QUANTUM

QUANTUM The Next Medical Revolution: STEM CELLS p.3 p.

Exploring the Eternal Sea p.11 COSMOLOGY TODAY p.19

COMPUTERS AND COSMOLOGY

BREAKING BARRIERS p.9 The Advancement of

QUANTUM TUNNELING THE TIME IS NOW p.13

What we should expect for the future of TIME TRAVEL

A HISTORY IN QUANTUM MECHANICS p.17

The EVOLUTION OF MODERN COSMOLOGY p.1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1 3 7 9 11 13 17 19

Evolution of cosmology

the universe had a beginning and so did the research that came along with it and such as the universe it is always expanding

The next medical revolution

see how man has gone to overcome their own boundries and to rejuvinate their health through stem cells.

this is heavy doc

see through the eyes of the greatest minds and their contributions to general relativity

breaking barries

see through the world of quantam mechanics and the importance of it,

exploring the eternal sea

peer through the etneral see and see how far man has gotten on their journey through the final frontier

this time is now

cross unknown dimensions and see where we end up the future or the past?

a history of quantam mechanics one has seen the history of our research through space now it’s time to see our venture to the smallest realm

Cosmology today

even though man comes up with the greatest theories we come to the point that we need help, and that help is computers

“Show teeth, it looks more sincere.“

Letter From The Editor

I can’t thank you enough for taking the time to read this edition of QUANTUM. In this edition we bring you interviews with Steven Weinberg, Jackson Pace, and many other prominent figures in the field of science. Everyone on the QUANTUM team is highly dedicated to producing quality articles on new and upcoming science. The team had a blast making the magazine and we hope you enjoy it as much as we did!

Will Fisher, Cheif Editor of QUANTUM

X

About the Authors

Alec Bennett

Esteban Olivares

He may be a twin, but he’s still one of the most unique people you’ll never meet. With a determination to learn and a passion to teach, Alec is a true wildflower in a windstorm. “I like believing in the impossible, you know? Don’t we all?” For some, impossible is just a title for something unable to be done, but for Alec, it’s no more than a dumb word.

When he’s not shooting mad hoops or sacking up with a good movie, Alec is working on answering the big questions in life: Why are we here? What is our purpose? What’s in our future? Though he may not have them answered quite yet, he continues to trudge forward into the vast array of endless possibilities.

A true samaritan, Esteban is a menace to anyone trying to hate, and is an enemy to all who wish to be the best, because newsflash: he already is. When he isn’t playing Dark Souls, he is speculating upon the depths of life itself. “I may love to play video games, but there’s more to me... You just need to get to know me first.” An honest to science teddy bear. Esteban will not hesitate to make you feel at home; whenever, wherever.

Though he may lack the hand-eye coordination needed to properly skip a rock, he won’t let his disabilities keep him from destroying his competition. Esteban hopes to share his passion with you in this edition of Quantum.

Sendhil Sridhar

William Fisher

If the name didn’t already ring a bell, you may know him as possibly one of the brightest minds of the Liberal Arts and Science Academy. “I just have a passion for quantum mechanics, and I want to be able to spread it to anyone.” A noble cause for a noble student.

True to the Sridhar family name, Sendhil is the bringer of good fortune to the Quantum team, as well as a true force to be reckoned with on MS Protobowl.

If you thought you knew what it was like to live in the presence of a legend, think again. Sendhil is the embodiment of intelligence, righteousness, and perserverance. Descending from the highest of castes, Sendhil will be serving you the freshest of information.

With a love for math, and a yearning for knowledge, he pursues his curiosity to learn with a burning passion. “I just crave the absolutity of mathematics. It’s beautiful.” Will Fisher is the Chief Editor of this edition of Quantum, as well as an avid player of the Diablo franchise.

Among his many talents and hobbies, Will is one of the sole students from Lamar Middle School (Will requested it be mentioned that it was only 8th grade), but that doesn’t seem to keep him from trudging forward through the depths of oppression, bursting through the walls of society. His last name means one who makes their wealth from fishing.

T H E EVOof LUT ION

MODERN COSMOLOGY

Have you ever wondered how the universe began? If so, you in are good company. This question has faced some of the greatest minds, and now scientists believe they have answers.

These new answers have brought forth a new wave of thinking: Modern cosmology.

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By Will Fisher

1887

Michelson and Morley find that the speed of light is independent of the frame of reference.

1929

1915

Albert Einstein publishes his theory of general relativity.

Sources http://www.spaceandmotion.com/cosmology-history-astronomy-universe-space.htm http://www.physicsoftheuniverse.com/dates.html http://www.sjsu.edu/faculty/watkins/cosmology.htm http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/a-rough-timeline-of-the-universe.html

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Edwin Hubble discovers galaxies of comparable size to the Milky Way and establishes methods of analyzing redshift.

1949

Fred Hoyle coined the phrase Big Band on a radio broadcast.

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Penzias and Wilson discover Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation.

1980

Alan Guth incorporates an expanding universe into the Big Bang model.

2002

Paul Steinhardt and Neil Turok propose the cyclic model.

SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 2

From Space to Particle 3 | QUANTUM | ISSUE 1

I

magine waking up in the hospital room. The only thing you remember is riding your bike at night; then suddenly hearing a loud honk while a flash of light blinds your vision. The only thing that remains in darkness in your psyche. You’re alive, but with broken bones and a ruptured lung, Immense pain fills your body as you pray to every divine being that may or may not exist to give you the blessing of this pain leaving your body for just a split second. The doctor comes in, he tells you that there’s this new way to repair your lungs and bones to a point in which you question if the accident even happened at all. You’ll get better stronger, faster, more so than you were before the accident. But there must be a catch you think, “what is this research? You might ask yourself. “No catch,” the doctor says, “but a sacrifice.

A sacrifice of a human.”

and All Inbetween SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 4

1

The Next Medical Revolution - Esteban Olivares

How Will Stem Cells Affect the Modern World?

Stem cells are a very interesting topic in medical research, and is believed to lead a new revolution of medication that is able to fix any problem that the human body must face. Like some conditions a person is born with, such as muscular dystrophy, and conditions one acquires through outside forces, like lung collapse, and bones weakening overtime due to age and accidents. At the same time knowledge around stem cells in the public eye is questionable at best, and abhorrent at worst. The best course of action is to teach society about stem cells. Society should be taught their uses, and the types of stem cells, to give a new impression on stem cell research.

One very important use for stem cells is due to its nature of being able to turn into any cell in the body meaning that stem cells can help regenerate missing parts of the body that need help by assigning themselves to the type of cell that is needed. Due to this ability stem cells are used to help many problems like, “Lung diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and pulmonary fibrosis” Dr. Wa Xian, Assistant professor for University of Texas Health science Center and Center for Stem Cell & Regenerative Medicine CPRIT Scholar in Cancer Research says.

These problems of the lungs,”involve the progressive and inexorable destruction of oxygen exchange surfaces and airways, and have arisen as a leading cause of death worldwide.” Dr. Xian says, “ Mitigating therapies, aside from impractical organ transplantation, remain limited.”

When some people hear of stem cells they first think of the words baby killers, and all the bad connotations that comes with the word world stem cells. But the stem cells that the common person thinks of is only one type of stem cell that people think of, which are embryonic stem cells. Due to the connotations behind embryonic stem cell research the issue on morality between the people that support research, and people that don’t. According to gallop.com as of May 10 2015 64 percent of people believe it’s morally acceptable doing embryonic stem cells research, while 29 percent of people believe otherwise. Making embryonic stem cells very controversial, but is growing to be more accepted compared to 2002, which 52 percent of people believing it’s morally acceptable, and 39 percent believe it isn’t.

The moral dilemma surrounding embryonic stem cells is

the process of extraction to achieve embryonic stem cells as an outcome. According to the Nationals Institute of Health “Embryonic stem cells, as their name suggests, are derived from embryos”( The early stage of the development of a baby animal). “ Most embryonic stem cells are derived from embryos that develop from eggs that have been fertilized in vitro—in an in vitro fertilization clinic—and then donated for research purposes with informed consent of the donors.”

The importance of embryonic stem cells is that due to being the early stages of development of an animal the cells are able to form into nearly any form of cell inside the human body. The advantage for the manipulative nature of embryonic stem cells is that the cell gives regenerative properties to the tissues letting any damage to body tissues be healed. Some disabilities that can be treated through stem cells are cancers, collapsed lungs, diseases, muscular dystrophies, bone marrow transplants, etc.

The process of regeneration of tissues with embryonic stem cells is that“ES cells spontaneously differentiate to form multi-cellular structures known as embryoid

“The extensive self-renewal make ES cells unique and attractive.”

-Dr. Darabi

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Embryonic Stem cells before diferentiation Embryonic Stem cells before diferentiation.

bodies (EBs) that contain cell types of all three embryonic germ layers: ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm.” Dr. Darabi, Assistant professor for University of Texas Health Science Center says,” The extensive self-renewal and broad differentiation potential make ES cells unique and very attractive for therapies involving cell regeneration. “ Besides embryonic stem cell having very advantages qualities,

“Embryonic stem cells and induced pluripotent stem cells face formidable challenges including risk of teratoma,” ( A type of tumor that has multiple body tissues) “,complex guiding protocols for lineage specificity, and limited regenerative capacity of the lineages ultimately produced.” Dr. Xian says.

Even though embryonic stem cells have trouble keeping the regenerative capacity of lineages, current findings have shown that it’s possible to maintain the regenerative capacity in lineages. .“ES cells can be maintained indefinitely in an undifferentiated state by co-culture with embryonic fibroblasts or in the presence

tiple muscle groups and to replace and repair damaged muscle.”

Dr. Darabi says.

In conclusion , even though the road of Embryonic stem cells have been rough, either through facing moral dilemmas, such as using human embryos to create stem cells. Or having the Stem cells backfire on you the advantages of Stem Cells needs to be noted. If stem cells continue to develop, and if the public accepts stem cell, while gaining knowledge of them, then the next medical revolution will happen soon.

Medical problems that can be treated using stem cells.

of leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF). Dr. Darabi says, “Long-term culture of these cells is not associated with karyotypic abnormalities. When injected into host blastocysts, these cells contribute to all lineages, including the germ line.”

Besides embryonic stem cell another very important form of stem cells of arisen that have the capabilities of embryonic stem cells, but without the bad connotations surrounding embryonic stem cells. The stem cells in question are induced pluripotent stem cells. “Pluripotent stem cells are well-known for their unique self-renewal and differentiation capabilities” Dr. Radbod Darabi, says, “ which make these cells very favorable for cell-based therapeutic applications in degenerative disorders such as muscular dystrophies.”

According to the National Institute of Health induced pluripotent stem cells or iPSCs are defined as “adult cells that have been genetically reprogrammed to an embryonic stem cell–like state by being forced to express genes and factors important for maintaining the defining properties of embryonic stem cells.” National Institute of Health States.

Even though induced pluripotent have been extremely advantageous for medical research “There are major safety concerns associated with iPS cells, which need to be overcome before they can be seriously considered for clinical applications.” Dr. Darabi says, “In the case of skeletal muscle regeneration, obstacles include the development of i) an efficient and safe (integration-free) myogenic induction/purification protocol, ii) safe gene correction strategies, and iii) efficient cell delivery approaches.”

“One of the major drawbacks in cell therapy for MDs is poor cell survival and migration following IM injection as well as multi-compartment muscle involvement in many MDs which makes IM injection not a feasible clinical approach.” Dr. Darabi says, “

To help with the problem of cell therapies” systemic cell delivery provides much better efficiency to reach and target mul-

The front of McGovern medical school at the University of Texas Health Science Center in Houston.

SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 6

Howard P. Robertson Known for his contributions to physical cosmology and the uncertainty principle, has worked most famously on the Poynting-Robertson Effect, which describes solar radiation in the terms of General Relativity.

James M. Bardeen He is the sole discoverer of the Bardeen Vacuum, which is an exact solution to the Einstein Field Equation. He also formulated the laws of black hole mechanics, and is famous for his work in General Relativity.

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Alexander Friedmann He is the sole author of the Friedmann equations, which described that the universe was expanding around us, and is in a constant state of movemement. He is one of the most well knoen Soviet Scientists, and worked with Robertson and Walker on solving Einstein’s Field Equations.

J. Richard Gott He works primarily in astrophysical sciences, and is famous for developing the cosmological theories that are comonly considered as some of the most popular arguments today: Time Travel, and Doomsday.

Albert Einstein He is the father of the Thoery of General Relativity, which is one of the two main pillars of physics (as well as the backbone of our spacetime knowledge), and is known as one of the most famous minds ever.

Ron Kantowski He is a physicist known for his work in general relativity, as well as his work with Rainer K. Sachs, on the famous Kantowski-Sachs dust solutions to the Einstein Field Equation (describing the universe and how it moves around us).

Robert Wald He is a major contributor to the Algebraic Quantum Field Theory, a mathematical assessment of algebraic observables in spacetime, as well as the co-author of the graduate book, General Relativity.

Stephen Hawking He is the Director of Research at the Centre for Theoretical Cosmology. He is a major player to the field of gravitational singularity thoerems and general relativity, and is the creator of the Hawking Radiation theory, the concept that black holes emit radiation. He was also the first person to unite the theories of general relativity and quantum mechanics, and is considered one of the birghtest people of our time.

Arthur Geoffrey Walker Along with fellow physicists Friedmann and Robertson, has been a major player in our knowledge of General Relativity, and was one of the first people to find exact solutions to Einstein’s Field Equations.

Charles Misner He is one of the main contributors to the theory of quantum gravity, and specializes in general relativity and cosmolgy. He is most famous for co-authoring the book Gravitation, along with fellow physicist Kip Thorne.

SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 8

2

Breaking Barriers - Sendhil Sridhar

Imagine you can download your favorite episode of “Game of Thrones” or the latest Kendrick Lamar song on your phone in the blink of an eye! Wouldn’t that be amazing? As much as we love the idea, the technology is just not there yet! Still, most of the cell phones and computers today are actually much much more powerful than the computer that was used in moon landing!!

Isn’t that incredible??!! Don’t lose heart, as scientists are working on newer ways to make these devices faster. In the not too distant future, we may be able to instantly download CS Go or even update iOS to the latest version, thanks to greater understanding of a field of science called Quantum Mechanics, and laws pertaining to subatomic particles called Quantum Tunneling.

What is “Quantum Mechanics”? Quantum mechanics deals with a set of scientific principles that explain the behaviour of matter and its interactions with energy on the scale of atoms and subatomic particles. Scientific geniuses, like Albert Einstein and Max Planck, pioneered theories about quantum mechanics in the early part of the 20th century. As scientists better understood quantum mechanics, they developed applications which profoundly impacted humanity in more ways than one. It led to inventions such as CT scanners, MRIs, smartphones, HDTVs, supercomputers, atomic clocks etc. Quantum Tunneling, is a branch of quantum mechanics that explains how subatomic particles travel through barriers that shouldn’t be technically impossible at all. A

Here is a infared image of a helium nucleus gaining and radiating quanta, small chunks of energy.

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better understanding of quantum tunnelling will lead to many exciting new discoveries related to nanotechnologies, affordable supercomputing, high resolution microscope, nuclear fusion etc.

Quantum tunneling is a phenomenon where sub-atomic particles are able to seemingly travel through “impenetrable barriers”. In fact, it was the study of this very phenomenon that led to Max Planck’s discovery of Quantum Mechanics, Dr.Brian LaCour is one of the leading experts in the field today. He is the Director of Quantum Mechanics Research at Applied Research Labs. He talks about quantum tunneling in the following way: “It was originally used to explain why ‘radioactive substances did what they did’. They would decay with a certain lifetime, and no one knew why, and they had a certain surge associated with them and people couldn’t predict what they were going to do.” says Dr. LaCour. “This was the reason Quantum Mechanics was discovered.” All electronic gadgets work from the ability of electrons to flow freely through the underlying circuits. The electrons have the ability to jump from one energy level to another, and quantum tunneling of electrons as they jump from one energy barrier to another leads to inefficiencies, and consequently, performance issues. Tunneling is a source of major current leakage in very-large-scale integration (VLSI) electronics, and results in the substantial power drain and heating effects that plague high-speed and mobile technology today.

Quantum tunneling is going to the next holy grail that will lead to many exciting discoveries. We humans still haven’t figured out the mysteries lying behind this conundrum yet! “We still don’t know everything, but we are sure getting darn close to it” says Mr.Ostrove. Mr.Corey Ostrove is a Research Scientist at Applied Research Lab, and works closely with Dr.LaCour. Talking about his current research, Mr.Ostrove said: “Using known effects of Quantum Teleportation, a similar empirical effect to

Quantum Tunneling, I am able to extrapolate data, and plot points together, allowing me to explore and learn the underlying properties of atoms.” With the unknown out there, the next breakthrough will be as popular as Apple’s first iPhone, or the recent youtube viral video sensation, “Damn Daniel”. All these exciting possibilities leads us to the foundation of quantum tunneling, or the “Schrödinger equation”!

At the beginning of the twentieth century, experimental evidence suggested that atomic particles were also wave-like in nature. This was confusing to most, and also offered a chance to explain the science of how subatomic particles are able to travel through boundaries that classical mechanics says should just be plain impossible. The Schrödinger equation is the fundamental equation of physics for describing quantum mechanical behavior. It is also often called the Schrödinger wave equation, and is a partial differential equation, which is an equation that describes how the wavefunction of a physical system evolves over time. The Schrödinger equation describes the form of the probability waves that govern the motion of small particles, and specifies how these waves are altered by external influences. The equation is used extensively in atomic, nuclear, and solid-state physics, because the properties of the atoms are not visible at any level bigger than the atomic level. This equation allows scientists newer frontiers to explore, and tantalizing new possibilities.

“Quantum Computing” is another aspect of Quantum Mechanics that is developing at an amazing pace along with Quantum Tunneling. Scientist Dr.James Troupe is a leading researcher in this field. “What my work is on is called Quantum Computing.” says

field! It is an important factor in many physical phenomena, such as the rate of nuclear fusion, chemical reactions, and a lot of technology. With a new technology revolution coming, all the signs point to a clear understanding needed of what quantum tunneling is. Most scientists want the knowledge needs to be carried on and wish for more of the younger population to get involved. “People like you are the future!” says Dr. Troupe, “Someday, I will pass on, and someday soon I will retire. But you need to carry on the work to explore the new horizon. The education of the population is necessary.” As the revolution of a new type of science emerges, a few people have enough electrons to push the boundary and break through, aiming for a higher state, and pioneering a huge scientific revolution. Let us be among those pioneering high school students, and explore this new branch of science.We can do it. Let us follow the motto of Capt. Jean Luc Picard of Star Trek and “go where no man has gone before” and explore plus learn about this new and exciting frontier called quantum tunneling.

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Depiction of the currently accepted model of the initial impact of Quantum Tunneling.

Dr. James Troupe, Research Scientist at Applied Research Lab. “In the computer you are using to record this interview, it holds data by either writing it as a 1 or a 0. What my work is on is creating a new computer that holds and reads data by storing the data as 0<x<1. It’s a range, and if we can get a close idea on this range, the power and computing skills of this computer would be infinitely larger”. Quantum computing is going to move business, science, and government forward in unprecedented ways. It’s all a matter of solving problems that are too complex for today’s computational systems. This innovation could lead to the exploration of new and cleaner sources of energy, superior image recognition, more accurate financial forecasting and precise genome mapping.

Quantum tunnelling is a growing hot science research SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 10

Exploring The Eternal Sea

by Esteban Olivares

The cosmos; an unexplored sea waiting to be explored by the ones bave enough to challenge the wasteland.

Multiple missions have taken place that have reached across the frontier. By riding a comit; to leaving the solar system; a few advancements that have been made in space travel. â&#x20AC;&#x153;But where are they now; how far are they from Earth?â&#x20AC;? one might ask. Gaze upon the stars and find out.

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Not To Scale

Image

Name

LaunchDate

EarthDistance

Voyager 1

1977-Sep-05

134.180 AU

Pioneer 10

1972-Mar-03

115.957 AU

Voyager 2

1977-Aug-20

110.887 AU

Pioneer 11

1973-Apr-06

94.854 AU

RosettaPhilae

2004-Mar-2

42.781 AU

NewHorizons 2006-Jan-19

35.174 AU

Curiosity

2011-Nov-26

58-225m km

Interational Space Station

1998-Nov-20

400 km SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 12

e h t o t e m o c Wel e l o h m r Wo

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You’ve seen it in movies, shows and books, but new studies show time travel might not be confined to the screen forever. Whether it be in a spaceship, a DeLorean or even a phonebooth, the time for time travel is now.

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Time Travel: Beyond the Horizon

Imagine if you could follow in the footsteps of some of the most famous assassins, heroes, and pop culture legends of all time. Well according to the science community, taking a trek back to the future is less fictitious than we’ve come to believe. We could soon be making first contact with our days of future past, on an excellent adventure through the biggest feat in interstellar history: time travel.

Scientists still haven’t cracked the code to time travel or interdimensional travel, but they aren’t completely clueless. They know that to move through space and time, one needs to dilate its passage. Because time is essentially nonexistent, rather than moving back and forth in it, you simply need to warp your perception of it in a controlled environment. Speed is the key to the manipulation of time, meaning if you change how time moves for you relative to your surroundings, you quicken your passage into the future. This is essentially what is described in the Theory of General Relativity.

SPACETIME

Time travel is not really traveling Photo Credits: goes.gsfc.nasa.gov, pixabay.com through time, but more bending time so that one may move through it at a different pace relative to all surrounding entities. This movement takes place in a dimension called spacetime, commonly referred to as the fourth dimension.

Jackson Pace, the former Physics teacher at the Liberal Arts and Science Academy, describes it relative to points on

a graph, rather than dimensions in time. “It’s like a fourth coordinate in the coordinate absical plane, where you have the x-coordinate, y-coordinate, and z-coordinate, and then a space time coordinate,” Pace says. “And so that would be how things had to be defined, would be with these four coordinates.” This would mean that time travel, or time dilation as many call it, would have to take place in a region outside the scope of our known knowledge of the universe.

Out of about 22 dimensions we have yet to discover, spacetime exists as our key to the future, hidden in the vast array of the unknown. And the most exciting part is, even though we might not have access to this area of existence, we know how it could be done, and we’re just a few generations away from opening the next door into the future of mankind: the wormhole.

THE WORMHOLE

According to the the General Relativity Theory, time travel is achieved through the creation and penetration of a wormhole. A wormhole is a hole in the fabric of spacetime that allows for shortened travel across a vast expanse of distance. If one were to enter and subsequently exit from the other opening, they would not only cover a large distance that was before impossible, but move past the previous movement of time. Imagine spacetime like an hourglass: All things that exists in space are represented by the sand flowing through the small opening between the upper and lower halves of the device. Now say you open up a hole adjacent to the pre existing one that it is significantly larger than the first. This hole leads to a tube that is longer than the funnel of the hourglass, but is wider and steeper, causing the sand flowing through to move quicker and reach the bottom earlier than the sand flowing at normal speed. This dilated hole leading to an external source of travel acts as the entrance to SPRING 2016 | QUANTUM | 14

we have no idea what would happen in a situation like that, a wormhole acting outside the normal continuity of time.

James Gelb, a physicist at Applied Research Laboratories, so we give it a title to group it with similar thoughts. Anothhas a doctorate in theoretical astrophysics and a back- er popular paradox is the twin paradox, which is the basis ground in cosmology. His field of work correlates directly behind the movie Interstellar. “If one twin stays put and anto the study of these wormholes, and he is very knowledge- other goes off in space at constant speed and then returns able about the potential possibilities behind this phenome- at constant speed, one can conclude by time dilation that non. He describes them as “3D [openings] in 4D spacetime,” he ages less than the stationary twin,” Dr. Gelb says. “But and says that though creating one is possible, there are too there is an apparent problem. The twin staying put might many uncertainties at the moment that prevent us from think the other twin is stationary and that he himself goes knowing exactly what goes on inside one. There are spec- out and back – after all, isn’t everything relative? However, ulations though, and he describes the traversal in a fantas- in this case the twin who went out and back must have decelerated and then accelerated (to turn around) violattically intrigued manner. “Often bizarre effects are not ing the special relativity constraint.” This is a clasnoticed by the ‘traveler,’” Gelb says. “Such effects are outside the observable horizon of the ob“Look around at sic example of time dilation and how relativity server so they cannot be measured by the fits into the continuum of time, but has since observer.” These described effects are often all your friends in your been cleared by modern proper physics, glorified in science fiction, turned into ani- school... These will be the thus declassifying it as a paradox. mated sequences of images and fancy lookfaces of the future.” ing apparitions of space, like in Terminator, WHAT WE KNOW or Timecop, when in reality one would not Relativity, as previously mentioned, is the even be able to perceive such images. concept that time moves relative to itself,

FACT V. FICTION

This brings us to what exactly science fiction has taught us to believe, and which parts are true. “Many science fiction stories borrow terminology from the field and side-step physical uncertainties and focus on the philosophical implications of bizarre effects,” Dr. Gelb says on some of our favorite movies, like Back to the Future. “On the other hand, some wild ideas in science fiction have preceded science, i.e., before the advent of general relativity and quantum theory. This includes multiverses and time travel.” That means that the time travel movies that came out before theories such as quantum gravity were introduced exaggerate the causes and effects of time dilation, and portray methods that are most likely inaccurate when it comes to the theoretical manipulation of the timeline (if only it were as simple as a DeLorean!). That means that things like going into the past just simply can’t be done for multiple reasons, which leads us to our next point in the timeline: paradoxes.

THE PARADOX

Paradoxes don’t necessarily cause giant consuming black holes like movies have told us they will, but rather provide a title for an occurrence that is outside the scope of our knowledge. If you could hypothetically go back in time and kill your grandfather, for instance, or kill Lee Harvey Oswald, the effects would theoretically change the entire timeline leading up to when the killer was sent back. This would then most likely alter the circumstances that caused the time machine to come to be, and thus prevent the event from ever occurring in the first place.

This is what is known as a paradox, simply because

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rather than as a constant. The concept is based around the involvement of speed and gravity, as gravity directly relates to the shift of time through accelerated “falling” through spacetime. “Many theories focus on black holes because of the extreme gravity of black holes and the presence of singularities which open up the possibility of strange effects,” Gelb says. “Issues of causality are tricky because of the disconnect between events measured by the “traveler” compared with observations made by an observer.” This means that singularities like black holes are most likely the closest things to wormholes we know to exist, and they are most likely very closely related.

Exactly how closely related, we don’t know, but we do know that black holes contain dark matter, which is suspected to be a possible to key to the creation of a wormhole entry port. It is thought that dark matter could keep a “door” into a wormhole open long enough for someone to enter into it, and even to create an exit, but dark matter is considered extremely dangerous to handle, and wormholes are thought to require much more for a stable entry. “There are too many theoretical uncertainties,” Gelb says of the creation of a wormhole door, “Furthermore, the more viable theories require the presence of... local black holes or other exotic, short lived quantum effects.”

Photo Credits: youtube.com

THE MATH BEHIND IT

As all people who attended school know, math and science are both extremely tedious subjects, but when it comes to the understanding of the universe, they are essential. In order to do most of things that the average job requires, one needs to do have at least a basic understanding of math, and there’s usually some science thrown in there too. And though it’s necessary, most teens struggling in their geometry or algebra class may begin to question it, asking themselves, “When will I ever use the quadratic formula in real life? When will I need to find the volume of a cylinder?”

Well, when you branch out from those specifics and begin to think about the big picture, math is the basic map between all the different mysteries of the universe.

Jackson Pace of LASA describes it as an army scout going over a hill to pinpoint the enemy territory. “‘I think it’s gonna be here, or it’s gonna be there, or it’s gonna be there,’ this idea of how it really really is,” Pace says. “And then we try to use mathematics to go design experimental apparatus, and physical conditions within the experimental apparatus, to explore which of the maths are correct.” What many people don’t understand is that math is the fundamental link between our world and the world of the unknown, and only through calculations can mankind safely test the limits of reality.

THE TIME IS NOW

This leads us to the definition of reality, which is itself relative, much like time. To this generation, the time of iPhones and the Kardashians, time travel is nonexistent outside the realm of fiction. It is known as a fact to be impossible, but 30 years ago, so was the concept of a cellular phone. “We saw it in the 1900’s, my grandmother saw air travel for the first time, saw automobiles for the first time, and was completely stunned by those achievements,” Jackson Pace says. “I think your generation is gonna see 100 of those achievements.” This just goes to show that what we consider possible now will be common part of known history in the future, and our world is open to an infinite number of new horizons. The future is upon us, and we must be willing to embrace it with full force, as it will be here faster than we think. Whether with a hot tub, or a telephone booth, or even a lightning powered car, we will crack the code to this phenomenon, it’s only a matter of time. ~

Photo Credits: Back to the Future 2

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A History of Quantum Mechanics

By Sendhil Sridhar

Max Planck discovers Quantum Mechanics(it’s not very accepted by the Scientific Community.)

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17 | QUANTUM | ISSUE 1

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UNDISCOVERED

Have you ever wondered how the cool and awesome science you see in movies came to be? Have you ever wondered which famous scientist discovered your favorite science effect? Travel through the arguably most famous scienceâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s expirement, the Double Slit expirement, and jump through a history of Quantum Mechanics.

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4

- William Fisher

Computers and Cosmology

We are living in an era that will go down in history alongside textbook classics, like Newton and Galileo. The past 100 years have been packed with discovery and innovation, with no end in sight. Fueled by modern computers and technology, a whole new world for cosmologists has been opened.

There are many ways that scientists decipher the universe, but a lot of modern methods would not have even been imaginable as early as 30 years ago. Collecting and analyzing data has become millions of times more efficient allowing for groundbreaking discoveries, both in the observational and theoretical realms. A mere 30 years ago, 5,000 galaxies was considered a large number for a redshift survey. Now, cosmologists are producing surveys of upwards of 1,000,000 galaxies. For students interested in a career in cosmology, there has been no better time than now to pursue it.

WHY NOW?

“I wouldn’t have even tried it without the big computers”, says Karl Gebhardt, a Professor of Astrophysics at the University of Texas at Austin. For his field, the advancement of modern computing has created monumental changes. Gebhardt is greatly involved it the Hobby-Eberly Telescope Dark Energy Experiment, or HETDEX for short. The goal of HETDEX is to create a redshift survey of approximately 1,000,000 galaxies, one of the largest surveys being conducted, in order to gain a better understanding of the mysterious dark energy, which is the driving force of the acceleration of the expansion of our universe. Such a project is the perfect environment for modern computing. When it comes to collecting data, “our survey is going to generate [around] 10 petabytes of data” says Gebhardt. That’s 10,000,000,000,000,000 bytes of information to be stored and processed: 20,000 times more than the average laptop computer can store. In order to do this, and keep constant access to the data, Gebhardt says they will be using the supercomputers at the Texas Advanced Computing Center.

Although the most obvious application of modern computing is in the observational realm, it is still very prevalent in 19 | QUANTUM | ISSUE 1

Photo Credits: Joe Parks

many theorist’s work. Today, simulations are being used to test various cosmological theories. We have all seen Physics engines such as Havok, but theorists take it to the next level. Simulating galaxies requires massive computers filling hundreds of square feet, but they “can provide an essential aid to doing what physicists have always done, which is to take assumptions and calculate what the observations should show”, says Steven Weinberg, a Nobel laureate in Physics. Modern computing has accelerated the analysis physicists have always done as in doing so has provided insight never before available, but managing and analyzing the data isn’t the whole story. Where computers lack is in collecting data, that’s where cosmological keystones like the Hubble Space Telescope and the James Webb Space Telescope come in. Some of these telescopes are funded by major organizations in the field, but for HETDEX, their claim to fame is a change in ideology. Creating the technology needed to continuously push the bounds of human discovery is an expensive process as one might imagine. “Normally when you build an instrument it’s a monolithic instrument [...], and all the cost is up front in the engineering cost,”

McDonald Observatory in Texas, home to HETDEX.

explains Gebhardt. Because of this, HETDEX has approached the

issue by using their engineering budget to produce a single small telescope. “We are going to build a lot of very small cheap ones.

Cheap being a million dollars each,” says Gebhardt, “We can build many of them by doing all the engineering on just one and then just mass producing[, ...] we’re building effectively 300 smaller instruments.” It may not sound cheap, but 300 telescope at a million dollars each still costs 2.2 billion less than the construction and development of the Hubble Space Telescope; “It’s like the Henry Ford approach,” explains Gebhardt. Moreover, another reason why HETDEX has managed to cut expenses by so much is because of their use of adaptive optics: A technique that we are beginning to see more and more. When we look at the sky the stars twinkle, which to some may be nice, but to cosmologists it’s a nuisance. This twinkling causes blurring in the images received by the telescope, and it is caused by bending of the light in the atmosphere. Before adaptive optics, telescopes were launched into space to avoid this effect. With adaptive optics you are able to account for this twinkling, which “turns all ground based telescopes into space based telescopes”, says Gebhardt. Adaptive optics has only recently become practical after computing made it efficient enough in the 1990s, but its applications have been tremendously useful.

While all these reasons are reasons that now is the time for monumental advancements in cosmology, the reason we will go down in texts book is for our discovery of gravitational waves using modern laser technology. The Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory, or LIGO for short, is a massive physics experimentation unit that is home to the most accurate laser technology know to man. The constructions of the facility had been anticipated for decades, but it has only recently been finished and put to use. Using this new technology, the groundbreaking discovery of gravitational waves has been made.

or doing the science[, …] but really how you think about problems and how you approach them is a big deal.” This was a common thing mentioned with Gebhardt too. Although Gebhardt stressed the importance of math him and Boylan-Kolchin both agreed that the greatest minds are the ones that can create their own path. *

HOW TO GET IN ON IT

Since we are living in such a revolutionary time period, now is the perfect time to jump on board. How exactly can a student get prepared for a career in cosmology? “Math,” says Karl Gebhardt as well as Steven Weinberg. When asking leading figures in the field this is most likely the response you will get. “Until you get to calculus, you really can’t make huge advances in understanding the fundamentals of physics,” says Gebhardt. With that being said, you may have to go beyond what you school teaches.

Some schools may teach up through calculus in which case “take the [calculus] as early as you can,” says Weinberg, but even so, Weinberg recommends going beyond what your school offers: “I wouldn’t really rely entirely on school to teach you the math you need. The more math the better.” Weinberg, who is now a very prominent figure in the field, did a very similar thing while growing up to prepare himself: “When I was in high school I was in a school that didn’t teach calculus and I was with a group of students. We all learned on our own reading textbooks and then some of us went beyond that and learned differential equations by buying textbooks,” he explains.

While math and physics a essentials in a cosmologists toolbox, Mike Boylan-Kolchin, a Professor of Astronomy at the University of Texas at Austin, explains how that is not the only thing.

“The most important thing is to have a critical mind and to want to learn about the universe,” says Boylan-Kolchin. Boylan-Kolchin explains how “most people end up being capable of doing the math

A picture of early analogue computers.

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