Harvesting Brine - Design Portfolio

The Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation Copenhagen

Portfolio El Kendi Abderrahmane Architecture and Extreme Envrionments 2019/2020

HARVESTING BRINE Solar distillation based water collection El Kendi Abderrahmane

Prototype / Photograph by Author

INTRODUCTION_ During the first semester of the Architecture and Extreme Environments program at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, the focus of this research has been to investigate the potential of generating better life conditions through tools that relate to the built environment.

This is achieved in contexts that know certain difficulty in dealing with the extreme environments in which they develop, in this case : The world’s most arid desert : The Atacama.

INFORMATION GATHERING _ PHASE ONE

4 INFO

ATACAMA LITHIUM MINING REUTERS

The information gathering phase consists of a collaborative studio work attempting to harness as much data about the site as possible, on all the social, economic, environmental, and architectural dimensions.

This allows for not only a better understanding of the site, but also an optimization of the hyperspecificity approach of the program to design devices and programs that optimally interact with the site at hand.

5 INFO

PREFACE_ The subject of interest of this project is the Atacama water body. In fact, water is a scarce resource in the Atacama, yet the industrial parties over use it for extracting Lithium,without sufficiently giving back to the community.

Royal College of Art / Lithium triangle studio project

The process may be circular to a certain extent, with the Lithium companies returning the remaining brine into the water body, yet that has 2 complexities arising from it : _ Higher density of minerals in the returned brine. _ Large amounts of evaporated water that could have been useful for the inhabitants of the region.

6 INFO

ATACAMA LITHIUM MINING REUTERS

The landscapes of the Atacama desert are overtaken by the industrial ponds of Lithium Extraction, separating people from their freedom of enjoying the desert’s natural views , and creating previously inexisting barriers with the rest of the world. These also generate very large surfaces where water is evaporated instead of being re-used.

8 INFO

LITHIUM EXTRACTION _ The spirit of industrialized spaces being a unique typology of space that is oriented only to profit, and not to human utilization has developed during the last century. Many industrial sites, namely in the lithium mining industry are taking more and more surfaces of the desert, and pumping more water from the brine underground in the desert : damaging the ecosystem in a multitude of ways.

9 INFO

Cédric Gerbehaye / National Geographic Lithium extraction ponds

LITHIUM EXTRACTION Although the lithium extraction has allowed to create certain jobs for the workers in the region, it has also damaged the contexts where these workers live, and creates a continuous threat on their lives, working with very high concentrations of the metal.

10 INFO

Royal College of Art / ATACAMA RESEARCH

A CLOSED WATER BODY It is clear through this diagram by the Royal College of Art’s Environmental Architecture program that the reason the threat of the Atacama water is very high is the fact that it is not an open source basin, and hence the water that goes into the atacama brine underground is much less than the ones that comes out.

11 INFO

BRINE EX TRA CT IO N

INDUSTRY, TRADE AND TOURISM

40% of the world’s copper and 36% of it’s Lithium are mined in the Atacama. However, before these materials can be shipped to 1st world countries to allow for the comforts of modern life, the process of their extraction and mining can be extremely delicate and complicated for the local context.

The complex procedures that this extraction procedure intails are visually explained in order to comprehend the impacts and inefficencies in the procedures.

K

Cl Mg

Li

DISSOLVED LITHIUM EXTRACTION OF THE BRINE Wells drilled into underground aquifers pump lithium-bearing brine to the surface.

Cl

Li

Li

Cl

BRINE PUM PIN GM AC

K HISTORY OF LITHIUM EXTRACTION Hard-rock minerals were the main source of lithium until the 1990s, when brines, a cheaper source of lithium carbonate, overtook them.

Y ER IN H

PUMPING THE BRINE TO PONDS Wells drilled into underground aquifers pump lithium-bearing brine to the surface.

20

1984 1991

2016

Li

Mg EVAPORATION PONDS

LITHIUM PRODUCTION/ CONSUMPTION WORLDWIDE

THOUSANDS OF METRIC TONS

Brine is organized in very large ponds of evaporation that use the sun’s radiation as a source of heat to allow the evaporation of other components of the brine, leaving only the lithium rich yellow liquid.

85

Projecting high demand for lithium compounds, mining production outpaced consumption worldwide in 2017, according to estimates.

N

S ND PO

T

AN

35

G

IN

S ES

PRODUCTION

C

O PR

2006

2011

CALCINATION & SULPHERIC ACID ROAST

PRETREAT EM EN T

CONSUMPTION

2018

LITHIUM SULFATE SOLUTION

DEVELOPEMENT OF EXTRACTION/ MANUFACTURING QUALITY

PROCESSING PLANT PRETREATEMENT

COST PER KILOWATT-HOUR

This step usually employs filtration and/or ion exchange (IX) purification to remove any contaminants or unwanted constituents from the brine.

ENERGY DENSITY IN WATT-HOURS PER KILOGRAM

300 COST

6%

OPTIMAL LITHIUM CONCENTRATION

PL

After being treated in the salars, the Lithium is treated within the Plants in a 4 step based prcoess to allow for the production of Modern day Lithium batteries in the end.

PROCEDURES IN CHILE

Cl

8-10 MONTHS

0

TRANSFER TO A DIFFERENT POND

K LITHIUM E VA PO RA TI O

1930

3%

10 - 15 DAYS

10

HARD ROCK UNDOCUMENTED

CONCENTRATED LITHIUM BRINE Naturally obtained lithium concentrate through evaporation

BRINE

CALCINATION AND ROASTING PROCESS

First commercial production of Lithium-ion batteries Chile begins producing Lithium from brines

0,16%

8-10 MONTHS

P

LITHIUM EXTRACTION

INITIAL STATE OF BRINE LITHIUM

NT LA

NATURAL EVAPORATION

THE ATACAMA

DENSITY

150 OPTIMAL LITHIUM CONCENTRATION

0 2000

1990

2015

WHAT IS LITHIUM USED FOR ??

A series of chemical solvents and reagents may be applied to isolate desirable products and byproducts through precipitation.

9%

PRETREAT EM EN T

CHEMICAL TREATEMENT

FILTRATION

46% 7%

The brine is then filtered to separate out precipitated solids.

These may include other minerals or infinitesimal particles that pollute the lithium brine liquid.

9% - 38%

27% CERAMICS AND GLASS

LUBRICATING GREASE

BATTERIES

SALEABLE LITHIUM The brine is finally treated with sodium carbonate to form lithium carbonate, and the product is then prepared for sale. Other reagants may be used to form lithium hydroxide, lithium chloride.

11%

5% 4% CASTING MOLD FLUX POWDERS

POLYMERS

OTHER OPTIMAL LITHIUM CONCENTRATION

38%

LITHIUM C AR BO NA TE

READY LITHIUM

2000 LITERS OF BRINE WATER

=

1 IPHONE BATTERY

Li2CO3 Lithium Carbonate

Li-ion

LiOH

Lithium Ion

Lithium Hydroxide

x 2000

#1 IMPORTING COUNTRIES EXPORT CONSUMER LITHIUM The lithium carbonate delivered and manufactured into the everyday devices allows for the comforts of Modern life.

Almost every battery based device known to man in the 21st centyury uses Lithium-Ion thanks to it’s light weight and great electric conductivity.

References appended

HIGH-TECH COMPANIES

Once the Lithium Brine is transformed to Lithium Carbonate, it is prepared and shipped to different manufacterers around the world.

China is one of the biggest importers of Lithium from Chile with a percentage of 24% , followed by Japan and South Korea.

99%

INTERNATIONAL PROCEDURE

LITHIUM BRINE EXTRACTION INEFFICENCY

RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF LITHIUM GRAPH

WASTE OF WATER RESSOURCES //

12 INFO

SO2

OP EN -P IT

CuFeS2(s)

Ag EXTRACTION OF COPPER ORE

INDUSTRY, TRADE AND TOURISM

Open pit mining: 90% of ore is mined through open pit quarries.

Ores near the surface can be quarried after removal of the surface layers through layered extracting.

ORE MINING THROUGH EXTRACTION

DAILY PROCESS

COPPER EXTRACTION

MA TACA EA TH

FeO

THE ATACAMA

EIN M

INITIAL STATE OF COPPER ORE

2%

Although the Lithium industry is Chile’s most famous international recognition, the copper extraction procedures generate 44% of the country’s export revenues and 33 times more than Lithium. The complex procedures that this extraction procedure intails are explained in order to comprehend the impacts and inefficencies in the procedur

CO PP ER

SO2

O

$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$$

CuFeS2(s)

RE

IN ED AD LO

FeO

TRUCKS

TRANSPORTING THE ORE

Copper ore is loaded into trucks that deliver the ore to the following processing plant.

Most of the trucks don’t rely on a driver but on a gps location system.

2%

COPPER EXPORT REVENUE 2018 LITHIUM EXPORT REVENUE 2018

PO D N

S

CuCO3 / Cu2O OXIDE ORES

H US CR E INTO A FIN E E OR TH

CuS / Cu2S SULFIDE ORES

PO W DE R.

The first stage of any process within a metallurgical treatment circuit is accurate grinding or comminution, where the rock is crushed to produce small particles (<100 µm) . These particles are then separated to remove gangue (rocks residues), thereafter followed by a process of physical liberation of the ore minerals from the rock.

LEACHING These ores are leached by sulfuric acid, usually in a heap leaching or dump leaching process to liberate the copper minerals into a solution of sulfuric acid laden with copper sulfate in solution.

CuFeS2(s)

COPPER CONCENTRATE

W H IT ES UX FL

Cu 2 S

The roasting process changes some of the CuFeS2 to copper oxide and removes some of the sulfur as sulfur dioxide. This is done by heating the concentrated ore from froth flotation. It is heated to between 500 °C and 700 °C in air. The product from the roaster is called calcine.

RO AS TI N G

ES AT PL

CO PP ER

T S NK A

E BL TA RN U

CO OL IN G

C

BETWEEN A UNG NO DE SH S. DE HO AT

T

EL EC

FROTH FLOTATION The froth flotation cells recover the copper from sulfide ores by chemically attaching the copper to a chemical bubble and overflowing the froth (bubbles with copper).

The calcine is heated to over 1200 °C with fluxes such as silica and limestone. The calcine melts and reacts with the fluxes.

CA ST IN G

RIC H

TE LY O TR

ROASTING

SM EL TI NG

FR

S - COPPER BBLE BU ON TI TA O

PROCEDURES IN CHILE

FR OT H

SMELTING

MOLTEN COPPER CONCENTRATE

LEA CH

BA LL M IL L

CRUSHING AND GRINDING

PROCESSING PLANT After being treated in the salars, the Lithium is treated within the Plants in a 4 step based prcoess to allow for the production of Modern day Lithium batteries in the end.

IN CHILE , LITHIUM EXTRACTION AND EXPORT ONLY REPRESENTS 3,2% OF THE COPPER INDUSTRY IN 2018.

COPPER : 33,4 BN $ LITHIUM : 947 MN $

EXTRACTION Copper sulfate solution is collected in the pregnant leach pond then pumped to the solvent extraction plant. The solvent extraction phase consists of adding an organic solvent to recover copper ions contained in the pregnant leach solution, exchanging them with hydrogen ions in the acid before using a strong acid to strip the copper from the organic solution, producing a blue, enriched copper-bearing solution that is treated at an electrowinning plant.

STA IN LE SS

ES COATED IN HOD CO AT PP LC ER EE ST

COOLING The molten copper cools and solidifies into anodes over a metre tall. The mould includes short supporting arms used to lift and suspend the anodes.

POST-SMELTING CONCENTRATION

25%

ANODE CASTING The blister copper produced by this process is 99% pure copper.This huge wheel is used to cast the anodes. Molten copper is poured into a mould and the wheel is turned for the next mould, while the previous cools.

WHAT IS COPPER USED FOR ??

46%

TRANSPORTATION 19% EQUIPEMENT ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

19%

CuS

CONSUMER PRODUCTS

12%

Copper Sulfides

MACHINERY

7%

SOLVENT EXTRACTION AND ELECTROWINNING (SX-EW) PRODUCTION

BI

FOR SHIPPING

RELATIVE CONCENTRATION OF COPPER GRAPH

INTERNATIONAL PROCEDURE

Copper Oxide

CO PP ER

DY EA SR ET LL

CONSTRUCTION

CuO

ELECTROLYTIC REFINING The blister copper is cast into large slabs which will be used as the anodes in the electrolysis apparatus.

The electrolytic refining of copper produces the high quality, high purity copper required by industry.

The electrowinning plant uses electrolysis to collect copper onto steel cathodes. Inert lead anodes are used. These do not take part in the electrolysis except to complete the electrical circuit. Copper is stripped from the steel cathode plates when it is thick enough. This cathode copper is 99.99% pure.

Cu(s) Copper READY TO USE COPPER

#1 IMPORTING COUNTRIES

EXPORT

99%

References appended

P R OT OT Y P E DESIGN _ PHASE TWO

14 DESIGN

The design developement process of the prototype consists of drafting a multitude of proposals and testing not only their efficency as an investigation tool, but also their artistic expression within the site in which they will be placed.

In this sense, the devices are playing a dual role, one where they are both a scientific experiment, and an artistic installation.

15 DESIGN

EVAPORATION AS ENERGY _ The first attempt of utilizing the potential of the evaporated water in the lithium ponds rises from the a research developed by a team of Columbia University researchers, which allows to use B Subtilis bacterial spores in order to generate kinetic energy from the evaporation process.

Sahin Lab / Spores wheel

Sahin Lab / Spores wheel

This is achieved through a double layer of latex and bacterial spores, which contract or detract depending on the levels of humidity, which then is transformed to electrical energy through different means.

16 DESIGN

EVAPORATION AS MATTER_

Aquamate solar still

A second idea of utilizing the potential of evaporated water is collecting the evaporated water which is already filtered by the distillation process, and having clean useful water from the process of evaporatio .

The water condensation on the plastic surface is then gathered in the form of liquid water utilizing the sun’s radiation and hot temperature.

Condensated water

17 DESIGN

PRELIMINARY DEVICE SKETCH / AUTHOR

Prototype 1

In this preliminary sketch, the base is constituted of two rotating wheels which are filled with B. Subtilis spores tissues. The upper part consists of a shading system that would allow us to capture evaporated water through the condensation process. This isn’t very optimal as the surface of the evaporation catching part needs to be susbtantially larger in order to capture any evaporated water.

18 DESIGN

PRELIMINARY DEVICE SKETCH / AUTHOR

PRELIMINARY DEVICE SKETCH / AUTHOR Prototype 2

This sketch is a continuity of the first reflection on the devices formal coherence. As the proportion of the water catching surface is optimized, we attempt to maximize the possibility to catch water from the evaporation process.

Painting by Michael Cheval 20 DESIGN

ARTISTIC_ Michael Cheval’s absurd style stems from literary greats like Lewis Carroll and legendary Surrealist artists Salvador Dalí and René Magritte. Cheval says his art represents an inverted reality and reverse of logic. Unlike the dreamlike origin of Surrealism, Cheval’s works emerge from his conscious imagination.

Cheval considers absurdity a game of imagination where all elements are chosen to construct a literary plot. His work includes metaphorical references that challenge the viewer to find hidden allusions within the artwork. Often, Cheval uses the title of a work of art as the starting point to uncover the mystery. Cheval constructs intricate stories behind each work, but invites viewers to become “coauthors” and invent their own interpretations.

In the same spirit as Michael Cheval’s absurdist paintings, the spatial installation of the device is designed to generate a sense of absurdity when interacting with the flat lithium ponds, rich in artifical colors.

One is brought to ask themselves then, what is a rotating umbrella with vegetation growing inside it doing in the middle of a lithium pond ?

21 DESIGN

BACTERIA COLLECTION / ATACAMA_ The initial proposal consisted of a collection of bacterial spores from different spots in the Atacama desert, then harvesting those spores for bigger bacterial outcomes, before applying them to the spore tissues that are on the device.

Soils in the hyperarid

Bacteria collection sites in the Atacama

Coastal range

Stromatolites

Hypolithic communities

Bacteria localisations/ Atacama Desert Information from the «Life at the dry edge: Microorganisms of the Atacama Desert» research paper by Armando Azua-Bustos, Catalina Urrejola, Rafael Vicuña

22 DESIGN

INITIAL PROPOSALS VS REALISTIC CONSTRAINTS

Developement of different techniques of water extraction

Spore muscle device for testing energy and dynamic potential from evaporation

Difficulties in developing spores material, complexity of task to test these materials out : Replaced by textile shading.

+ Solar distillation system for testing water capturing potential in the Atacama

= Prototype for testing evaporation potential ( Energy and Matter)

INITIAL PROPOSAL

Focusing on developing the Matter aspect of the proposal ( harnessing water collection and not energy)

23 DESIGN

Akhfennir Salt extraction site / Author

DEVICE TESTING SITES _ The testing sites of the device consist of two different proposals : One of the lithium ponds in the SQM plant in Atacama. Or one of the small research oriented plants in the lithium mining facility.

Textile shading system

Aluminium pipe

Plastic solar distillation dome

Plant harvesting pot

Plastic junction

PROTOTYPE PROPOSAL 1 _ 24 DESIGN

26 DESIGN

DESCRIPTION

MUSHROOM 1 // ITERATION OF SHADING

Radiation analysis to optimize the solar radiation received by the solar distillation dome within the device, all while utilizing shades that protect plants and minimally affect the dome’s solar impact.

MUSHROOM // EFFICENCY DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 1276.39 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DESCRIPTION Proposal consisting of a general canopy composed of multiple diamond shaped panels to shade the whole plants from intense UV all while allowing sufficient radiation for the dome to function properly as a solar distillation system.

FACADE PANELS 2 // ITERATION OF SHADING

28 DESIGN

FACADE PANELS // EFFICENCY DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 895.72 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DESCRIPTION Proposal consisting of a surrounding facade composed of multiple triangle shaped panels to shade the whole plants from intense UV all while organizing certain openings for air access for plants and for relative amounts of shading.

29 DESIGN

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 674.49 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 924.32 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 1706.41 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 1339.47 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

FLOTATION UNIT DESIGN_

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 2239.45 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 2293.45 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 1927.43 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

DOME TOTAL RADIATION// 2049.18 Kwh/m² SITE// ATACAMA DESERT GRID UNIT // 1 cm²

30 DESIGN

31 DESIGN

HARVESTING BRINE

Flotation tank / Plastic / Polysterene

Shading structure system

Solar distillation dome / 1 mm Plastic

Aluminium structure

Shading system / Textile

The device was designed in order to allow water to flow from the central bassin of the dome to the 3 planting pots that surround it .

These bassins can be plugged and unplugged, so that the unit can become a water catching device, or a plant harvesting one.

Section As the dome floats on the evaporation ponds, it catches water from the evaporation process, and as it condensates on the dome’s surface, it is guided to the device tanks.

32 DESIGN

UNIT

COLONY

33 DESIGN

FLOTATION UNIT COLONIES_

COLONY FINAL PROPOSAL / BASED ON THERMAL EFFICENCY

A major part of the design of the flotation unit is the fact that it can be combined into colonies which would float atop the surface of the water. Offering more stability, and more chance to harvest plants on the water bodies.

34 DESIGN

Aluminium structure

Aluminium tank cover

1mm thick black plastic

10 mm thick polyst.

1mm thick black plastic / Combining base for plastic and polysterene

AXONOMETRY EXPLODED FLOTATION UNIT EXPLAINED

EVAPORATION AS ENERGY_

36 DESIGN

Plastic type 1 / No

Plastic type 2 / flat iterations

Collected water - 40 minutes Overcast

Collected water - 40 minutes

COLONY FINAL PROPOSAL / BASED ON THERMAL EFFICENCY

Clear sky

P R O T O T Y P E FABRICATION_ PHASE THREE

11 38 PROGRAM

39 FABRICATON

1

1

2

40 FABRIC.

TESTING BUILDING PROTOTYPES _ The device was designed in order to allow water to flow from the central bassin of the dome to the 3 planting pots that surround it .

These bassins can be plugged and unplugged, so that the unit can become a water catching device, or a plant harvesting one.

In that sense, the central part was built as an independent unit which is susbequently merged into the other bassins.

The central part is built with a 1mm thick transparent plastic and a 1.5mm thick aluminium base.

The aluminium base was cut with the metal laser cutter before folding each joint of the base and filling the corners with silicate in order to make it water proof.

42 FABRIC.

EVAPORATION AS ENERGY_

PLASTIC / 0.5 MM THICKNESS

ITERATED PLASTIC / 0.5MM THICKNESS

ITERATED TRANSPARENT PLASTIC / 1MM THICKNESS

43 FABRIC.

44 FABRIC.

EVAPORATION AS ENERGY_

TEST 1

TEST 2

DOME UNIT DESIGN PROCEDURE TEST 3

MATERIAL TESTING

45 FABRIC.

/12 mm Plastic tubing

Junction screw

Aluminium Pipe

46 FABRIC.

49 FABRIC.

Volume for the plastic water tank

1 mm Plastic vacum formed on the polysterene

Polysterene / Floatation

FLOTATION UNIT DESIGN_

50 FABRIC.

Aluminium structure

Aluminium tank cover

1mm thick black plastic

10 mm thick polyst.

1mm thick black plastic / Combining base for plastic and polysterene

COLONY FINAL PROPOSAL / BASED ON THERMAL EFFICENCY

EXPEDITION TO CHILE _ PHASE FOUR

52 SITE

NOT SO FAST .. #OBSTACLES

VISA TO CHILE DENIED _ As my visa to Chile received no response from the Chilean Embassy, I had to get creative about finding a correct site to test and assess the prototype and develop the architectural program. Hence ..

MOROCCO _ The salt business in Morocco is highly similar to the Atacama lithium business : perhaps these two operate on different scales due to the price differences and the economoic value of each metal, but the prinicpal of abusing hydrolic resources for corporate profit is the same Hundreds of thousands of suqare meters, millions of evaporated liters, and no posiitve impact on the community that inhabits the site and surroundings.

56 SITE

Total area of the Akhfennir salt extraction ponds

4.8 Million m²

Annual exported Moroccan salt, representing ~1% of the international salt business

720.000.000 KGS

Akhfennir , Morocco

STRUCTURE INSTALLATION The device’s shading structures are put together with plastic junctions before placing the textile shading systems on the remaining openings of the structure.

58 SITE

FLOTATION UNIT INSTALLATION _

The central dome is tightened into the aluminium base, before being junctioned with the other square bases of the harvesting basins.

SCIENTIFIC RESULTS The captured solar radiation in each distinct weather state ( Clear / Overcast / Rainy / Night time) allows us to compate how much water cane be captured under each condition, and the variance of that captured water

60 SITE

62 BIBLIOG.

BIBLIOGRAPHY_ 1/ Catherine Ann Somerville Venart, Water resources a documentation of water technologies in the Atacama , Dalhouie School of Architecture, Canada 2013 «http://aridjournal.com/water_resources_catherine-annsomerville-venart/» 2/ Denevan, William. Cultivated Landscapes of Native Amazonia & the Andes, Oxford UK, Oxford Geographical & Environmental Studies, 2001 3/ RIDES (2005). Bienestar humano y manejo sustentable en San Pedro de Atacama, Chile–Resumen Ejecutivo (Human well-being and sustainable management in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile–Executive Summary), Santiago, Chile: RIDES. Santiago, March 2005 RIDES (2005). p. 36.

4/ Pierre Meukam, Donatien Njomo, Aboudramane Gbane, Siaka Toure, Experimental optimization of a solar still: application to alcohol distillation, Chemical Engineering and Processing: Process Intensification, Volume 43, Issue 12, 2004, Pages 1569-1577, ISSN 0255-2701, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cep.2004.02.007.

5/ Y. Hashim, Aqeel & Al-Asadip, J & Alramdhan, Wathiq.

(2010). An attempt to solar still productivity optimization; solar still shape, glass cover inclination and inner surface area of a single basin solar still, optimization. 39-48.

6/ Nguyen The Bao , The Mathematical Model of Basin-Type Solar Distillation System. DOI: 10.5772/ intechopen.83228 https://www.intechopen.com/books/distillationmodelling-simulation-and-optimization/themathematical-model-of-basin-type-solar-distillationsystems 7/ Factors Affecting the Yield of Solar Distillation Systems and Measures to Improve Productivities.

DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.75593 https://www.intechopen.com/books/desalinationand-water-treatment/factors-affecting-the-yield-ofsolar-distillation-systems-and-measures-to-improveproductivities 8/ H.M. Qiblawey and F. Banat: Desalination Vol. 220 (2008), p.633.

9/ R. Dev and G.N. Tiwari: Desalination Vol. 245 (2009), p.246.

10/ Verma, Vinod Kumar, Ivan Sunit Rout and Abhishek Gaikwad. “Optimization of parameters affecting the performance of passive solar distillation system by using Taguchi method.” (2013).

11/ Royal College of Art - Lithium triangle research developement // https://www.rca.ac.uk/schools/school-of-architecture/ environmental-architecture/studio-descriptors-201819/ studio-1-lithium-triangle/ 12/ Danwatch : «Our demand for electric cars and smartphones is drying up the most arid place in the world» Nikolaj Houmann Mortensen https://danwatch.dk/en/undersoegelse/our-demand-forelectric-cars-and-smartphones-is-drying-up-the-mostarid-place-in-the-world/ 13/ NASA Photography / International Space Station photography of the Salar de Atacama