COLOR MATTERS: The Impact of Color in Urban Public Space on The User Mental Well-Being

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COLOR MATTERS The Impact of Color in Urban Public Space on The User Mental Well-Being

P A P E R ArtEZ, University of the Arts, Zwolle Master, Interior Architecture corpo-real, 2019/20

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Lisabell Zint Supervisor: Mieke de Roo

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D E S I G N

P A P E R

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“I underline the study of color above all.“ 7

Luis Barragán, 1980

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C ONTENT

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I N T RO DUCT I O N

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R E S E ARCH

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A I M S

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M ET HO DO L O GY

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S T UT T GA RT

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L I TE RAT URE

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Q UE STION

O BJ E CT IVES

Metro Station - Rotebühlplatz/Stadtmitte

RE VIEW

The Impact of Urban Environments on Mental Well-Being Color and Its Influence on Mental Well-Being The Utilization of Color in Urban Public Space

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C A SE

S T UDY

A N A LY S I S

Use of Space

Orientation and Accessibility

Time and Movement

Social Interaction

Perception of Space

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Atmosphere and Sensorial Experience

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C O NCL US I O N

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B I BL I O GRA PHY

I N TRO DUC T IO N

The contemporary population shift from rural areas to urban areas is rapidly increasing which is caused by one of the leading global trends of the twenty-first century - urbanization. 2010 has been the first time that more than half of human beings have lived in urban areas1.

Focusing only on Europe the number is even higher with about 72% of the population that was living in urban areas2. According to several urban scholars who have researched that particular global movement, there are many advantages of cities. In the article “Demand for Density? The Functions of the City in the 21st Century” authored by Edward L. Glaeser, a pioneering urban economist, outlined some benefits such as more job opportunities, new technologies as well as a large social milieu for dwellers3.

Yet, by looking beyond all the great advantages of cities there is also a significant drawback of living in urban environments as dwellers often have to deal with mental health and well-being issues. Urban environments are nowadays being considered as places that are giving urban dwellers the constant feeling of being in a rush and thus being stressed4. Numerous studies have long shown that there are

different burdens of disease and disability in urban versus rural areas and more recent studies have linked specific features of the urban environment to particular health Indicators56.

Alongside stress, another outcome is that there is an increasing part of urban populations that is also suffering from anxiety disorders such as social phobia or panic disorder which is an identification that urban environments influence emotions and are amongst other factors conducive to mental health problems7.

Intensive research and numerous investigations by certain architects and urban designers show that there are certain key ways in which design can help to promote a population’s mental health. Besides methods like creating green spaces or active spaces for more exercise8 other studies also show that color influences people a lot - mentally as well as physically9. However, as I recognized throughout my research, there is a specific lack of evidenced-based research into color use in urban public space. Due to these results, I got willed to focus on the two mentioned issues by investigating how the utilization of color in urban environments can promote and support the mental well-being of its urban population.

“WHO | Urban Health,” WHO, accessed June 13, 2019, http://www.who.int/topics/urban_health/en/.

“About Urban Environment,” Page, European Environment Agency, accessed September 9, 2019, https://www.eea.europa. eu/themes/sustainability-transitions/urban-environment/about-urban-environment.

3 Edward L. Glaeser, “Demand for Density?: The Functions of the City in the 21st Century,” Brookings (blog), November 30,

2001, https://www.brookings.edu/articles/demand-for-density-the-functions-of-the-city-in-the-21st-century/.

4 J. Peen et al., “The Current Status of Urban-Rural Differences in Psychiatric Disorders,” Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica 121, no. 2 (February 2010): 84–93, https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1600-0447.2009.01438.x.

5 Sandro Galea and David Vlahov, “URBAN HEALTH: Evidence, Challenges, and Directions,” Annual Review of Public Health 26, no. 1 (April 21, 2005): 341–65, https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.publhealth.26.021304.144708.

6 Sandro Galea, Nicholas Freudenberg, and David Vlahov, “Cities and Population Health,” Social Science & Medicine 60, no. 5 (March 2005): 1017–33, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.06.036.

7 Peen et al., “The Current Status of Urban-Rural Differences in Psychiatric Disorders.”

8 “How Urban Design Can Impact Mental Health,” Centre for Urban Design and Mental Health, accessed June 18, 2019, https://www.urbandesignmentalhealth.com/how-urban-design-can-impact-mental-health.html.

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Having above stated in mind, the following chapters of this research paper will document my investigations about the impact of color use in urban public environments on the mental well-being of its population. To deepen my research, I am specifically focusing on the case study of Stuttgart (South Germany) and a location that could be improved through a new color design method. Why I have chosen Stuttgart as my case study for this research and which specific urban public place within the city’s public transport I have chosen will be closer described in the following chapters.

Fig. 1 Luis Barragán, emotional architecture, model photography by American artist James Casebere

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9 Mahnke, F.H., “Color in Architecture — More Than Just Decoration,” Archinect, accessed June 25, 2019, https://archinect. com/features/article/53292622/color-in-architecture-more-than-just-decoration.

R ES EA R CH Q U ES T IO N HOW can the use of color in Stuttgart’s urban public space of transition support and promote the user’s mental well-being?

S UBS I D ARY Q UE S T I ONS HOW does color influence human mental well-being?

WHAT are the key roles color plays in urban public space?

WHICH cities do already consider color in their urban spaces of transition as a key method to influence mental welfare and how does it work for the inhabitants?

HOW does color affect dwellers’ use and perception of space?

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AI M S & O BJ EC TI VES This research aims to investigate the impact of color in urban environments on the mental welfare of Stuttgart’s population and to analyze case studies of color use in urban spaces as a design method. The selected case studies will be examples and a first orientation of how color could contribute to the urban space user’s mental health. By analyzing existing projects and their data I am motivated to develop a suitable color design solution for the selected urban space which would positively impact the user’s mental state in the case of the metropole of Stuttgart.

The objectives are: To study and review existing literature partly on the urban environment and its impact on mental health and well-being but primarily on the influence of color in urban public space to understand the relationship between them.

To investigate the local environmental conditions of a selected space in Stuttgart with the focus on color utilization and its influence on human’s use and perception of the space.

To analyze case studies of color use in urban environments according to mental welfare and to apply my findings from the literature review to my space analysis in Stuttgart’s urban area (selected space).

To investigate the general influence of color within an urban area and specifically the possibilities of color usage in a certain location of Stuttgart and therefore a way of supporting and promoting the mental well-being of the urban population of Stuttgart.

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METH O DO LO GY

P A R A DI GM This research paradigm falls under Constructivism as the aim of my research is to investigate how color usage in urban environments, especially in public interior spaces, impacts the user’s mental well-being through spatial experience. Furthermore, I will focus on this relationship of color and experience by researching the current spatial situation of a selected urban public space located in Stuttgart considering the mental well-being state of its user. Therefore, a Constructivist paradigm is associated with qualitative research which will be achieved through research design, data collection, data analysis of various case studies as well as through artistic research using color in space.

R E S E A R C H

D E S I G N

Throughout the constructive research, I will do a case study in which I will be investigating a selected urban public space of transition within the city environment of Stuttgart. Stuttgart is a city that is located in South Germany and is the capital of Baden-Württemberg in which Stuttgart is also the most populated city within the state. The city has a current population of 631,453 inhabitants (2019), which makes it the sixth-largest city in Germany. The urban area of Stuttgart is significantly larger with over 2.7 million people. To give you a short

overview of how much the population has increased during the last 69 years, Stuttgart’s population of 1950 was 497,656 which is a growth of 133,797 inhabitants10. Today’s annual growth is at 0.36% which is less than the global average of population growth in 2018 (1,936%)11. I have chosen Stuttgart as my research case study as it typifies the common global urban situation not specifically because of the population growth as it is below average but because of the general consequences of an increasingly urban population. Alongside others, heavy traffic, public transport difficulties, noise, and air pollution are consequences which all at some point impair the dweller’s psychological well-being and therefore their mental state.

Related to the topic of public transport and especially in consideration of the current significant level of air pollution caused by cars, the site I will focus on throughout my research is the underground metro station “Rotebühlplatz/Stadtmitte” in the city center of Stuttgart.

With about 60.000 passengers daily that are moving through Stuttgart’s largest bunker the inside metropolitan station is one of the most intense and used public spaces within the city12. By concentrating on the user’s spatial experience within this interior space I am aiming to find new approaches for color use.

10 “Stuttgart Population 2019 (Demographics, Maps, Graphs),” accessed June 13, 2019, http://worldpopulationreview.com/ world-cities/stuttgart-population/.

11 “Urban Population Growth (Annual %) | Data,” accessed September 9, 2019, https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SP.URB. GROW. 12 Stuttgarter Nachrichten Germany Stuttgart, “Haltestelle Rotebühlplatz / Stadtmitte: Dieser S-Bahnhof ist Stuttgarts größter Bunker,” stuttgarter-nachrichten.de, accessed September 9, 2019, https://www.stuttgarter-nachrichten.de/inhalt.haltestelle-rotebuehlplatz-stadtmitte-dieser-s-bahnhof-ist-stuttgarts-groesster-bunker.17c7c04a-62c8-4039-b972-2628c028d67f.html.

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DA TA

C OLLEC T I ON

The research will involve qualitative research through qualitative data collection. Primary data will be collected by the reviewing of secondary data that includes readings about the impact of color in urban environments on the mental welfare of a population and selected case study concepts of existing urban color designs will be discussed to understand the relationship and influence of these topics.

Data will be further collected by observing and interviewing citizens and their behavior in the selected urban space in a daily situation, this data will be documented by taking notes and photos.

D A T A

A N A L Y S IS

The collected data through literature review, case study review, visual observation, photography, and interview will be considered and flow into my design research which represents an individual method throughout the whole research process. The outcomes of my data collection including design outcomes will develop a new approach in color usage in urban public spaces of transition to promote and support.

O V E R V I EW PART I

L I T ER AT U R E R EV I E W Answering WHAT (relevance)

PART II

CA S E S TUD Y A N A LY S I S Case Study HOW (use of space)

Answering WHY (design approach) Answering HOW (types and forms of color use)

Case Study WHAT (spatial conditions)

Case Study HOW (perception of space)

SPATIAL CONCLUSION (descriptive derivations)

CO N CLUS IO N 15

Summary of study and derivation

PART III

S T UTTGA RT

Inhabitants of most urban environments are facing the issue of air pollution in the form of fine dust produced mainly by the used motor vehicles. Other problems which are likely to appear in cities are extreme road traffic and relating thereto noise, as well as public transport difficulties and safety. These mentioned problems are just some of the talking points which are among others also being discussed by dwellers of Stuttgart – the capital of the German state Baden-Württemberg. Via all kinds of media, the issues are being spread and dwellers are getting informed in case they haven’t personally experienced any of them until then.

Stuttgart has been my home for 20 months of my life and these issues accompanied me a minimum of 5 days a week as I had to travel to work by using public transport back and forth.

Compared to other cities I have lived in or the ones I am reading and hearing about, these issues seem to be common for urban environments and use to appear in one or another city as an unpleasing consequence emerged through the density of its urban population and their movements.

As an important aspect of moving through urban space as either a dweller or a tourist the transportation of any kind plays an important role and especially public transport got indispensable. The choice to focus on the city of Stuttgart as my case study during this research process is primarily based on the current traffic situation and resulting with it the high level of air pollution within the kettle in which Stuttgart is located. This urgent situation makes me

think about how this issue might be related not only to the physical but also the mental well-being of Stuttgart’s population. How could Stuttgart’s public transport be involved in my study to make it more attractive as well as to promote dweller’s psychological well-being by using color as a design method in spaces of public transport?

METRO STATION - ROTEBÜHLPLATZ/STADTMITTE In 1978, the metropolitan station “Stadtmitte” has been introduced as a multi-purpose construction with a length of 210 meters. Besides a traffic junction, the construction has also been built as an atomic bunker that would protect around 4.500 people in need of civil defense13. The suburban train station is located in the city center of Stuttgart -3 levels underneath the main road “Theodor-Heuss-Straße”.

Further, in 1983, the suburban train station has been even expanded through an additional railway station of about 120 meters long on the -2 level underneath the square “Rotebühlplatz”. At that time, this new underground station was the first barrier-free city station as it is accessible by broad ramps slowly leading the passengers underground. Together, these stations form the metro station named “Rotebühlplatz/Stadtmitte” with more than 60.000 passengers moving through the traffic junction every day, the station became one of the most intense places of all local transport places in the city of Stuttgart and even has been announced as the third-largest station (in view of traffic) of the state (Baden Württemberg) in 200514.

Germany, “Haltestelle Rotebühlplatz / Stadtmitte.”

“Bahnhof Stuttgart Stadtmitte,” in Wikipedia, July 9, 2019, https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bahnhof_Stuttgart_ Stadtmitte&oldid=190273112.

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METRO STATION - ROTEBÜHLPLATZ/STADTMITTE

Fig. 2 Signs of Stuttgart “Stadtmitte”, the underground metro station

Fig. 3 Underground railways at Stuttgart “Rotebühlplatz / Stadtmitte” 17

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“On the grounds of the knowledge and the scientific findings regarding the effects of color, its influence on the human organism, on psychosomatic well-being and color’s significance for the “quality of an appearance” and the acceptance thereof, it can not be disregarded that color, as an essential element in design, is often thoughtlessly misused.39“ Colors as an Element of Quality in 19 19

Environmental Design

L IT ERAT UR E R EVI EW 1 / THE IMPACT OF U R B A N E NV I RON M E N TS O N M E NTA L W ELL- B E I N G Comparatively to rural areas, there is a higher prevalence and risk of mental health disorders to appear in urban areas. For instance, this is shown by data from the 2015 Colombian Mental Health Survey (ENSM IV)15 or the European Study of the Epidemiology of Mental Disorders (ESEMeD 2000 study) which is a cross-sectional, in-person, household interview survey based on probability samples representative of the adult population of 6 European countries (Belgium, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, and Spain)16. In the United Kingdom, mental issues are even the greatest cause of disability in built environments and mental wellbeing continues to get worse17. Therefore, it is necessary to intervene and to reduce urban residents’ mental problems. Despite the urgency of improvement, it is of high importance to invest time in order to understand the relationship as well as the influencing factors that are shaping dweller’s mental well-being.

Contemporary urban environments are large complex communities of individuals that are constantly influencing their psychological wellbeing caused by multiple factors. For a long

time, many sociologists but also urban planners, architects, and designers are highly interested in the influence of a city on human mental health and well-being. Beyond that, the number of evidence-based studies is even increasing as to understand the emerged psychological demands of its residents are getting more and more relevant for modern urban societies. In the year of 1903, the German sociologist and philosopher George Simmel has been the first sociologist who outlined this exact discussion about the above-mentioned topic by writing an essay on „The Metropolis and Mental Life”18.

The main subject of the text is the impact of the Metropolis on Simmel‘s own mental life that led to a new global understanding of the essence of urbanity as well as the social consequences of urbanization which is still relevant in contemporary contexts19. Zooming into Simmel’s essay, he is specifically referring to his relationship with his home city Berlin which had increasingly developed into an anti-stance and antipathy towards the circumstances of urban life such as its nervous tempo, noise as well as ruptured social cohesion20.

More than 100 years later, many others have investigated the dynamic relationship between urbanity and mental well-being influenced by different types of factors. These studies show

Gómez-Restrepo C, de Santacruz C, Matallana D, et al. Encuesta nacional de salud mental 2015. Tomo I. Bogotá D.C. Colombia: Ministerio de Salud.

Viviane Kovess-Masféty et al., “A European Approach to Rural-Urban Differences in Mental Health: The ESEMeD 2000 Comparative Study,” Canadian Journal of Psychiatry. Revue Canadienne De Psychiatrie 50, no. 14 (December 2005):926– 36, https://doi.org/10.1177/070674370505001407.

17 T.H.M. Moore et al., “The Effects of Changes to the Built Environment on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Adults: Systematic Review,” Health & Place 53 (September 2018): 237–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthpla ce.2018.07.012.

18 Georg Simmel and Klaus Lichtblau, “Die Großstädte und das Geistesleben,” in Soziologische Ästhetik, by Georg Simmel, ed.

Klaus Lichtblau (Wiesbaden: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften, 2009), 103–14, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-53191352-0_11.

19 Anthony McElligott, The German Urban Experience: Modernity and Crisis, 1900-1945 (Routledge, 2013).

20 Anthony McElligott, The German Urban Experience: Modernity and Crisis.

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TH E I M PAC T OF U RBA N M EN TAL W E LL- B E I NG

that urban factors like air pollution, traffic, over-excited public places, housing21, disrepair or income inequality22 can turn into important determinants of the communities’ psychological well-being in terms of mental disorders like stress, anxiety and particularly depression23.

Theoretically, these stated factors can be divided into either being “contextual” (environmental level) factors such as housing and air pollution or “compositional” (individual level) factors24 like social cohesion and income-inequality as they are based on socio-demographic characteristics of individuals25. Practically, these factors linked to a specific area level are very hard to distinguish as for instance, traffic is related to the environment but also to individuals and therefore, differences between them have previously been argued a lot26.

Due to the objective of this body of work, studies that contain research on urban spatial and thereby environmental - mainly contextual – factors leading to a positive effect on the dweller’s psychological well-being are of

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more interest for the following content of this research. Concerning this, there are multiple studies that for instance, indicate neighborhood aesthetic quality strongly affected by the external appearance, front doors or good insulation of buildings is positively associated with higher mental well-being27. Another study implied that the quality and accessibility of environments in terms of availability of public transport, access to seating, attractiveness of the neighborhood (within an urban environment) and access to green space are key factors in promoting the use of the local neighborhood by older adults and thereby also in improving their mental wellbeing28.

Even though mental well-being is a multi-faceted concept that is influenced by diverse contextual and compositional factors and the factors are intertwined, these studies have shown the positive influence of contextual factors on mental well-being. Thus, it is meaningful to further investigate and try to influence these contextual factors through spatial design to make a change.

21 Esther de Vries et al., “Housing Index, Urbanisation Level and Lifetime Prevalence of Depressive and Anxiety Disorders: A Cross-Sectional Analysis of the Colombian National Mental Health Survey,” BMJ Open 8, no. 6 (June 2018): e019065, https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2017-019065.

22 Muramatsu, Naoko, 2003. County-level income inequality and depression among older Americans. Health Services Research 38, 1863–1883.

23 Gómez-Restrepo C, de Santacruz C, Matallana D, et al. Encuesta nacional de salud mental 2015. Tomo I. Bogotá D.C. Colombia: Ministerio de Salud, COLCIENCIAS, 2015.

24 T.H.M. Moore et al., “The Effects of Changes to the Built Environment on the Mental Health and Well-Being of Adults: Systematic Review,” Health & Place 53 (September 2018): 237–57, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.healthplace.2018.07.012.

25 Jessica Collins et al., “Compositional, Contextual, and Collective Community Factors in Mental Health and WellBeing in Australian Rural Communities,” Qualitative Health Research 27, no. 5 (April 2017): 677–87, https://doi. org/10.1177/1049732315625195.

26 Sally Macintyre, Anne Ellaway, and Steven Cummins, “Place Effects on Health: How Can We Conceptualise, Operationalise and Measure Them?” Social Science & Medicine, Selected papers from the 9th International Symposium on Medical G eography, 55, no. 1 (July 1, 2002): 125–39, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0277-9536(01)00214-3.

27 Bond, L., Kearns, A., Mason, P., 2012. Exploring the relationships between housing, neighbourhoods and mental wellbeing for residents of deprived areas. BMC Public Health 12, 48.

28 Afroditi Stathi et al., “Determinants of Neighborhood Activity of Adults Age 70 and Over: A Mixed-Methods Study,” Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 20, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 148–70, https://doi.org/10.1123/japa.20.2.148.

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2 / COLOR AND ITS I N F L U E N C E ON M E N TAL WE L L - B E I N G

perception of color. Summarized, these studies include among other outcomes psychology, architectural psychology, color psychology, neuropsychology, visual ergonomics, and psychosomatic research that confirm that the human’s response to color is total as it influences us mentally as well as physically32. Consequently, Faber Birren was a pioneer in the field of „functional“ color and using color characteristics in order to contribute to the psychophysical wellbeing of space users. Regarding this scientific knowledge, color features a very powerful force in human lives and therefore an effective tool that designers should always be taking into account while creating the color design.

Fig. 4 (left) Daniel Buren, Catch as Catch Can, Baltic Centre

In the natural environment as well as in the man-made architectural environment color illustrates an essential element of the human world. Color as a form of sensory perception has always played a significant role in the human evolutionary process of perception and even reached the level of being a human need in life29. This is mainly based on the fact that humans receive about 80 percent of their information from the surroundings pointing out that the environment, either artificial or natural, is of great importance30. In ancient civilizations, the color was used to emphasize the grandeur and status of their leadership and deities - as seen in ancient Greek stone temples rich pigmented undertones and ornamented Chinese temples with colorful symbolism - showing the importance of color in the cultural expression31.

Not to forget, the opulent cathedrals in Europe have been painted lavishly in color as an important architectural component of its time. Not until the last eleven decades, empirical observations and scientific studies such as from Faber Birren, an American color psychologist and the originator of the OSHA colors, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, a German poet and naturalist, have proven that human-environment-reaction in the architectural environment is to a large percentage based on the sensory

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Hosney Radwan Ahmed, “Color in Architecture: Is it just an aesthetic value or a true human need?”, 2015 Frank H. Mahnke, Color, Environment, and Human Response: An Interdisciplinary Understanding of Color and Its Use as a Beneficial Element in the Design of the Architectural Environment (John Wiley & Sons, 1996).

31 “Colour Psychology: How Colours Influence Our Perception,” healing places, accessed June 25, 2019, https://www. healingplaces.nl/single-post/2018/03/18/Colour-Psychology-How-Colours-Influence-Our-Perception.

32 TMD STUDIO LTD, “The Perception of Color in Architecture,” TMD STUDIO’s Insights (blog), August 20, 2017, https:// medium.com/studiotmd/the-perception-of-color-in-architecture-cf360676776c.

33 Birren Faber, “Color Psychology And Color Therapy”, New Hyde Park, N.Y., University Books (1961) 29 30

In contrast, speaking of color physically it is a component of human’s visual observation that is identified with how our eyes see light, people started to distinguish between perceived colors by naming them. Yellow, Orange, Red, Green, Blue, Purple, Pink, Brown, Black, Grey, and White are the main terms of modern society being used when it comes to color description.

Whether color appears in the form of light or incorporated in a variety of materials, it maintains its great effect on human perception and experience. In spite of the fact that research on the psychological aspects of color is difficult for the simple reason that human’s emotion is unsteady and our mental condition, as well as association, varies from person to person, there is a number of general and universal re-

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C O L O R A N D I T S I N F L U E N C E M E N TA L WELL- B E I N G

actions to color which seem to be noted in most persons33. Having in mind the universality of color perceptibility, color can also be seen as an international visual language – similar to symbolism – that is understood by nearly everyone34 (colorblind people partly excluded).

Consequently, the impression of each color mentioned earlier, and the message it conveys can create a psychological mood or ambiance that supports the function of a space. To start from the very beginning, human’s most basic of color associations were developed by their instinctive need for survival35. To do so, human beings searched for blue water to nurse their thirst, made bonfires to warm up and collected green plants to eat them. The universality of color language further evolved during the time and as stated, increased as it was used to convey emotions but also class and spirituality. While emotions are a human characteristic, spirituality and religion differ from culture to culture.

It is, therefore, the case that for instance in western cultures some colors are being perceived and described differently, then they are in many eastern cultures. The most extreme example that is given, is the symbolic meaning of the color white which in western cultures symbolizes purity, elegance, peace, and cleanliness, whereas in China, Korea, and few other Asian countries white represents mourning, bad luck and even death36. The graph “Colours in Culture” (see Fig. 6) shows that there are some differences but also similarities in cultures when it comes to presenting

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color and its meaning37. Also apparent through the infographic is the dominant versatility of color in the Western and American culture where certain colors have similar associations and thereby become uniformly. Thinking even further, the color language will develop into a more and more universal tool of communicating caused by the increasing interdependency of the Western-American economy.

By taking the American and Western color language as the starting point for a universal formation, following color associations that have been intensively studied by Faber Birren, can be described. The colors in the red area of the color spectrum are mentally associated with warmth and thereby also conversely able to create a warm feeling by using the colors red, orange, and yellow. These warm colors including different hues, referencing the chart “Modern American Color Associations” (see Fig. 5) from Faber Birren’s book “Color Psychology and Color Therapy” (first edition 1950), evoke some objective impressions ranging from active, vital and energetic to impressions such as passionate, cheerful and jovial. Colors on the blue side of the spectrum, on the other hand, are perceived as cool colors and include blue, purple, and green. These colors are often described as calm, peaceful or fresh38. In consideration of Birren’s established classification of objective color associations and impressions, the utilization of color in public space becomes feasible to apply and therefore greatly important to make a general impact.

TMD STUDIO LTD, “The Perception of Color in Architecture,” “Color Anthropology,” Light Grey Art Lab, accessed October 19, 2019, http://lightgreyartlab.com/color-anthropology.

36 “Symbolism Of Colors and Color Meanings Around The World,” The Shutterstock Blog (blog), April 3, 2015, https://www. shutterstock.com/blog/color-symbolism-and-meanings-around-the-world.

37 muditha batagoda, “Understanding Color Psychology Though Culture, Symbolism, and Emotion,” Medium, November 27, 2018, https://uxplanet.org/understanding-color-psychology-though-culture-symbolism-and-emotion-215102347276.

38 Birren Faber, “Color Psychology And Color Therapy” 34 35

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Fig. 5 (right) Faber Birren, “Modern American Color Associations”, out of the book “Color Psychology and Color Therapy” Fig. 6(page 22-23) “Colours in Cultures”, a graph showing colors and meaning (2009) 25

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3 / THE UTILIZATION O F C O L O R I N U R B AN P U B L I C S PA C E Urban public spaces whether they are outside or inside a building are places that are shared among users and that are accessible to everybody. The public space becomes a place of interrelation, social encounter, and exchange no matter by which purpose people are moved in using it. In the case of this particular research, it is the purpose of transit that attracts people to move through public space. However, all urban public spaces do play an important role in both the social as well as economic lives of communities and are affecting human’s mental well-being in some ways.

The common ground of all urban public spaces is the interrelation and consequently, the permanent change of the space induced by its users.

Being aware of the co-relationship between the human being and the environment, it is inalienable to start understanding human perception and experience in the particular context of urban public space because of color design. Given, the incorporation of color to promote the stated influence on mental welfare, different key roles of color in urban public space can be noted. The different utilization of color can vaguely be structured into three primary purposes:

A few applications of color that fall under the purpose of being practical, are the visual signaling and separation of space functions40.

Among other architects, Luis Barragán (1902 – 1988), Ricardo Bofill (1939 – 2019), Michael Graves (1934-2015) or Alvar Alto (1898 – 1976) have been working intensively with colors as a design tool, especially to remark, separate and underline space but also to determine human’s circulation41. For instance, Alvar Aalto used the color yellow for the distribution elements to facilitate orientation during the night in the Paimio Sanatorium built in Finland in 1929 – 33 (see Fig. 7)42. Another example of color having a practical purpose can be seen in Bofilla’s famous self-contained “city within a city” named Walden 7 (1972), located in a suburb of Barcelona (see Fig. 8). The huge apartment complex with a communal public space inside is visually separated into a public courtyard painted in an intense blue, an exterior façade completely painted in red and transition borderlines between the exterior and interior, large overtures signaled in a bright yellow. Also associated with the practical color purpose are modern communication techniques such as signals and pictograms which are including a certain color symbolism such as national train pictograms or traffic signals.

Fig. 7 (right) Alvar Aalto, Paimio Sanatorium (1929-33), Finland

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39 Frank H. Mahnke, Color, Environment, and Human Response: An Interdisciplinary Understanding of Color and Its Use as a Beneficial Element in the Design of the Architectural Environment (John Wiley & Sons, 1996).

40 Rossella Maspoli, “Colours and Cultures on Contemporary Public Space Design,” n.d., 6.

41 “7 Architects Who Weren’t Afraid to Use Color,” ArchDaily, January 19, 2019, http://www.archdaily.com/881169/7-architects-who-werent-afraid-to-use-color.

42 Florim, “The Role of Colour in Public Spaces,” accessed October 12, 2019, https://blog.florim.com/en/the-role-of-colourin-public-spaces.

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Another purpose which is probably one of the most common ones of all reveals in the artistic and cultural quality within public art and architecture of a city, representing the decorative purpose of color utilization as it becomes an artistic element. Nevertheless, color applications, in any case, can always involve symbolism and therefore undertake a partly practical purpose in public space at the same time. Since the 80s, Barcelona became a major example when it comes to the artistic environmental renewal of parks and urban public spaces. These renewals involved creative spatial practices that would promote the cultural value of the city. An important role in visionary creativity had color as an essential element of expression. Joan Miró was the Spanish artist working with the power of color by using the technique of mosaic visible in The Parc Joan Miro realized in 198343, The Parc dels Colors (2002) or The Wall of Barcelona’s Airport (1970, see Fig.

9). During his works, Miró used the Color Field Painting strategy which is a method that meditates on combinations and or fields of color symbolism44. Another approach of color as an aesthetic can be seen in the numerous projects of the Spanish architect Antoni Gaudi (1852 - 1926), who has realized his artistic pieces using multi-colors in form of mosaic in a very decorative way increasing the optical and tactile perception and interaction with the environment. The Park Güell, which was built in 1900- 1914 and is located in Barcelona (Spain) contains several original works of Gaudi and became one of the most popular attractions of the city (see Fig. 10).

Further color symbolism is also often embedded in architectural decorations of diverse religious palaces and temples just like the Golan Palace in Teheran, Iran or the Ancient Greek Palace (1880) where the architects used color to imitate nature in public interiors45 (see Fig. 11 and Fig. 12).

Fig. 8 (left) Ricardo Bofill, Walden 7 (1972), Spain Fig. 9 (right) Joan Miró, The Wall of Barcelona’s Airport (1970), Spain Rossella Maspoli, “Colours and Cultures on Contemporary Public Space Design,” n.d., 6.

Cerena, “The Symbolic Function of Color in the Art of Joan Miró,” Cerenity Now (blog), June 8, 2011, https://cerenitynow. wordpress.com/2011/06/08/the-symbolic-function-of-color-in-the-art-of-joan-miro/.

45 “Color in Architecture — More Than Just Decoration,” 43 44

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Fig. 10 Antoni Gaudi, Parc GĂźell, multicolored mosaic work at the main terrace (1900-14), Spain

Fig. 11 (left) Painting of a Temple, Ancient Greece Fig. 12 (right) Entrance Golan Palace in Teheran, Iran 32

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Thirdly, an important approach of color utilization in public space is the increasing optical stimulating factor for user’s interaction and perception of space through the use of color accentuation in public space. The major aim is to create a public environment that is capable of promoting social relationships and specific activities as well as creating a new identity of a place for its population through implementing color into it46. By doing so, color also serves to create awareness and make people conscious about a given condition as the Danish artist Ólafur Elíasson demonstrated in several years by using yellow-green color in rivers of European cities (e.g. Berlin, Stockholm; see Fig. 13, or Venice) in order to start a conflict and open up a discussion concerning the environment, sustainability and the current human perception of these two significant topics47. In this specific case, colors contain a remarkable ability to bring attention to areas of public spa-

ce and become a tool for transforming cities.

Having mentioned before, that light is the medium that enables human beings to see color, it becomes an interesting and varied tool to deal with color in space. Besides Ólafur Elíasson, who as well worked with colored light to change human perception in space, James Turrell, an American artist is the most successful artist when it comes to light and spatial perception.

Since the 1960s, he is working with light and color and creates spaces that engage viewers with the limits and wonder of human perception as proven by one of his artwork series called “Ganzfelds” (see Fig. 14). It contains the phenomenon of the total leak of the perception of depth as in the experience of a white-out48.

Fig. 13 (left) Ólafur Elíasson, Green River in Stockholm, Sweden (2000) Fig. 14 (right) James Turrell, “Wide out” (1998) Rossella Maspoli, “Colours and Cultures on Contemporary Public Space Design,” n.d., 6.

Corvette, Michelle, „Consuming Color: A Critical Theory of Colour Concerning The Legality and Implications of Colour in Public Space”, 2015-2016 48 “Introduction,” James Turrell, accessed October 19, 2019, http://jamesturrell.com/about/introduction/.

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Fig. 15 (left) Edi Rama, Clean and Green Project in Tirana, Albania, (2001)

In Kabul, on the other hand, innumerable houses that used to be in an inconspicuous mud-brown have been painted in bright colors of pink, blue and yellow, as part of a new initiative by the government to brighten up Afghanistan’s capital city. The initiative has aimed to contribute to the mental well-being and re-creation of place identity for its 4,6 million citizens49 (see Fig. 16). A similar project, the “Clean and Green Project” has been realized in the city Tirana, Albania, by the local politician and artist Edi Rama in 200150. By repainting the urban buildings from their dull gray and off-white to brilliant colors of bright pink, yellow, green and violet he created a sense of pride and identification of the people with their city, Tirana (see Fig. 15). The aim of the artist

was based on the past events of communism which led to a lack in the sense of belonging to the country. All mentioned projects with color having an interactive purpose show the immense power of it (also in a political way) and emphasize the range effect color can have in public space.

With hindsight, showing how color can be utilized in various forms and appearances within public urban spaces it illustrates the multidimensional and complex process color occupies. By looking at color as an essential expression of popular identity and urban aesthetics it can be said that color can create tension, clarity, awareness, discussion, and well-being within an urban population.

49 “Afghanistan’s Capital Is Being Painted in Rainbow Colours to Improve Mental Health,” The Independent, June 17, 2017, http://www.independent.co.uk/travel/middle-east/kabul-rainbow-village-mental-health-asmayee-road-municipal-authority-improvements-a7791826.html.

50 Corvette, Michelle, „Consuming Color: A Critical Theory of Colour Concerning The Legality and Implications of Colour in Public Space”, 2015-2016

Fig. 16 (right) Rainbow city, Kabul, Afghanistan

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„Color is a supplement to architecture - it serves to either make a space seem smaller or more spacious.

Further, color is valuable to add a hint of magic which is needed in any place.“ 39 39

Luis Barragán, 1980

C ASE S T UDY A N A LY S I S As mentioned previously, studies have indicated that environmental aesthetic quality is positively associated with higher mental well-being51. With this body of work in mind, an important factor to look at more intensively to improve mental well-being is the quality as well as the accessibility of the local urban environment of Stuttgart.

This primarily addresses the availability of public transport which in the case of this research work is illustrated by the metro station “Rotebühlplatz/ Stadtmitte”. Related to the quality of the urban space, the attractiveness of the station itself has to be taken into account. Consequently, the following subchapters analyze the passenger’s use of the space as well as its perception of the space through the lens of color (primary) but also materiality and lighting (subsidiary), as these elements also involve color to a large extent. By doing so, the following described factors under these two focal points (use and perception of space) reveal in each case a certain influence on the quality and attractiveness of the metro station that again has an impact on the psychological well-being of the space users.

The first factors that are addressing the use of space and that have to be considered throughout the case study analysis are O R I E N T A TION AND ACCESSIBILITY regarding passenger’s guidance that enables an easy transit procedure. Secondly, T I M E and related thereto M O V E M E N T are two more factors that are playing an important role for the passengers during their stay as they are either in a rush or forced to decelerate themselves because they have to wait for the next train connection. Thirdly, the S O C I A L I N T E R A C T I O N which is visualizing probably the most unsteady factor of all to be

considered has to be observed within this body of work. Including social interaction is justified by the matter of fact, that human’s influence on the spatial experience of a place is constantly given.

Depending on the number of human bodies that are simply occupying the space in terms of measurements (size; dimensions) but also in terms of visual appearance, noise or smell, a place can take over different forms and atmospheres. Referring to atmosphere brings me to the second focal point of the metro station analysis which is the perception of space that consists of the sensorial experience and atmosphere created through sounds, smells, all kinds of visuals such as advertisement, colors, materiality and lighting but also temperature in space that constantly influence user’s well-being and, partly, can be shaped and created through design.

Having analyzed all these factors by observation and surveys filled out by residents who are using the center station regularly, the following chapters describe the results of each. Moreover, each of them contains a comparison and alignment with the previous color research based on the literature review including the power of color to transform the spatial experience. Despite that color is just directly being addressed within the chapter of atmosphere and sensorial experience, every other chapter that demonstrates another factor includes the use of color as a potential design tool that could support and therefore make a positive change to the place as all respondents emphasized a decline of well-being during their visit of the station. Finding potential for improvement by color use embedded in each criterion could help to transform the metro station as an urban public space to contribute to its mental well-being conditions in general.

51 Bond, L., Kearns, A., Mason, P., 2012. Exploring the relationships between housing, neighbourhoods and mental wellbeing for residents of deprived areas. BMC Public Health 12, 48.

Fig. 17 Access to the metro station „Rotebühlplatz/ Stadtmitte“ from Fritz-Elsas Strasse, Stuttgart

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1 / USE OF SPACE O R I E N TAT I O N AN D A C C E S S I B I L I T Y For those who want to make use of the metropolitan train station, the accessibility of multiple platforms and trains becomes a real task up until a challenge especially for foreigners or those who are just using it occasionally (e.g. once a week: weekend, depending on the weather, etc.). The metro station, as it is divided into 3 different floor levels with 2 different sorts of trains (“U-Bahn = Underground and “S-Bahn” = City) passing through is a complex building construction with at least 8 official paths to be entered by. Long flat walkways which can be illustrated as barrier-free ramps (see Fig. 18), as well as numerous stairs, escalators and elevators, enable people to access and move through the building. Alongside passage areas, the station contains countless stores and pillars on the sides which have been described by most of the respondents as being “distracting” and in “no good condition” given their appearance.

Furthermore, it was stated several times that the passages appear “oppressive” based on their “low ceilings”. Another aspect that came up is the signing throughout the station. As passengers are more likely to be on a run to reach a certain train service, a clear signing becomes very crucial, in particular for strangers who have no idea where to go and are disoriented. In fact, the station does provide signposting which is mainly placed at the risings (see Fig. 19) and they provide vague guidance for travelers along their paths to diverse destinations, whether that is an exit or a specific platform to take a train somewhere else. Mostly though, the transit is developing into a search for the right path in a very short time as the signing is either too small or gets lost in the mass of recla-

mation, store signs and diverse lightings (see Figs. in Fig. 27-30, page 44). Trains don’t wait like buses and so the time becomes a very important issue at stations just like this one.

Concerning the user’s need for improvement in that particular criteria, color as a design tool could be used to address two issues that have been mentioned by respondents. Primarily to create easier accessibility and transfer by separating or signaling (practical color purpose) the pathways without any lettering necessarily included but color. And secondly, to transform the human perception of spaciousness, in particular, the perceived height of the ceiling in passages. Creating a higher ceiling by using bright and non-compressive colors such as light blue or light grey hues would have a positive effect on the spatial experience (e.g. by decreasing the pace of passengers moving through space) and thereto related to mental well-being in general.

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Fig. 18 (left) Walkway ramp leading passengers to the station Fig. 19 (right) Metro station rising with escalators

Fig. 20 (left) Metro station rising to the main shopping street „Königstrasse“ Fig. 21 (right) Long stairs inbetween escalators leading to the underground railways 43

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As hinted before, time plays a special role within places of urban public transport and therefore, becomes a significant factor that has to be considered with intervening through design.

Passengers have to deal with either “rush” or “deceleration” and so it is all about adapting to extremes of time due to the given circumstances in space. Throughout the documentation of several test persons visit, the time they spend inside the station was to a large amount spend at the platform “waiting, listening to music, observing other passengers, watching the advertising/news screens, playing with their smartphone or talking with their companion”.

Color, as previous research showed, can increase the optical and tactile perception as well as the interaction with the environment. A possible approach would then be to generate a new option to pass time by giving passengers a visual, exciting and triggering image to look

and engage with. The main purpose of color utilization, in that case, would be more artistic than interactive. Making it more interactive to play with the perception of time and movement within the waiting area could be achieved by a lively color projection at the track walls that would either give people the opportunity to rest and calm down, trigger imagination, awareness or make current topics subject of a discussion (interactive color purpose). The constant shift from “hectic to silence” that passengers noted every time a train arrives during busy hours has a huge effect on the human experience of the place. It seems as movement doubles up and so is the sense of time when everyone rushes to the train. Because of that, people feel “stressed and uncomfortable”. Antagonistic to this emotional condition, colors in the blue scheme which are known for evoking calm could support the general well-being during the stay.

Fig. 22 (left) Train leaving the underground station, view from above Fig. 23 (right) Train arriving the underground station, view from the platform 44

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S O C I AL

I N T ER AC TI ON

Humans create space by moving through it.

Depending on the human density in urban public spaces, they can seem larger or smaller.

In that sense, humans are in control of space and constantly change space with their senses. Referring to the survey outcomes, passengers that went through the building at rush hour (workdays: around 17:30) experienced a higher level of social interaction than those who traveled during off-peak hours (workdays: 10:00-16:00). Another aspect to mention which has changed the spatial perception is the company people had or had not. It has been stated that those who went alone had “a moment of stillness” and were more “aware” of their surroundings and actions around them.

The single travelers started observing and noted details on the survey such as “people starring at certain things and dreamingly wander with their eyes”. Passengers, on the other

Fig. 24 (left) Passengers at the stationary ticket machine in white, orange and red during peak hours Fig. 25 (right) Passengers waiting at the platform during peak hours 45

hand, that had been traveling together tended to perceive less information during their stay but mentioned that the company made them feel more “comfortable and positive”. Also connected to the condition of being or not being accompanied is the sense of time as described earlier.

Despite any busy hours, social interaction and sort of exchange made the station more alive (movement, color dots, noise, smell) but at the same time increasingly stressful, restless and hectic. Relating to color psychology and the proven influence of color on mental well-being, the color could be a tool to stimulate interaction during off-peak hours or counteract and slow down hectic periods. Further, using color on the train tracks in form of artwork could create a new identity of the space and therefore, a change of mindset and encounter with the station that becomes a place to look forward to spending time in.

2 / PERCEPTION S PA C E

OF

Having already hinted the human senses in my previous chapter of social interaction, the senses illustrate the base of the spatial perception which can be analyzed through the sensorial experience of passengers that is created by and therefore based on the internal atmosphere of the station. Besides the previously described practical space conditions such as accessibility and orientation, time and movement as well as social interaction that influence the spatial experience there are more atmospheric space conditions like lighting, coloring, and materiality or temperature and smell that influence the sensorial experience of the station.

AT M O S P H E R E AN D S E NS O R I A L E X P ER I EN C E Most striking for passengers that have been asked about how they perceived the space during their stay is that they have to do without daylight as soon as they are entering the underground level which is exclusively provided with electric LIGHTING. Knowing that light makes color visible and perceivable for the human eye in the first place and color can be seen in light itself, looking closely at the light sources in the station becomes very relevant. The images of the station show a wide scope of light sources that enlighten the most important areas of the station such as passages and waiting areas.

It is noticeable that mostly, these are enlightened by illuminants that give off white light with a large amount of blue in it, which, according to users, creates a “cold” atmosphere within the station environment. Yet, the station appears “quite dark” and “not inviting” due to the

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lack of light intensity. The occurring illuminated advertising (see Fig. 27; 29) additionally, doesn’t enhance the mentioned impression of most respondents as it does not contribute to the light issue at all. Instead, advertising is counterproductive to the visual orientation of passengers because they distract from the given signings and “reflections are irritating”.

Despite expanding the lighting in general, the application of color in the form of light could also to a great extent contribute to the overall spatial impression of the station. As James Turrell, the American light artist, applies colorful light, for instance, to create a seemingly infinite space with no edges, light could also be used in a similar way to change the spatial perception of travelers to creating awareness and spaciousness (interactive and practical color purpose) within the public space of transit.

Besides, the color of lighting can be adjusted or changed anytime according to the human reaction and associations. It is also conceivable to implement paint based colors that would accentuate paths in combination with the current illumination.

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Fig. 26 Light condition at the railway crossing

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Fig. 27 (left) Illuminated advertising boards at a station passway Fig. 28 Lighting conditions at the underground platforms/railways

Fig. 29 (left) Illuminated „Bella“ store signs in the station Fig. 30 (right) Lighting conditons at the rising ramps leading passengers to and away from the platforms 49

AN D

Further, looking at the urban public interior of the central metropolitan station “Stadtmitte / Rotebühlplatz” besides the lighting, it is apparent that the interior has not been primarily designed for aesthetics and the walls, as well as the flooring and ceilings, have been kept mainly in white or numerous shades of grey.

The few colorful permanent elements within the station appear at the ticket machines (orange and red; see Fig. 24) and at the back walls of the train tracks (green or orange, see Fig. 39; Fig. 30). Having in mind that tens of thousands of people have to be guided through the huge traffic junction on a daily base to get either out of it or transferred to another tram or metro to continue their further journey it is indispensable to have a sort of design concept that supports and promotes this highly frequented spatial transit using C O L O R A N D M AT E R I A L I T Y. According to the survey outcomes, passengers do recognize the diversity of flooring which is constantly changing along the intersections of staircases, levels, and several passages. Consequently, respondents indicate a “lack of a cozy atmosphere” which is leading to a drop in their well-being level. Often, people noticed that their emotions turned into negative during their stay which is, besides the mentioned darkness, oppressiveness, the dirt as well as the bad S M E L L (“alcohol and urine”) also caused by the dilapidated conditions of the existing material in the station. Respondents, therefore, would wish for more freshness and innovation through colors in the form of paintings or modern street art (e.g. “graffiti art”).

Colors could then, at the same time, solve the issue of confusing spatial orientation and guidance which has been pointed out very often.

Further, implementing artwork might transform the human being’s identification with this parti-

S E N S O RIA L EXPE RIE N C O L O R A N D M ATE RIA L I S M E TE M PERAT U

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cular station and lead to a higher attractiveness.

As an example of a positive place of well-being in public transport, one respondent mentioned the metro stations in Stockholm that have been designed very colorful. While respondents stated that Stuttgart’s center metro station is no place of well-being, they did positively perceive the T E M P E R A T U R E as being “warm” and the interior shelters people during cold or rainy days. Still, the atmosphere and sensorial experience of the place in total is described as mainly uncomfortable and negative.

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Fig. 31 to Fig. 39 (from top left to bottom right)

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CO N CLUS IO N

Considering the perception and use of the metro station, there are certain consequences for passenger’s mental well-being generated by the outlined practical and atmospheric conditions. Although people do not spend most of their daily time using the station, the quality of the time they do has a relatively high impact on their mental well-being. Depending on how often people use the space, the impact could be happening on a daily base and therefore, matters a lot to each individual user. Well thought, by trying to improve the existing conditions through an implemented color design, the spatial experience and its influence on a mental state can be turned from “negative” to “positive” and thereby, prevent daily downfalls in mental well-being.

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“The impression of beauty that good architecture lets us experience is crucially dependent on color.“ 53

kt.color Farbmanufaktur

C O N C L US I O N

Based on my research on color in urban public environments, it can be said that color, by evidence, has a huge influence on human use and perception of contemporary urban environments. As pointed out before, the human perception and experience of space are evidently decisive for human well-being. This dependence can be used to transform human mental well-being to a certain extent. No matter if color is implemented in the form of materiality or lighting, it does have an impact on the environmental conditions (contextual level). Having researched different types and forms of color utilization and its impact on urban dwellers in order to apply it to the analysis of the use and perception of the metro station “Stadtmitte/Rotebühlplatz”, revealed some knowledge that lead me to a new understanding of how color design could contribute to the user’s mental well-being. As shown, there is a broad existing diversity in contemporary utilization of color in urban public spaces based on certain purposes which are meant to be fulfilled. However, the implementation of color as a secondary element in space can develop

into a powerful tool to affect human perception and experience of space and therefore, becomes significant for an intended change of environments to improve their quality. While architectural changes are more likely to be complex and demanding in their realization, color design can usually be realized easier and with less effort involved. Besides the simplicity of color implementation, previously mentioned projects of color used in different western urban public environments have also shown the universal scope of color and its rich value in each culture as it becomes part of it by forming an identity.

Searching for the answer to the question “How does color affect dwellers use and perception of space?” gave me some valuable hints regarding their mental well-being. Due to my data collection throughout the research, I have gained knowledge about numerous possibilities and approaches to color use that I took into consideration during my analysis of the case study. By focusing on the multiple stated factors that are, according to survey and inter-

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view outcomes, basically influencing the spatial experience of the station, I believe that by cautiously applying color to each of them would have a positive impact on the quality of the space and therefore promote the passenger’s welfare. First of all, by using color to improve the orientation and accessibility of the central station would, for instance, already change the first impression of the public space of transit (e.g. from the perspective of a tourist) and thereto related the general availability and quality in the eyes of the users. Secondly, people who are already entering the station stressed, rushed or even depressed for some reason probably won’t change their mental state in an environment that is dark, oppressive and dirty.

Color in the form of lighting, for example, can have the power to control mentality by either prevent impairing or enhancing the existing emotions during the period of stay.

What I greatly appreciated, both in the approach of color use of Ólafur Elíasson and James Turrell is the complexity of their work by using color in the form of or combination with light.

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It is evident that their design work has a larger international impact and influence on human perception. This is due to the use of light as being spacious and spreading colors all over the space which intensifies the perception as well as the experience of a space. This suggests that thinking of color in the form of lighting could also mean to expand the impact on human mental well-being and that lighting should always be taken into account while designing with color. However, the mentioned derivations lead me to the outcome that color, used carefully and concerning the given environmental conditions, can promote a spatial atmosphere and quality that is relevant for urban dwellers to feel comfortable and able to identify with their city. That said, color does matter and should be used more often but wisely.

B IB LIO GRA P HY

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L I T E R AT U RE

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Journal of Aging and Physical Activity 20, no. 2 (April 1, 2012): 148–70, https://doi.org/10.1123/ japa.20.2.148.

Anthony McElligott, The German Urban Experience: Modernity and Crisis, 1900-1945 (Routledge, 2013).

“7 Architects Who Weren’t Afraid to Use Color,” ArchDaily, January 19, 2019, http://www.archdaily. com/881169/7-architects-who-werent-afraid-to-use-color.

“Bahnhof Stuttgart Stadtmitte,” in Wikipedia, July 9, 2019, https://de.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bahn hof_Stuttgart_Stadtmitte&oldid=190273112.

Birren Faber, “Color Psychology And Color Therapy”, New Hyde Park, N.Y., University Books (1961) Bond, L., Kearns, A., Mason, P., 2012. Exploring the relationships between housing, neighbourhoods and mental

wellbeing for residents of deprived areas. BMC Public Health 12, 48.

“Colour Psychology: How Colours Influence Our Perception,” healingplaces, accessed June 25, 2019, https://

www.healingplaces.nl/single-post/2018/03/18/Colour-Psychology-How-Colours-Influen

ce-Our-Perception.

“Color Anthropology,” Light Grey Art Lab, accessed October 19, 2019, http://lightgreyartlab.com/color-anthropo logy.

Corvette, Michelle, „Consuming Color: A Critical Theory of Colour Concerning The Legality and Implications of

Colour in Public Space”, 2015-2016 Edward L. Glaeser, “Demand for Density?: The Functions of the City in the 21st Century,” Brookings (blog),

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Fig.1 Luis Barragán, emotional architecture, model photography by American artist James Casebere, https:// www.dezeen.com/2017/01/12/luis-barragan-emotional-architecture-model-photographs-exhibiti on-james-casebere-sean-kelly-gallery-new-york/ Fig. 2 Signs of Stuttgart “Stadtmitte”, the underground metro station, https://www.stuttgarter-zeitung.de/inhalt. toedlicher-s-bahn-unfall-in-stuttgart-lebensretter-stirbt-auf-den-schienen.8245d0f2-807d-44ac- 8c3b-790fffda0611.html Fig. 3 Underground railways at Stuttgart “Rotebühlplatz / Stadtmitte”, https://www.bahnbilder.de/bild/deutsch land~stadtbahnen-und-u-bahnen~stadtbahn-stuttgart-haltestellen-und-strecken/85094/-rotebuehl platz-stadtmitte-u2-u4-u14.html Fig. 4 Daniel Buren, Catch as Catch Can, Baltic Centre, https://tulin.q2a.me/image.php?id=112135 Fig. 5 Birren Faber, Modern Amercian Color Associations, out of the book “Color Psychology And Color Therapy”,

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COLOR MATTERS The Impact of Color in Urban Public Space on The User Mental Well-Being

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