Swansea Linguistics Journal

Swansea Linguistics Journal

Issue 1. Spring 2018

Swansea Linguistics Journal The Student-led Journal for the Applied Linguistics Department

Continued on

The Bibliographies

Letter from the Editor

The Articles

As this is the first issue of the SLJ, we want to thank you all for your interest.

We have had so many amazing submissions to this first edition, so thanks to those who wanted to share their work with us!

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Kept separate from the papers for ease of reading, check here for further sources or to find papers you are interested in.

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Letter From The Editor Welcome to the first ever issue of Swansea Linguistics Journal. We hope you enjoy reading it as much as we have enjoyed making it! The journal spawned out of a desire to recognise students’ work and it has been a student led project from the start – written by students, edited by students and designed by students. We have a broad cross-section of work highlighting undergraduates, postgraduates, and our spotlight on a lecturer section. The topics covered range from teaching methods, through to dialect studies, and age effects on working memory. It is a kaleidoscope of achievement. Our dream is that the journal will inspire future students to achieve the best they can and give them an avenue to show that work with pride to the outside world.

Special thanks go out to Dr. Alexia Bowler who helped us realise our dream.

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Meet the Team I’m Michaela, a third year mature student. I came back to Swansea after ten years working and travelling all around the world to be able to take the next step on my career path. I’m passionate about learning languages and travel, and a degree in Applied Linguistics and TESOL will hopefully enable me to keep mixing the two while working abroad again.

I’m Georgie, third year English Language student, originally from London. Whilst studying the last 3 years, I’ve had the opportunity to undertake a real variety of Applied Linguistic modules, 2 modern foreign languages in first year, and a media module this year! But personally, especially as I’ve been working with children for over 5 years now, it is the child language acquisition & psycholinguistic elements that interest me the most.

Rachel is a mature student (at the ripe old age of 35) who has also been lead editor of the student newspaper The Waterfront. She is a Swansea girl, born and bred, and is moving on to Reading to study a Masters in Language Sciences. Her linguistic passions lie in the areas of Psycholinguistics, Language Origins, and Dialectology and her third year dissertation looked at the effects of working memory on ambiguous sentence processing.

Hello! I’m Katie, a third year English Language student. I’m from Bristol, and moved here out of a combined love for the beach and linguistics! My time here has given me so many opportunities to further my knowledge of language and linguistics. I’ve thoroughly enjoyed all aspects of this diverse course from teaching and media to psycholinguistics and vocab studies. The chance to qualify as a teacher from the CELTA course has been life-changing and has allowed me to spend my summers teaching abroad in Malta.

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Table of Contents Why Study Dialect?…………………………………………………………….…p.5 James Barry The contribution of classroom materials and activities outside of the classroom to the learning of a foreign language lexicon…………………………………………….……....p.9 Mike Kettle

The Continued Study of Methods…………………………………………….....p.16 Gita Kalnina

Data Analysis for Aphasia……………………………………………………………………………p.21 Yaren Fadiloglulari

Communicative Language Teaching ……………………………………………p.30 Jing Yang

The Influence of Age-Effects on Working Memory Through Trail Making and Digit Span Tests……………………………………p.39 Michaela Hartwell

Bibliographies…………………………………………………………….........…p.47

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Why Study Dialect?

James Barry My name is James Barry and I am currently in my second year of studying TESOL and English Language. I have a keen interest in second language acquisition and bilingualism. This has prompted me to complete the CELTA course as well having the desire to pursue a PGCE following the completion of the degree to focus on teaching.

From its roots as part of the Germanic family of languages, which is part of the Proto-Indo-European language family, English has gone through extensive changes over its long history. For many reasons, including colonisation and the industrial revolution, among others, English has become widespread across the world with approximately 1.5 billion speakers, with 375 million of those being native speakers ("Most spoken languages in the world | Statistic", 2018). It is of no surprise then that countless dialects have arisen. So why study dialect? Over the course of this essay I will be discussing the use of dialect as a way to enforce personal, local and national identity as well as a need for dialectologists to archive the ever-changing dialects, while looking at a brief history of dialect archiving. Following this I will be exploring the rise of sociolinguistic dialectology from traditional dialectology, by exploring the work of Labov and Wolfram. I will also be discussing the effects of dialect convergence and divergence, emphasising the need for continued study of dialects to plot its future. Finally I will be discussing the future of dialect study, with regards to the globalisation of the internet and the new and exciting dialects that have arisen from it.

In a recent article from the BBC, Professor Clive Upton remarks that being in possession of a particular dialect “can assert their right to local status” as well as making inhabitants of a particular region feel “part of the club” (Upton, 2012). Many dialectologists and sociolinguists have studied the intrinsic nature of dialect and identity. An example of this includes a 2014 study into the dialects of Cyprus and their effects on culture, which concluded that “the way we speak has a great impact on our relations and on our culture” (Arzu & Issa, 2014 P.562). A separate study focusing on German dialects notes that through the use of dialects people feel more “connected to their homeland” (Koneva & Gural, 2015 P.251). This relationship between identity and dialect is an important part of both traditional dialectology as well as the more recent social dialectology, as it directly enables scholars to find linguistic trends within society. As well as a local need for linguistic identity, there is also the national need for linguistic identity which resulted in the slow evolution of “Standard English”. This dialect can be seen among the media as well as being known as the stereotypical dialect and accent (in this case known as Received Pronunciation) of British English, however, like any other dialect, “Standard English” is going through linguistic changes every generation, which requires a need to 5 document and archive these changes.

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The need to study and archive dialects has resulted in various projects with an aim to archive local dialects. From these, dialectologists can study the changes that have occurred and are occurring within dialects. The first dialect map can be accredited to Schmeller who produced the Kartchen zurgeographishen Uebersicht der Mundarten Baierns which translates to The Little Map for a Geographical Overview of the Bavarian Dialects which was produced in 1821 (Dollinger, 2015 p.22). This pioneered the need to document dialects within England in an official manner and thus, between the years of 1898 and 1905, Joseph Wright completed the great undertaking that was The English Dialect Dictionary (EDD). This important collection of national dialect words enables scholars to study and track dialect change, including dialects that have become extinct. Following the EDD was the creation of The Survey of English Dialects (SED), which, rather than having a written record of the phonology, as with the EDD, created an audio log of the various dialects found throughout Britain which can currently be found online. Both the EDD and the SED have been monumental in enabling scholars to track the geographical and social changes that are occurring within British dialects (Mair & Leech, 2008).

The study of society through dialects rose to prominence in the 1960s, with linguists focusing on urban areas and communities as a whole to study dialect, rather than the traditional rural subsection that was commonly used (Britain, n.d.). The study of society through dialect was pioneered by William Labov, who studied New York dialects in 1966, Walt Wolfram, who studied Detroit dialects in 1969, and Peter Trudgill, who studied Norwich dialects in 1974. As well as studying the dialect of location, these studies provided great insight into the dialects of the various age, education, social status, gender and ethnicity of the participants of each location. Through the study of these variants, social dialectologists are able to map “sociolinguistic variation, the process of language change, the influence of standard dialects, the influence of standard varieties and of standardisation” (Britain & Cheshire, 2003 P.1). William Labov pioneered these studies in 1966 with his Department Store Study (Labov, 2006), in which he studied the use of the final and preconsonantal /r/ in the phrase “fourth floor” among Lower East Side residents of New York and whether it is used or omitted. Labov found that the higher the socioeconomic class of the participant, the higher use of the /r/ pronunciation. A replica study conducted in 2009, using the same methodology, noted that while the distribution patterns remained the same, there was an increase of usage, differences in age-distribution as well as increased usage by African-Americans, suggesting “greater integration within the New York city speech community (Mather, 2011). This replica study and others like it can provide useful insights to social dialectologists into the progression of dialects in local communities. As with Labov, Wolfram focused his dialect study on social conditions of Detroit, especially the variations of dialect within African-American communities. In his study, A Sociolinguistic Study of Detroit Negro Speech (Wolfram, 1969), Wolfram aimed to: “Determine if speech is an indicator of social status in the Negro community, to understand the role of linguistic behaviour in social mobility and to provide a guide to educators attempting to teach Standard English” (Wolfram, 1969) In this way the study of social dialect within local communities can offer intriguing insights into the mobility of dialects and linguistic features. As with Labov, this study can also provide evidence for a relationship between social status and spoken dialect with a view to tailor local and national schools to adapt to these changing dialects.

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Both Labov’s and Wolfram’s studies, as well as Trudgill’s The Social Differentiation of English in Norwich (1974), while providing excellent evidence for social factors in relation to dialects, also enable the study of linguistic diversity and change.

Linguistic diversity and change are fundamental to the study of dialectology, as one of the principle aims of dialectologists is to study the nature of this change, as well as documenting dialects that may go extinct. Due to increasing mobility, as well as the modernisation of society, regional dialects have gone through extensive changes, also known as dialect convergence and dialect divergence, which can over time result in dialect levelling. H. Giles argues in his Speech Accommodation Theory that due to the “need for social integration or identification with another” individuals adapt their speech to accommodate the other, thereby losing individual dialects, with both speakers speech converging into a single dialect (Giles, Coupland & Coupland, 2010). Mari Jones notes that this form of dialect convergence is occurring with Welsh dialects as they are “giving up their idiosyncratic features, which are being replaced by those of Standard Oral Welsh” (Jones, 1998 P.289). Jones also remarks that, while this is a recent development, it is in no way a disadvantageous one. Jones argues that the loss of certain dialect features means the Welsh dialect can establish a “uniform type of speech” to “put up a stronger type of defence against English” (Jones, 1998 P.293). This suggests that, over time, the standardisation of English will influence Welsh dialects, with the possibility of causing them to become extinct. At the other side of the spectrum, dialect divergence is a continuing process which has arguably occurred since the Proto-Indo-European language, causing the various branches of language families, which over time have created the languages we speak today (Auer, 2009).

Kerswill, Auer and Hinskens argue that the effects of dialect divergence can be seen in the short term with “the need to develop, maintain, or stress social or personal identity, or to demarcate the in group from the relevant out group”, as well as having long term effects which include “becoming the symbol of an entire minority group”, for example Welsh or Basque, which is known as a language isolate (Hinskens, Auer & Kerswill, 2005 P.6). While dialect divergence causes a continuation in the variety of dialects, the continuing effects of dialect convergence can be seen through dialect levelling where-by dialects are becoming more like Standard English. Through extensive research, Paul Kerswill has noted that dialect levelling is “widespread” across Britain, especially among regional dialects (Kerswill, 2003). This “levelling” of regional dialects can be caused by extensive geographic mobility, including immigration, as well as the increasing simplicity of interpersonal communication. Dialect convergence as well as levelling has an on-going effect on the dialects of English meaning that national standardisation and the extinction of local dialects is possible over the course of time requiring the need for dialectologists to study and document these changes in an attempt to plot the future course of dialects.

With the constant effects of dialect convergence and divergence, the future of dialects is far from certain with a continuing need from dialectologists to study the trends of dialect in an attempt to predict its future. A 1933 article by Arthur Kennedy notes that “English may spread as an auxiliary international language…....and will inevitably exert some influence on other languages” (Kennedy, 1933). While many of his other predictions failed to come about, most notably that American speech will “assume a greater place abroad” (Kennedy, 1933), English having an effect on world languages is undeniable, which can be evidenced from the many pidgins and creoles that have evolved since 1933. A recent study into the future of English dialects concluded that, due to geographic convergence, many traditionally local dialects, most notably those found in the SED, were transitioning into modern varieties of English dialects (Maguire, McMahon, Heggarty & 7

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Dediu, 2010). This suggests that while the traditional dialects may be on the path to extinction, they are getting replaced with modern dialects that continue to develop and evolve.

One of the strongest influences on dialects and language as a whole is the exponential growth of the internet, opening up new avenues of dialect study. The internet has been credited with saving languages from extinction by offering a virtual platform that speakers of a particular language across the world can use, as well as the many websites that have provided a location to store various dialects and in this way preserve them. However, it should be noted that the internet is creating its own dialect through Computer-Mediated Communication, which can be found throughout all avenues of the internet, including e-mails, chat-rooms, forums and online gaming networks. Sandra Greiffenstern notes in her extensive book on Computer-Mediated Communication that many words have already made their mark on the English language, with the most notable being the verb “to Google” (Greiffenstern, 2010). The impact of the Internet on language and dialects cannot be understated, with David Crystal calling it a “fourth medium” when compared to spoken, written and sign language (Crystal, 2006 P.238). Just with the current mediums, new dialects are continuously evolving among the online community, creating a need to study cyber-dialectology and linguistics while it is still in its relative youth.

As we can see, the future of dialects, not only in Great Britain, but across the world is far from certain. The dialect studies of Labov, Wolfram and Trudgill, among other social dialectologists, can offer a great insight into societies, social dispersion and diversification. With the continuous effects of dialect convergence and divergence, dialects are constantly evolving. This creates a need for dialectologists to track the course of dialects, which will enable them to hypothesise whether or not a global “Standard English” will come about. The emergence and globalisation of the internet, while saving a lot of dialects and languages from extinction, has had a profound effect on modern dialects, including creating its own form of online dialects. This relatively young platform for emerging new dialects can offer dialectologists new realms to study, including cyber-dialectology, as well as documenting the influences of Computer-Mediated Communication on modern spoken dialects, asking the question of whether or not we are heading towards a common global dialect.

Bibliography on page 47

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The contribution of classroom materials and activities outside of the classroom to the learning of a foreign language lexicon.

Mike Kettle At 34 years old I'm probably a little older than the average student, but I have to say, it's just as eyeopening to be studying at Swansea University as it was the first time I walked through their doors back in 2002.

Hi, my name is Mike Kettle and this is my second postgraduate qualification - it's an expensive hobby, I know. However, this time around I'm tying an MA in Applied Linguistics tightly to my recent and thoroughly enjoyable career as a teacher of both business (previous MSc) and English language. For the past 10 years I've been teaching in some amazing places; from the clear, blue mountain tops of Fukushima in Japan to the flat, arid vistas of Saudi Arabia. I want to open my eyes wider still and take in more of the world's lifeshaping experiences, and this MA is just the ticket!

I hope you enjoy the essay, and get as much out of Swansea University as I have...again :)

The impact of vocabulary (or lexical-building) on a learner’s ability to become fluent in another language has been debated heavily for years. An enduring viewpoint is that it has very little contribution to language learning as a whole. Milton comments in his 2009 book that Ogden’s (1930) Simple English prescribes as little as 850 words as sufficient for learning a language, and that this idea still features in modern research (Häcker, 2008).

Theorists like Harris and Snow (2004) compound this outlook and push it into the realm of the classroom by suggesting that “few words are retained from those which are ‘learned’ or ‘taught’ by direct instruction” (Harris & Snow, 2004, p.55, cited in Milton, 2009). The popular belief that “most L2 vocabulary is learned incidentally” (Ellis, 1994, p. 24, cited in Milton, 2009) serves to diminish the role vocabulary plays in learning a second language fluently, and more specifically, acquiring it through explicit conditions – effectively side-lining it in classroom methodology. This is evidenced in studies that show poor presentation and unsystematic methods of choosing vocabulary in national curricula across many countries (Catalán & Francisco, 2008; Milton & Meara, 1998). Laufer (2003) referred to this thinking as a ‘default hypothesis’ - something to satisfy the absence of empirical explanations. However, the opposing branch of thinking is concerned with discovery and concrete answers. Theorists like Wilkins (1972) saw vocabulary as a fundamental aspect of a dynamic process by asserting that “without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed” (Wilkins, 1972, p. 111, cited in Milton, 2009). This torch has been carried forwards in the hands of modern researchers like Milton, who states that there is “very practical justification for teaching vocabulary in greater volumes” (Milton, 2009, p.3).

The aim of this assessment is to investigate empirical evidence in order to cast light on the contribution of vocabulary acquired in and outside of the classroom, and its impact on fluency.

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What is it to be fluent?

To fully understand how building a lexicon affects fluency, it is first necessary to determine what it means to be fluent. Is it enough knowledge of a second language to…travel in a foreign country? …to pass an exam? …maybe to fully comprehend a film or novel? And how does vocabulary fit in here? There is a myriad of reasons for why and how people learn a second language, and only informed measurements will help us to understand and help with the processes that they undergo.

Nation (2001) suggested that there are three types of information needed to help in solving the puzzle of how many words should be learned for fluency to be attained: “the number of words in a language, the number of words known by native speakers and the number of words needed to use the language” (Nation, 2001, p.6). A key notion that can be gleaned here is that comparison is significant as a measurement device - determining the size of a native speaker’s lexicon will elucidate the task presented to learners. However, “measuring language is not as easy as measuring distance or time” (Milton, 2009, p.6). Therefore, finding a measurable unit that is precise and accurate is fundamental in signposting the task of reaching comparative fluency, and in understanding the first piece of Nation’s puzzle.

As demonstrated by Seashore & Eckerson (1940), counting each word (word type) as vital amounts to an impossible undertaking. Milton (2009) observed that “words such as know, knew and knowing were all treated as different words and counted separately” (Milton, 2009, p.7) in their analysis, resulting in a tally of well over 200,000 words (or units) in the English language. Incorporating work by Swenson and West (1934), however, allows the significant reduction of this gargantuan feat into a manageable scale. They theorised that, when acquiring new words, learners are subjected to a learning burden, which denotes the amount of effort one must exert to learn a new word. If a learner is familiar with, for example, the inflectional system, then the effort to learn the word knowing after learning know is “negligible” (Nation, 2001, p.8). This knowledge allows the execution of a lexical leap by the learner, which reduces their learning burden. In fact, Schmitt & Meara (1997) noted that this particular grammar rule is learnt early on in language acquisition and so could well be effectively utilised in classroom methodology to create practical lexical-building strategies. It is evident here that by viewing vocabulary acquisition as part of a dynamic learning process, and by carrying the torch of enlightened thinking, fruitful discoveries are revealed - like the application of grammatical rules to facilitate the creation of attainable teaching and learning goals.

Specifically, such an application permits the reduction of words into sets of ‘word families’ or ‘lemmas.’ Nation describes the latter as “a headword and some of its inflected and reduced (n’t) forms…[which] consist of plural, third person singular present tense, past tense, past participle, -ing, comparative, superlative and possessive (Bauer and Nation, 1993)” (Nation, 2001, p.7). With this unit, Bauer and Nation (1993) found that they could, for example, reduce the 61, 805 tagged word types in the Brown Corpus (Francis & Kučera, 1982) down to 37, 617 lemmas, resulting in a reduction of nearly 40%. To account for affixations that cause a larger learning burden, Bauer and Nation (1993) compiled 9 lists of affixation occurrences that contained incrementally more complex word types in each band. Word families take this consolidation one step further by including a number of derived forms that also elicit negligible burden from the learner - these include the creation of quickly or quickness from the head word quick. Both lemmas and word families have given researchers two accurate vocabulary measurements which, in turn, have been adopted in numerous studies to answer the next part of the fluency puzzle: how many words do native speakers have? Goulden, Nation & Read (1990) studied 20 native-English graduates from Wellington 10 University, New Zealand and found an average vocabulary size of 17,200 word families.

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As the sample was overly small and specific to well-educated individuals, further studies were performed producing similar results of up to 20,000 word families on average (Nation, 2006; Stær, 2008; Schmitt, 2008). Having successfully determined the comparative size of a native-speaker’s lexicon, it is possible to handle the third piece of the puzzle with more understanding: how many words are needed to use a language fluently? Tied tightly to this question are the conditions of purpose, and independence. For very basic use, West (1953) compiled a General Service List (GSL) of the 2,000 most frequent words, which (as a reference) allow a learner to understand up to 76% of a text used in academic studies. This is known as coverage (the percentage of a text that is comprehensible to a learner based on the words featured therein). Comparable to this, Milton (2010) found that a lexicon of roughly 1,500 frequent words are needed to attain the lowest level (A1) in the Current European Framework (CEF), which is widely accepted as an authority on level placement for second language learners. However, Hu & Nation (2000) analysed different sources of language input and found that much bigger lexicons, and a higher coverage, are needed to be an independent user for other purposes. For example, they found that 8,000-9,000 words are needed to fully understand fiction novels such as Lady Chatterley’s Lover, and only a vocabulary size of around 7,000 word families will allow learners to fully comprehend films like Shrek. Similarly, Web & Rogers (2009) found that 3,000 word families are necessary to understand children’s programs – the least demanding type of programming they analysed in a study of 88 different TV line-ups. In terms of academic pursuit, Laufer (1989) measured the vocabulary size of students at the University of Haifa, Israel and clearly demonstrated that a threshold of around 5,000 word families (95% coverage) is needed to attain the lowest passing grade (55%). This result fits with Milton’s (2006) findings from using the X-Lex program (software developed to test the knowledge of the top 5,000 lemmas) to measure how many words Elementary (2,500 lemmas) and Advanced (4,500 – 5,000 lemmas) users possess - advanced here being the level one would need to enter higher learning. However, Laufer’s recommended level for academic achievement has been challenged over the years, with various researchers attempting to supplement this minimum repository with more specific vocabulary in the form of Xu and Nation’s (1984) University Word List (UWL), up to six bands of Bauer and Nation’s (1993) affixation occurrence lists, and Averil Coxhead’s (2000) Academic Word List (AWL) to help learners achieve better mastery of academic English. Coxhead claimed that the AWL added another 10% coverage to West’s GSL, giving learners an 86% coverage of academic texts overall. This has been proven to be insufficient, however. Recent research, even by Laufer herself in 2010, has resulted in a clear distinction between a minimal threshold - 5,000 words = 90-95% coverage - and an optimal threshold - 8,0009,000 words = 98% coverage (Nation, 2006; Schmitt, 2008; Laufer & Ravenhorst-Kalovski, 2010).

Laufer and Ravenhorst-Kalovski (2010) commented in their paper that possessing the optimal threshold allowed the participants of their study to enter university with no need for supplementary tutoring, i.e. they were fully independent learners, and capable of obtaining grades much higher than 55%. In this vein, refinement in thinking has also led to 3,000, rather than 2,000 word families, being accepted as a more adequate minimum threshold needed to establish a foundation (Milton, 2011). This foundation acts as a platform from which communication can progressively take shape independently. It is clear then that these thresholds dictate how well a learner can use a language, in alignment with their purpose and desire for independence as a language user, but how are they developed?

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Sources of input The classroom Building this platform of vocabulary is crucial for further advancement. High-frequency words (consisting of functional words and ones that appear regularly in discourse) are the building blocks of this platform and need to be recycled often in meaningful contexts to ensure learning by developing a depth of knowledge where words have multiple connections. This is a difficult task that cannot be achieved alone. In line with this, Schmitt claims “that it can no longer be assumed that an adequate lexis will simply be ‘picked up’ from exposure” (Schmitt, 2008, pp.332-333), so it is important to look at the contribution of classroom teaching (often the primary source of input) in this developmental stage. The importance of class materials is clearly highlighted by Anderson (2007) but, as mentioned earlier, the prevailing attitudes in education have created a lack of focus on vocabulary-building in mainstream pedagogy (Schmitt, 2008), resulting in an “impoverished lexical environment” (Tang, 2001, p.52). While this is unfortunate, it does allow for an excellent empirical investigation by comparing the impact of syllabi that get it wrong with ones that get it right. Milton and Meara (1998) observed that the British system seems inadequate compared to other countries, so Tschichold’s (2012) study of Encore Tricolore, a textbook used in British Education to teach French, is highly appropriate here. She found that 900 word families were introduced in the first year of study, with a heavy emphasis on the most frequent words. This loading stalled with only 300 words introduced in the second year and 450 words in the third-year textbook. In total, this falls well below the minimum threshold needed for learners to develop a solid platform, and that is only if they managed to acquire 100% of the input presented to them. Tschichold observed that a number of factors resulted in an uptake of only 20%. First was the presentation of the material. The sharp decrease of vocabulary in years two and three meant there was a large amount of repetition, which can be beneficial if done correctly (as described by Scholfield, 1991), but can also become extremely boring if the words are not presented in meaningful contexts. Coupled with this, the observed recycling of themes throughout the series would surely be tiresome and lead to a decrease in motivation. The second issue found was that new words were often grouped semantically in an attempt to ‘aid’ learning. Tinkham (1997) and Erten & Tekin (2007) found that this grouping was detrimental to acquisition as it increased the learning burden by triggering competing structures.

Thirdly, the time allocated to classroom study was found to be between 50-80 hours a year, with an uptake of 3-4 words per hour (Milton & Meara, 1998). This clearly is not enough time to build an adequate lexicon, especially with such a low uptake percentage. This treatment of vocabulary is reflected in the examinations administered in the UK, where Milton and Meara (1998) found demand to be around 1,350 lemmas to pass GCSE French (an exam taken when students are about 16 years old). A reason for this low target could be that British schools have developed complacency towards second language acquisition (SLA), considering English to be the “uncontested world language” (Dörnyei & Csizèr, 2002; Graham, 2004; cited in Tschichold, 2012).

Meara and Milton summed this up well: “The British learners…spent less time learning, were set lower language goals and knew less vocabulary than equivalent learners on the continent” (Milton & Meara, 1998, p.75).

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However, this treatment is not restricted to British shores. Alsaif & Milton (2012) observed that young learners in Saudi Arabian public schools often acquired as little as 1,000 words (Al-Hazemi, 1993; Al-Bogami, 1995; Alsaif, 2011) and Konstantakis & Alexiou (2012) found an underrepresentation of mid- to high-frequency words in Greek EFL course books, and a propensity towards grammar over vocabulary (Scholfield & Gitaski, 1996). This concentration on highfrequency loading is great for establishing the first, basic steps (Nation, 2001), but the addition of lower-frequency words is essential for moving towards independence. This theory is borne out in Vassiliu’s (2001) study of another school in Greece. He found that young learners acquired over 3,500 words with an uptake of 50%. This drastic difference was accounted for by addressing a number the issues introduced earlier. Vassiliu documented that the incorporation of infrequent words, a wide variety of themes and topics to maintain interest and an increasing sophistication of material (Milton, 2011) converged to make a highly conducive lexical environment. Another key feature is that students had high instrumental motivation and had more exposure to the primary source of input, i.e. starting earlier (aged 7 compared to age 11 in the UK), having about 100 hours of study in a school year and extra private lessons. The evidence here indeed casts light on the contribution of classroom materials in the development of vocabulary, revealing that there are huge benefits to handling the loading and presentation of vocabulary effectively. Milton extends this idea to fluency by saying, “Textbook learning is probably key to advancing both the growth of the lexicon and the growth of language competence generally among learners” (Milton, 2011, p.75).

While textbooks are ‘key’ in promoting a rich lexical environment, the role of the teacher and how they handle material is equally as important. Donzelli (2007) recorded the oral production of a teacher over the period of a year (55 classes) and found that they provided 24 words per class compared to 13 words from the textbook, each offering similar lexical variety (LV) in their output (about 30% of the words were low-frequency). While this was the behaviour of only one teacher, Tang & Nesi (2003) also observed instances of beneficial output from teachers at a school in Hong Kong. In addition, Donzelli (2007) noted that words received via the textbook and the teacher had the highest uptake. This finding could be partially explained with Paivio’s (1986) theory of dualcoding, which suggests that verbal and imagery stimuli complement each other when processed together, creating richer connections in a learner’s interlanguage – increasing depth of learning. But what about vocabulary that is not explicitly taught? We read in the introduction that many believe true acquisition comes from incidental learning (Krashen, 1985, 1994), which is the only way to ‘retain’ learnt or taught language (Harris & Snow, 2004). However, Lado (1977) found that students in his study learnt words that were not on their syllabus, but rather were verbalised by their teacher. This suggests that implicit learning does indeed take place in the classroom, but is perhaps determined by other factors. The inclusion of appropriate repetition strategies of new language is also fundamental. Brown et al. (2008) suggested that new words need to be repeated up to 30 times to ensure retention, an issue that was explored in Horst’s (2010) research at an intensive English course in Quebec. Teachers simplified their language in the classroom and so reduced the number of low-frequency and off-list words they produced and repeated. This absence of positive evidence (correct target features) resulted in a low level of incidental learning. Tang & Nesi (2003) demonstrated the opposite effect with an empirical comparison of two schools in Hong Kong and Guangzhou.

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They found that a more flexible syllabus (in the Hong Kong school) allowed teachers to interact with students and also facilitate student-student interactions, which promoted the inclusion of more low-frequency words and more input for uptake. Ellis & He (1999) and Kasper (2001) both found that this dialogical discourse aids incidental learning, which can well be attributed to the benefits described in Long’s (1981) theory of negotiation, Schmidt’s (1994) noticing hypothesis and Swain’s (1985) pushed output model. These assertions are great for smaller classes where teachers have the time to set up more socialised contexts to help promote learning both incidentally and explicitly, but it is entirely impractical when limitations are in place due to large class sizes. A recent study by Mustafa, Sain & Razak (2012) gave positive evidence of the application of computerized teaching remedying this issue in a Malaysian school. They found that using computers allowed students to experience one-to-one interaction with the material and gave them immediate feedback on vocabulary items, which helped facilitate interlanguage modification - possibly by noticing the gap in their own interlanguage language when presented with correct target forms (Schmidt, 1994).

Mustafa et al. (2012) found that students in their treatment group performed better on post-tests than those in the control set. Similar findings were recorded by Al-Jarf (2006) in Saudi Arabia, AslimYetis (2010) in Turkey and Cordoso (2011) in Brazil. The latter also commented that computerised teaching “contributes to learning, fosters interaction, and allows learners to self-assess” (Cordoso, 2011, p. 412).

When aligned, the research and theories discussed above strongly indicate that the classroom has the potential to be a rich lexical environment and research has provided some empirical evidence of learners developing the platform they need to extend their learning independently (Vassiliu, 2001).

However, this platform of around 3,000 words is still inadequate when compared to even the minimal threshold recommended for higher academic study (5,000-8,000 words). Yet many learners achieve this goal. How do they bridge this gap?

Informal activities A common theme that connects many learners who undertake academic pursuits is motivation. This may be instrumental, integrative or in other forms, but it is fundamental in driving learners to extend their exposure to a second language through informal language learning. It is this extension that allows many to traverse the expanse that formal teaching cannot cover. Horst & Meara (1999) recorded the potential of comic books as a rich source of learning with a 52-year-old learner of Dutch. They asked the participant to read a copy of Lucky Luke every week for two months, and provided a test (consisting of words the learner had identified as unknown at the beginning) each week to record what new words had been accrued. Overall, they found an uptake of 30 words per hour, which is far higher than that seen in even Vassiliu’s (2001) rich lexical environments in Greece. What is also significant is that not only was Horst & Meara’s (1999) participant highly motivated, but he was also a high-intermediate learner. The researchers suggest that his proficiency allowed him to develop independently, and so progress efficiently, and that a support system of learning would be highly beneficial if a learner is below the required threshold level. Garnier’s (2013) similar exploration of informal learning adds extra support to this idea as she found that her participant – a low-level French learner – was unable to learn verbs effectively while watching Toy Story 3 due to not knowing how to conjugate them. He averaged an acquisition of 14 word families per hour with a 75% retention in delayed post-tests, which is still a remarkable uptake, but Garnier noted in her conclusion that an explanation of this particular grammatical feature could well 14

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have facilitated better learning. Again, it is apparent that utilising grammatical rules only strengthens one’s ability to acquire vocabulary by reducing the learning burden, but Garnier’s findings also hint at another previously mentioned key factor: motivation.

The participant commented that his motivation decreased from watching the same film multiple times. What is interesting here is that his uptake fell steeply in the final few weeks of testing, which could suggest a relationship. This aligns with what Tschichold (2012) found in her Encore Tricolore investigation. It is very possible that the recycling of material, much like the repetition seen in Garnier’s study, led to a detrimental decrease in motivation, which potentially affected uptake.

This, of course, would need further investigation before any real claims can be made. Apart from increased uptake levels of vocabulary items, Milton (2008b) also found that whole phrases and collocations can be learned. After playing young learners Greek songs (23 songs with an English translation of the lyrics provided) for an hour every week for 8 weeks, an uptake of around 30 words per hour was again observed, but also the ability to recite whole phrases. Milton (2008b) observed a similar occurrence from a learner who watched Xena: Warrior Princess in English with Greek subtitles. Operationalised in a similar way to Garnier’s (2013) study, but over 4 weeks, he found an uptake of 16 words per hour and noted that phrases and collocations were also retained to an extent.

This clearly shows that informal activities are an excellent source of vocabulary acquisition, and also allow learners to experience language in a pleasurable way (if repetition is handled well) and in rich lexical contexts – factors demonstrated as vital for uptake in the classroom.

Conclusion A number of studies here show the potential role informal activities can play in acquiring another language and underline two major indicators of success: motivation and morphological awareness.

Together these allow learners to retain focus and reduce their learning burden for optimal uptake of vocabulary. However, for many these two factors are heavily influenced by the exposure learners receive when they are introduced to a second language in the classroom. It is here that the instilment of good learning strategies and a sufficient lexicon can ensure a solid foundation. A platform from which learners can effectively expand their learning outside of the classroom, and actively construct a path to fluent, independent communication. Empirical evidence clearly shows that both play a vital role in this process but, more importantly, that only when they are properly employed together can learners breach the established thresholds and become truly independent.

Bibliography on page 48

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The Continued Study of Methods From the end of 19 century till now different views and perceptions have been expressed about the nature of language learning and teaching, its goals and objectives (Brown, 2002; Richard & Schmidt, 2002; Scrivener, 2005) without a definite agreement on underlying principles. It has evolved into methods such as the Direct Method, that were overtaken by approaches (such as communicative approach) and later translated into specific classroom practices (methodologies) such as Task-based learning (TBL) (Harmer, 2015; Clandfield, 2017; Thornbury, 2017). Thus, perhaps it is unsurprising that developments in ELT are marked by continuous births, reinventions and adjustments of methods, approaches and methodologies struggling to find single best system. Some of these continuous changes were based on justifiable dissatisfaction with the existing overly prescriptive methods such as grammar-translation (Thornbury, 2017) or with too descriptive and vague systems such as Communicative approach (Harmer, 2015). In addition, newly uncovered pieces of research in applied linguistics would also bring novel developments in continued study of methods in ELT. Due to its ambiguous nature, the concept of methods has been widely criticized and to an extent completely rejected around 1990s, proposing an era of ‘postmethod pedagogy’ (Hall, 2016) discouraging further interest in this subject. However, there must be a clear need for continued study of methods as there is a desire to explore and change ELT practices to find most productive ways of teaching English language (Clandfield, 2017) and to find answers to many issues and questions that have not been fully resolved yet. Therefore, in 2000s articles are still written to describe latest findings about teaching methodology, such as Scott Thornbury’s ‘Dogme ELT’ and CLIL (Content and Language Integrated Learning) by Paula Bello and Liliana Costa de Linares. It also helps to ignite professional debates and fosters professional growth, that in return prevents routinized practices and diversifies ELT to better respond to variety of students’ needs (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011; Hall, 2016). One method could not possibly provide teachers with an “eclectic blend of tasks, each tailored for a specified group of learners studying for particular purposes in geographic, social and political contexts” (Brown, 2007, p.

41). th

Gita Kalnina My name is Gita Kalnina. I have lived in United Kingdom for 14 years, part of which was in London and part of it in Swansea. I am originally from Latvia.

I am multilingual (Latvian, Russian and English) who has passion for English language. I am a mature third year English language and TESOL undergraduate student at Swansea University. Prior to my studies at Swansea University I used work as a Montessori teacher/nursery nurse. In my spare time I enjoy running, hula hooping and learning capoeira. The most curious fact about me would be, that I cycled from Latvia to Greece and then to London in three and a half months. That was how I first arrived in United Kingdom.

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Practitioners always look for practical solutions to problems accepting any method (Bell, 2007). Thus, through continued study of methods, “they will have the understanding and the tools to” (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011, p xi) mix, match and combine procedures and techniques (Bell, 2007; Thornbury, 2009; Clandfield, 2017) based on their principled choices (Principled Eclecticism) (Scrivener, 2005). In addition, it is helpful in exposing teachers and students to ‘methodological innovations’ such as cooperative learning (Larsen – Freeman & Anderson, 2011) and technological advances in ELT such as interactive whiteboard (IWB) or use of their own mobile devices (BYOD) in the ELT classroom (Chong, 2016). Broadly speaking, continued study of methods provides teachers with an opportunity to incorporate the past and most current discoveries in ELT influenced by the social, political, cultural and technological changes of the time (Hall, 2016). Therefore, it helps teachers to become better professionals and provide students with the best possible learning experience within the time and contexts given.

Researchers try to provide evidence and suggestions for the best methodologies to be used in the classroom within continued study of the complex and multi-layered mix of theories and practices in modern ELT. However, there seem to be persisting discontent between theories produced by researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) and applied linguistics and practical use of it (Ur, 2013). Furthermore, the uptake and implementation of their ideas and findings does not seem to be straightforward and relationships between theorists and practitioners seemed to be quite unbalanced (Hall, 2016). There is a feeling amongst researchers that teachers are reluctant to implement their findings (Larsen-Freeman, 2015).

Paradoxically, researchers feel the need to reach out to teachers, but teachers do not necessarily have the same desire (Medgyes, 2017). Unfortunately, teachers can be perceived just as consumers of researchers produced goods (Brown, 2007) and their role would be to fulfil researchers’ ideas (Hall, 2016). However, teachers struggle to find researchers advice applicable to classroom realities (Ur, 2013; Larsen-Freeman, 2015). They can do their work well without complicated theories and elaborate research that they do not understand and cannot practically use (Borg, 2009). Teachers need to solve immediate classroom problems and respond to the students’ immediate needs and “researchers are hardly ever able to help teachers solve problems” (Medgyes, 2017, p 493.). Furthermore, teaching cannot be perceived just as consumption of theory because teachers also build the theory and constructs their methodologies through well-developed reflective skills, the analysis on their own practice and exchange of their experience among other professionals (Medgyes, 2017). In addition, research published for teachers seem to be hard to read and access. Furthermore, they were reluctant to undertake any research themselves because they do not think it adds much to their professional growth (Borg, 2009). Thus, these teachers’ attitudes and perceptions deepen the disconnect and causes communicative divide between seemingly oppositional parties that occupy parallel worlds but should be working together. Furthermore, constant methodological changes have diminished researchers’ plausibility in the eyes of teachers (Larsen-Freeman & Anderson, 2011). For example, Larsen-Freeman (2015) suggests that not much research in English grammar has affected teachers’ classroom practices. In addition, Waters (2015) advocates that in Task-based language learning theoretical discourse ‘communicating-to-learn’ approach is recommended over ‘learning-to-communicate’ approach demonstrating oppositional views (Ur, 2013; Medgyes, 2017).

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Divide can be increased by the misapplication of research to L2 pedagogy happens due to overextending the findings from one context to the other that is not entirely transferable and equal, thus inaccurate. It can be done by researchers or by practitioners (Spada, 2015). This current division in research and teaching is potentially damaging. Waters (2015) advocates that theoretical approaches and findings need to be better incorporated in language teaching pedagogy. This can be achieved by university teacher training programs in applied linguistics and TESOL for pre-service teachers. They should be encouraged to attend conferences and workshops. However, Medgyes (2017) suggests that despite the educational efforts newly qualified or experienced teachers’ classroom practice is not affected by the research. The researchers have failed to provide applicable findings and relevant strategies that would enrich and inform teaching practice. However, it does not entirely disregard the progress made in research (Medgyes, 2017). To close the gap between research and teaching, the research needs to be mediated and presented in much more comprehensible way (Larsen-Freeman, 2015) and over generalized assumptions must not be drawn and relevance of SLA research to practices (Spada, 2015). Furthermore, it is suggested that teacher need to be perceived as researchers, who reflects on their practice and implement ‘action, classroom-based research’ (Brown, 2007).

Teachers’ attitudes, conceptions and understanding of research and their working conditions need to be improved to facilitate greater teacher engagement in research (Borg, 2009).

Thus, these more experienced, research independent practitioners describe themselves as developers of their own best teaching practices. They readily blend their knowledge and understanding of existing methods and their personal beliefs about English language teaching and learning. For example, use drilling technique from the Audiolingual method to teach pronunciation or use unabridged reading texts according to Text-based learning (Richards, 2015). In post-method era, teachers are encouraged to look beyond the well-established approaches and methodology to find successful strategies that would respond to needs of every student in their classroom. Through the classroom tasks teachers would encourage cooperative and collaborative learning instead of competitive learning that is interactive and involves pair or group work. In addition, it would emphasize whole language learning, that with meaning and social aspect of it at its core (Communicative activities), and be natural and authentic (Thornbury, 2009; Dörney, 2013). Through content-based instruction (CLIL) students learn subjects (maths, culture, geography) that are interesting and matter to them, thus activating their intrinsic learning motivation (Clandfield, 2017). Teachers can selectively pick and mix, thus subsequently feeling empowered in their own profession. This practice is based in a theory of ‘principled eclecticism’ (Thornbury, 2009; Harmer, 2015; Hall, 2016).

Furthermore, Kumaravadivelu (2012) advocates for three main principles of particularity, practicality and possibility in post-methodological debate focusing on localised, teacherresearcher lead, socio-politically sensitive classroom practice. In addition, Ur (2013) also advocates inclusive and selective approach in teaching such through ‘situated methodologies’.

Combination of these principles could be considered the best methodology used in the classroom today. However, it is not as simple and straightforward as the actual classroom reality might not be so liberal. Teachers’ might not have freedom in adopting any kind of approach in their practice. Their learning and teaching environment might be constrained by certain contexts and prescribed ‘top down’ definitions in English language teaching (Hall, 2016).

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Methodologies might be imposed by the government directives or formed by educational standards (Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)). In addition, Holliday (2016) suggests that some methodologies such as Communicative language teaching (CLT) is marketed and advertised to be the best methodology of all time by linguistically imperial Britain, Australasia and north America (BANA). Hence, the voice of teachers from other countries are not valued enough (Hall, 2016) as they are all non-native speakers of their language (ideology of native-speakerism- superiority of BANA English) (Holliday, 2016).

Thus, teachers’ practice would be predetermined through teacher training and international publishing of textbooks based on CLT. Thus, in many countries around the world the best methodology would be ‘textbook-defined practice’ where textbooks and methods are fused into one concept also known as ‘método’. Course book series, such as Headway, Cutting Edge and Life, would be vigorously advocated in their classrooms (Bell, 2007; Thornbury, 2009). Thus, it could be suggested that teachers’ choices are affected by their social, political and cultural circumstances. They might just follow the prepared syllabus and not have time, materials or knowledge to decide for themselves. Out of practicality teachers’ might just follow textbooks where certain language and groups of society are over represented (Akbari, 2008).

Nevertheless, regardless of the actual constraints in the practical selection of best methodology, Holliday (2016) advocates for more cosmopolitan view on most appropriate methodology that would not be BANA dominated and marginalised. This methodology “could relate to any sort of ELT setting anywhere in the world, from the inner-city state education in London to private language institute in China” (Holliday, 2016, p. 267). However, it is still not the case around the world. Communicative language teaching (CLT) is aggressively advertised as the best methodology for all non-BANA countries whether it is appropriate for a cultural context or not. It is particularly evident in Confucian heritage culture (CHCs). Over time their educational goal post and aims have changed. Taiwanese, Japanese and Chinese educational systems have issued statements that support Communicative language teaching (CLT). It is perceived to be very appropriate for CHCs as they focus on developing their students’ communicative abilities to reverse ‘communicative incompetence’ in the English language learning classrooms (Liao, 2004). In comparison to their previous teaching methods, China seems to offer new outlook and new skills to the students that would advance their language development and is changing Chinese educational system. If they did not practice CLT, they students would carry on learning just grammar and vocabulary, but they would miss out on acquiring all English language skills and gaining communicative competence (Liao, 2004). However well it sounds there are difficulties in implementing this approach in their classrooms on daily basis. There are significant cultural differences between Confucian traditions and European and North American cultures that CLT is based on (Holliday, 2016). In addition, it is identified that CLT in CHCs can be perceived as too radical and too innovative thus not blending well with local norms and not being accepted. Implementation of communicative principles in various cultures including Confusion cultures requires rejecting traditional practices, therefore teachers’ and students would refuse accepting CLT in language learning. It does not acknowledge local culture, traditions and group values, as it places individual opinion, self-expression and original thought above collective one (Thornbury, 2016). There also seem to be practical and sociocultural constraints regarding class sizes, accessibility of materials, examination, time and teacher training (Beaumont & Chang, 2011). There can be up to 70-80 students in a class, with no visual equipment or materials to aid interactive CLT teaching (Rao, 2013).

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It is almost perceived as commodity that students are customers, but teachers are services providers, that exam results determine everything, not so much communicative competence, that students are not so much communicatively motivated (Block and Gray, 2016). For example, in Vietnam students do not need to communicate with other students in English, because they have the same mother tongue. Tasks that might be done in the classroom would not be applicable to the classroom outside. Native English speaker authentic texts might not be relevant and authentic for Vietnamese, Chinese (Hiep, 2017). Therefore, greater attention need to be paid to cross cultural influences and boundaries. What is meaningful to language learners and what do they bring in language learning classroom. Language experience that helps students to relate to the wider world of English language community (Holliday, 2016). In addition, it showed that CLT is opposite to traditional practice and beliefs about teacher and student’ interaction and roles. (Rao, 2013). “They would prefer to attend lectures on intensive reading and grammar and to take conventional examinations” (Rao, 2013, p. 37). Government has supported CLT, however teachers have shown preference to traditional teaching methodology as they have encountered many problems in practical application of CLT in China (Rao, 2013). As CLT is designed for Western English language classrooms, critics suggest that instead of accepting and using CLT in China, teachers should be helped to develop local methodologies (Liao, 2004). Further research needs to be conducted in the applicability of CLT in Confucian cultures, that is not Western culture based and more help and support to teachers is required so they can teach language and students can learn in the most productive way (Hiep, 2007). For example, Rao (2013) suggests a combination of CLT with traditional teaching methods or combination of them. He advocates a new approach where accuracy is practiced as much as fluency, linguistic competence is basis for communicative competence and cultural awareness. Thus, it can be concluded that exclusive use of CLT in CHCs is not very practical (Rao, 2013).

Bibliography on page 50

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Data Analysis for Aphasia 1.1 INTRODUCTION Aphasia can be defined as the impairment of language abilities after brain damage (Garman, 1990). Patients with aphasia have difficulty in producing or comprehending speech. We must keep in mind that aphasia has many types which depend on the part of the brain which was injured, and the severity of its symptoms will differ from patient to patient (Fernández & Smith Cairns, 2011). This assignment will analyse the speech of five aphasic patients with different types of aphasia, namely Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia and anomic aphasia.

Yaren Fadiloglulari My name is Yaren Fadiloglulari.

Born and raised in the sunny island of Cyprus, I came to Swansea for my university degree in 2015. I study French and TEFL. I am currently in Lyon, studying at a French university as a part of my degree.

Next year, I will be back in Swansea for my final year. My course helped me realise that my interest in foreign languages was beyond just learning and studying them. I also love comparing different languages and learning about how we pick up languages. Discovering new cultures is a passion of mine.

This is one of the reasons why I love travelling and reading.

Currently, I am trying to make my library as diverse as possible by reading books by authors from different countries and lifestyles. Other than that, I like rock music, sports and art.

1.2 TYPES OF APHASIA 1.2.1 BROCA’S APHASIA Patients with Broca’s aphasia have damage in the frontal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain, which is known as Broca’s area (Fernández & Smith Cairns, 2011).

Fernández & Smith Cairns (2011) report that people with Broca’s aphasia can mainly comprehend what is being said to them, but have a greater difficulty with speech production. The speech of a person with Broca’s aphasia is meaningful yet slow, effortful, and lacks grammatical structure (Traxler, 2011). Benson (1979) states that Broca’s aphasia is characterised with incompetently articulated speech and short phrases. Caramazza and Berndt (1978, p.911 cited Traxler 2011, p.485) say that at the most extreme end of its spectrum, Broca’s aphasia is associated with agrammatic speech which is like telegrammatic speech. This type of speech mainly includes content words and omits function words. Garman (1990) says that in severe cases, patients tend to use only nouns in their speech.

Keeping in mind that function words occur very frequently in our normal speech (Milton, 2009, p.23), a speech which lacks these words does not sound fluent. Many studies on agrammatic speech of different languages have been published, and all of them show that agrammatic speakers cannot produce as complex and fluent sentences as the nonbrain-damaged individuals (Arslan, Bamyacı & Bastiaanse, 2016). On the other hand, some patients with Broca’s aphasia may have paragrammatic speech. This type of speech includes word category violations, such as using 21

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a noun instead of a verb;2 or selectional restriction violations, such as using an animate noun instead of an inanimate noun (Caramazza and Berndt, 1978, p.912 cited Traxler 2011, p.485).

1.2.2 WERNICKE’S APHASIA Wernicke’s aphasia is associated with damage in the temporal lobe of the left hemisphere of the brain, which is known as Wernicke’s area (Fernández & Smith Cairns, 2010). Patients with Wernicke’s aphasia can produce fluent speech, but their speech is mainly meaningless (Traxler, 2011). They have greater difficulty with speech comprehension (Obler & Gjerlow, 1999).

There are several characteristics of the speech of a patient with Wernicke’s aphasia. Garman (1990) says that their speech is described as ‘empty’ as it is devoid of specific content words. In addition to this, Wernicke’s aphasic patients tend to have paraphasia. In other words, substitution within language, in which patients change the words in several ways, including neologisms, which are words that were made up by the patient (Benson, 1979). Excessive usage of paraphasic substitution leads to jargon aphasia, which consists of unintelligible speech or writing containing phonological, semantic or neologistic errors (Rohrer, Rosson & Warren, 2009).

1.2.3 ANOMIC APHASIA Unlike Broca’s aphasia and Wernicke’s aphasia, anomic aphasia is not linked to damage in a specific area in the brain, but could have happened anywhere in the brain (Obler & Gjerlow, 1999).

All aphasic patients have anomia, which means that they have difficulty retrieving words (Obler & Gjerlow, 1999). However, in anomic aphasia, anomia is the dominant symptom (Garman, 1990).

Patients of anomic aphasia have fluent speech; however, they may lack specific content words (especially nouns), or function words such as pronouns at times (Garman, 1990). Even though the speech of an anomic aphasic patient seems fluent, it contains circumlocutions and pauses for wordfinding (Garman, 1990). Obler & Gjerlow (1999) give an example of a typical answer from an anomic aphasic patient who is describing the word ‘pen’: “Oh, right, one of those things you use for writing – not a pencil – I have one right here.” This is an example of circumlocution.

Comprehension of anomic aphasic patients is generally normal; however, communication may be disrupted because the patients may not always be able to retrieve the important words (Benson, 1979).

PART 2: DATA ANALYSIS Prior to analysing each patient individually, several charts were made in order to view the results of all patients together. The results help us while identifying which type of aphasia each patient has. For instance, we expect patients with Broca’s aphasia to have the lowest mean length of utterance as they are the least fluent speakers among the other two types of aphasic patients.

Moreover, it is expected from patients of Wernicke’s aphasia to have the least number of relevant answers since they are the ones who have the most difficulty with comprehension. Chart 1 illustrates mean length of utterance. In order to calculate the mean length of utterance, the total number of words was divided by the total number of utterances. The total number of words includes words like “okay” and “yeah”, but it does not include fillers such as “oh” and “hmm”. The results are shown in Chart 1. All results are rounded to one decimal place.

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1.5

2.6

7.7

6.4

5.6

MEAN LENGTH OF UTTERANCE

PATIENT 1

PATIENT 2

PATIENT 3

PATIENT 4

PATIENT 5

Chart 1 In addition to this, Chart 2 illustrates the percentage of relevant answers given by the patients to the questions they were asked.

Chart 2 2.1 Patient 1 Patient 1 has Broca’s aphasia. He has a mean length of utterance of 1.5 words, which means that his utterances consist of very short phrases. In total, the patient has uttered 93 utterances, and 54 of these consist of one word. Excluding the utterances that consist of one word, 21 of his utterances have missing function words. In Example 1, we can see some utterances of Patient 1 that contain missing function words. In addition to missing function words, Line 53 lacks a verb as well.

20 30 53 140 142

*PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR

fell down . speech no longer university Iliinois me good three three children scrub floor Example 1 23

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However, even though a vast majority of his utterances do not consist of full sentences, we can see that he generally understands what the invigilator is saying as he gives relevant answers to all 14 questions he was asked. Examples 2 and 3 from the transcript demonstrate his short yet relevant answers to two of the questions.

6 7

*INV how do you think your speech is these days ? *PAR small .

Example 2

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22

*INV *PAR *INV *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR

do you remember when you had your stroke ? yeah . can you tell me about it ? fell down . pool . son me . fell down . fell down . black out .

Example 3

Patient 1 produces utterances which are examples of agrammatic speech. His utterances mainly contain the most important words, and are devoid of the function words. For instance, when he is doing the first story-telling task, his speech is telegrammatic as it only consists of the key words. In addition to this, it is an example to paragrammatism at the same time, as he tells the story only with nouns and neither of his utterances contain verbs.

64 65 66 67

*PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR

soccer . window broken . dad . ball .

Example 4

2.2 Patient 2 Patient 2 has Wernicke’s aphasia. He has a total of 180 utterances, and a mean length of 5.6 words per utterance. He has a normal mean length of utterance and his speech is fluent; however, some of his utterances are meaningless strings of words where it is not possible to understand what he really means. In addition to this, even though they look grammatical at first, we can see that they are actually not.

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123 *PAR I can see the big one that did it were .

182 *PAR this here's gonna do it putting on it .

Example 5

Furthermore, we can see that this patient has comprehension problems as he only gives 4 relevant answers to a total of 17 questions. Example 6 shows one of his irrelevant answers and Example 7 shows one of his relevant answers.

11 12 13

*INV how do you think your talking is ? *PAR yes . *PAR I can say that .

Example 6

16 17

*INV how is your talking ? *PAR sometime good sometime bad Example 7

It is possible to see paraphasias in the patient’s speech, as sometimes he substitutes other words for the actual words he had to use. Hence, the output becomes meaningless.

113

*PAR we went there to seem them where they go Example 8

In addition to this, the patient uses neologisms, which lead to unintelligible speech. This includes the part where he uses sounds instead of words to describe a picture (Line 145).

145 212 286

*PAR pook@o boom@o *PAR she's the xxx had to do with her *PAR xxx it .

Example 9

Finally, when the patient is retelling Cinderella, he does not use any specific content words that are present in the story. Instead, he uses the word “thing” repeatedly. This is an example of ‘empty speech’.

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212 *PAR she's the xxx had to do with her .

213 *PAR then the xxx of them do that .

214 *PAR bad things on a things xxx to do it bad bad bad .

215 *PAR after thing little thing xxx this .

216 *PAR the other one, one can see it on the thing .

217 *PAR they went for .

218 *PAR they can looking for .

219 *PAR with the big one or things a good one that sees 220 *PAR oh we xxx .

221 *PAR you can do it .

222 *PAR when do you go ?

223 *PAR xxx to do it boom_boom_boom_boom@o .

224 *PAR she sees it .

225 *PAR the ball was rewound and we like (th)em .

226 *PAR we're gonna get it .

227 *PAR and she's 228 *PAR oh I gotta go .

229 *PAR it's gonna go .

230 *PAR fit it back .

231 *PAR launch the thing on .

232 *PAR gone and lost of it .

233 *PAR one here for looking of it .

234 *PAR put that on the bad thing .

Example 10 2.3 Patient 3 Patient 3 has anomic aphasia. In total, this patient has 214 utterances and a mean utterance length of 6.4. The speech of the patient is generally fluent and he does not have any problems with comprehension, as he answers relevantly to all 13 questions he was asked. The main problem of the patient is word-finding. His word-finding difficulties sometimes disrupt the fluency of his speech.

The patient tends to repeat the same word in the sentence two or three times when he has word-finding difficulties. He does this for 28 times. Some examples of how the patient repeats his words are shown in Example 11.

15 115 295

*PAR and half the time I I get it and sometimes I don't . *PAR and so it it took a long time just to get out of the hospital . *PAR and he he he was trying to find her .

Example 11

The sentences of the patient are well-formed. Overall, he is able to produce long and complex sentences. He only has a few erroneous sentences. Example 12 shows two of his wellformed sentences and Example 13 shows a sentence where he has an error with the tense.

169 *PAR the little boy is playing with a soccer ball I guess .

170 *PAR and he happens to hit the window .

Example 12

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103

*PAR when I get out_of the hospital for the third time I I was in a wheelchair .

Example 13

Furthermore, the patient uses the counting strategy 3 times to retrieve words. Example 14 is from the coded version of the transcript and it shows how counting helps to retrieve a number.

25 *PAR: (th)at was &uh November the fifth nineteen [: two thousand] &e &uh eighty [//] &f &uh <five six seven> [//] eight .

Example 14

2.4 Patient 4 Patient 4 has anomic aphasia. In total, she has 220 utterances and a mean utterance length of 7.7. The patient does not have any comprehension difficulties as she answers all 11 questions she was asked relevantly.

Apart from word-finding difficulties, the patient has problems with verb tenses. 28 of her utterances contain either missing verbs or the wrong use of a verb tense. She also has an incorrectly conjugated verb (Line 217).

12 64 217

*PAR I've get problems with verb tenses . *PAR so anyways but I knew that she upset because of her tone . *PAR and then wented outside .

Example 15

Despite some of her ungrammatical sentences, the patient has well-formed sentences as well. She uses circumlocution twice when she cannot retrieve words. Example 16 shows one of her wellformed sentences and Example 17 shows an example of circumlocution.

253 *PAR and Cinderella had to do all of the chores in the house but her sisters didn't have to Example 16

266

*PAR and and changed the the mice into the person that's going to drive the wagon Example 17

Like Patient 3, Patient 4 also repeats the same words in the sentence. She does this in 33 of her utterances.

284

*PAR take peanut butter and a knife and put it on the the bread Example 18

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2.5 Patient 5 Patient 5 has Broca’s aphasia. She has 144 utterances in total, with a mean utterance length of 2.6 words. The patient mainly understands the invigilator’s questions, as she gives relevant answers to 14 out of 15 questions. However, her speech is not very fluent, it is dominated by oneword utterances and utterances that consist of a few words.

UTTERANCES OF PATIENT 5 One-word utterances 36%

38%

Full sentences (grammatically well-structured) Full sentences (grammatically unstructured)

8%

9% 9%

Incomplete sentences Utterances that consist of a few words

Chart 3 Patient 5 produces a story which has characteristics of Broca’s aphasia, namely agrammatism and paragrammatism. She only uses nouns to describe the picture (Example 19). In addition to this, Example 20 demonstrates two of her full and grammatically well-structured sentences and Example 21 demonstrates two of her grammatically unstructured sentences.

143 144 145 146 147 148

*PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR

rain .

I don't wan(t) +... but no . yeah . but when he +... yeah .

149 150 151 152 153

*PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR *PAR

snow rain . wow . rain rain . wow . raining but xxx

Example 19 215 248

*PAR and Cinderella is a slave . *PAR I got it today .

Example 20

58 81

*PAR used to alcohol and drugs . *PAR I both of (th)em .

Example 21

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Aphasia is a spectrum disorder which means that even the patients with the same type of aphasia can show differences in their speech. Chart 4 illustrates the differences in the speech of Patient 1 and Patient 5 who both have Broca’s aphasia.

70% 60% 50% 40% 30% 20% 10% 0% Percentage of Percentage of function words one-word in speech utterances Patient 1

Patient 5

Chart 4

CONCLUSION To sum up, Patient 1 and 5 have Broca’s aphasia, however, Patient 1 has a more severe condition than Patient 5. Patient 2 is the only patient who has Wernicke’s aphasia. Patients 3 and 4 both have mild anomic aphasia. Chart 1 (p.4) and Chart 2 (p.5) provide evidence for the type of aphasia each patient has. Furthermore, the results show how different each type of aphasia is, and even within the same type of aphasia patients have differences in their speech as it is a spectrum disorder.

Bibliography on page 51

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Communicative Language Teaching

Part 1 Introduction: explain the difference between grammatical knowledge and grammatical ability and briefly outline the authorsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; view on how each of these is or has been taught and practised.

Jing Yang My name is Jing Yang, a MA student in TESOL in Swansea University. In addition, I am doing my MA in Master of Translation and Interpreting in China University of Petroleum (Beijing) at the same time.

I feel so excited to join this MA program here in Swansea. Before I started my MA study, I have been working as a teacher in China for about three years, mainly teaching the students from 3 to 18 years old. Participating in this MA program gives me new insight to teaching both in theoretical and practical aspects.

People consider grammatical knowledge as a collection of knowledge-based rules for forming the correct sentences. While grammatical ability refers to the skill to choose the appropriate grammar features to create spoken and written texts. Teaching grammar knowledge is form-oriented. By contrast, teaching grammatical ability is process-oriented (Baston, 1994, cited by Cullen 2012). When teaching the grammatical knowledge, a preselected grammatical feature is presented to enable learners focus on it. To evaluate the mastery of this feature, it depends on whether learners will produce the grammatically correct sentences by repetition and drill. Thus, form is the focus. With the latter, a great exposure to the features of language in real and authentic context enables learners to connect the form with the meaning, function and use of context in the first place. After that, learners apply the grammatical features to produce different spoken and written discourses in specific contexts. As a result, grammatical ability is assessed as a productive skill, the ability to produce spoken or written texts.

1. Identify the Grammatical Resource the Learners Need: explain briefly why the grammatical resources of different text types make a starting point for identifying learnersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; needs.

Different texts require a specific list of grammatical features. Grammatical features focus on the text-level in different contexts rather than the sentence-level that emphasize grammatical accuracy. Learners need to select the appropriate grammar and then integrate with other knowledge to construct the texts. After that, they will present or produce the texts in authentic context. In addition, teachers need to identify the learners' needs, i.e. testing the learners diagnostically, to establish how much of the relevant grammatical resources they already have which will allow the teacher to gauge fairly 30

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accurately what further resources the learners will have to work on. As a result, the grammatical features of different text types make a starting point for identifying the communicative purpose.

2. Teach Awareness of the Nature of Texts: explain briefly why knowledge of sentence-level grammar is not sufficient to enable students to deal with texts.

Texts involve not only the form and meaning, but also the communicative purpose and the context. Thus, the sentence-level grammar is insufficient to fulfil the awareness of the nature of texts. One notable feature of text is to join these sentences together structurally, featured by the cohesive ties. Celce-Murcia (2000) cites Halliday and Hasan to discuss four types of cohesive ties to construct the text. Thus, learners need to recognise and produce 'recognisable patterns of organisation, e.g. paragraphs ordered in a particular way typical of a text-type. In addition, text-level grammar will enable learners to identify certain grammatical features in the context that may not identify in sentence-level, for the distinction of between the ergative and non-ergative verbs (Lock, 1995, cited by Richard, J & Reppen R, 2014). Only in the text could the learners have a good understanding these features.

3. Develop Awareness of Differences between Spoken and Written Language: explain how comparing a spoken text with its written version can help improve studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; grammatical ability.

Spoken text and written text will provide learners with authentic language in life. In the paper, an example of spoken text and a written version, concerning two friends meeting in a shopping mall, are compared. From the perspective of register, the spoken text is more casual and informal with details. A recount extracts key information during the conversation and produces the text concisely.

In addition, learners can identify the difference in terms of the text organization and different grammatical features used in different texts, such as the tense, verb and length of the sentences.

Moreover, they will make a distinction of some synonyms used in different contexts by checking the frequency.

4. Use Corpora to Explore Texts: what do corpora provide that can raise studentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; awareness of the grammar of texts?

Corpora enable students to learn grammar of text in real and authentic language. Students identify the use of the vocabulary, as well as different texts and text organization. If learners have problems in writing the abstract part in an academic text, they could turn to the corpora to check the sample text to get a brief understanding, including the content, text organization and grammar points. In addition, learners could discover the different grammatical features used in spoken and written texts, such as the use of single verbs or multiword verbs. With regard to revision, learners could rely on corpora to check if they made the appropriate word choice by viewing these articles in the corpora. Therefore, learners may notice the distinction between grammar of sentence level and that of the text level in the context. In this way, learners will develop and raise their awareness of grammar of text.

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5. Use a Variety of Teaching Approaches: explain the difference between a deductive and an inductive approach to grammar teaching.

A deductive approach, also called the rule-driven approaches, starts with presenting the rules they need to master, after that, examples are presented to show how these rules are applied. An inductive approach begins with the examples that contain certain features teachers intend to focus on in the class, and asking learners to infer the rule from these examples. As a result, it is also called discovery learning.

6. Provide Opportunities for Guided Noticing: explain how texts are used in ‘noticing’ activities.

Noticing is the process where learners notice the specific grammatical features that they are exposed to and then learn them consciously. Then, they connect the form with meaning, function and context of use (Cullen, 2012). Classroom instruction will facilitate noticing. It involves textual enhancement, in which underlining or bolding font is used to highlight certain grammatical features. Cullen (2012) cites Vanpatten to explain that learners cannot absorb meaning and form at the same time. Finally, learners will be asked some questions to facilitate their understanding of the text to relate the form with meaning and function.

7. Provide Opportunities for Meaningful Communicative Practice: in your own words, briefly clarify the difference between meaningful and communicative practice Language control is still provided in meaningful practice, but meaningful choices must be made as part of the practice. Generally, questions will be asked to elicit a response that depends on the understanding of the task with a focus on the form and meaning. For example, learners are required to describe the location of a place on a given map. In communicative practice, real information is exchanged and language used cannot be totally predicted in a specific context, such as personalized practice.

8. Provide Opportunities for Students to Produce Stretched Output: explain how ‘stretched output’ can trigger ‘restructuring’.

To produce stretched output some classroom activities are designed which include the knowledge that they have not acquired yet. As a result, learners identify the gap between their own language and the target language. They feel motivated to learn the new structure in order to complete the task, resulting in the restructuring of the existing language system.

9. Make Links between Grammar and Vocabulary: ‘noticing’ is part of the procedure described

by Jones and Locke (201:44), briefly explain how it is used to raise awareness of appropriate forms.

To raise the awareness of appropriate form, learners will be given a text that contains the specific grammatical feature they will focus on, where these features are all blanked out. Therefore, students need to rely on the limited exposure or their current knowledge to infer the answer.

Students are given the original text after finishing the task on their own. By noticing the differences, the teacher will have students explore the reasons on their own in an inductive way. Then, students will use the features in a similar text.

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10. Use Student Errors to Inform Instruction: what strategy mentioned earlier in the article is used to help students address an error pattern and how do the exercises a) and b) encourage an inductive approach to grammatical ability?

Errors are inevitable in the learning process. Although people may believe that errors indicate the poor mastery of knowledge, teachers may consider errors as valuable sources for their teaching instruction. In the paper, one previous strategy (i.e. guided noticing activity) is utilized to use students’ errors to inform instruction. Noticing refers to the process where learners notice the specific grammatical features that they are exposed to and then learn them consciously. The guided noticing activity helps learners to make a distinction between the “result of” and “result in” pattern.

Firstly, in a summary of various sentences that contain this feature, text enhancement techniques, such as underlining or bolding font, are utilized to enable students to notice this feature. Then, they are required to complete Exercise A by filling in the form with the preposition on their own, and then check with others. After that, the teacher gives students some short extracts that contain the correct use of this feature and students finish Exercise B. By reading these texts, students can derive the rule for addressing this error; and then they can apply this rule to correct the error in Exercise A. As a result, they tackle this problem through an inductive approach.

11. Integrate Grammar with the Four Skills: In the section on ‘Grammar and Reading’, an example of how to exploit authentic texts for text grammar work is given (Celce-Murcia (2002:131)). Briefly describe the three stages of the activity and identify which stage focuses on a receptive skill and which one on a productive skill.

In stage 1, students are given two sections of one specific text to develop their reading skill, which focuses on the meaning and the receptive skill. Then, they examine the grammar features in the text under the guidance of the teacher, shifting from meaning to the form with an emphasis on the receptive skill in this stage. Stage 3 emphasizes the productive writing skill, where students are required to make the second part of text using the grammatical features consistent with one that they have discovered and compare with the work of others.

Conclusion: Identify the essential point which the authors make in their concluding remarks on a different pedagogy of grammar instruction.

One major point that the authors want to convey is that teachers should make students learn the grammar in the text level rather than in the sentence-level. Apart from the form, they should foster the students’ awareness of the meaning, function and context to use these grammatical features. In addition, the application of these grammatical features also plays an important role.

Part 2 – the lesson plan

Overall aim(s) of the lesson: After completing this lesson, students will be able to develop their reading skill for specific information and produce a short biography of a famous person in written form by using the past simple tense and putting into practice the features of text cohesion (i.e. linking words) 33

Swansea Linguistics Journal Stage and Objective

What are the students doing:

What is the teacher doing:

Stage 1 – objective:

Students answer the questions proposed by the teacher;

Teacher asks students questions to lead-in;

Students express their ideas to familiarize them with the topic of this lesson; Stage 2 – objective: Students discuss their response to pre-reading questions in groups to prepare them for reading for specific information; Stage 3 – objective: Students read the text to find out specific information to establish if their ideas about the content were correct; Stage 4 – objective: Students put summary cards in order and match the expression to establish their understanding of text content and organization;

Students learn some new vocabulary on the board;

Teacher introduces and drills some vocabulary and then write them on the board;

Students work in groups to brainstorm and discuss their response to the pre-reading questions;

Teacher writes down some questions on board and asks students to work in groups and discuss them together;

Students read the text on their own and then discuss their findings with others in the group;

Teacher gives out a biography and asks students to look through the text quickly for specific information;

Students check the answers with teacher.

Students work in groups to find the correct order of these summary sentences and check the answers together with the teacher; Students work in groups to match the expression or words with the summary sentences and check with other groups;

Teacher summarizes the students’ ideas and writes down the answers on the board so that the students can refer to their ideas in feedback after reading;

Teacher asks students to check their findings in groups after reading on their own and checks answer with students; Teacher gives out the summary sentences and asks students to put them in the correct order and check the answer together; Teacher gives students words or phrases to ask students to match with the summary sentences and asks student to finish it in groups and check with other groups;

Stage 5 – objective: Students listen to the teacher’s summary and requirement to establish their focus on the grammatical features of a biography;

Students list the names of the famous person and answer the teacher’s questions;

Teacher summarize the grammatical features (i.e. past simple) for writing a biography;

Students work in groups or pairs to discuss together to write a biography

Teacher divides the students into groups, monitors the class and gives feedback to the students

Teacher asks students to list a range of famous person and asks them to write a biography of a famous person in groups by using certain grammar points;

Stage 6 – objective: Students work in groups or pairs to apply these grammatical resources to practice;

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Swansea Linguistics Journal Stage 7 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; objective: Students report their biography, exchanging their written biography with others to validate their work and effort and gauge their progress and areas for improvement.

Students present their report to the class to let others guess the person they have written about

Teacher asks students to read out the biography while others listen and guess the person and give feedback;

Part 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; theory and practice Section A: From the above lesson plan, we know that several principles in Richard and Reppenâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s article are used in the lesson.

1. Identify the grammatical resources the learners need In stage 6, students are required to write a biography of a famous person. Before the task, they are introduced to the main elements, sample text and grammatical features they need. In the next stages, they are taught to focus on the specific information in a text, which constitutes the content of the task, i.e. name, date of birth, occupation and accomplishment.

Then Students are informed of the definition of a biography. After that, a text-sequencing stage is implemented, where the teacher can evaluate students' existing competence in putting together a cohesive and coherent text, preparing them for their own output later in the lesson.

The feedback between the two stages constitutes an opportunity to deal with any gap in grammatical resources identified (i.e. past simple tense and linking phrases). Students will notice these grammatical features and apply them to the task.

2.

Provide opportunity for meaningful communicative practice Meaningful and communicative practice involves form, meaning and context. In stage 3, students are required to read the biography with some guided questions. Students could develop their reading skill with a focus on the meaning. Then, some controlled practice is conducted guiding students to notice the text organization and grammatical features for the specific text in stage 4. After that, the teacher explains to students the main characteristics and communicative purpose of the text. In general, the degree of control keeps this practice within the boundaries of meaningful. An extension to the practice (i.e. live interview) could be included that pushes it from meaningful into communicative. For example, students could work in pairs to prepare an interview of a famous person. One student acts as host/hostess to compose questions, and the other student plays the part of the famous person to answer these questions by noticing these grammatical features. Thus, students can use these grammatical features in context to satisfy their communicative needs. The teacher needs to prepare this task carefully, so that there is a focus on grammatical ability, by identifying some aspect of language typical of this genre (live interview) to have as the focus.

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3.

Integrate grammar with the four skills The teaching stages presented in the video clip are indeed a simpler version of the Feez and Joyce task described in the Richards and Reppen (2014) paper. A sample text is presented with an aim to build the context in stage 3. Stage 4 focuses on the organization of the text and grammatical features. Some controlled practice is designed to deconstruct the text to help students understand the grammar of text. Then students are required to construct a similar text after the teacher summarizes the characteristics of the biography. The application of this principle provides a foundation for completing the written task. The teacher could offer students a variety of biographies to analyse. Thus, Students could derive the conventional pattern for writing a biography. In addition, teachers should provide a noticeable structure for students, such as a table that summarizes all these characteristics. Students can use this table to guide them in constructing a similar task.

4.

Teach students awareness of the text

The lesson starts with some warm-up questions to recall the knowledge of the students and prepare them for the class. In addition, the teacher also teaches some new vocabulary.

After that, the teacher introduces the topic with a picture of Elvis Presley. Some pre-reading question are given to let students brainstorm and make predictions, aiming to arouse their interest in participating in the class. Therefore, students gain a general idea about the topic.

Then students are presented with a model text of a biography with guided instruction to check the correctness of their ideas. In stage 3, students get a brief understanding of the text organization â&#x20AC;&#x201C; how to incorporate these key elements to form a text. As a result, students understand the main content of the biography. In stage 4, Students put summary cards and match the expression or phrases with the summary sentence, which focuses on text organization and the use of linking words. Students acquire two basic characteristics for successful writing, coherency and cohesion (Harmer, 2015). Coherent writing enables students to present their ideas or information logically; while cohesion connects the idea using various linguistic techniques. By noticing these features, these grammar features are placed in a text level; students can use the cohesive ties to link the verb with some preposition phrases that indicate the time order to restructure the sentence together. These two stages are key to the implementation of this principle as students work on text coherence and cohesion through a focus on typical tense for the genre and linkers to highlight chronology of events. As to evaluation of this principle, it offers the students the text organization of the designated written task. The teacher could have students identify the difference between the reading text and spoken text by transcribing their discussion of pre-reading question by means of new voice recognition technology. By comparing these two texts, students will identify the different registers and grammatical features.

Section B: As we have discussed above, the teacher focuses on two tasks, i.e. one reading task and one writing task. The reading task helps the lesson integrate grammar with receptive skill. One principle could be included in the lesson.

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1. Provide opportunity for students to produce stretched output Harmer (2015) provides a typical procedure for teaching receptive skills, called Type 1 and Type 2 tasks. Type 1 task refers to the process of getting students to listen to or read for the general understanding of the text. While, type 2 task focuses on the specific details of the text.

Naturally, the learning process will evolve from type 1 task to type 2 task because learners feel more comfortable to receive language this way. In addition, a basic procedure for teaching is given (shown in Fig 1). Learners first interact with the text as readers, i.e. focusing on its meaning/message and then go on to look at its grammatical features at text level. In the lesson, type 2 task is conducted with an aim to identify the specific information in the text. To help learners with their understanding, a type 1 task should be placed before showing the text in stage 3. In this stage, the teacher will read the text in advance. A dictogloss activity will be used here to facilitate the general understanding of the text and help them notice the gap between their own language and target language for the writing task. The dictogloss is a form of dictation, in which the teacher reads the text and students write down some words or phrases to reconstruct the sentences later. In this case, there will be a focus not only on sentence level grammar but also text level. The activities will be demonstrated in the following procedure.

The teacher first introduces the topic of the lesson. After discussing this topic and pre-reading questions for several minutes, the teacher begins to report the text in oral form, while students take note of key information to help them reconstruct the text. Unlike the dictation where students should write down every sentence, they only need key information to help them recall.

Then, students write the text on their own and discuss with others, followed by the comparison of the original text and their own version (Thornbury, 1999). The dictogloss activity enables students to notice the gap between their current knowledge and the target knowledge. This activity should be placed after stage 3 when students have read the text for its informationvalue. It is a good way to assess the knowledge of the learners and motivate them to learn the specific grammatical feature.

Fig 1 A basic procedure for teaching receptive skills (Harmer, 2015, pp 304)

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2.

Use Corpora to Explore Text In terms of productive skill, Harmer (2015) also provides basic procedures for teaching the productive skills in Fig 2. It is known that repetition is of great significance for language learning and teaching (Harmer, 2015). Thus, a similar follow-up writing task can be set to familiarize the students with the grammatical features and procedure again. A follow-up writing activity task, such as describing an historical event, can be added after stage 7. The teacher needs to give guidance to the students in terms of directing them to find suitable texts, both in terms of level and genre, and the teacher needs a stage during which he/she would work with the students on those texts, guiding them to discover the features typical of these texts so that they are able to reproduce them at the productive stage.

Fig 2 A basic procedure for teaching productive skills (Harmer, 2015, pp 308) 3.

Use student error to inform instruction Errors made by students can be a useful source for teaching. In stage 6 and 7, students construct and present their written text. The teacher will monitor the class and give feedback on their writing. In this process, the teacher could notice some typical errors that students make then summarize all these errors and classify them into groups. To facilitate students having a better understanding, the teacher could use the corpus to provide learners with authentic language. Some specially designed exercises are used to guide students learning these errors inductively through guided noticing activities. These activities can be implemented in the next lesson, perhaps as a warmer so that students perceive the link back to their previous lesson and can see the purpose of this more readily.

Bibliography on page 52

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The Influence of Age-Effects on Working Memory Through Trail Making and Digit Span Tests Working memory (WM) is a system that we rely on for everyday activities such as remembering a telephone number, through the temporary storage and processing of information (Gregoire, 1997, p.140), while also enabling short-term retrieval for complex mental tasks (Hill et al., 2010, p.315). However, retaining information in this way is “effortful, attention-demanding and highly prone to failure” (Gathercole, 1999, p.410), with numerous studies citing aging as a cause of decline in WM. This study therefore aims to investigate how aging effects working memory, by comparing the scores of four tests on older (70+) versus younger (18-35) adults.

Michaela Hartwell Throughout the last three years we have had some truly interesting assignments, and I have learned an awful lot when it comes to research, writing techniques and topics that I would never have encountered.

I didn’t realize how much I would enjoy the research aspect of the degree, and I hope that I get to carry on with research in EFL in the future.

Literature Review Working memory Working memory was first conceptualized by Baddeley and Hitch (1974) as a three-component model. Within this model, the ‘central executive’ functions as a “limited-capacity attentional system that selects and operates control processes and strategies” (Baddeley, 1983, p.77), and which is then aided by the ‘phonological loop’ and the ‘visuospatial sketchpad’, collectively called the ‘slave systems’ (Baddeley, 2000, p. 418). The phonological loop acts as a store, where verbal and acoustic sounds are retained before decaying over the period of a few seconds if not recalled by articulatory rehearsal (p.419). The sketchpad on the other hand assumedly retains visuospatial information, segmented into visual, spatial and kinaesthetic components (p.418.) In a revised review, Baddeley (2000) proposes a reworking of the three-component model, introducing an episodic buffer which is assumed to feed information into, as well as retrieving information from the episodic long term memory (LTM) through the form of conscious awareness (p.421), acting as a temporary link between the slave systems and the LTM.

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Age effects on WM Gregoire et al., (1997, p.140) suggest that “aging is characterised by a decline in the central executive, while automatic processes ([…] the phonological loop) remain intact”, noting that tasks that require passive storage without reorganisation of material are less likely to be impaired than tasks that require storing information at the same time as processing it. Gathercole (1999, p.410) too notes that “one of the most powerful factors influencing short term memory capacity is age.”

Although her studies investigate WM in children, other studies have looked at age-effects in younger and older adults, such as Verhaeghen et al., (1993, p.157), who note that it is generally accepted that memory performance declines with age, while Babcock et al., (1990, p.421) also highlight that differences in cognitive functioning are attributed to age-related differences in working memory. Myerson et al., (2003, p.20) however claim that there is “no consensus… regarding which aspects of the working memory are most affected by aging”. In order to investigate this contradiction in findings, this study looks at four tasks that access different aspects of working memory.

TMT Tests A and B The Trail Making Test requires participants to link 25 numbers as quickly as possible (part A) and then alternate between numbers and letters (part B), with the time recorded for each completed test. The TMTs require not only complex visual scanning, but also require a motor component, with “cognitive flexibility and ability to maintain a complex response set” (Kortte et al., 2002, p.106) being the main cognitive demands placed on participants by part B rather than part A. Part B is widely recognised as being the more demanding as it is linked to executive function and an ability to respond to two sets of information simultaneously, switching between the two sequences (Arbuthnott & Frank, 2000; Kortte et al., 2002). However, Arbuthnott and Frank (p.519) note that several studies have questioned the belief that parts A and B differ only in cognitive demand as a result of interference between target circles, noting that not only is it an issue of motor control, but also visual selection influences.

Digit Span Tests (Forwards and Backwards) The Digit Span Test consists of the administrator voicing a series of numbers that get progressively longer, which the participant must repeat in the order of presentation (forwards) or the reverse order (backwards). The amount of digits that a person can remember accurately then defines their memory span (Gathercole, 1999, p.411), with the test beginning with 2 digits, and progressing to 8 (backwards) and 9 (forwards) digits to be remembered in sequence. Miller (1956) proposed a limit on immediate memory based on the number of items to be remembered (p.92), claiming the span falls around the magic number of seven digits (+/- 2) (p.96).

The phonological loop is noted to be most suited to the retention of sequential information (Baddeley, 2000, p.419), and so a digit span task is one option of assessing phonological STM capacity (Gathercole, 1999, p.411). When a task involves more concurrent processing however, such as in the digit span backward test, the central executive is put under more demand in order to process or manipulate the information (Babcock et al., 1990, p.421).

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Citing the WAIS-III, Myerson et al., (2003, p.21) note that the ability to repeat digits forward remains relatively stable despite aging, while the backward span test shows an age effect where older participants have a significantly shortened span. They further note however that despite numerous studies, there is still little consensus on the validity of age-effects on the forward and backward digit span tasks, as shown by their findings, where they recorded no evidence of a differential decrease in tests according to age (p.23). Gregoire et al., (1997) used 1000 subjects to test the hypothesis that age differences should be more important in backward rather than forward digit span tasks due to the more extensive involvement of the central executive (p.141). They found that the most noticeable effects occurred after the age of 65, with scores being significantly lower than those under 35 (p.144), hence the decision to test age groups 18-35 and 70+ for this study.

Verhaeghen et al., (1993) also conducted a meta-analysis of studies looking at memory span (40 studies), finding that the elderly perform reliably worse than young adults on tests such as the digit span task, with results in effect sizes ranging from - .38 to - .53, although they did not find that digit span backwards yielded a larger effect size than digit span forwards, despite it involving more processing. They do however note that all of the tasks set in studies such as this are specifically designed to yield maximum age differences, and so it should not be assumed that results can be â&#x20AC;&#x153;generalized automatically to everyday life performanceâ&#x20AC;? (p.168).

Methodology This study aims to identify if and to what extent age has an effect on working memory scores. It also aimed to determine whether there is a difference in difficulty between the two TMT tasks, as well as between both digit span tasks. This question was investigated through the administration of a digit span forwards; digit span backwards; and trail making tests parts A and B. This allowed quantitative analysis of the scores collected, which comprised of a recorded time for each of the TMTs, and a score based on correct answers out of a maximum of 30 for the digit span (16 forwards, 14 backwards). As previously noted, participants were either categorized as older (70+) or younger (18-35) adults, with ten participants for each group.

Participant Age Sex

1 84 F

2 80 F

3 71 F

Group A 4 5 72 71 F F

6 76 F

7 80 F

8 73 F

9 72 F

10 81 F

19 26 F

20 27 M

Range: 13, Mean: 76, Standard Deviation: 4.853, Max: 84, Min: 71 Table I. Background data for participants aged 70+

Participant Age Sex

11 31 M

12 28 F

13 24 M

Group B 14 15 29 20 M F

16 23 M

17 28 M

18 20 F

Range: 11, Mean: 25.6, Standard Deviation: 3.748, Max: 31, Min: 20 Table II. Background data for participants aged 20-35

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While the participants in Group A were chosen using convenience sampling, and so cannot be assumed to be representative of the population in general, care was taken to try and obtain as wide a range of ages within this sample as possible. Despite the belief that memory reduces with age (Verhaeghen et al., 1993, p.157), there is evidence which points towards the positive effects of cognitive and physical activity as well as social engagement on memory (Williams and Kemper, 2010), and so the participants were taken from a ladiesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; group which meets once or twice a week as well as engaging in numerous social activities (including talks from various public speakers and educational/historical excursions), so as to obtain results hopefully showing the actual working memory of older people who remain socially active, which arguably negates some of the effects of memory decline. In order to study this in more depth, groups of inactive older people would also need to be conducted, but the scope of such an experiment was too wide for this current paper.

Group B were recruited using a more purposive selection, sampling participants according to age in a number of different locations so as to get as representative a sample as is possible when dealing with such a small sample size. While we are not able to assume that this sample is actually representative of the whole population, they will be used as the control group against which we measure the results of Group A. Once data was collected, scores were entered into a spreadsheet, and then analyzed for mean scores for each category, standard deviations, maximum and minimum values, and range, as well as calculating the correlation coefficient so as to determine if there is a relationship between variables and results.

Results Results of TMT A and B Table III shows the results of TMT A and B for both groups. Each result shows that Group A has consistently higher scores, which suggests that there is a link between age and the speed with which this test can be completed. It also shows that for both groups, TMT B is consistently harder in that it takes longer to complete.

Mean Std. Deviation Range Minimum Maximum

TMT A Results Group A Group B 42.38 20.47 21.17 8.398 71.07 24.10 21.49 10.52 92.56 34.62

TMT B Results Group A Group B 78.63 39.06 35.53 12.72 130.5 42.32 34.12 14.20 164.6 56.52

Table III. Results for TMT A and B

It also highlights that there is far greater range in the score of older adults, which shows more variability in ability to perform the tasks. This is backed up by a large SD for each test for group A (21.17 and 35.53), showing more deviation from the mean, and a smaller deviation for group B (8.398 and 12.72). Figure II then allows an overview of both tests, again highlighting a general pattern of longer times for the older participants.

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Figure II. Graph showing age ordered results for TMT A & B, where participants 1-10 are Group B, while 11-20 are Group A. Note: Times have been rounded to nearest whole number in data box.

To determine which variables relate to performance on the TMT, Spearman correlations were conducted. Results revealed that the scores on TMT A were significantly correlated to scores on TMT B for both groups, whereby if a participant scores well or indeed badly on the first test, they are likely to score similarly on the second test. Correlation plots fwere created for both groups, demonstrating the correlation between test results. Here, although there is a positive weak correlation between age and results on each test, there is a definite strong correlation between tests.

Table IV. Spearman Correlations for groups A and B against TMT A and B. Note: (A) refers to group A, (B) refers to group B.

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By categorising all participants over the age of 70 as 1.00 and all participants under 35 as 2.00, it was possible to run an independent samples t-test. From the values p=0.007 and p=0.004, we can conclude that there is a reliable difference between results.

Results of Digit Span Test Table V shows the results of the digit span tasks. Results show that Group B was generally able to remember more numbers both forwards and backwards. Interestingly, despite lower scores for the backwards test, each group displays the same range in scores for both parts of the test. That is, group A has a range of 6.0 for forwards and backwards, while group Bâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s range is 8.0 for both tests.

Mean Std. Deviation Range Minimum Maximum

Digits Forwards Results Group A Group B 9.300 10.80 2.003 2.781 6.000 8.000 6.000 6.000 12.00 14.00

Digits Backwards Results Group A Group B 5.400 6.800 1.838 2.860 6.000 8.000 3.000 2.000 9.000 10.00

Table V. Results for digit span forwards and backwards.

Figure II highlights that there is a fair amount of variance in scores for both groups, where despite having the highest overall score, Group B has a far greater variability in their scores, which is also highlighted by the SD (2.781 and 2.860) for each test when compared to Group A (2.003 and 1.838).

Results show essentially no correlation between scores for digits forwards and age, and a similarly weak positive correlation between digits backwards

Figure II. Graph showing age ordered results for Digit Span forwards (F) and backwards (B), where participants 1-10 are Group B, while 11-20 are Group A.

and age for the older participants, with no statistically significant results. There is however a slightly stronger positive correlation between scores on both tests, where results are vaguely comparable between forwards and backwards, although again the results are not statistically significant. Similarly, there is no correlation between age and digits forward for the younger group; a weak positive correlation for age and digits backwards; and a stronger although not statistically significant positive correlation between scores on both tests.

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Discussion

Discussion of TMT Results from the TMT parts A and B lend support to the hypothesis that the older group will have higher overall times in both tests. As these are tests which require complex visual scanning as well as motor skills (Kortte et al., 2002, p.107), it was hypothesised that Group A would be generally slower than Group B due to age-related degeneration of motor skills. This appears to be backed up by calculating the B-A difference in mean scores for performance on each test and then comparing them, highlighting that group A performed 21.91 seconds slower for test A (42.3820.47=21.91) and 39.57 seconds for test B (78.63-39.06=39.57).

In addition to this, Gregoire et al.,’s hypothesis that tasks requiring storage of information are likely to be more difficult with age (1997, p.140) can be backed up by the results of this test, where Group A’s mean time taken to complete the task increased by almost double that of the younger group’s score when completing part B (36.25 seconds versus 18.59 seconds respectively), which can be attributed to part B requiring more complex processing and use of the central executive. These scores also highlight Kortte et al.,’s recognition of part B as the more demanding of the two tests (2002, p.108). As part B requires participants to maintain two response sets simultaneously (p.107), lower scores on this test can be attributed to lower cognitive functioning with aging. This is arguably supported by observational data noted while participants were undertaking each task, whereby some older participants consistently needed to run through the alphabet after some numbers in order to continue the progression (e.g. 4-D-5-a,b,c,d,E-5, 6…).

Arbuthnott (2000, p. 519) too suggests that alternation of sequences places more demand on processing, which would support these findings. This however is in contrast to Kortte et al.,’s findings, who reported that low results on part B were not attributed to deficits in ability to maintain set (p.108).

Discussion of Digit Span Results from the digit span tasks show far less clear differences between groups than did the TMTs. While group B did perform better on both tests, the differences were often negligible, whereby some participants performed very well, others particularly badly, but the majority performed fairly similarly regardless of group. By highlighting the difference between mean scores, this is even clearer: When comparing the difference between groups on the forwards task, there is a difference of 1.5 (10.8 - 9.3 = 1.5) while the difference for the backwards span is 1.4 (6.8 - 5.4 = 1.4). Similarly, the A-B difference for each group is 3.9 for group A (9.3-5.4=3.9) and 4 for group B (10.8-6.8).

Figure II shows that, barring one, each participant scored higher on the digits forward test. This is due to the involvement of the phonological loop, which acts as a store where verbal and acoustic sounds are retained and are able to be recalled for a number of seconds (Baddeley, 2000, p. 419). As noted previously (Myerson et al., 2003; Gregoire et al., 1997), this supports the notion that the central executive is not involved in repeating digits forwards, and that digits forward are likely to remain stable amongst age groups. On the other hand, digits backwards involves not only the storage of information, but also its processing before it is repeated back and the involvement of 45

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the central executive places far higher demand on cognitive function, which would lead to a lower score in the backwards compared to the forwards digit span test. As discussed, there was no significant correlation found between age and performance on either test, but there were consistently lower scores on part B, which corroborates this hypothesis.

However, as can also be seen in figure II, there are a number of participants within group B (participants 1-10) who scored distinctly lower than the general trend from the group, and these are scores from participants who disclosed after the fact that they were dyslexic. While it was not part of the methodology to note information such as this, this is potentially a noteworthy oversight, as Pickering (2006, p.8) highlights that individuals with dyslexia have difficulties with working memory, noting that they are likely to have lower digit span test scores.

Also noted at the time of testing, although it bears no direct importance on this study as, having not prepared for it in the methodology I was unable to record repeat-back times or score correctness on digits where this strategy was used, it was interesting to note the number of participants who closed their eyes to aid recall. Nash et al., (2016, p.3, citing Vredeveldt, Hitch, & Baddeley, 2011) note that this has generally been attributed to two cognitive mechanisms: in order to reduce cognitive load, and/or to reduce modality-specific interference. If the central executive is more involved in digits backwards, this strategy would free up cognitive resources (p.4) to focus completely on the task, as well as allowing participants to mentally visualise the numbers that had been spoken. This could therefore be a potentially interesting topic to proceed with in future studies.

It could be argued however the difference between tests, that is, the high correlation between age and results in the TMT but very low correlation in the digit span forwards and backwards, could lie in the modality of the different tests. Schear and Sato (1989, p. 25) note that sensory acuity is extremely important when interpreting the results of timed tests that are reliant on visual and motor skills (i.e. the TMT). This would not be an issue in the digit span tests and so it could therefore be argued, and indeed was noted at the time, that older participants struggled far more to find the next target circle, having to bring their faces much closer to the paper than the under 35 group, potentially increasing their test times significantly. In order to investigate this further however, tests on different age groups with differing levels of visual acuity would need to be completed, and then correlated to identify if it was indeed age that increased TMT times or if vision plays a more important part.

Conclusion As has been highlighted, the limitations of this study include a small sample size and a purely homogeneous sample of only women in group A, which makes the data unable to be generalised to the greater population, as well as the inclusion of participants with dyslexia, which is known to limit working memory skills. Despite this however, the results were able to corroborate previous findings that TMT B is indeed harder for both age groups than TMT A, and that the digits backwards test is also harder than digits forwards. In addition to this, it demonstrated that the older group performed, to a greater of lesser degree, worse than the under 35s on every test.

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