly texts due to its recent publication.

41

»

At one point, Vern worries that if she is heard

Amidst this vast kingdom of fungi, each

or found out, Sherman will “hear and track her

species is defined by a variety of characteristics,

down” and “launch into a lecture about how

including size and shape of spores, fruiting

the hormones, antibiotics, and altered genes

structure, as well as their ability to metabolize

in food off the compound could stimulate

particular bio-chemicals. In addition, species

unnatural lesbian attractions” (Solomon 48).

of fungi are also determined by the biological

Later, she also recalls Sherman preaching that

species concept, which is the notion that

“Lesbianism, a proclivity of white women, was

“in biology, a species is the basic unit of

but one way Black women’s lust could be used to

classification and a taxonomic rank of an

bring down the descendants of Cain” (Solomon

organism, as well as a unit of biodiversity. A

218). Though Vern is troubled by many people

species is often defined as the largest group

in her life degrading the very identities she feels

of organisms in which any two individuals of

she aligns with, Vern finds comfort in nature

the appropriate sexes or mating types can

as Solomon shows her and the reader that the

produce fertile offspring, typically by sexual

natural world is more diverse and open-minded

reproduction” (“Species”).

than any human society, thus far.

Solomon’s choice to make fungus such a

Fungus and fungi are incredibly important

central piece of their story pushes a message

to Sorrowland, as they embody Vern’s journey

that, although humans seem to struggle with

to self-actualization. Since that journey is

grasping the strength of diversity represented

especially related to diversity, sexuality, and

by Vern’s intersectional identities, the animal

gender, scientifically speaking, fungus is a

kingdom is already doing so. With perhaps

perfect organism to relay this message.

millions of species across the planet, fungus

Growing all over the world, fungi have

stands as the perfect representation of the

an abundance of habitats, some of which

vast potential for uniqueness that can happen

include extreme hot and cold temperatures,

when diversity is embraced, and that the earth,

as well as areas of ionizing radiation and

the place we come from, is already doing so.

deep-sea sediments (Vaupotic, Dadachova, Raghukumar).

not

species, their reproduction also adds to their

around

diverse nature, as well as connects to Vern’s

148,000 different species of fungi have been

own sexual journey. Since there is a wide range

discovered and described (Cheek). Other

of genetics and living conditions within the

estimates suggest that there may be between

fungal kingdom, there are varying complex

2.2 and 3.8 million species around the world,

modes of reproduction as well, oftentimes

with anywhere between 2,000 and 2,500

more than one; “It is estimated that a third of all

new species being discovered each year

fungi reproduce using more than one method

(Hawksworth). In fact, in 2019, it was estimated

of propagation; for example, reproduction

that 90% of fungi remain undiscovered and

may occur in two well-differentiated stages

unknown (Cheek).

within the life cycle of a species, the teleomorph

fully

42

Additionally,

understood,

as

of

though

In addition to fungi’s extensive amount of

2020,

(sexual reproduction) and the anamorph

Vern’s time outside of Cainland allows

(asexual reproduction)” (Cheek). In other

her to unlearn many toxic ideas, leading her

words, fungi can reproduce in a variety of

to ultimately recognize that “Cainland had so

ways, including asexual reproduction, sexual

confused her notions of goodness, pleasure,

reproduction,

(self-fertile

and degradation that she’d never thought

unisexual reproduction), as well as parasexual

there could be sex without guilt and self-

processes

material

loathing, without a streak of squalor” (Solomon

without sexual structures), which has been

298). Once Vern is able to recognize and accept

known to play a role in hybridization, implying

that her sexual identity can be whatever she

that it is responsible for hybridizing fungal

wants it to be—that it can be with anyone of

species,

any gender, it can be with herself, and it can

homothallism

(transferring

and

therefore

genetic

advancing

fungal

evolution. Regarding mating, fungi are able

be for pleasure instead of just reproduction—

to utilize two mating systems: “heterothallic

without guilt or self-loathing, it is then that she

species allow mating only between individuals of

assumes her role as a “demigod.”

the opposite mating type, whereas homothallic

The role of the fungus in Vern’s sexual

species can mate, and sexually reproduce, with

journey is both metaphorical and literal.

any other individual or itself ” (Metzenberg).

As

mentioned

previously,

fungi’s

sexual

In Sorrowland, Vern’s personal sexual

reproduction is incredibly diverse, leading

journey is one of realizing and accepting sex in

readers to acknowledge a correlation between

non-heterosexual and non-heteronormative

Vern’s sexual identity and that of the natural

forms. From her time in Cainland, Vern is told

world, specifically fungi. Neither Vern’s nor the

that “homosexuality is a white man’s disease,”

fungi’s sexual identity is one thing or practice—

and in turn, tells herself that she “was not a

it can be with the same genders or species, it

woman whose body could be trusted. Sherman

can be with different genders or species, it

had often called attention to the specific

can be alone, and it can be together. Through

wickedness of those who lusted after the same

references to the natural world, Solomon

sex, and though Vern could see no special

illustrates that non-heteronormative sexual

reason why this would be so, her aggressive

activity, something labelled as unnatural by

lack of chasteness did seem evidence of her

those who argue against it, is indeed normal

degeneracy” (Solomon 221, 196). Lester also

across the natural world.

tells her that she is not allowed to turn down

Then, in a literal, albeit fantastical,

requests for sex “because that would create

sense, the fungus plays a role in Vern’s self-

a rift between them, severing the bonds of

actualization as she accepts and embraces her

family” (Solomon 345). And though “she

sexual preferences. As she does so, “she [calls]

disagreed, of course, [she] didn’t know if she

out, God, God, God, God, God. She [is] not

had any right to, or if her mind was corrupted

invoking any known deity. She [is] calling unto

by the notions of whiteness, like all their minds

herself, this new being emerging inside of her,”

were” (Solomon 345).

that “being” being the fungus (Solomon 193).

43

Vern had previously thought that “perhaps by

would come from this day. Fried mushrooms

merely existing, her sexuality was an imposition”

for supper,” and at another point eating “wild

(Solomon 196). However, from that point on,

grapes, red plums, and prickly pears. For savory

with fungus inextricably linked to Vern, she

fare, there were bearded tooth mushrooms, wild

moves ahead, operating “under the logic that

onions, and amaranth” (Solomon 24, 26). To

her life [is] her own business and [that] she

Vern, particularly in the woods, mushrooms are

[doesn’t] hurt anyone by living it according to

a necessity to her survival. At one point, “Vern

her own whims, [all while fighting] mightily to

walk[s] twelve hours, then twenty-four. If she’d

make room for herself ” (Solomon 196).

stopped then, she might’ve cited adrenaline for

While fungus is prevalent throughout

her endurance, but she didn’t. She carried her

Sorrowland, as well as within Vern, a more

children in the woods without sleep for days,

specific kind of fungi, the mushroom, is also

with no food and little water. She stopped only

relevant in the discussion of the intersection of

so everyone might do their business, to forage

nature and social issues. Though Vern identifies

for mushrooms, and to let the babes stretch

as a female with she/her/hers pronouns in the

their legs. It wasn’t until the tenth day-and-

book, Sorrowland’s author, Rivers Solomon

night cycle of walking straight without sleep

uses they/them/theirs pronouns, indicating an

that she collapsed” (Solomon 96). Vern almost

intimate and personal connection to the evolving

only stops for mushrooms. Her connections to

societal discourse regarding the spectrum of

food, the earth, and survival are wrapped up in

gender. Additionally, while Vern may use she/her/

a being that represents a spectrum of gender

hers pronouns, her transformation throughout

most humans find unfathomable.

the novel also suggests a sort of non-female,

In addition to mushrooms taking on an

perhaps even non-human-being identification—

edible role for Vern, they are also included

one that is not necessarily constricted by gender

in Vern’s parting thoughts about nature and

pronouns. That being said, throughout the

wildness at the end of the novel. In the final

novel, Solomon makes mention of mushrooms, a

pages of Sorrowland, “Vern nod[s] and wipe[s]

type of fungus that defies all gender stereotypes.

away the single tear threatening to fall. ‘I like

For example, a type of mushroom scientifically

the woods,’ she said. ‘In them, the possibilities

known as Schizophyllum commune has more

seem endless. They are where wild things are,

than 23,000 different sexual identities, “a result

and I like to think the wild always wins. In the

of widespread differentiation in the genetic

woods, it doesn’t matter that there is no patch

locations that govern its sexual behavior”

of earth that has not known bone, known blood,

(Scharping).

known rot. It feeds from that. It grows the trees.

Though it is technically fungus that

The mushrooms. It turns sorrows into flowers’”

grows inside of Vern, mushrooms are also

(Solomon 354). Vern’s simultaneous mention

mentioned throughout Sorrowland. They are

of wildness and mushrooms further indicates

often mentioned as savory treats, with Vern

mushrooms as a symbol of societal “wildness”—

at one point saying, “at least something good

the idea that bending and exploring more than

44

two genders, though still taboo in much of

physical transformation that Vern is going

human society, is not unprecedented, and is

through, she wonders, “maybe it’s the fungus’s

not “wild” as in crazy or unattainable, but “wild”

enzymes, you know? It should be breaking you

as in natural and liberating.

down, I mean, it is breaking you down, but maybe

While Dystopian Literature is known for

it also triggered otherwise dormant genes in

commenting on social issues, stories in this

your body? There’s documented evidence of

genre also often pose the question: who are

that happening, though not in humans, that I

we outside of the society that we live in? While

know of ” (Solomon 177). Vern then thinks to

living in Cainland prior to her escape, Vern was

herself, “there was a haggard beauty to all of

only taught patriarchal and constricting things

this. Fungi consumed and consumed, but Vern’s

about womanhood and sexuality. However,

body had refused to be devoured. She was being

once she was able to escape Cainland, a whole

fed on but not rotting. Together, her body and

new free world of thoughts and actions opened

the fungus had fused into a sickly monstrosity.

up to her, allowing her to truly meditate on the

Would she loom as terrifyingly large as the

idea of who she is outside of that society, albeit

creature in her haunting one day?” (Solomon

a constructed one. With this idea of open-

177). Vern eventually realizes that the fungus

mindedness in the wild, one can also recall the

and her hauntings are connected, coming

importance of mushrooms in that setting. And

together to bring forth fragments of her past.

though it is not explicitly mentioned in the novel,

And while the fungus has fed on and destroyed

the psychedelic nature of some mushrooms can

others, Vern survives with it, she survives with

also be noted. In addition to their connections

the “seeds of a thousand hauntings hid dormant

to the spectrum of gender, Solomon’s use of

in her recesses. Underground, an invisible web

mushrooms as a symbol of openness can also be

of mycelium connected Vern to anyone who had

applied to the opening of the mind, allowing us

or had ever had the fungus,” or the historical

to question who we are and the greater picture

trauma of being a black American (Solomon 192).

beyond human society. Additionally, in recent

As Vern grapples with the hauntings

years, there has been greater investigation

and begins to understand them, she explains

and discovery into how using micro-doses of

that they are one of the primary effects of the

psychedelics can improve symptoms of Post-

fungus, meaning that she and all those who

Traumatic-Stress-Disorder (PTSD), something

experience them are, themselves, experiments

that Vern would most definitely suffer from.

and test subjects. Though the “hauntings [are]

In a somewhat similar discussion of trauma

myriad and strange, and their ways [resist]

and Post-Traumatic-Stress-Disorder, Solomon

complete understanding,” their experimental

most notably utilizes fungus in Sorrowland

nature and effects on Vern reflect a connection

as a physical manifestation, representation,

to the concept of trauma (Solomon 295).

and overall embodiment of Vern’s ancestral

Ancestral, or transgenerational, trauma

trauma as an albino black woman. As Gogo

is “a collective complex trauma inflicted on

is examining and attempting to explain the

a group of people who share a specific group

45

identity or affiliation—ethnicity, nationality,

to better understand herself, her history, and

or religious affiliation [and] the legacy of

her connection to the natural world. Through

numerous traumatic events a community

the literal and metaphorical use of fungus and

experiences over generations” (Kolahdooz).

mushrooms, Rivers Solomon weaves together

For black Americans, that trauma revolves

a story that discusses societal issues of

around slavery and systematic racism within

sexuality, gender, race, and transgenerational

American society. Throughout the story,

trauma, arguing that perhaps nature and true

Vern’s hauntings cover a variety of visions and

wildness is the only answer for outsiders to feel

traumas, from hangings to men dying of AIDS.

complete freedom. «

And while Vern cannot completely control the fungus, or the trauma, it becomes an innate part of her. By the end of Sorrowland,

WORKS CITED

as Vern gets a better understanding of her

Cheek, Martin; Nic Lughadha, Eimear; Kirk, Paul;

fungus and hauntings, she realizes what “the fungus [has] turned her into: her true self,” wondering if “maybe the fungus was truly divine after all and had made her into a

Lindon, Heather; Carretero, Julia; Looney, Brian; et al. (2020).” Plants, People, Planet. 2 (5): 371–388. doi:10.1002/ppp3.10148 Dadachova E, Bryan RA, Huang X, Moadel

demigod” (Solomon 320, 348). In fact, Vern’s

T, Schweitzer AD, Aisen P, Nosanchuk JD,

spores, the reproductive cells of fungi, are

Casadevall A (2007). “Ionizing radiation changes

what heal and save Gogo after she’s shot, and

the electronic properties of melanin and enhances

what resurrects the Cainites. As the fungus

the growth of melanized fungi.” PLOS ONE. 2 (5):

plays a role in connecting Vern to the earth

e457. Bibcode:2007PLoSO...2..457D. doi:10.1371/

and the natural world, it also symbolizes

journal.pone.0000457. PMC 1866175. PMID

her recognition of her transgenerational

17520016.

trauma, the acceptance that it is an integral,

Hawksworth DL, Lücking R (July 2017). “Fungal

inescapable part of who she is, as well as the

Diversity Revisited: 2.2 to 3.8 Million Species.” The

idea that she can use the knowledge of its

Fungal Kingdom. Microbiology Spectrum. 5. pp.

existence to heal, moving forward.

79–95. doi:10.1128/microbiolspec.FUNK-0052-

In addition to Dystopian Literature often

2016. ISBN 978-1-55581-957-6. PMID 28752818.

discussing social issues and contemplating

Kolahdooz, Fariba et al. “Understanding the social

who we are independent of society, the

determinants of health among Indigenous

genre is also known for using the outsider or

Canadians: priorities for health promotion policies

marginalized perspective. At the beginning

and actions.” Global health action vol. 8 27968. 16

of Sorrowland, Vern feels very much like an

Jul. 2015, doi:10.3402/gha.v8.27968

outsider—she is told her feelings related

Metzenberg RL, Glass NL (February 1990). “Mating

to sex and gender are immoral, leading her

type and mating strategies in Neurospora.”

to run away from Cainland. And while she is

BioEssays. 12 (2): 53–9. doi:10.1002/

then literally a societal outsider, she begins

bies.950120202. PMID 2140508. S2CID 1081893

46

Raghukumar C, Raghukumar S (1998). “Barotolerance of fungi isolated from deep-sea sediments of the Indian Ocean.” Aquatic Microbial Ecology. 15 (2): 153–163. doi:10.3354/ame015153.

Scharping, Nathaniel. “Why This Fungus Has Over 20,000 Sexes.” Discover Magazine, Discover Magazine, 6 Nov. 2017, https:// www.discovermagazine.com/planet-earth/ why-this-fungus-has-over-20-000-sexes.

“Species.” Wikipedia, Wikimedia Foundation, 25 Nov. 2021, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Species#The_ isolation_species_concept_in_more_detail.

Solomon, Rivers. Sorrowland. MCD, 2021.

Vaupotic T, Veranic P, Jenoe P, Plemenitas A (June 2008). “Mitochondrial mediation of environmental osmolytes discrimination during osmoadaptation in the extremely halotolerant black yeast Hortaea werneckii”. Fungal Genetics and Biology. 45 (6): 994–1007. doi:10.1016/j.fgb.2008.01.006. PMID 18343697.

47

Isolation and the Immigrant Experience: An Analysis of Jhumpa Lehiri’s “Mrs. Sen’s” MADELEINE MALCOLM

NEXT TO NOWHERE is more densely populated,

In the first introduction of Mrs. Sen, the

yet isolated, than the American suburb. In a place

apartment is described in more detail than the

where every house is separated by yards of, well,

woman herself. Through Elliot’s point of view,

yard, it is hard not to feel an emotional distance

the apartment is described with words such

from your neighbors as well. This feeling is

as “unattractive,” “mismatched,” and “gray”—

multiplied tenfold in people who emigrate from

overall, very unattractive. This stands in stark

countries where homes are literally stacked on

contrast to Mrs. Sen in her “shimmering white

top of one another and a neighbor is only a shout

sari” and “complimentary coral gloss,” a vibrant

away. This phenomenon is the central subject of

image when cast against her bland surroundings

Jhumpa Lahiri’s short story “Mrs. Sen’s,” in which

(Lahiri 112). Through these descriptions, we

an Indian immigrant woman’s experience in an

can see that the apartment is not an extension

American suburb is narrated through the eyes

of Mrs. Sen, but rather a representation of

of Elliott, the young American boy she babysits.

her overall situation. It is Elliot’s mother, in

Lahiri uses food imagery, the contrast between

fact, who seems to fit in better in Mrs. Sen’s

cold and warmth, and juxtaposition of cultural

home. Her “cuffed, beige shorts” and “lank and

dynamics to illustrate the isolation immigrants

sensible” appearance blend right in, despite

from collectivist societies feel in the individualist

the fact that this is not her home (Lahiri 113). It

culture of the United States.

is the foreign Mrs. Sen, rather, who seems out

M A D E L E I N E M A LC O L M is a sophomore English major from Atlanta, Georgia. After a year at Georgia State University, she transferred to LMU because of her admiration for the English program. The following essay was written for Professor Stuart Ching's rhetorical arts course. She

48

has always admired Jhumpa Lahiri's work and enjoyed the opportunity to analyze it in further detail.

»

of place in her own home. The most impactful

cultural values Mrs. Sen has brought with her

description of the apartment comes later, after

to this individualist environment. The sad

Elliot has spent some time there. He states that

reality is, however, that despite the difference

“Mrs. Sen’s apartment was warm, sometimes

in effort, Mrs. Sen and Elliot’s mother are still

too warm; the radiators continuously hissed like

only providing for one person. Elliot observes

a pressure cooker” (Lahiri 114). Mrs. Sen must

that “it was never a special occasion, nor was

manufacture her own warmth, sometimes to the

she expecting company. It was merely dinner for

point of discomfort, in order to feel comfortable

herself and Mr. Sen, as indicated by the two plates

in her own home. Elliot’s home, however, stands

and two glasses she set…” (Lahiri 117). Earlier she

in stark contrast. The beach house he lives

explains to Elliot that usually this task is fulfilled

in is already cold, similar to his mother’s cool

by all of the women in the neighborhood; it is a

demeanor. His mother does not seem out of

social activity, where they all sit and talk with

place in her surroundings in the same way that

one another while preparing food for a special

Mrs. Sen does; in fact, she seems to reflect them.

occasion. Here, there is no occasion. The chore is

Elliot’s mother takes minimal interest in her

simply a distraction from this fact. She attempts

son’s life, takes even less interest in socializing,

to satisfy this desire to cook for others by

and spends her rare days off “[doing] laundry

preparing food for Elliot’s mother—but again,

and [balancing] the checkbook” (Lahiri 116).

Elliot’s mother’s cold demeanor clashes with

When this solitary way of life seems to be the

the warm Mrs. Sen. His mother politely tastes

norm in the American suburbs, it is no wonder

each meal prepared, always “setting the plate

that the sociable Mrs. Sen feels out of place.

down after a bite or two” (Lahiri 118). She does

The difference between Mrs. Sen and

not seem to understand Mrs. Sen’s desire to

Elliot’s mother is perhaps most apparent in their

provide—after all, it is not a part of her culture.

attitudes towards food. At home, Elliot lives off

This leaves Mrs. Sen to continue her search for

of a diet of store-bought pizza, which he and his

this connection, eventually finding it in a specific

mother eat with little conversation and that he

type of food—fish.

is left to clean up. It is no wonder, then, that he

Mrs. Sen makes the cultural importance

is mesmerized by Mrs. Sen’s daily cooking ritual.

of fish clear from the beginning. She states that

Each night she chops vegetable after vegetable,

“in Calcutta people ate fish first thing in the

“at times [sitting] cross-legged, at times with legs

morning, last thing before bed, as a snack after

splayed, surrounded by an array of colanders

school if they were lucky” (Lahiri 123). Fish was a

and shallow bowls” (Lahiri 114). Even with the

staple of her diet at home, always accessible to

mountainous task she assigns unto herself, she

her at the local market that she was able to reach

still pays close attention to Elliot, keeping an eye

on foot. In America, however, she finds the fish

on him and making sure he does not get too close

at the supermarket to not be fresh enough for

to her blade, which is more attention than even

her tastes. Instead, she asks Mr. Sen to drive her

his own mother seems to give him. This care and

to a fish market near the shore, which she begins

attention to detail emphasizes the collectivist

to frequent. Eventually, she even finds her first

49

connection here. After a period of time in which

Strategies along Narrowing Definitions of

she is unable to go to the market due to Mr.

Individualism and Collectivism,” Kristin Fong

Sen’s work hours, the man who works there calls

and Aaron Goetz provide the following definition

her to ask if she wants him to hold a fish for her.

and differentiation between the two terms:

“‘Isn’t that nice of him, Elliot? The man said he

“Individualism is the subordination of the goals

looked up my name in the telephone book,’” she

of a group to individual pursuits and a sense of

says (Lahiri 124). This simple act of community

independence and somewhat lack of concern for

is one of the few reminders of her relationships

others. Collectivism, then, is the subordination

back home. It is so important to her, in fact, that

of individual pursuits to the goals of a group,

she is willing to drive to the fish market one day,

along with a sense of harmony, interdependence,

something she hates doing. On this journey to

and concern for others” (Fong et al). Indian

the first market, she gets into a car accident. It

culture can easily be categorized as collectivist,

is minor, and no one is injured, yet when they

evident from Mrs. Sen’s many laments for her

get home Elliot can hear her crying from behind

homeland. She explains, “‘Just raise your voice a

her bedroom door. The fact that she is so upset

bit, express grief or joy of any kind, and one whole

about being unable to reach the market goes

neighborhood and half of another has come

far deeper than a fender-bender and a desire

to share the news, or help with arrangements’”

to make stew. The fish market represents the

(Lahiri 116). This reaction differs greatly from

one connection she has to home, the one place

that which we have just seen from Elliot’s mother.

where she feels the sense of community she

The juxtaposition of these two dynamics reveals

longs for so much. Its position of being so close,

the root of Mrs. Sen’s discomfort, as well as

yet so unreachable, represents the fact that no

providing a critique of American individualism.

matter how hard she tries, Mrs. Sen will never find a home in the United States.

Lahiri also uses the juxtaposition of relationship dynamics to reveal the source

Perhaps the most provocative question

of Mrs. Sen’s discontent. The differences in

posed by the story comes from Mrs. Sen herself.

ideas towards a marriage and how it should

She asks Elliot, “‘If I began to scream right now

function directly clash with Mrs. Sen’s personal

at the top of my lungs, would someone come?’’’

experiences. In India, most marriages are

(Lahiri 116). Elliot ponders this for a moment,

arranged. Tulika Jaiswal explores and explains

remembering the time his neighbors had a party

the concept of an Indian arranged marriage in

and his mother called in a noise complaint. He

her book Indian Arranged Marriages: A Social

then responds, “‘They might complain that

Psychological Perspective; these ideas may

you were making too much noise’” (Lahiri 117).

suggest why Mrs. Sen’s marriage would make her

This brief interaction succinctly summarizes

feel even more isolated in the U.S. Marriages in

the difference between Indian collectivism

India are not so much about the union between

and American individualism, in turn revealing

two people, but rather the union of two families.

the root of Mrs. Sen’s dissatisfaction with life

After marriage, most couples live in a joint

in the United States. In the article “Mating

household system, where instead of living alone

50

the couple lives with both sides of their extended

diaspora, longing for the collectivist culture

family. “The joint household directs marital

she has left behind. Though this ending

expectations,

relationships

seems bleak, like most of Lahiri’s stories it

are focused first on the family and then on

is open-ended, providing a glimmer of hope

the individual,” Jaiswal explains. She goes on

for Mrs. Sen. Our view of Mrs. Sen ends when

to mention that most couples are actually

Elliot stops being her ward and transitions

discouraged from forming a close personal bond,

to life as a latchkey kid (another individualist

as the family should always come first (Jaiswal

concept). The reality is that many immigrants

16). The issue here is obvious: the Sens no longer

find ways to thrive in the U.S. by forming their

live in a joint household system. This leaves Mrs.

own communities. They are able to seek out

Sen with no family and a husband with which she

members of their own culture (see Lahiri’s

shares no close bond. She seems to have had very

“When Mr. Pirzada Came to Dine”) and begin

little autonomy in her marriage and seems to

forging cultural connections in their new home.

resent Mr. Sen for the move, describing the U.S. as

As the U.S.’s immigrant population increases,

a “‘place where Mr. Sen has brought me,’” rather

it brings diverse cultural ideas with it, as many

than a place she has come to on her own (Lahiri

were born in collectivist societies. This has

115). The dysfunction in her marriage is further

led to the decrease in individualist ideas that

highlighted by the description of American

have been in place since the days on the early

couples who were not formed in the arranged

frontier, ideas that are so clearly outdated. The

joint household system. Elliot’s own mother is

truth is that there is, in fact, hope for Mrs. Sen.

divorced; presumably she was not happy in her

By forming that simple connection at the fish

marriage with Elliot’s father and chose to leave

market, she proves that there may be a place

the relationship—an option that Mrs. Sen does

for her in the U.S. after all, so long as she is able

not have. On the other end of this spectrum are

to find a community that shares her values. «

ensuring

that

Elliot’s neighbors, the only other winter residents of the beachside community. They apparently have such an interpersonal bond that they are

WORKS CITED

satisfied with only each other’s company during

Fong, Kristen E., and Aaron T. Goetz. “Mating Strategies

the winter months, “[waving] from time to time

along Narrowing Definitions of Individualism and

as they jogged at sunset along the shore” (Lahiri

Collectivism.” Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and

116). While these two marriages fall on either end

Cultural Psychology, vol. 4, no. 3, Sept. 2010, pp.

of the spectrum, Mrs. Sen’s cannot even be a

128–141. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1037/h0099294.

part of it. Hers is simply not designed to survive

Jaiswal, Tulika. Indian Arranged Marriages: A Social

in an individualist culture, and in turn furthers

Psychological Perspective. Taylor and Francis,

Mrs. Sen’s personal isolation in her new home.

2014. EBSCOhost.

The conclusion of Mrs. Sen’s story implies that she will never be able to assimilate to life

Lahiri, Jhumpa. “Mrs. Sen’s”, Interpreter of Maladies.

Mariner Books, Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, 2019.

in the U.S.—she will always be a part of the

51

A Historical Walk-Through of Olvera Street DA N I E L A AV I L E S G O N Z A L E Z

AS AN UNDOCUMENTED woman living in

because it is a reminder that California has a

the United States, I find myself seeking out

strong Mexican presence.

ways to connect to my culture. One of these is visiting Olvera Street, which has provided

CULTURAL RELEVANCE

a safe space for my family and me. To explain,

There are many positive things to admire about

Olvera Street is a Mexican marketplace and

Olvera Street, such as the religious traditions

cultural space located in Downtown Los

that occur all year round. Our Lady, Queen of

Angeles. When walking through Olvera Street,

Angels is the modern name for the church on

one notices the vibrant colors of the outdoor

Olvera Street that provides the community with

shopping centers selling Mexican wares,

a variety of holy sacraments, charity services,

and the alluring smell of authentic Mexican

and social justice opportunities. One beautiful

dishes being cooked. There are myriad ways

tradition is “The Blessing of the Animals,”

Olvera Street holds importance to not only

which has happened every year since 1930. This

people like me—who are reconnecting with

tradition stems from the fourth century, “when

their Mexican roots away from Mexico—but

San Antonio De Abad was named the patron

historical and cultural relevance, such as the

saint of the animal kingdom and began to bless

preservation of the Avila Adobe House. Olvera

animals to promote good health,” as described

Street is an essential part of Los Angeles

on the Olvera Street Event Bulletin (Meares).

DA N I E L A AV I L E S G O N Z A L E Z is a first-generation senior majoring in English at Loyola Marymount University. She was born in Mexico and raised in North East Los Angeles. Daniela’s career goal is to be the assigned community college counselor for a Dream Resource Center so she can assist students with AB450 forms, DreamAct, finding affordable

52

legal services, and overall guidance in navigating higher education while undocumented. She wrote this essay for Dr. Carlos Parra’s Chicana/o and Latina/o History Course.

»

When Our Lady, Queen of Angels began to

songs, colorful costumes, and vibrant music

adopt this practice, it was common for priests

brings one of the oldest Christmas stories to

to bless livestock; however, as the tradition

life” (“Las Posadas at Olvera Street”). The

followed, The Blessing of the Animals began to

participants, Catholic or not, sing and pray

see a more extensive trend of pets participating

in accordance with the priest. In Mexico,

in the Catholic tradition. The animal owners

the carolers visit different houses in their

come dressed in traditional clothing and often

community. Here, however, they travel around

decorate their animals in floral collars.

the different vendors and honorary locations

Olvera Street is also known to host a Día de

all throughout Olvera Street. As they stroll

los Muertos Festival for thirty-five years. Día de

from one vendor to the next, they collect food,

los Muertos is an indigenous event that has been

refreshments, or gifts. Lastly, during the very

celebrated before pre-Columbian times. Death

final stop, the people who participate get gifted

is honored at Olvera Street through a nine-day

a pan dulce and a champurrado.

celebration of colorful entertainment. During

Olvera Street is also home to the famous

the nine-day celebration, there is a mass display

art pieces that honor indigenous culture

of ofrendas—altars that are decorated with

and insight to their history. David Alfaro

pictures, papel picado, marigolds, food, candles,

Siqueiros is known to be one of Mexico’s

incense, and pan de muerto. Surrounding the

top muralists. Before his death in 1986, he

ofrendas, there are also different makeup

showed strong interest and participation

artists that attend the event to allow the

in the Mexican mural movement during the

community to experience traditional calavera

1930s. The Mexican mural movement was

face painting. The dancers are dressed in

a project that wanted to highlight Mexican

Mexican clothing but have skeleton costumes

culture, post-Mexican Revolution. To partake

underneath vibrant face paint. Calavera face

in this movement, Siqueiros painted “Tropical

painting is a staple for the Día de los Muertos

America” in 1932 on the outside of the second

event. Danzantes that participate in the Danza

floor of the Italian Museum. Olvera Street’s

de la Muerte tell “the story of Día de los Muertos

website describes his work:

with its Indigenous roots and how it has transformed to our modern-day celebrations”

the central visual and symbolic focus of

(“Día De Los Muertos Festival”). It is a time of

the piece is an Indian peon, representing

remembrance and rituals to honor the dead and

oppression by U.S. imperialism . . . crucified

one’s ancestors.

on a double cross-capped by an American

Posadas are a tradition at Olvera Street

eagle. A Mayan pyramid in the background

as they have been in Mexico. Posadas are a set

is overrun by vegetation, while an armed

of fiestas that celebrate the nine days before

Peruvian peasant and a Mexican campesino

Christmas in Mexico. Olvera Street follows this

(farmer) sit on a wall in the upper right

tradition through “reenacting the journey of

corner, ready to defend themselves.

Mary and Joseph to Bethlehem with traditional

(“Siqueiros Tropical Interpretive Center”)

53

Considering Olvera Street’s history and

goal, the Spanish forced forty-four residents

its roots in indigenous cultures and white

from San Gabriel Archangel Mission to move

saviorism,

“Tropical

onto the new ground by implementing a guard

America” is important, as it reinforces the

of Spanish soldiers to prevent trouble along

strength and power of the Mexican people. The

the journey. Considering Spanish rule over El

mural was a way to remember the indigenous

Pueblo de la Reina de Los Ángeles, the Roman

importance and contribution to the success of

Catholic Church’s “La Iglesia de Nuestra Señora

Olvera Street.

la Reina de Los Ángeles” was built by the labor

having

Siqueiros’

A must-see, when visiting Olvera Street,

of Mexicans, Indigenous, and Africans who

is the Avila Adobe House. Right outside of

were brought over to establish a neighborhood

the Avila Adobe House is a wooden bench

alongside the Spaniards. Although it was

where one can enjoy and take in the wonderful

founded in 1814, this church remains a popular

Mexican scenery; however, the Avila Adobe

religious landmark to this day for Angelinos

House can also be explored through a trip into

and tourists alike.

the building to see and learn about the history.

If one takes a tour inside the Avila Adobe House,

THE MEXICAN-AMERICAN WAR

you will find a variety of Mexican artifacts. For

The Mexican-American War ignited major

example, on the table, you can find a table with

change for El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Ángeles.

a molcajete and a metate, both tools used and

To

invented by indigenous communities in earlier

War started in 1846, ending in February 1848

times. The molcajete can be used to blend and

with the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which

break down spices and to crush vegetables into

ceded present-day New Mexico, Arizona, Utah,

salsa. The metate is used to process grains and

Nevada, Colorado, and California. Although

corn but can also be used to refine masa for

California became territory of the United

tortillas and other creations.

States, El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Ángeles

contextualize,

the

Mexican-American

survived this shift intact and standing strong.

HISTORY OF LOS ANGELES

According to City Council demands, the pueblo

In 1781, Los Angeles was founded in September

was named to honor Agustín Olvera, who was

and named “El Pueblo de la Reina de Los

the first Superior Court Judge of Los Angeles

Ángeles.” Nathan Masters—a historian—

County. Olvera served many government

recounted the plan Spain colonized California

positions when he arrived in Los Angeles;

with in mind during the 1760s, building

however, he is known for his contribution to

“religious missions to convert the Indigenous

the Mexican-American War. The Los Angeles

peoples, presidios to secure military hold,

Almanac documents his accomplishments

and pueblos to supply… food and establish

during the war, stating:

a

civilian

presence”

(Meares).

Together,

the settlers developed and expanded their

after U.S. forces invaded California, Olvera

agricultural knowledge. To accomplish this

fought back as an officer in Mexican forces

54

resisting from Los Angeles. When the

during Spanish conquest were of Mexican,

diminished Mexican force saw that the

Indigenous, and African descent, Italians were

war was lost, Olvera joined a commission

present within this diverse population when

to negotiate terms of surrender and

many Italian immigrants looked towards Los

capitulation. (“Agustín Olvera Los Angeles

Angeles to find opportunities of social mobility

County’s First Judge”)

in the 1850s. The Italian American Museum of Los Angeles shared that many of these

This negotiation led to his participation in

Italian immigrants contributed to California’s

signing the 1847 Treaty of Cahuenga. Historian

economy through wine production, which

D.J. Waldie was interviewed by the Natural

led El Pueblo de la Reina de Los Ángeles “to

History Museum of Los Angeles County for

originally be named Wine Street,” which was

the informational video titled “The Cahuenga

later changed in 1877 (“Southern California’s

Treaty Table in Becoming L.A,” describing the

Italian Roots”).

Cahuenga Treaty as “the terms of an agreement that respected the rights of Mexican Citizens.

THE AVILA ADOBE HOUSE

The agreement they signed paved the way for

Olvera Street also preserves the famous Avila

the transfer of California to the United States”

Adobe House, which is the oldest residence

(“Historian D.J. Waldie on the Cahuenga

in all of Los Angeles. Scholar William B. Butler

Treaty Table in Becoming L.A. #BecomingLA

shares his research on the Avila Adobe House,

#LAHistory”). This agreement played a major

as it is a key element in Olvera Street. Butler

role in the evolution that the plaza came to

details that “The Avila Adobe, on the east side

experience, becoming a place for Mexican

of Olvera Street, was built by Francisco Jose

expressionism and the warm embrace of the

Avila in about 1818…[and] the house remained

culture; therefore, naming it after Agustín is

in the Avila family through the 1850s and 1860s”

important because it not only proves we can

(31). When the Avila family moved, it was then

have roles in governmental offices, but because

occupied by various high-titled people, such

it reflects and commemorates a historical

as Commodore Robert F. Stockton. Although

Mexican leader and peacemaker.

a variety of families lived in the Avila Adobe, Luisa O. de Forbes had attempted to demolish

ITALIAN-AMERICAN CONNECTION

the building, as the city believed that it was

Although Olvera Street captures the spirit

“unsafe for habitation” (Butler 32). This idea led

of Mexico, it also recognizes and honors the

to a strong attempt to keep the Avila Adobe

presence of other cultures important to the

house and commemorate Mexican culture to

space—such as the Italian community. In fact,

its surrounding environment.

Olvera Street was once known as Wine Street

As Los Angeles began to increase in

because many Italian immigrants flourished in

population size at a very rapid pace, Olvera

the wine industries located where Olvera Street

Street and surrounding areas became home

now stands. Although the settlers of the Pueblo

to many Mexican immigrants during the

55

1920s. With this population expansion came

with vendors and musicians in ethnic garb,

the neglect of Olvera Street and attempts to

persuaded L.A. Times owner Harry Chandler

demolish the Avila Adobe House. As the City

[to] contribute $5,000 dollars, and in the

of Los Angeles tried to move forward with

process several prominent Angelenos joined

demolishing the 110-year-old historic Adobe

his philanthropic party” (Parra). Chandler and

home, an unexpected figure appeared on the

other donors paved the way for more help to be

scene to preserve the home and implement

provided, both financially and with manual labor.

commemoration of a very “Anglo” view of

The article also shared that the Los Angeles

Mexican culture in the former heart of Los

Times was present during a fundraiser held

Angeles—Christine Sterling.

at the Avila Adobe house that inspired Chief Police Charlie Davis to “[volunteer] prison labor

THE “SAVIOR” OF OLVERA STREET

for Olvera’s reconstruction” (Parra). Whether

In many ways, Sterling rewrote history when

or not these prisoners were treated humanely

she arrived from San Francisco in order to

or were forced to work in deplorable conditions

preserve the neighborhood of Olvera Street,

is not mentioned anywhere. Nonetheless, the

and its Avila Adobe House, in 1929. Despite

manual prison labor is important to mention

never having visited Mexico or having Mexican

because they, too, deserve recognition for the

roots, she enlisted help, aimed to beautify

condition Olvera Street is in today.

Olvera Street. In “Citizens of the Past? Olvera

Christine Sterling is over-glorified for her

Street and the Construction of Race and

contribution to Olvera Street, which can even

Memory in 1930s Los Angeles,” historian

be seen on the Olvera Street website. Olvera

Phoebe S. Kropp states that her desire to alter

Street, like many other ethnic spaces in the

Olvera Street occurred after she “reported

United States, unfortunately, has a foundation

dismay at finding ‘filth and decay’ at the

based on the “White Savior Complex.” Nicole

historic plaza where she had hoped to see a

Maurantonio’s article “Reason to Hope? The

‘beautiful little Spanish Village with balconies

White Savior Myth and Progress in ‘Post-

and señoritas’” (37). Her goal was for Olvera

Racial’ America” defines the white savior

Street to become a center of business by

complex as “a narrative with historic roots . . .

making it a tourist attraction—by capturing

the white savior is typically a male [or female]

a Mexican experience in Los Angeles—which

‘whose innate sense of justice drives [these]

successfully opened on Easter of 1930.

tales of racial cooperation, nonwhite uplift,

In order to allow for Sterling’s project to

and white redemption’” (Maurantonio 1131).

flourish, the Los Angeles Times made a large

Although much of the appreciation towards the

contribution. Not only did they publicize the

safekeeping of Olvera Street is due to Sterling’s

project, but in “Olvera Street: The Fabrication

initiative, she invited Anglos to participate

of L.A.’s Mexican Heritage,” the money [it is

in cultural appropriation and enforced harsh

noted], began to be raised when “Sterling’s

stereotypes within the Mexican vendors.

sales pitch for a Mexican marketplace, replete

Nonetheless, Sterling is to be rightfully

56

credited for the preservation of many buildings

Olvera

Street

became

an

outdoor

and preventing the destruction of buildings on

shopping area where many vendors sold

Olvera Street.

Mexican artifacts and Mexican food. In the

Sterling did not acknowledge the history

plaza, however, Sterling allowed space for

nor the impact the Mexican community

Anglo vendors as well. Kropp states that “the

had, as a result of the Mexican-American

majority of the lessees were Anglo, and their

War and Spanish rule. When Mexico was

shops had little to do with the fact that their

under Spanish rule, the Indigenous Mexican

address was on Olvera Street… included

population was forced to assimilate and

bookstores, interior decorators” and many

obey Spain’s governance. To successfully

other “American” storefronts (40). While

absorb the Spanish way of life, the Spanish

“American” people financially contributed

forcefully stripped indigenous people of their

to

identity and culture. Right after, the Mexican-

distinguished the two groups: the “American”

American War turned California into American

shops were placed at the interior of the Olvera

territory, further trying to destroy Mexican

Street layout, while the Mexican vendors were

culture and enforce American ideologies as

located at the outdoor walking space. This

the dominant culture for society. Sterling did

was a tactic Sterling used because she wanted

not demonstrate knowledge in Mexican history

to recreate Olvera Street based on her idea

but attempted very hard to take up a one-

of what Mexican culture was. She needed

woman lead to create a space full of Mexican

Mexican people to be visible in her project

tradition in the new Los Angeles. Sterling

and wanted a performance—a “circus-like”

only used derogatory words to describe

approach in her “display” of Mexicans and

Olvera Street because she was convinced

their culture to best fit her needs: “Sterling

of her fantasy idea that Mexico should be

urged vendors to do more than just sell

full of “romance and contentment” (Kropp

Mexican souvenirs; she wanted them to

42). It is true that Mexican culture is colorful

demonstrate their crafts in action, assuming

and full of life, but considering the different

that the display of hard labor would link them

historical violent changes that the country

more clearly to an older, preindustrial way of

was facing, Mexican people held onto trauma

life” (Kropp 41).

and confusion; therefore, trying to exhibit

Olvera

Street’s

remodeling,

Sterling

During the 1930s, America was advancing

their culture must have been difficult, because

rapidly

in

terms

of

modernization

and

they were constantly forced to assimilate and

technology, but Sterling wanted Mexicans to

erase their Mexican identity. Sterling, having

appear as “preindustrial” for the benefit of her

no background in ethnic studies or Mexican

imagined Olvera Street: she wanted Mexicans

history, took on the role of a savior, trying to

to “put on a show” for the tourists and Anglos.

rebuild and revitalize a culture that she had

To further her “circus” and display of Mexicans,

never been a part of, from a country she had

she had enforced that they wear traditional

never seen.

Mexican clothing when working at Olvera

57

Street, while “Americans” were not expected

mouth-watering taquitos draw lines down

to do such tasks—even though they did not

the block. “Cielito Lindo” has sold more than

enhance the “theme” at Olvera Street.

thousands of Mexican taquitos in a small corner stand at Olvera Street since 1934. Gonzalez

FAMOUS CONTROVERSIES

has played the role of cashier and cook at

Olvera Street was also an invitation to allow

“Cielito Lindo” for approximately eight years.

Anglos to take ownership of Mexican culture.

Throughout his time at Olvera Street or, as he

The idea that an Anglo woman was desiring to

and many others refer to it, “Plazita Olvera,”

open a Mexican space is complicated, in and

he has had a variety of experiences with Anglo

of itself. This is because Olvera Street was all

cultural appropriation. When asked about what

about what Sterling imagined Mexico to be.

he has seen in terms of cultural appropriation,

Many Anglos did not deem this community

he shared how “many Anglo people come

valuable—a conflict alluded to in how they

to Olvera Street to find traditional Mexican

“described Olvera Street” and “participated

clothing like sarapes and huaraches for their

in social activities”—but commodified its

Mexican costumes” on Halloween (Gonzalez).

otherness all the same: “they simultaneously

One of many, Gonzalez does not appreciate

desired and denied its Mexican-ness” (Kropp

his culture being used as a Halloween costume,

42). The way in which Sterling spoke about

because the clothing, to him, “connects

Olvera Street, in terms of ownership, caused

Mexican people to their land and culture,

the Anglos to feel an unrealistic connection

especially those who are undocumented and

and disconnection at the same time. Sterling

cannot go back… to remember Mexico.” Olvera

would “preserve our history” but with the

Street makes a huge statement, but plays a

subtle, patronizing insistence that she and

role in the anger and discomfort in their seeing

other Anglos could stake a claim to this piece

the way their culture is disrespected in these

of Mexican history, allowing for an entitlement

American contexts.

to the space. If Sterling had intentions to

Whether or not one considers Olvera

preserve Mexican history but wanted to

Street’s history to be controversial, it is a place

interconnect the Anglo “hand” in its shaping,

and safe space for everyone and anyone—

one of many options would have been creating

whether Mexican, Chicana/o, or otherwise—to

a space for Anglos to openly discuss the

experience a taste of Mexico in Los Angeles. I

harm and abuse towards the community they

came to the United States at the age of two so

claimed to help foster.

I do not recall what Mexico looks like. In fact, I

It would be comforting to say that

do not know what part of Mexico I was born in.

despite the way Sterling brought about Olvera

I dream of the day where I can visit my country

Street, it has not impacted the way Olvera

and indulge in its gastronomy and explore

Street operates today. Miguel Gonzalez [name

its culture first-hand. For now, Olvera Street

changed for privacy] is an employee of “Cielito

provides me the cultural comfort I need that

Lindo”—a widely acclaimed restaurant whose

connects me to my culture—a culture full of

58

color, warmth, and creativity, which is evident

Quarterly, vol. 94, no. 4, 2017, pp. 1130–1145.

by the decorations of the plaza. It is very special

EBSCOhost, doi.org/10.1177/1077699017691248.

for the undocumented Mexican community

Meares, Hadley. “Los Angeles History 101.” Curbed LA,

because we can dive deep into their culture

20 Apr. 2018, la.curbed.com/2018/4/20/17016988/

without leaving the United States. Furthermore,

los-angeles-history-timeline-facts-earthquakes.

it keeps Mexican culture alive through religious

Olvera Street Merchants Association Foundation. “Dia

practices and by making Mexican traditional

De Los Muertos Festival.” Olvera Events, 2015,

clothing and mementos available and accessible.

olveraevents.com/day-of-the-dead-olvera-street.

Although Sterling’s approach to Olvera Street

————. “Las Posadas at Olvera Street.” Olvera Events,

was primarily to benefit the Anglo community,

2015, olveraevents.com/olvera-street-las-posadas.

her efforts resulted in the fostering of Olvera

Parra, Alvaro. “Olvera Street: The Fabrication of L.A.’s

Street: a home to many Angelenos today. «

Mexican Heritage.” KCET, 13 Sept. 2013, kcet.org/ history-society/olvera-street-the-fabrication-of-la-s-mexican-heritage.

WORKS CITED “Agustín Olvera Los Angeles County’s First Judge.”

Los Angeles Almanac, 1998, https://www. laalmanac.com/history/hi731.php.

Butler, William B. “The Avila Adobe: The

“Siqueiros Tropical Interpretive Center.” Olvera Street, olvera-street.com/siqueiros-mural.

“Southern California’s Italian Roots.” The Italian American Museum of Los Angeles - IAMLA, 1 May 2018, iamla.org/history.

Determination of Architectural Change.”

Historical Archaeology, vol. 7, Society for Historical Archaeology, 1973, pp. 30–45. Springer, jstor.org/stable/25615221.

Gonzalez, Miguel. Interview. Conducted by Daniela Aviles, November 2021.

“Historian D.J. Waldie on the Cahuenga Treaty Table in Becoming L.A. #BecomingLA #LAHistory.”

YouTube, uploaded by Natural History Museum of Los Angeles County (NHM), 2 Sept. 2016, youtube. com/watch?v=DJsgIAddcJ8.

Kropp, Phoebe S. “Citizens of the Past? Olvera Street and the Construction of Race and Memory in 1930s Los Angeles.” Radical History Review, no. 81, Fall 2001, pp. 34–42. EBSCOhost, doi. org/10.1215/01636545-2001-81-34.

Maurantonio, Nicole. “‘Reason to Hope?’: The White Savior Myth and Progress in ‘Post-Racial’ America.” Journalism & Mass Communication

59

Teaching the Tongue to Desire IZABEL MAH Y BUSCH

COLLECTION Postcolonial Love

herself to take ownership of her desire and to

Poem, Natalie Diaz does not intentionally write

find comfort in herself despite using a language

to resist. Rather, it is through colonialism that

that attempts to estrange her from her body.

her body has become an act of resistance.

In particular, the poems “These Hands, If Not

As Diaz teaches her tongue to desire, the

Gods,” “Isn’t the Air Also a Body, Moving,” and

prevalence of colonialism makes that desire a

“Ink-Light” reveal the nature of genocide and

IN

THE

form of resistance.

the interpersonal violence, but then move into

The nature of this book of poems is one

how colonialism manifests itself in its victims,

drawn from and of lived experience, from

turning them into their own oppressor by

being Native American, a woman, and queer.

estranging them from their bodies. To conclude

It is the intersection of the three, interspersed

is a poem of hope and ownership for and of the

throughout each poem in varying degrees, that

body. The three poems each expose language

exhibits not only a complexity of experience

as an active oppressor for marginal identities,

but also a complexity of the individual, of

but especially for Indigenous persons who

what it means to be a person, which is what

have had their tongues folded and twisted to

colonial thought tries to erase. Although not

accommodate this colonial language, English.

intentionally doing so, Diaz humanizes her

Additionally, the poems, in their order, mimic

experience and normalizes her reality, allowing

the path of healing needed by Indigenous

I Z A B E L M A H Y B U S C H is a double major in English and Chicana/o-Latina/o Studies and is graduating in 2024. She has always had an interest in topics concerning race and power. This piece allowed her to explore these topics while also delving into English and

60

writing, another one of her interests. It was written for Sarah Maclay’s Genres: Poetry course.

»

persons as well as other marginal identities.

oppressed take on the sentiments of the forced

“These Hands, If Not Gods” demonstrates

language and learn to internalize the hate.

this first, noticing the interpersonal violence;

The relationship between the colonizer and

then, “Isn’t the Air Also a Body, Moving”

colonized no longer is a linear relationship in

exposes how the individual internalizes this

terms of oppression because its victims become

violence, and, lastly, “Ink-Light” is where the

their own perpetrators. As Parmar wrote in an

individual breaks free through their choosing

interview with Diaz, for The Guardian:

to desire, which is a powerful way to obstruct an oppressive power.

For

colonized

‘Most of us live in a state of impossibility,’

Indigenous

peoples,

Diaz says, by which I think she means

the lack of ownership of their language is

not the inverse of hopefulness but an

a permanent and constant reminder of

awareness of the limitations of an individual

colonization. Not only did it literally erase a

life. Impossibility as a state of desire, a will

significant aspect of their culture but it was

towards rebuilding. ‘In Mojave, our words

replaced with a hostile one. This is especially

for want and need are the same—because

true for Native Americans. Not only is the

why would you want what you don’t need?

language itself an example of the forcible

For me, that’s true desire. Desire isn’t

use and administration of the colonizer’s

frivolous, it’s what life is.’ (Parmar)

themselves, but, within, the language also holds words that actively erase the Native. Language

The colonizer is so internalized that Native

is a reflection of culture. It frames both what

Americans lose a sense of self. The forced

we think about and how we think. Therefore,

language

through the language the colonizers use, it

implanting doubt and self-deprecation that

perpetuates a Eurocentric view of the world

Native Americans’ lives become, in and

and a degradation of anything that cannot

of themselves, an act of resistance. In the

be considered such; white, heterosexual, and

Guardian interview, Diaz said, “I had to be

masculine, to name a few.

willing to risk myself for what I wanted. And I

This degradation extends beyond just words; it is reflected in the actions themselves.

is

a

living

system

continually

want desire; I want to be capable of it. I want to be deserving of it.”

As poet Natalie Diaz says in an interview with

In the poem “These Hands, If Not

David Naimon, “I believe language is physical.

Gods,” Diaz personifies religion, specifically

I believe language is beyond us but the thing

Christianity, with motifs of rape and exertions

I’m most interested in is what is human action”

of power over Indigenous bodies. She thereby

(Naimon). Diaz’s usage of human action can

adds a tangibility to a seemingly intangible

refer to two things: the colonizer’s treatment

aspect of colonization: religiosity. Through

of Native Americans or Native Americans’

this, she demonstrates that oppression has

own perception of themselves. An integral

a life to it and extends beyond language and

part of the colonization process is that the

into interpersonal violence. Diaz writes the

61

poem addressing the reader and intertwines a

It is after this point that the poem

seductive voice, like that of the serpent from

takes a turn, adding more motifs that relate

the Genesis story in Christianity. Oppression

directly to rape and the abuse of women. For

is not just the interpersonal act but the words

instance, in the line, “one breast a fig tree,

they stem from. In lines nine to ten Diaz writes,

the other a nightingale, / both morning and

“Finally, a sin worth hurting for, a fervor, / a

evening” it references women through body

sweet—You are mine” (Diaz 9-10). The first

parts, objectifying them the way they had

line refers directly to the notion that Native

been and continue to be (Diaz 16-17). This

Americans are not enough, in the statement,

objectification extends out to sexualization. In

“Finally, a sin worth hurting for,” which

the first phrase, the image of “a fig tree,” soft

ignores the preexisting culture. Essentially,

and sweet fruit to be eaten, can connote the

those introducing the new religion think of

Pocahontas trope of the innocent, young, and

themselves as more than the existing culture.

“exotic” Native American woman. The second

The oppression then moves beyond the

image, “a nightingale,” turns the image of

interpersonal and the forcing of Christianity

a Native American woman into an animal,

but rather it remains in the language itself,

one that can be trapped and played with for

the “You are mine.” This phrase gives a voice

entertainment. Even the line “both morning

to the force of Christianity in how the religion

and evening” has a devastating play into how

took ownership of Native American bodies.

Native American women were used without

But there is a twist in the words, which creates

break or end. Diaz extends this use of the

an eerie sexual connotation to the phrasing—

body into her lines, “And when these hands

religiosity used as an excuse to forcibly use

touched your throat, / showed you how to

Native American bodies. Even then, the

take the apple and the rib” (Diaz 27-28). The

bodies alone were not enough. Colonization,

phrase apple and rib does not simply refer to

being inherently racist, broke the Native

the relationship between Adam and Eve from

Americans down to fit the colonizer’s image.

the Genesis story, Eve being made out of one

As Diaz writes it, “these two potters crushed

of Adam’s ribs and the apple referring to Eve

and smoothed you / into being—grind, then

eating from the tree of wisdom, but it has

carve—built your form up—” (Diaz 13-

phallic and sexual tension in it. The rib and

14). In Catholicism, God made humans in his

apple are representative of male genitalia, and

own image. Here, the colonizers are playing

the “showed you how to take” both signifies

“god” by “crushing, smoothing, grinding,

oral sex and the rape of the Native Americans,

and carving” the Indigenous bodies. The

but more specifically Native American women.

carnal imagery draws out a tone of physical

The violence of rape also informs the colonial

torture paralleling the lived torture of Native

nature of the English language—the notion

Americans during the time—torture that

of the scraping out of Native languages from

lives on in every Native American body, as it is

Indigenous persons to then force English on

an experience that is inherited.

their tongues.

62

Natalie Diaz’s poetry is complex because

dialogue. The self-reflective aspect touches on

it draws from the combined experience of

the never-ending healing process in order to

being a queer Native American woman, and

relearn how to appropriately love themselves

each poem, to varying degrees, touches on at

as humans despite a culture and language that

least two of these identities. It is important

demonizes. Early in the poem, Diaz questions,

to keep this in mind because Diaz’s poetry is

“How is it that we know what we are? / If not by

inspired by her experience, and experience

air / between any hand and its want—touch”

is

varying

(Diaz 3-5). The dialogue is directly questioning

oppressions at different angles. For instance,

the self and existence, and yet there is an

the motifs of rape are important in “These

undercurrent of yearning, the yearning to

Hands, If Not Gods” because the oppressive

desire. In the line, “between my hand and its

behavior by the colonizers was not the same

want—touch,” it’s not just a touch to feel but

for all Native Americans, but gender also had

a touch to be seen. Again, Diaz, in the interview

a play in how the women’s bodies would be

with Parmar, talks about the word “want”

used. The motif of rape on women’s bodies

and that it is conflated with “need” in her

is an integral aspect to the Native American

culture because, as Diaz explains, “how could

woman’s experience because women are

you want something you don’t need?” With

often seen as the gatekeepers of life within

this understanding of the word, the healing

their communities. A colonization technique

process needs touch. It is not a mere want but

was to rape the women because women are

a necessity. People understand each other in

representative of their nation. To rape the

relation to others, so this touch is really a part

women demonstrated full domination and

of the idea of reconnection and community, a

degradation of the male Native Americans. It

rebuilding of sorts. Diaz understands that

is in this intersectional perspective between

identity is understood through socialization,

being both Native American and a woman

and she writes, “I am touched—I am, / This is

that the experiences and relationship with

my knee, since she touches me there. / This is

oppression differ. And it is integral that this

my throat, as defined by her reaching” (Diaz

fluidity of oppression be exhibited because,

6-8). The first line “I am touched—,” is the

in order to heal, there needs to be a complete

narrator’s awareness of community, but the

understanding of the varying trauma and how

second part, “I am,” is a reaffirmation. The

it manifests itself within the individual. The

trauma from colonization is so pervasive that

separation of Native American and women

there is a constant internal fight to believe that

as identities cannot exist, as it would mean

they too are deserving and are human. The

to simplify and erase a trauma, making it far

subsequent lines demonstrate how important

more difficult to heal.

touch is by another: “This is my knee, since she

complicated,

especially,

with

In the poem “Isn’t the Air Also a Body,

touches me there. / This is my throat, as defined

Moving” Diaz uses the text to discuss the

by her reaching.” Self-doubt is so pervasive

trauma and lack of self through an internal

that community is a necessity because the

63

individuals need to hear and be reaffirmed by

Additionally,

another for it to be true. The word “defined

demeaned and alienated people who are part

by her reaching” is this touch, rebuilding and

of the LGBTQ community. Again, the overlap

showing the narrator her body, her physicality,

of identities paints a more complex idea of

and that she has life—an affirmation that life

the difficulty to love. In the last line, it comes

is not a mere dream but something to act upon.

together: “I can trust—a monster and her

This poem, “Isn’t the Air Also a Body,

wings.” The monster is gendered as a female and

Moving,” is not simply demonstrating that

is a living entity of love, but also representative

its individuals have a physicality, but it is also

of how the LGBTQ community has been

convincing them that they are deserving. They

demonized. So, not only is Diaz coming to terms

are deserving of desire, because it is in desire

with her sense of self as a Native American and

that there is hope. Halfway through the poem,

simultaneously as a member of the LGBTQ

Diaz makes a switch in voice, where she is no

community; she is learning to love herself and

longer contemplating, but understanding with

how to desire on her own terms, along with her

conviction. For instance:

Christianity

has

continually

“want” to be loved by a woman. Interestingly enough, she still holds on to this adopted view of

I have been angry this week. Christian said,

herself—”monster.” There will always be that lingering doubt.

Trust your anger. It is a demand for love.

Both identities, although different, have affected her in the same way, to a degree. Each

Or is it red. Red is a thing

was alienated by the colonized society and they are interwoven with each other. To address

I can trust—a monster and her wings.

loving, for Diaz, means to address the fullness

(Diaz 29-35)

of the word and all aspects of loving. The last two lines, “What we hold grows weight, /

The first line, “I have been angry this week,”

becomes enough or burden,” is touching on

is not a question but a statement. She is

what individuals hold onto (Diaz 49-51). Do they

acknowledging what she feels and does not

choose to hold onto the burden of trauma and

feel, a need for reassurance of the feeling. And

focus their energy there or do they embrace

yet there is still doubt, even with conviction,

the act of wanting to desire? Both will always

because “Christian said, / Trust your anger. It

be there, but it is a choice and a constant

is a demand for love,” implying that she needed

struggle between the two. Trauma isn’t just

more affirmation and validation of her feelings.

the interpersonal act, it is not just the ugly,

Christian takes it further, though, saying it

but it can reside in the constant doubt and

is “a demand for love.” As a Native American,

questioning. This is what Diaz touches on, the

Diaz grew up conditioned to not love herself

choice to move forward; but that, in and of

as an effect of speaking English, one of the

itself, is a form of trauma. Every day she has to

most prevalent forms of constant colonization.

fight to desire and to love.

64

In the poem “Ink-Light,” Diaz writes about

with David Naimon, Diaz discussed love, in

love and desiring. And it is raw because she

terms of the Love Poem, as “an energy much

doesn’t feel the need to isolate any one identity,

larger than I am, like in some ways I think the

but shows them throughout with a focus on how

energy of the world that has made itself . . . the

she feels. In this poem, Diaz describes loving

literal world from cosmos to dirt to mountain.”

as a language to learn. Being queer and Native

In context with the previous phrase of the poem

American in a colonized society is not deemed

“Ink-Light,” and by applying how Diaz defines

“appropriate,” nor are those identities ever

love, love itself transcends the physical. So, to

associated with loving and desiring. Diaz writes,

understand the beloved is to see what she is

“We move within the snow-chromed world: Like-

where she isn’t. To continually love despite the

animal. Like-deer. An / alphabet. Along a street

beloved’s absence.

white as lamplight into the winter, walking--:like

When considering how Diaz discusses

/ language, a new text. I touch her with the eyes

the notions of desiring and loving as a want

of my skin” (Diaz 1-3). With the animal imagery,

and need, she is taking ownership of a

she adds a carnal desire to the love, but she

language that continues to alienate her and

makes sure to put “Like-animal” as opposed

attempts to estrange her from her body.

to “animal-like.” In this way, the people are put

She does not think within the confines of it

first and it cannot be easily misconstrued as

but develops and adapts the words to what

people being compared to animals. Along with

resonates with her lived experience. This is

the motif of language and reading her lover,

an act of resistance, just as her simply loving

it falls in line with the workings of language

herself and allowing herself to desire is an act

throughout the book. Language is something

of resistance. Colonization has politicized her

to learn and practice, so to put it in context with

body because she is a queer Native American

loving someone adds a depth to the loving and

woman, and neither can be separated from the

makes it more active, as opposed to a stagnant

other because to exempt one is to ignore an

love or something to be simply declared. This

aspect of her lived experience. As Diaz said in

motif of language and loving continues as

the Naimon interview, the title, “Postcolonial

follows: “The way I read any beloved--: from the

Love Poem came from realizing that [she]

ramus of the left jaw down to the / cuneiform

could probably never write a poem that wasn’t

of the right foot. She isn’t so much what she

postcolonial.” Experience, especially trauma,

is—: and becomes / herself only when added

becomes an integral part of a person and their

to the space where she isn’t” (4-6). The phrase

development but, also, it is integral to notice

“and becomes herself only when added to the

all the aspects of oppression in order to heal.

space where she isn’t” touches on a feeling that

Although dark, Postcolonial Love Poem is full

transcends material. Echoes of her beloved are

of hope in choosing to desire and to accept the

made vivid when she isn’t there, which implies

self to the fullest. It is in this hope to desire, in

she can get the fullness of who her lover is in its

these pieces of experience, that Natalie Diaz

most raw form this way. In a Tin House interview

paints a fuller picture of what it means to be a

65

queer Native American woman and to start the healing process of learning how to love the self within the confines of a language that doesn’t.

«

WORKS CITED Diaz, Natalie. “Ink-Light.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf Press, 2020, p. 34.

————. “Isn’t the Air Also a Body, Moving?.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf Press, 2020, p. 73.

————. Postcolonial Love Poem: Poems. Graywolf Press, 2020.

————. “These Hands, If Not Gods.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf Press, 2020, p. 7.

Hernández, Kelly Lytle. “Introduction.” City of Inmates: Conquest, Rebellion, and the Rise of Human Caging in Los Angeles, 1771-1965, by Kelly Lytle Hernández, The University of North Carolina Press, 15 Feb. 2017, pp. 1–15.

Naimon, David. “Between the Covers Natalie Diaz Interview.” Tin House. Accessed May 6, 2021. https://tinhouse.com/transcript/ between-the-covers-natalie-diaz-interview/.

Parmar, Sandeep. “Natalie Diaz: ‘It Is an Important and Dangerous Time for Language.’” The Guardian, July 2, 2020, sec. Books.

66

Natalie Diaz: Native American Identity through Poetry ANTONIO RADIC

come to America,

countered with the desire and motivation to

there forms a tight tension. The inner battle

stick with life on the reservation. Despite the

of identity is a challenge that has plagued

differences in the style and approach of these

foreigners since the establishment of the

poems, Diaz advocates for indigenous pride

United States. It is the continuing choice

and justice while challenging the stereotypes.

WHEN

IMMIGRANTS

between converting to American society and

“American Arithmetic” reads heavily as

letting go of one’s original culture or adjusting

the speaker desperately tries to make sense

to the change but never betraying one’s roots.

of their near nonexistence through appeal to

However, Native Americans are not immigrants

logos. This approach makes the poem, with

of the land that the U.S. occupies, yet they

irregular stanza lengths, sound like a ‘results’

still share many of the same issues. Natalie

section of a research project. Through these

Diaz is a Latina and Mojave American poet

numbers, it is clear that Diaz feels isolated,

who writes about the process of bringing her

with lines such as: “Native Americans make

native culture to life and explores the injustices

up less than / 1 percent of the population of

suffered by all indigenous tribes. Her poems

America” (1-2) and “When we are dying, who

“American

Arithmetic,”

“Run’n’Gun,”

and

should we call?” (20). The use of data and

“Top Ten Reasons Why Indians Are Good at

numbers manages this mood very well, as it

Basketball” uncover the conflicts between a

not only serves as a reality check for Diaz, and

Native American identity and an American

maybe for other Native Americans, but also as

identity. They express the need to be accepted,

a persuasion tool for readers who belong to the

A N TO N I O R A D I C is an English Major and Screenwriting Minor at Loyola Marymount University. Class of 2024. This essay was written for Professor Sarah Maclay and her Genres: Poetry class. Having been born and raised in Mid-City, a diverse neighborhood in Los Angeles, California, he takes interest in learning about the troubles of representation in film and literature. In addition, his passion for writing in the epic and sci-fi genres has been a creative outlet for exploring these issues.

67

»

majority population of America. It is saying that

in “American Arithmetic,” she points out

the native population is so small and that it has

another interesting subject. In an interview with

so many urgent problems that need addressing.

Leila Fadel from National Public Radio, Diaz

Diaz continues using this approach in other

purports that this poem asks questions about

parts of the poem too, such as: “Police kill

her “visibility and invisibility” (Diaz). One of the

Native Americans more / than any other race”

areas where this occurs in “American Arithmetic”

(7-8), “I’m not good at math—can you blame

is when the speaker has trouble figuring out

me? / I’ve had an American education” (15-16),

what “race” means. She describes it as a “funny

and “At the National Museum of the American

word” (Diaz 8) that either “implies someone will

Indian, / 68 percent of the collection is from

win” (Diaz 9) or a word that means “run” (Diaz

the United States” (23-24). Diaz is only hitting

14). The confusion of the word “race” is sensical

on the core issues that seem to currently

because, according to the U.S. system, all Native

occupy the political and social atmosphere in

Americans are considered part of the same race.

the U.S. today. Though these particular core

In reality, Native Americans consist of myriad

issues bring about the grim symbolism in ways

cultures, languages, and tribes that differ from

more people would recognize today, other

one another. Yet still, the American system and

Native American issues are still important

its components, such as the U.S. census, bring

and

understand

many complications. Schell et al. inform us that

Diaz’s motivation. Schell et al. extensively

about half of Native Americans in the U.S. chose

explain other core issues and their observed

‘Native American’ as their selected identity in

repercussions, such as health. The figures for

2010 (107). The count on the census also did

cases of heart disease and strokes show that

not include many Native Americans living on

Native Americans suffer more frequently from

reservations (Schell et al. 108). Schell et al. thus

these health problems than any other race

reveal the continued strategy to erase Native

(Schell et al. 109). Native Americans are second

Americans and further justify the history of

more than any other race to suffer from high

genocidal colonialism. However, some Native

infant and newborn mortality rates (Schell et

Americans do not want anything to do with the

al. 110). Native American mothers once held

American government or society (Schell et al.

the highest fertility rate, but now they hold the

108). They are keeping their indigenous cultures

lowest of mothers of any race (Schell et al. 111).

safe from destruction instead. Diaz does the

These statistics conclude that a total disregard

same thing by keeping her culture alive inside her

for Native American lives leads to very high

poetry. However, she wants outside recognition

death rates. Thus, Diaz’s fear of isolation can

as well. She does not want to feel like “Only a

translate to her fear that the Native American

fraction / of a body...” (Diaz 30-31). Despite this

population is still slowly vanishing and ceasing

arduous task, “American Arithmetic” and its

to exist.

use of statistics and sinful facts as the basis of

worth

considering,

to

While Diaz doesn’t necessarily confront

the poem is clever, in that Diaz can personally

the health issues surrounding Native Americans

reflect on those numbers. She can answer the

68

questions the poem is asking. One of the answers

pastime of her youth. Youth and memories

is intimacy or, in Diaz’s words from the interview:

become a grounding source for her and her

“love, tenderness, pleasure, sexuality…” (Diaz).

sense of indigenous pride. She does this

Diaz gives this answer in the last line where she

in numerous places in “Run’n’Gun,” but

talks about having a lover (Diaz 32-33). Here,

particularly in stanza 3:

she creates a new image for herself and Native Americans that both advocates for equality and

I got run by my older brother on our slanted

preserves her indigenous identity by keeping

driveway, the same brother I write about

some aspects of life, least talked about, hidden.

now, who taught me that there is nothing

In the second poem, “Run’n’Gun,” Diaz

easy in our desert, who blocked every shot

uses large prose paragraphs to narrate a

I ever took against him until I was about

story about basketball, which showcases

twelve years old. By then, his addictions had

her ability to tell a story ripe with pride and

stolen his game, while I found mine. (16-19)

serves as a great contrast to “American Arithmetic.” Instead of bombarding readers

As Diaz recounts her memories as a basketball

with haunting statistics and anxieties of being

player, she does not have to worry about outside

alone, Diaz now brings a story filled with joy

criticisms that say she is playing into the

about being with her people. However, since

Native American stereotypes. “Run’n’Gun” is

the main setting is a reservation, readers still

her way of shining bright amid all the darkness

learn about the cold reality of many Native

of Native American invisibility. Additionally,

Americans’ living conditions. Diaz includes

any such criticism would be invalid because

images associated with poverty, such as the

stereotypes are products of the same America

run-down “rez park” and a “tagged backboard

that continues to erase Native American

with a chain for a net” (3), “abandoned

culture.

school yard” (10), “slanted driveway” (16),

acknowledge stereotypes, such as “poverty,”

and “jacked-up shoes and mismatched socks”

which is in most cases defined through the

(21). When such images are utilized, just like

lens of capitalism. As explained by Schell

the statistics in “American Arithmetic,” it

et al., “poverty in this [capitalist] context…

indicates that Diaz wants to spread awareness

does not refer to spiritual, social or any other

about various environmental injustices. Schell

dimension of life” (108). Thus, “poverty” can

et al. describe such injustices by pinpointing

mean something entirely different to a Native

how the poorly regulated Native American

American who leads a spiritual life. Diaz is not

communities expose residents to extremely

marginalizing herself or Native Americans; she

hazardous pollutants (107). What is new in this

takes pride in her Native American identity.

poem, though, is Diaz’s primary focus on the

However, there is still more to “Run’n’Gun”

importance of basketball.

and its use of basketball than meets the eye.

Diaz recalls her memories as a basketball player with fondness, as it was the sport and

Some

Native

Americans

won’t

Psychologically, basketball has a greater significance.

69

The role of basketball in “Run’n’Gun”

Native kids’ ability to run “faster than [the

humanizes Native American identity through

white kids’] fancy kicks could, up and down

a sport that many from outside communities

the court, game after game” (Diaz 28-29) is an

can relate to. For Diaz, it brings a greater

example of how their health had caught up to

sense of collective identity to the table. Unlike

the same level as the white kids.

“American Arithmetic” and its themes of Native American extinction through objectification,

However, afterschool activities alone are not

Diaz demonstrates what it means for Native

the answer to this specific outcome. They

Americans to unite against the real enemy, white

are based on the “quantity” and “quality” of

privilege. One way she does so is by explaining

“participation” of such activities that lead to

that she “learned the game with [her] brothers

positive health growth. According to Gagnon et

and cousins, with [her] friends and enemies”

al., there are four “dimensions” of participation

(Diaz 20-21). Even though she might have

that should be measured for this specific study:

fellow Native Americans as “enemies,” she can put aside her differences and play basketball

(1) breadth, number of unique activities in

with them to beat “the bigger, older white kids”

which a youth participates, (2) intensity,

(Diaz 23). Basketball thus provides the Native

frequency of youth participation in a unique

American youth in “Run’n’Gun” with a sense

activity over a fixed period of time, (3)

of pride, identity, and willingness to cooperate.

duration, number of years during which

This is not a farfetched outcome when talking

a youth has participated in a particular

in terms of actual Native American youths, as

activity, and (4) engagement, level of effort,

displayed in the studies of Gagnon et al. When

attention, enjoyment, and interest a youth

looking at the effects of afterschool activities

demonstrates toward a particular activity (2).

on children, there is “improved academic achievement, physical health, socioemotional

Looking at the framework of participation

development, and psychological well-being”

in afterschool activities, it is easy to identify

(Gagnon et al. 1). Looking back at “American

how Diaz and her basketball team participate

Arithmetic,” it is clear that Native Americans

and interact with each other. The team’s skills

are suffering a continual rate of murder (Diaz

improve as time goes on (Diaz 22-23), they

12-13) and poor education (Diaz 15-16). Coupled

willingly continue to play even though it’s

with the inequalities mentioned in “Run’n’Gun,”

harder for them to do so (Diaz 24-25), and

it is safe to say that the physical and mental

they start winning games (Diaz 26). In the last

health of Native Americans, especially Native

stanza, Diaz states, “we played our dreams”

American youth, develops negatively (Gagnon

(37-38), indicating total accomplishment in

et al. 2). As we see the happiness in Diaz’s

positive health growth, especially mental health

word choice and the plot of her poem, we can

growth. “Run’n’Gun” thus illustrates Diaz’s

conclude that basketball is indeed improving

continual call for justice, visibility, pride within

her and her teammates’ overall well-being. The

a collective identity, and provides an instance

70

in which “rez” life challenges stereotypes and

“Run’n’Gun.” The combination of all of Diaz’s

leads to remarkable improvement of personal

themes amplifies each objective towards the

well-being.

reader, but here a question lies: why create this

The last poem, “Top Ten Reasons Why

combination in the first place?

Indians Are Good at Basketball,” is composed of

In the National Public Radio interview,

a list divided into ten different sections for each

Diaz expands on the theme of identity the

“reason” given. It is an extension of all of Diaz’s

way she explores it in her poems by explaining

identities, as it contains a perfect balance of

that in her Mojave culture, the body has

her Native American identity, her athletic

special meaning (Diaz). There is a connection

identity, and her poetic identity. Diaz also uses

between the human body and the land, the

a different style to convey how she deals with

water, people, and essentially everything

Native American injustice, stereotypes, pride,

else in the world (Diaz). Diaz treats all of her

recognition, and identity—a sense of humor.

identities, including her Latina one, as one

In every element and every reason that is listed,

big body to explore, love, and understand. In

there is a comedic aspect. For example, Diaz

“Top Ten Reason Why Indians Are Good at

states in the seventh reason that “Indians are

Basketball,” she adds Native American history

not afraid to try sky hooks in real games, even

to her body of significance. She makes many

though no Indian / has ever made a sky hook,

references to history, such as “howitzer and

no Indian from a federally recognized tribe, /

Hotchkiss and Springfield 1873” (Diaz 7-8),

anyway” (20-22). Here, there are basketball-

“the year 1492” (Diaz 36), and “our enemies

related words and possible use of stereotypes,

will fall to their wounded knees” (Diaz 36-37).

but as mentioned earlier, stereotypes are one-

Her usage of small references to infamous

sided. We also see a satirical element in which

historical events works well in resonating

Diaz has to clarify that she is talking about

the meaning of a collective Native American

“federally recognized” Native Americans to

body. Behind the violent imagery of the war-

differentiate between the different ethnicities.

time Native American past lie other appalling

The use of satire thus reminds readers

events to be remembered, such as The

of the injustices mentioned in “American

Trail of Tears, the Carlisle Boarding School,

Arithmetic” with feelings of isolation and lack

and “the practice of forced sterilization of

of recognition—the “visibility and invisibility”

American Indian women” in the ’70s (Schell

(Diaz) factor. On the bright side, we see identity

et al. 108). One would start to notice the

positivity enter in the following sentence: “But

connections between statistics and history,

still, our shamelessness to attempt sky hooks

the social and environmental injustices, and

in warm-ups strikes fear in our opponents,

the complications of identity within Native

thus giving us a mental edge” (Diaz 22-23). The

Americans. There forms an understanding

positivity not only shows Diaz’s comfort with a

of the relationship between the U.S. and the

collective Native American identity but also the

indigenous people, who were here before us

profitable outcomes of basketball as shown in

and are struggling to continue being here.

71

We can consider research, such as the study

by Gagnon et al., that says after-school

————. “Run’n’Gun.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf Press, 2020, pp. 23-24

activities can help the most vulnerable Native

————. “Top Ten Reasons Why Indians Are Good at

Americans rise out of the usual, isolated path

Basketball.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf

that often leads to death (102) as valid. We

Press, 2020, pp. 40-41.

can know in our hearts that preserving Native

————. “‘Manhattan Is A Lenape Word,’ And Other

American culture is necessary and that we can

Poems Looking At Native Americans’ Struggles.”

only help by allowing Indigenous cultures to

Weekend Edition Sunday, interview by Leila Fadel,

use their voice instead of trying to integrate

National Public Radio, 1 Mar. 2020. Transcript.

them into a Eurocentric society.

Gagnon, Ryan j., et al. “Camp as Context for Need

In the last part of the interview, Diaz ends

Satisfaction among Native American Youth:

by saying, “I don’t know where the gift of poetry

Examining Links to Participation Quality and

came from, but I do know it’s in me and it’s mine”

Quantity.” Children and Youth Services Review, vol.

(Diaz). In the poetry community, poems are

119, Dec. 2020, pp. 1-11.

thought to be entities that demand dominance

Schell, L. M., et al. “Power and Pollutant Exposure

over the writer. Diaz’s way of writing poetry

in the Context of American Indian Health and

adheres much to this fact. Diaz is her poetry

Survival.” Annals of Human Biology, vol. 43, no. 2,

as much as the poetry is Diaz. “American

Mar. 2016, pp. 107-14.

Arithmetic,”

“Run’n’Gun,”

and

“Top

Ten

Reasons Why Indians Are Good at Basketball” all embody Mojave culture and the clash of American history and present-day morality, while Diaz exhibits her childhood memories, personal insecurities, and collective feelings in return. They are unique in presenting the common critical themes, but they all tell us who we could be and why. Our individual identities are our own, and they are complex. For Native Americans, especially Natalie Diaz, the level of freedom to express and explore identity has not been a given—but she proves it is not impossible, either. «

WORKS CITED Diaz, Natalie. “American Arithmetic.” Postcolonial Love Poem, Graywolf Press, 2020, pp. 17-18.

72

Sisyphean Virtue: Existentialism as a Critical Lens for Reading A Farewell to Arms JACOB LONGINI

THE scholarship of 20th century

Sun Also Rises.” The article applies the thematic

literature, there have been many efforts to

lens of “the death of love in World War I” (Spilka

classify

Hemingway’s

127) to Hemingway’s work. This “death of love”

within the philosophy of existentialism. This

refers to the destruction of many systems

temptation arises out of the natural inclination

of meaning caused by the war. People, and

to bring together fiction produced in the period

especially writers, had trouble valuing the same

with the philosophy that arose from it. In the 1948

things that they once did after being faced with

introduction to A Farewell to Arms, Hemingway

the atrocities of the conflict. There was a void

tells the reader that the novel was “begun in

left in the place of these systems, and a need to

the first winter months of 1928” and “the final

find a new meaning was born. Existentialism was

rewriting was finished in Paris in the spring of

popularized and expanded upon in this era, and

1929” (vii). He wrote the book in a little over a

Hemingway wrote A Farewell to Arms (among

year, all in the period after World War I described

other books) during this ideological shift, so

by Gertrude Stein as the “lost generation.” Mark

scholars have long been interested in bringing

Spilka discusses the context of Hemingway’s

the philosophy to his work. The question is, what

writing in his article “The Death of Love in The

is the right way to do this?

WITHIN

fictional

works

like

JAC O B LO N G I N I is from Phoenix, Arizona, where he attended school until moving to LA to earn a BA in English and a minor in Philosophy from LMU. Falling in love with English and the LMU community, he decided to stick around to pursue a MA in English Literature from Loyola Marymount. He is interested in bringing his background in Philosophy to his studies in Literature, engaging with contemporary critical theory. His contribution to this issue uses 20th Century Existentialism to dissect classic works of fiction, which he wrote for Dr. K.J. Peters’ Authors and Movements course on Hemingway.

73

»

However, many other scholars disagreed

PAST SCHOLARSHIP

Much of the earlier scholarship in this area

with Killinger’s classification, arguing that key

attempted to place Hemingway completely

differences barred Hemingway from belonging

under an existentialist classification. The

to existentialist philosophy. Wayne C. Holcombe

argument became trying to decide if his

was one such critic, and he engages with

works/characters/plots were a perfect fit or

Killinger and other critics who have classified

if they didn’t fit at all. John Killinger argued

Hemingway’s works under existentialism in

for the importance of existentialism in

his article “The Motive of the Motif: Some

understanding 20th century fiction in his

Thoughts

article “Existentialism and Human Freedom.”

He discusses where he thinks Hemingway is

He wrote, “Somehow it is this inevitable

inconsistent with this interpretation to show

contemporaneity that makes the message of

it is too simplistic, before arguing for a more

existentialism so urgent. It is of our times and

nuanced view of Hemingway’s philosophy.

it is to our times, and it is set so thoroughly

He ultimately argues for adopting certain

within the context of where we live that we

existentialist interpretations of Hemingway’s

cannot fail to be impressed by its passionate

work, but combining them with contradictory

relevance” (Killinger 312). He would go on to

interpretations,

write an entire book, Hemingway and the Dead

is

Gods, explaining how Hemingway’s works fit

existentialism, but the digressions are too

under the philosophy of existentialism. Other

numerous and significant to classify his work

scholars followed suit. In “Hemingway’s ‘The

as purely existentialist. The main focus of this

Killers,’” Hal Blythe & Charlie Sweet applied

article is how the protagonists adopt a “‘Not

Killinger’s

to

to think about it’ precept” when dealing with

Hemingway’s short story, emphasizing the

topics out of their control, conflicting with

existentialist notion of choice, the freedom-

existentialist approaches that Sartre or Camus

symbol of doors, and the restriction of walls.

would champion. In existentialism, it is generally

In “Sartre, Nada, and Hemingway’s African

argued that one must engage with the unknown,

Stories,” Ben Stoltzfus examines notions of

absurd, or painful—not avoid it. Avoiding this

existentialist freedom in light of Hemingway’s

engagement is considered “bad faith,” a vice I

own system of nada, as portrayed in the African

will discuss later on. Hemingway’s characters

short stories, in order to better understand

clearly subvert this existentialist precept. I

how his characters fit into existentialism. In

agree with Holcombe that Hemingway isn’t as

“Hemingway and the Cuban Revolution: For

perfectly existentialist as Killinger may believe,

Whom the Bell Tolls in the Sierra Maestra,” Jeff

but I also think he may be more existentialist

Morgan pairs existentialism with Hemingway’s

than Holcombe gives him credit for. In any

individualist characters, a similarity that Fidel

case, I have come to realize that trying to fit

Castro appreciated in For Whom the Bell Tolls.

Hemingway perfectly into the philosophy is not

There is much more of such work.

the real value to be found in pairing the two.

74

existentialist

interpretation

on

Hemingway’s

multifaceted:

showing certain

Existentialism.”

that

Hemingway

instances

reflect

EXISTENTIALISM AS A CRITICAL LENS

believe these scholars have captured a much

Whether or not Hemingway’s novels and their

more important side of pairing fiction with

characters perfectly fit into existentialism

existentialism. It is far more useful to apply the

is beside the point. The fact is that both

philosophy as a critical lens than it is to simply

existentialism and Hemingway’s novels were

see how closely Hemingway’s novels align with

influenced by similar time periods—the relation

it. By examining his novels through the critical

is inevitable. It is not important to decide how

tool of existentialism, the scholar can find

well these two fit together, but rather to see if the

what messages are portrayed in the content

philosophy can serve as a critical lens to better

and characters of the books. I will be adopting

understand the novels and their characters.

Eddins’ and Baker’s techniques and applying

By using elements of the philosophy, can we

them to my own existential examination of A

discover truths about the human condition that

Farewell to Arms. As one of the seminal texts

are portrayed in Hemingway’s novels? For some

from the 20th century American literary canon,

scholars, the answer has been yes.

A Farewell to Arms is a perfect case study for

In “Of Rocks and Marlin: The Existentialist

this technique. However, this technique can and

Agon in Camus’s ‘The Myth of Sisyphus’ and

should be used much more broadly, to examine

Hemingway’s The Old Man and The Sea” Dwight

other works from the time period, as well as

Eddins writes, “It has long been clear that

perhaps all works of literature.

certain authors of the 1920s—I am thinking particularly of Fitzgerald and Hemingway—

HISTORY AND IDEAS OF EXISTENTIALISM

discovered existentialism in practice before it

In order to conduct this critique, we must

was theorized by the likes of Heidegger, Sartre,

step back for a moment and establish a solid

and Camus” (68). He finds that the authors

understanding of existentialism itself. My critical

wrote understandings of existentialist notions

examination will draw most heavily from the

into their works before ever reading the work

full-blooded existentialism developed by Sartre

of the famed existentialist philosophers. He

and Camus’ time, but it is important to note

continues, “In this regard, we might even speak

that existentialism’s roots extend further back.

of ‘existentialisms’ as they represent the various

John Killinger summarizes the philosophy’s

philosophical grids that help us parse particular

history

20th century fictions from distinctive angles”

Human Freedom.” He explains its start with

(Eddins 68). This is exactly what Eddins goes

Kierkegaard in the 19th century in response to

on to do in his “explicatory enterprise” (69);

the abstracted state of philosophy during his

he takes notions of existentialist thought and

time. Kierkegaard felt that philosophy was so

applies them as critical lenses to Hemingway’s

far removed from the actual human experience

The Old Man and the Sea. Similarly, James V.

that even philosophers weren’t living by their

Baker applies categories of existentialism as

complex systems of thought. Man needed a

critical lenses to examine King Lear in his article

worldview that took into account his mortal

“An Existential Examination of King Lear.” I

existence: making choices and living by them.

succinctly

in

“Existentialism

and

75

Kierkegaard sought to return people from these

is man’s realization that being a subject in a

abstract systems of meaning to their individual,

world of objects is insane. We are thrown into

struggling selves. He wanted to “awaken men to

a random and hostile universe with the ability

their freedom—and to the dread that always

to understand our inevitable doom but not the

accompanies it,” wrote Killinger (307).

ability to stop it. Killinger writes, “Authentic

Killinger goes on to explain how Heidegger

existence, for Camus, is for man both to accept

took the baton, reviving and drawing from

and to rebel against this absurdity” (310). Camus

Kierkegaard in his 20th century work. He

develops this view in his “The Myth of Sisyphus.”

distinguished between sein—objective being

Sisyphus is doomed by the gods to endlessly roll

or the normal state of inanimate objects—and

a boulder up a hill, just to have it roll back down

dasein: being there, as only man can do. In

when he gets to the top. Sisyphus recognizes

doing so, Heidegger picked up on Kierkegaard’s

the absurdity, futility, and hopelessness of his

notions of human awareness, a realization that

situation, but he decides to persevere anyway,

man is thrown into an unstable existence. Man

scorning the gods who placed him there.

only confronts this realization when shown

It is from these central tenets of

he can cease to exist. Most would like to avoid

existentialist thought that Eddins and Baker draw

this dread, but true living is facing the freedom

their critical lenses. Baker’s five categories rely on

of existence, the dread of death, and living

the idea of a time-bound man cast into a hostile

anyway (Killinger 307). Karl Jaspers is the next

predicament, aware of his doom but unable to

to develop the philosophy, Killinger writes.

alter it. He measures characters’ virtues in how

Jaspers develops the ways men avoid coming to

they respond to this situation. Do they fall into

a realization of their existential dread: by losing

Sartre’s “bad faith,” distracting themselves from

their self-identity in “various workaday cares”

the dreadful reality of their lives by immersing

(Killinger 308). Jaspers feared men becoming

themselves in illusory sources of meaning? Or

slaves to their technology and societal functions.

do they live “authentically,” acknowledging the

Like Heidegger, Jaspers thought men must

futility of their lives but choosing to transcend

encounter nothingness to avoid this fate.

through meaningful pursuits? Eddins’ critique is

According to Killinger, this is where

similar, as he measures each character against

Sartre comes in. He is the one who developed

Sisyphus, who avoids the vice of blissful ignorance

existentialism into the successful and popular

or hope, instead choosing to surmount his fate

version it is today. Similar to Heidegger’s sein

through scorn of his hopeless situation and a

and dasein, Sartre states there is “being in

decision to persevere anyway. For Eddins, the

itself ” and “being for itself,” and man must

virtue/vice split is between assertion of values in

confront nothingness to remind himself to

the face of hopelessness and an ignorant clinging

take responsibility for his freedom, despite the

to false hope. I will return to Sartre’s and Camus’

dread this elicits. Camus echoed and further

existentialism briefly as I outline Eddins’ and

developed this central tenet of existentialism in

Baker’s critical techniques, but this summary of

his idea of the “absurd.” For Camus, the absurd

existentialism is satisfactory for now.

76

THE APPROACH

characters in existential terms. Third, Baker

Before applying their critical lenses to an

looks at expressions of fear, love, hate, and

existential examination of A Farewell to Arms, I

anguish in the story. Fourth, Baker examines how

must go more deeply into the work by Dwight

the characters acknowledge their existential

Eddins and James V. Baker. In his article, Baker

doom through encounters with death. And fifth,

breaks down existentialism into five categories

he dissects how each character attempts to

to examine Shakespeare’s King Lear. He lays out

transcend their existential limitations through

the five categories of existentialism thus:

art, love, and religion. I will adopt Baker’s first four categories to examine the plot and setup

First, being born into this world and finding

of A Farewell to Arms. With the final category,

ourselves here. Secondly, being towards

overcoming space-time limitations through

others and finding ourselves existing among

art, love, or religion, I will delve into a character

other people who are similarly bounded

examination of Frederic, Catherine, Rinaldi, and

as ourselves; this is the whole realm of

the priest. By looking at how each character

intersubjectivity, of our relations with others.

attempts to derive meaning from their doomed

Third, experiencing certain elementary

existence, one can see which sources of meaning

emotions, such as fear, love, or hate; the

the novel approves of and which it argues against.

existentialists have made particular capital

Like Baker, “By putting literature, a poem, a play,

out of the study out of an emotion which is

or a novel, under the existential lens, I mean to

called anguish. Anguish is experienced in

study it closely through the instrumentality and

difficult decision or choice, but existentially

by the light of the categories, the play [novel]

anguish is defined as one’s feeling in the face

itself being regarded as symbolic construct

of existence as a whole, being distinguished

which may perhaps throw illumination upon the

from fear, which is fear of some object or

human condition” (547).

ordeal. Fourth, the human experience of

So where does Dwight Eddins come in? In

time and of being headed towards death.

his article, he uses Albert Camus’ “The Myth of

And, finally, the possibility of transcendence

Sisyphus” as a tool for applying an existentialist

of these space-time limitations. Space-time

perspective to Hemingway’s works to get a better

limitations may be overcome in three ways:

understanding of them. He writes, “For Camus,

through art, through love, and through

the nihilistic void functions as an inescapable

religion. (Baker 546)

generator of absurdity, undermining every human enterprise and thought by revealing its

Each of these categories serves as a critical lens.

ultimate pointlessness and meaninglessness.

The first category is essentially Heidegger’s

He locates the only intellectually defensible

claim that man is “thrown into” existence, and

response to this absurdity in acts of rebellion

Baker uses this to examine the existential setup

that maximize available life and its intensity,

of the play. The second category allows Baker

even as the cosmic futility of these acts is kept

to understand the relationships between the

uncompromisingly in mind” (Eddins 69). His

77

main application is to The Old Man and the Sea, in

living authentically, or if they cling to false

which he examines Santiago as a Sisyphean hero.

hope through illusory sources of meaning,

Instead of pushing a boulder up a hill just for it to

living in bad faith. Using Baker’s transcendent

roll back down, he proves himself with each new

values alongside Eddins’ comparison against

day on the ocean, struggling to find a fish, and

the absurdist hero in Camus’ “The Myth of

often returning ashore empty-handed. In many

Sisyphus,” I can dissect what virtues and what

moments, he addresses the hopelessness of his

failings each character contains as presented

situation, but he acts anyway. Eddins writes,

by Hemingway in the novel.

face this gravity as a vortex of random, quasi-

EXISTENTIALIST SETUP OF A FAREWELL TO ARMS

malignant forces that constitute a steady—

Now that the past existential scholarship has

and ultimately effective—resistance

been covered, and the techniques of Eddins

to dreams of love and achievement. The

and Baker have been laid out, I can get into my

rebellion of those initiated into this dark

own existential examination of A Farewell to

gnosis by experience centers on the assertion

Arms and its characters. A true application of

of such provisional values as honor, courage,

existential lenses to a character examination

decency, generosity, and stoical fortitude—

cannot occur until the existential setup of the

in other words, the code. This assertion—

larger novel itself is established, so I will begin by

embodied constantly in actions—is a way

applying Baker’s categories of existentialism to

of establishing an island of human dignity in

the novel. Baker’s first four categories are very

the middle of the cosmic mess without losing

useful in accomplishing an understanding of the

sight of the certainty that the island will

existential setup of the novel, as well as what

eventually be overwhelmed. (70)

truths about the human condition this setup

The Sisyphean protagonists of Hemingway

portrays. In the next section, we will focus more In Eddins’ view, the Sisyphean absurdist hero

closely on how the characters act within this

must avoid hope, instead recognizing the

setup, using Baker’s fifth category and Eddins’

hopelessness of his situation and deciding

Camus/Sisyphean technique.

to assert his own value anyway. In this way,

Baker writes, “First, being born into this

hope and other illusory values of escape are

world and finding ourselves here” (546). By this

weaknesses in the absurdist hero (Eddins

first existential category, Baker refers to Hegel’s

73); whereas, acknowledgement of doom

idea that man finds himself cast into the universe,

and assertion of transcendent values are

unable to decide this for himself. This “finding

strengths. In my own examination of A

ourselves here” in a meaningless universe is an

Farewell to Arms, I will pair Eddins’ approach

existential aspect of A Farewell to Arms. Rinaldi

with my character examination using Baker’s

echoes this sentiment when he says, “We never

fifth category. I will decide if each character

get anything. We are born with all we have and

asserts values in the face of hopelessness,

we never learn. We never get anything new. We

78

all start complete” (Hemingway 149). When

the others” (Hemingway 216). This notion of

paired with Frederic’s later remark, “You did

companionship against the hostile “others” is

not know what it was about. You never had

just the type of relationship that Baker argues

time to learn. They threw you in and told you

drives an existentialist plot.

the rules and the first time they caught you off

“Third, experiencing certain elementary

base they killed you” (Hemingway 280), it seems

emotions, such as fear, love, or hate; the

clear that the novel mimics the existentialist

existentialists have made particular capital out

universe and man’s coming into it. Hemingway’s

of the study out of an emotion which is called

characters are thrown in with nothing but

anguish. Anguish is experienced in difficult

their understanding of the unfairness of life

decision or choice, but existentially anguish is

and ignorance of how to overcome it. This sets

defined as one’s feeling in the face of existence

the stage well for a critical examination of the

as a whole, being distinguished from fear,

characters using existentialist lenses.

which is fear of some object or ordeal” (Baker

The second precept that Baker uses to

546). Per Baker’s third category, one must

examine existentialism in the setup of a novel

locate the expression of “certain elementary

is stated thus: “Secondly, being towards others

emotions” in A Farewell to Arms if one is to

and finding ourselves existing among other

carry out an existentialist examination of the

people who are similarly bounded as ourselves;

novel and its characters. There are many such

this is the whole realm of intersubjectivity, of our

expressions in the book, such as when Rinaldi

relations with others” (546). Essentially, a plot

expresses love for Frederic: “We won’t quarrel,

can be understood in existentialist terms if the

baby. I love you too much” (Hemingway 58).

relationships between the characters as limited

There are also expressions of loneliness and

and subjective individuals plays an important

fear—“we were never lonely and never afraid

role. It shouldn’t take long to convince anyone

when we were together” (Hemingway 216)—

who has read it that this is the case with A

and several expressions of love between

Farewell to Arms. Centering around the

Frederic and Catherine, including exchanges

relationships between a flawed main character

of “I love you” on page 80 and 81. Perhaps

and the flawed characters he encounters, the

most strikingly, in light of Baker’s insights, A

story is full of interactions between limited

Farewell to Arms also brings up emotions very

subjects. There are several instances in which

reminiscent of the existentialist “anguish” in

Rinaldi and Frederic are described in the context

the face of existence. In this case, the anguish

of a brotherhood, such as on page 57, when

is in the face of the meaningless war. A British

Rinaldi says, “We are brothers and we love each

major tells Frederic, “we were all cooked but

other” (Hemingway). Perhaps more importantly,

we were all right as long as we did not know

Catherine and Frederic are described in

it. We were all cooked. The thing was not to

relationship with one another, often against the

recognize it. The last country to realize they

rest of the world. Frederic recalls, “We could

were cooked would win the war” (Hemingway

feel alone when we were together, alone against

116). This passage is illustrative of Sartre’s

79

“bad faith,” in that the participating countries

that is all I can promise you.” This no-nonsense

seem to be in denial. But it is also a perfect

presentation of his characters, as doomed

description of the anguish experienced by

to die, plays into Baker’s fourth category

Hemingway’s characters as they try to wrap

perfectly, rounding out the existentialist setup

their heads around the incomprehensibility of

necessary for conducting a critical character

their situation.

examination.

Baker’s fourth existential category, and

We will save Baker’s fifth category for the

the final one I will use to examine A Farewell

character examinations, but the first four have

to Arms’ existentialist setup, is “the human

helped us form an image of A Farewell to Arms

experience of time and of being headed towards

as an existentialist plot. The novel is set up in

death” (546). Essentially, the characters in the

such a way that a character examination using

existential plot are bound by time, stuck in the

themes from existentialism as lenses will not

short window between birth and death, with

go awry. The hopeless setting in a meaningless

the presence of death lurking just around the

war provides the characters with a backdrop

corner. The sheer presence of death in this

against which their virtues and vices, victories

novel provides reason to be convinced by this

and failings can be explained in existentialist

interpretation, but the passages that address it

terminology. Within the absurd landscape of

are perhaps even more convincing. Particularly,

the war, Hemingway’s characters act in ways

the famous “world kills everyone” passage:

that reveal the human need to transcend the meaningless. We will turn next to which ways of

If people bring so much courage to this

doing so are to be praised, according to the novel,

world the world has to kill them to break

and which are to be avoided.

them, so of course it kills them. The world breaks every one and afterward many are

EXISTENTIAL CHARACTER EXAMINATION

strong at the broken places. But those that

Each character represents different victories,

will not break it kills. It kills the very good

failings, and transitions in relation to Baker’s

and the very gentle and the very brave

and Eddins’ existentialist character critiques. I

impartially. If you are none of these you can

will examine the priest, Rinaldi, Frederic, and

be sure it will kill you too but there will be

Catherine against Camus’ absurd hero, Sisyphus,

no special hurry. (Hemingway 216)

analyzing when they cling to a false hope, in Eddins’ lens, and when they follow the example

In the Hemingway novel, no one escapes time or

of Sisyphus, acknowledging hopelessness and

the all-consuming death that it will eventually

persevering up the metaphorical hill despite

bring. This reality is echoed by Hemingway’s

its futility. Then I will give a judgement (à la

tragic “Nada Ending,” which is available on

Baker), discerning whether they transcend their

page 303 of the Hemingway Library Edition

situation authentically through worthy sources

of the novel: “That is all there is to the story.

of meaning, or run from it through “bad faith”

Catherine died and you will die and I will die and

distractions. “Authenticity” is here defined as

80

the existential virtue of recognizing the doom

Farewell to Arms is seen as a failing, a clinging to

and futility of human existence and responding

an illusory system of value—a denial of reality.

by finding meaning in something worthwhile

With these points out of the way, let’s

anyway. “Bad faith” is the existential vice of

turn to the character examinations, beginning

distracting oneself through illusory sources of

with the priest. The priest is a good place

meaning, avoiding the reality that life is doomed,

to start, as he is perhaps the least daunting

futile, and meaningless. After dissecting each

character to examine, though he still undergoes

character

absurdist

an interesting shift. In comparison to Sisyphus,

heroism and Baker’s existential transcendence, I

the priest seems at the novel’s beginning to be

will conclude with what I think this captures about

a failed absurdist hero. The great vice in the

the novel’s portrayal of virtue and vice in the face

face of the absurd, for the existentialist, is to

of the existentialist landscape established in

give in to hope. This seems counterintuitive

the previous section. Essentially, I will show how

to a reader who has been taught that hope is a

existentialism helps the reader analyze how the

positive value, but to Camus, hope was a great

novel relates the human condition.

failing. According to him, hope was the belief

One

according

important

to

Eddins’

point

of

contention

in an illusory notion that things happened for

between Baker’s view and my own is in what we

a reason, and things would work out ok. The

define as worthy sources of meaning. According

informed existentialist knows that in the absurd

to his fifth category of existentialism, Baker

universe, everything is random, and things will

outlines his “transcendent” concepts as “art,

end in death and nothingness. For this reason,

love, or religion” (546). I believe art and love

the priest’s vehement assertion that he holds

can be understood as authentic causes for

on to hope classifies him against the Sisyphean

the existentialist. One can acknowledge the

example. He says, “It is never hopeless. But

meaninglessness and futility of life, and still

sometimes I cannot hope. I try always to hope

decide to find meaning in the pursuit of their

but sometimes I cannot” (Hemingway 62).

craft or in their devotion to their partner. I see no

The priest clings to an illusory notion of hope,

conflict in an existential realism and a dedication

despite his seeming admission that he knows he

to such values. Religion, however, seems to be

is really wrong to do so.

incompatible with this kind of existentialism. If

However, it seems that the priest shifts

one dedicates oneself to religion, I do not see

his views as the novel progresses. Far from

how one can still accept the meaninglessness

his initial inability to look hopelessness in the

of the universe. It seems that one cannot hold

eye, the priest eventually seems to let go of

a healthy realism about the futility of life and

his stubborn hope. He says to Frederic, “I had

dedicate oneself to following a god who created

hoped a long time for victory … I don’t believe

man for a purpose. Therefore, while I will allow

in victory anymore” (Hemingway 157). In this

for authentic sources of meaning such as art

realist rejection of hope, the priest shifts away

and love, I will classify dedication to religion

from his earlier failure and gets closer to the

under “bad faith.” Religion in the characters of A

Sisyphean standard. Nevertheless, we do not

81

see a subsequent acceptance of the hopeless

of their existence. When he says that we “never

state and a renewed commitment to action. So,

learn” and “never get anything,” it seems that

while the priest gets closer to absurdist heroism

he is being realistic about this lack of meaning.

as the novel progresses, he fails to reach it.

This realism is very much in line with Sisyphus’

With Eddins’ Sisyphean lens applied, how

recognition of his situation. Rinaldi even seems

can we view the priest in relation to Baker’s notion

to model Sisyphus’ decision to persevere in spite

of “transcendence”? While Baker himself places

of his situation, as he dedicates himself to his

religion as one of the appropriate transcendent

work as an army surgeon. In this way, he “fights

values for the existentialist hero, I see the priest’s

the good fight” while not losing sight of the fact

religion as a failing. In the face of the absurdity of

that his efforts are futile.

the war, to believe in a loving God and insist that

It is only when we add Baker’s lens to

that belief will save you is a position of denial and

this one that we see where Rinaldi’s primary

ignorance. Instead of facing the meaninglessness

failing lies. According to Baker’s fifth category

of the war and deciding to find meaning in a value

of

that allows him to transcend his human situation,

dedicate themself to their art despite holding

the priest distracts himself with an illusory source

existentialist views. In Rinaldi’s case, he

of meaning: religion. For this reason, I find the

dedicates himself to the art of his work. He says,

priest guilty of bad faith in my adapted version

“I never think. No, by God, I don’t think; I operate”

of Baker’s lens. There is a possibility that his

(Hemingway 147). This head-down-and-work

shift from hope to hopelessness, as described

mentality is clearly reminiscent of Sisyphus, and

previously, suggests he may be giving up such

it seems that the focus of his efforts could pass a

illusory sources of meaning, but it is clear he has

Baker-style examination. But there is a problem

not done so fully by the end of A Farewell to Arms.

with the “not thinking” aspect of Rinaldi’s

existentialism,

one

can

authentically

Next, let’s dissect Rinaldi. In Eddins’

actions. If his dedication to his work serves as a

Camus approach, Rinaldi seems to fare better

distraction, keeping him from facing the reality

than the priest did. Although his reliance on

of his existential situation, then we cannot

alcohol could be seen as an avoidance of reality,

say his value in work is an authentic action.

it is initially apparent that Rinaldi doesn’t cling

Recall my discussion of Wayne C. Holcombe’s

to any illusory sources of meaning that prevent

article earlier, in which he argued that the “not

him from facing the absurdity of the existential

to think” precept is a direct transgression of

situation. In fact, he shows remarkable clarity

existentialist authenticity. So, in the proposed

about this situation when he remarks, “We never

values of A Farewell to Arms, Rinaldi only seems

get anything. We are born with all we have and we

to transcend his existentialist situation through

never learn. We never get anything new. We all

his work, but he is actually acting in bad faith.

start complete” (Hemingway 149). This suggests

We will discuss Catherine last, turning

an understanding of man’s predicament as a

instead to perhaps the most complicated

being cast into the cosmos with nothing but

character to examine—Frederic. Frederic

the ability to comprehend the meaninglessness

seems to perform differently in different points

82

of the novel. At the beginning of the novel,

where he places his value, it is on one of the

Frederic appears to be a solid absurdist hero, in

transcendent concepts approved by Baker

the vein of Camus’ Sisyphus. He acknowledges

and the existentialists: love. As long as the

the absurd, stating, “There isn’t always an

existentialist keeps the reality of his hopeless

explanation

(Hemingway

situation in mind, it is admirable to decide to

15). Clearly this is not a man who holds on to

find meaning in love while here on earth. When

illusions of meaning. This thread is confirmed

Frederic begins to fall in love with Catherine, he

by Rinaldi’s descriptions of Frederic as “so brave

seems to understand that that love is important

and quiet I forget you are suffering” (Hemingway

despite the fact that it doesn’t change the

56) and “All fire and smoke and nothing inside”

meaninglessness of the universe. His love for

(Hemingway 57). These descriptions affirm

Catherine gives him meaning, but he knows he

the Sisyphean heroism of Frederic. He is a man

still must return to the absurd war. Even when

of quiet dedication and action, not filled with

he decides to leave the war, it seems that the

notions of intrinsic value or any other non-

decision is still one we can deem existentially

existentialist illusions. He accepts the hostility

authentic. Frederic reflects, “I was going to

of the absurdist landscape and takes action

forget the war. I had made a separate peace”

anyway, just like Sisyphus.

(Hemingway 211). In this instance, he quite

for

everything”

In Baker’s lens of existential transcendence, too, Frederic seems at first to excel. He remarks in this famous passage:

literally transcends his existential situation in the war by self-imposed meaning.

But this movement begins to degrade Frederic’s existential virtue. As he falls more

I was always embarrassed by the words

deeply in love with Catherine, he falls into

sacred, glorious, and sacrifice and the

the vice of letting that love distract him from

expression in vain … I had seen nothing

his existential predicament. He says, “I was

sacred, and the things that were glorious

not made to think. I was made to eat. My God,

had no glory and the sacrifices were like the

yes. Eat and drink and sleep with Catherine”

stockyards at Chicago if nothing was done

(Hemingway 200). Again, Holcombe’s “not

with the meat except to bury it … Abstract

to think” precept returns, a direct act of bad

words such as glory, honor, courage, or

faith. Frederic, who started the novel with

hallow were obscene beside the concrete

a strong ability to look the hostile cosmos

names of villages, the numbers of roads, the

in the face and act anyway, is now using his

names of rivers, the numbers of regiments

love of Catherine to distract himself from

and the dates. (Hemingway 161)

the hopeless reality. His efforts “not to think” continue, as he tells Catherine, “Let’s not think

Far from the bad faith of the priest, Frederic

about anything” (Hemingway 218). His love for

refuses to distract himself with illusory sources

Catherine, which began as his transcendent

of meaning. Instead, he relies on concrete

value in Baker’s lens, becomes the very thing

details, facts, and reality. When it comes to

that pushes him into bad faith.

83

It isn’t until later, when he is confronted

a dedication to love despite its ultimate futility.

with the possibility and eventual reality of

Beginning with Eddins’ technique, there are

Catherine’s death, that Frederic’s existential

several instances in which Catherine measures

heroism seems to return. When it seems that

up against Camus’ absurdist hero. She says

Catherine will die in childbirth, Frederic’s belief in

things like, “I suppose all sorts of dreadful things

love is shaken: “This is what people got for loving

will happen to us. But you don’t have to worry

each other … You never got away with anything.

about that” (Hemingway 100). It is an absurdist

Get away hell!” (Hemingway 274). Clearly, his

vice to pretend nothing bad will happen, but it is

Baker-style value in love is fading, and he is

an absurdist strength to acknowledge inevitable

returning to a non-transcendent existentialism,

doom and act anyway. Catherine is realistic about

albeit one free from the bad faith distractions.

the “dreadful things” that “will happen,” but she

He continues asking himself, “what if she should

doesn’t let those worries stop her. Shortly after,

die?” over and over, answering with, “She won’t,”

she says, “life isn’t hard to manage when you’ve

or, “She can’t.” He asks himself, “What reason

nothing to lose” (Hemingway 119). Like Sisyphus,

is there for her to die?” (Hemingway 274). What

Catherine’s existential knowledge informs her

Frederic will come to remember is that there isn’t

that she has nothing to lose. Both Sisyphus and

any reason. In the absurd universe, such deaths

Catherine, acknowledging the futility of their

happen meaninglessly, and there is no stopping

struggle, can decide to struggle anyway, even

the onslaught of time. This realization comes

“till they break you” (Hemingway 276).

and goes, as he waivers between recognizing his

Unlike Frederic’s, Catherine’s knowledge

existentialist reality and clinging to hope that

of the meaninglessness of life does not prevent

things will work out: “I knew she was going to die

her from asserting her own meaning in the

and I prayed that she would not. Don’t let her die.

transcendent value of love. When Frederic asks

Oh, God, please don’t let her die” (Hemingway

her about marriage, she says, “You see, darling,

282). When she finally dies, he sees no meaning

it would mean everything to me if I had any

in saying goodbye to her corpse, and he walks

religion. But I haven’t any religion” (Hemingway

out of the hospital. Presumably, Frederic has

100). Clearly, she doesn’t choose to cling to

learned the hard lesson that he can’t avoid

illusory sources of meaning, like the priest’s

the meaninglessness of the universe, but this

religion. Instead of faith, Catherine chooses

lesson seems to have come at the price of his

the active virtue of faithfulness to love: “I’m not

transcendent value: love. In A Farewell to Arms,

unfaithful, darling. I’ve plenty of faults but I’m

only the exceptionally strong can accept their

very faithful” (Hemingway 100). Catherine, the

existential fate and choose to love anyway. Next

perfect absurdist hero, sees that her rock will

up, we have just such a character.

roll right back down the hill, but she chooses

In this novel, Catherine is the only

to push it anyway, scorning her captors all

character that seems to fully rise to the challenge

along the way. More than any of the other

of both Eddins’ and Baker’s critical techniques.

characters, she is able to combine awareness

She demonstrates a Sisyphean wisdom, and also

of hopelessness with a dedication to a personal

84

value, transcending her existentialist situation

to love is promoted as an appropriate source

just as Baker argues one can.

of meaning. In this sense, Catherine—not Frederic—is the hero of the novel.

CONCLUSION

A Farewell to Arms places its characters

Clearly, Hemingway’s A Farewell to Arms can

against the absurdity of World War I, displaying

be broken down into the structural elements

an essential truth of the human condition: that

of an existentialist plot using Baker’s first four

mankind must find meaning for itself, as the

categories. Furthermore, this establishes an

structures of meaning that once supported it

understanding of the wartime setting as an

are no longer reasonable. In doing so, the novel

absurdist landscape upon which the characters

claims that living in ignorance or false hope is

act in ways that can be judged using existentialist

the wrong way for humans to respond to their

critiques. The priest, Rinaldi, and even the

situation. The only way to exist for humans is to

novel’s narrator, Frederic, all fall short of the

acknowledge their responsibility to create their

existentialist ideal as directed by these critical

own meaning in a meaningless universe. If we are

lenses. It is only Catherine who demonstrates a

to follow the example of Catherine, one way to do

Sisyphean wisdom worthy of Eddins’ technique,

this is to love with open eyes.

and also a dedication to love despite its

As a seminal work of its time, A Farewell

ultimate futility as outlined by Baker. For this

to Arms is a fantastic case study for applying

reason, Catherine is the only character to truly

existentialism to 20th century fiction as a critical

transcend her existentialist reality. Catherine

and analytical lens. I think there is plenty of space

knows life is meaningless, but she chooses to

for further scholarship in bringing existentialism

find value through living in love.

to 20th century literary critique. In fact, Baker

This is the value judgement proposed

shows that the 20th century is just the tip of

by the novel. The first three characters

the iceberg. If existentialism can be applied to

demonstrate vices that are teased out when

critically examine both William Shakespeare

examined through an existentialist lens. The

and Ernest Hemingway, I see no reason not to

priest, Rinaldi, and Frederic all share moments

pursue an entire school within critical theory

in which they choose ignorance over facing the

in which philosophies are converted into

horror of their existential reality. Even those

critical lenses with which to analyze novels and

that attempt to transcend this predicament

their characters. Philosophy, when used as a

fail to do so, placing value in illusory notions of

technique for critical examination, is invaluable

hope, work, or distracting love. The novel claims

in understanding what literature has to tell us

that these are not authentic sources of value

about the human condition. «

and meaning. The same existential lens that reveals their failings reveals Catherine’s virtue.

Catherine’s commitment to facing existential

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WORKS CONSULTED Killinger, John. Hemingway and the Dead Gods: A Study in Existentialism. University of Kentucky Press, 1961.

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