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Final thesis by

Nguyen Hoang Lan

Design for services and mitigating unfavourable-effects of urbanisation a case study

School of Design MSc in Product Service System Design Supervisor: Stefana Maja Broadbent Submitted: April 2021

Final thesis

Design for services and mitigating unfavourable-effects of urbanisation a case study

Politecnico di Milano School of Design MSc in Product Service System Design Supervisor: Stefana Maja Broadbent Nguyen Hoang Lan Matricola: 914370 A.Y. 2019/2020

Abstract Urbanisation represents one of the four demographic megatrends today, profoundly changing the way city and its population are using products, services and space. New urban developments are presented as a rational response to projections of high urban population growth and unfavourable patterns of urbanisation, but there is still a call for more adequate approach. The support that service design can offer to the urbanisation has been largely discussed in recent times. This thesis aims to explore how design tools, methods, and techniques can be applied to adapt to multiple layers of developing in an urbanisation context. An initial research was carried out to understand the potential of new settings, at Daga Kholpa where the research focused on. In the following, another circle of research was conducted to scrutinise how design tools could contribute to involve stakeholders and foster the creation of new services. Finally, a solution related to food and nutrition was proposed as an examination in order to help with empowering potential stakeholders and mitigating unfavourable effects of the new city.

Keywords: design for services, design tools, urbanisation, new urban development, stakeholders involvement, urban food system

Acknowledgement At first, I would like to thank my supervisor, Stefana Maja Broadbent, for her support and effort throughout the whole process. Backing up with expert knowledge and being available for feedback and questions helped me during this 13 month journey. A big thank to SIT - Social Innovation Teams, this thesis topic would never open without them, especially to Federica Tirone and Argia Galliano for their assist with my internship. A great thank to Enjoy Agriculture Team, firstly to Asmaa Kherrati who patiently followed me throughout the remote internship and the early development of this work. Thank you Eli for sharing everything during my 2 month stay at Fann Hock. Thank you Awa Caba for your time being one of the co-design participants while spreading your expertness. To my friends in Dakar: Oumar, Mary, Ghaly, Khadim, Hamidou, Miguel, Sara and all others I have encountered, thank you for your feedback, your time, your patience and your support. A special thank to Marta and André from Pitágoras Group for your time exchanging informative emails. Thank you to Romarick, Eyerusalem, Alé, Ndeye and Siny for your time joining interviews remotely that helped enriching largely my work. Thank you to Fabio Galsen from Jahkarlo for your time sharing helpful information. Thank you to everyone I had the chance to meet in these two years of PSSD, I could not have made a better choice for a masters’. Thank you to my family: mẹ Hoà, bố Hà, Hạnh, má Hà và ba Dũng, bà nội, em Titu, chị Yến, anh Phan, thank you for your support in every situation, the phone calls and helpful messages in the most stressful times of the pandemic, and continuous care regardless of where I would be. To all my friends at via Plezzo and viale Abruzzi Milano, at Feuerleinstraße Nürnberg and at via Magnagrecia Roma, thank you for your support all along my journey. Thank you to Nghĩa, Trình, Hoàng, em Anh Ðào for your relentless reading and feedback. Bi, thank you for all your support and help, not just during this thesis, but in these two years of the course. Your positivity, feedback, our talks and jokes have supported me beyond any explanation. Thank you!

Table of contents

Abstract

Acknowledgment

Table of contents

1. Introduction

I. Setting and Context 2. Background

18 21

2.1 Service design

2.1.1. Definition

2.1.2. Key principles

2.2. Urban, urbanisation, urban planning

2.2.1. Urban and urbanisation

2.2.2. Urban planning, its ambition and purpose

2.3. Service design in urban context

2.3.1. Linking urban planning, urban design and service design

2.3.2. Collaborative service and sustainable urban visions

3. Context of research 3.1. Urbanisation in West Africa

3.1.1. A unique form of urbanisation

3.1.2. The condition of Senegal

3.1.2.1. Degree of urbanisation

3.1.2.2. Urban growth in Senegal

3.2. Plan for an emerging Senegal

3.2.1. A bet on infrastructure

3.3. Daga Kholpa development plan

3.3.1. Overview of the plan

3.3.1.1. Main concept

3.3.1.2. Multi-functionalism

3.3.2. Existing conditions of Daga Kholpa

3.3.2.1. Environmental sensibility analysis

3.3.2.2. General conditions

3.3.3. Development phases

3.3.3.1. Current status

3.3.3.2. Stakeholders

3.3.3.3. Public vs. private

3.3.4. Cooperative development zone

3.3.5. Expected inhabitants

3.3.5.1. Existing villages

3.3.5.2. Possible newcomers

3.3.5.3. Projected population distribution for 2035

3.3.6. Participatory development projects

59 60

3.3.6.1. Takku Bey

3.3.6.2. Ëlëku Daga

II. Research 4. Aim and methodology

62 67

4.1. Aim

4.2. Methodology

4.2.1. Overall methodology

4.2.2. Tools and methods applied

4.3. Research timeline

5. Service area

5.1. What is food?

5.2. Past ideas about the future of food

5.3. Food sector and agriculture

5.4. A focus on the food system

5.4.1. Food system thinking

5.4.2. Current patterns of African food system

5.4.2.1. Production

5.4.2.2. Processing and post-harvest

5.4.2.3. Access to market

5.4.2.4. Consumers

5.5. From food system to urban food system

5.5.1. Invitation to integrate food with urban planning

5.5.2. Some megatrends are shaping the future

5.5.3. Key drivers and opportunities

5.5.3.1. Key drivers (or threats)

5.5.3.2. Opportunities

5.6. Current situation in Senegal

5.7. Interviews

5.8. Case studies

107

6. Phenomenological observation

119

6.1. Dakar

122

6.2. Diamniadio

124

6.3. Daga Kholpa

126

7. Future scenarios

129

7.1. From flood to bloom

132

7.2. Moving farm

134

7.3. Ready-to-cook couscous

136

7.4. Speciality for you

138

7.5. Info food

140

7.6. Frugal digital

142

8. Co-design

145

8.1. Service concept

146

8.1.1. Description

146

8.1.2. Main activities

147

8.1.3. Actors

147

8.2. Co-design

148

8.2.1. Online questionnaire

148

8.2.2. Expert’s session

152

8.2.2.1. Idea

152

8.2.2.2. Aim

152

8.2.2.3. How it was planned

154

8.2.2.4. How it happened

154

8.2.2.5. Performance

155

8.2.2.6. Tools

156

8.2.2.7. Evaluation

160

8.2.2.8. Insights

162

8.2.3. Concept redevelopment

164

8.2.4. User’s session

166

8.2.4.1. Idea

166

8.2.4.2. Aim

166

8.2.4.3. How it was planned

168

8.2.4.4. How it happened

168

8.2.4.5. Performance

169

8.2.4.6. Tools

170

8.2.4.7. Evaluation

174

8.2.4.8. Insights

176

8.3. Service redevelopment

178

9. PSS-Design 9.1. Mission and vision

185

9.2. What we offer

186

9.3. System map

188

9.4. Sustainability scanner

190

9.5. Personas, user journey and spatial envision

192

9.6. Business modelling

214

9.6.1. Business model canvas

214

9.6.2. Value creation

216

9.6.2.1. Supply side

216

9.6.2.2. Demand side

216

9.6.2.3. Value capture

216

9.6.3. Market dimensions

217

9.6.4. Establishing and growth

217

9.6.5. Operational costs

217

9.6.6. KPIs

218

9.7. Solution roadmap

181

221

III. Conclusions 10. Findings and reflections 10.1. Prototyping

234 237 238

10.1.1. Early testing

238

10.1.2. Key takeaways

238

10.2. Conclusions

240

10.2.1. Limitations of the study

240

10.2.2. Potential directions for future development

240

References

243

Bibliography

245

List of figures

252

List of tables

255

1. Introduction

Urbanisation represents one of the four demographic megatrends today, together with the growth of global population, population ageing, and international migration, profoundly changing the way city and its population are using products, services and space. Urban area (and its potential) attracts the attention of authorities and influx of people from different areas towards it, especially in developing countries. However, in these contexts, and more particularly, in West Africa, urbanisation is not happening in the same ways it has happened in other places around the globe. By now, new urban developments are presented as a rational response to the projections of high urban population growth and unsustainable/unfavourable patterns of urbanisation. The concentration of population creates a huge advantage along with an increase for demand of decent services. The consensus is that access to services while living in urban area is essential for promoting human dignity, increase the quality of life and support sustainable livelihoods. Hence the need to design for these services. The support that service design can offer to the urbanisation has been largely discussed in recent times. This thesis, therefore, aims to explore how design tools, methods, and techniques can be applied to adapt to multiple layers of developing in the specific case of a new urban development project in a neighbouring area of Dakar - the capital of Senegal. The project opened great opportunities when kicking off this thesis with the availability of its important Master Plan. Nevertheless, due to the complexity of a national plan, the project was only used as an experimental context to investigate and start the design. An initial research was carried out to understand the potential of new settings, at Daga Kholpa where the research focused on. In the following, another circle of research was conducted to scrutinise how design tools could contribute to involve stakeholders and foster the creation of new services. Finally, a solution related to food and nutrition was proposed as an examination in order to help with empowering potential stakeholders and mitigating unfavourable effects of the new city.

I. SETTING AND CONTEXT

Chapter 2

Background About service design, urbanisation and urban development visions

Service design Definition Key principles

Urban, urbanisation, urban planning Urban and urbanisation Urban planning, its ambition and purpose

Service design in urban context Linking urban planning, urban design and service design Collaborative service and sustainable urban visions

2.1. Service design 2.1.1. Definition The precise definitions on what service design exactly consists of and what exactly its field of work is, vary remarkably in literature (Stickdorn et al. 2011; Sangiorgi and Prendiville 2017). This is not just because of the general difficulty to define the borders of service design, but also because it is constantly evolving as a field, that sets new focuses due to societal and organisational changes since the 1980s. In the last years, there have been various publications trying to synthesise not just the evolution of service design, but also its specific methods and practitioners. Stickdorn et al. drew a history of service design, the relation of this development to the changing society and articulating specific aspects and methods (Stickdorn et al. 2011). Speaking generally, service design aims to develop new or reform existing processes to improve the final service delivered to the user. It is applied to plan services from the beginning as well as to improve already active services.

“Service design as a practice results in the design of systems and processes aimed at providing a holistic service to the user.” - Chi Pham

2.1.2. Key principles Defining the key elements of service design and its work practices, there are various definitions partly overlapping. While one way of referring to service design relates to human-centredness, creativity and iterative practices (Sangiorgi and Prendiville 2017b), Foglieni et al. defines it as the capability of unifying and satisfying both the needs of users and the ones of the organization’s members while creating an advantage to competitors (Foglieni, Villari and Maffei 2018). This point of view is similar to Brown’s, that defined service design as the research for a precise balance between the needs of the user, the needs of the organisations and the feasibility of ideas (Brown 2009). Trying to synthesise and summarise the characteristics of service design, Stickdorn et al. identified some key principles describing the approach and way of working of service designers drawing five main pillars of service design (Stickdorn et al. 2011). The key principles listed below are following the summary of the most important service design principles created by Stickdorn (Stickdorn 2011). 1. User-centred - use qualitative research to design focusing on all users One of the fundamental approaches identifying service design is its user centred approach. User-centred defines the mindset of seeing the user as the most important aspect of the service, his needs and wants are to be discovered before designing and ideally also the testing of prototypes should be done with real users to further identify their way of seeing the service.

2. Co-creative - include all relevant stakeholders in the design process Since service designers plan and improve entire services, sometimes from zero, a collaboration with insiders of different fields is fundamental to be sure of a certain level of expertise in all fields involved. This approach of co-creation is already found in the research process and carried on afterwards in the design process to combine the knowledge scattered over departments, organisations, and teams to filter it and apply it for the benefit of the service. These co-creators can be colleagues, external partners, consultants, users, or in the ideal case a combination of organisational members, users and eventually external consultants or stakeholders. This aspect is a fundamental shift from traditional approaches - to make intelligent use of the knowledge of one another instead of everyone getting to know everything perfectly; Nevertheless, it is inevitable for the designer to deep-dive into the issue treated, cocreating does not mean completely avoiding learning processes and new knowledge. 3. Evidencing - envision service experiences to make them tangible for users Services design evidences positive aspects and aims to transform happenings into experiences (Vink 2009). This, like many service design activities, aims to stay behind the scenes, evidencing outstanding parts of the service for user. In many cases, the user will not consciously recognise this strategy, but notice it as a positive aspect of the

service. Evidencing allows a certain guidance of the user through slight modifications in the user journey. It can support the user in specifically noticing positive aspects of the service while eventually not paying full attention to slightly negative aspects, that are unavoidable for the service provider. 4. Sequencing - break a complex service into separate processes Considering the whole journey of a service, all the interconnection between the different stages. The sequencing of these different elements is important to obtain a complete view, organise the service and identify problems in the flow of the elements. Sequencing is closely related to the holistic view of service design, but highlights the importance of perceiving the positioning of the elements in the bigger picture, especially for timing and elements, that form the base of other elements following. 5. Holistic - see a bigger picture The holistic aspect describes the attitude to take all aspects into consideration, to explore and map all connections between users, services, service providers and external touchpoints to obtain a complete picture.

“If you would ask ten people what service design is, you would end up with eleven different answers at least.” - Marc Stickdorn

Considering the user’s point of view as well as the service providers’ one, allows a more complete view in interactions. Including not just the service delivery itself, but also the preand post-experience, can give an impression on influencing factors not directly included in the process of service delivery.

“Urbanization is the set of principles, doctrines and rules that should be applied so that the buildings and their conglomerations, as opposed to constricting, distorting and corrupting the physical, moral and intellectual faculties of social humans, can help promote their development and vitality thereby improving individual wellbeing, the sum total of which constitutes public prosperity.” - Ildefons Cerdà

2.2. Urban, urbanisation, urban planning 2.2.1. Urban and urbanisation The future of the world’s population is urban. With more than half of the world’s people living in urban areas (55%, up from 30% in 1950), urbanisation determines the spatial distribution of the world’s population and is one of the four demographic megatrends, along with the growth of the global population, population aging, and international migration (DESA 2019). Despite the above mentioned trends, there is no unanimous academic consensus about what ‘urbanisation’ means. The plural nature of the forms of human settlement make it difficult to identify the urbanisation processes. It turns out there is no standard international definition of an ‘urban’ area or ‘urban’ population. Each country has its own definition, and collects data accordingly. A list compiled by the UN Population Division gathers the definitions of ‘urban’ population used in censuses in 232 countries showing that, the criteria used to decide whether to define a place as ‘urban’ ranging from administrative criteria or political boundaries, a threshold population size, population density, economic function, or the presence of urban characteristics (Unicef 2012; UN 2018). Traditionally, urbanisation has been defined as “the process by which towns and cities are formed and become larger as more and more people begin living and working, in central areas” (Merriam-Webster Dictionary), “the process of creating towns in country areas” (Collins), “a population shift from rural to urban areas” (Wikipedia) or “the process by which large numbers of people become permanently concentrated in relatively small

areas, forming cities” (Britannica). Among various definitions, the one coined by Cerdà that emphasises on the continuous and systematic feature of urbanisation seems to be the most applicable with the nature of cities (Scott and Storper 2015) as a correlate. Because urbanisation does not always come before building. In the peripheries in developing countries the land is usually divided into ‘plots’ first and then it is built on (occupying the land) and then the service networks arrive afterwards. But, above all, because urbanisation is not always a single, comprehensive act, but is more commonly a process (especially in the developing countries) in which the service networks (vehicle access and electricity, first), the water supply, sewerage and later paving are gradually added. A main consequence of urbanisation is a rise in the number, land area and population size of urban settlements and in the number and share of urban residents compared to rural dwellers (DESA 2019). Urbanisation is shaped by spatial and urban planning as well as by public and private investments in buildings and infrastructure. An increasing share of economic activity and innovation becomes concentrated in cities, and cities develop as hubs for the flow of transport, trade and information. Cities also become places where public and private services of the highest quality are available and where basic services are often more accessible than in rural areas.

2.2.2. Urban planning, its ambition and purpose As mentioned in the previous text, that urbanisation ‘shaped by spatial and planning’, ideally, the planning should come before the process of urbanising. In this regard, urban planning could help to formulate mediumand long-term objectives that reconcile a collective vision with the rational organisation of the resources to achieve it. Meanwhile, the concern is still raising when, especially, developing and emerging countries cannot develop effectively while confronted by rapid population growth that far outstrips their capacity to provide urban services. They need to be better prepared to make the most of this growth, and to channel and manage it in a proactive way (UN-Habitat 2013).

Thriving cities have a framework for growth

Anticipating benefits the present

Planning helps leaders to make an impact, step by step

Urban form makes a difference

Having a direction that has a positive impact on the urban economy

“Urban planning is neither a science nor only a decisionmaking technique, but an institution charged with the continual flow of the production of space over time.” - Henri Lefebvre

[Table 1] Ten points depict a contemporary approach to planning that can help city leaders to drive constructive change. Source: UN-Habitat 2013

A collectively held plan builds lasting synergies A broader territorial perspective helps cities attain economies of scale

Continuity generates credibility

Anticipating is more cost effective than reacting to problems A framework gives consistency to messages

Major efforts to enhance quality of life, prosperity and equity have been made in a number of cities. Such transformational impact is not achieved by being spontaneous. Thriving cities have a vision and follow it through with a framework to develop in an orderly way. A framework is not about centralised command and control but is a tool to anticipate needs, to coordinate efforts and to find a path to a goal that everyone can follow. Anticipating the future means being better prepared today. By staying ahead of challenges, city leaders are ready to see opportunities and manage risks from a particular vantage point. With reliable information on the current situation, they will be able to make connections between the long-term vision and short-term actions. On the other hand, cities that do not actively plan for their future are likely to be left behind. Local leaders are elected and appointed to improve cities. Given the magnitude of the challenges that cities face, it is unlikely that all the desired improvements will happen immediately. Successful cities build a momentum by tackling priority projects that are aligned with an overall vision. Planning identifies pressing issues and available resources, and ensures that initiatives are not redundant or going in different directions. Housing, employment, accessibility and safety are key concerns for urban dwellers and are strongly correlated to urban form. The correct policies on density, land use, public space and the layout of infrastructure and services can make a difference to the delivery of good quality of life at the right price. Designing a spatial pattern that addresses citizens’ concerns is a means for delivering a better city. Making sure there are plenty of jobs in the city is a primary concern for local leaders. Cities compete to attract investment to generate economic activity. Planning coordinates the spatial location and distribution of economic activity, and facilitates value capture from public investments and the transformation of rural to urban land. City leaders who see opportunities in urbanisation need to rally all possible contributions toward developing them. A collectively held framework gives local leaders a road map to reach out to citizens, to energise departments, to mobilise partners so that they engage in realising the vision, and to leverage synergies between stakeholders. Cities do not exist in vacuums but are connected to a surrounding region with which they share resources and opportunities. Rather than just looking within municipal boundaries, city leaders who plan together can create a competitive advantage out of cross-municipal coordination. In addition to spatial efficiencies, this would allow them to draw on economies of scale to boost their negotiation power. Successful cities have ensured continuity of plans through political cycles, realising that a stable road map makes the plans more credible. Investment is a long-term endeavour that benefits from predictable conditions. Spatial planning reduces uncertainties and its continuity helps to create transparent opportunities for an engaged society. Local leaders can drive constructive change if they are active rather than passive leaders; leaders who anticipate rather than react get to the root of problems. Unplanned spatial patterns are inefficient and require more resources to maintain, and the high cost of bad or no decisions is likely to be irreversible. Communication is a key asset for cities, but the opportunity to connect and convey a city’s advantages can be undermined by empty or contradictory messages. Momentum and support are increased when local leaders demonstrate substantive, even if incremental, progress that is consistent with the collective vision and framework.

2.3. Service design in urban context 2.3.1. Linking urban planning, urban design and service design Urban planning and urban design Urban planning and urban design are related but different in fundamental ways.

“Urban planning is the branch of architecture dealing with the organisation of a city, including its policies, infrastructure, building codes and regulations. The focus is more technical and political, and is on the strategy, structure, policy level that determine plans for the future physical arrangement and condition of a community.” - Dictionary.com “Urban design is the creation of city features based on plans. It involves the arrangement and design of buildings, public spaces, transport systems, services and amenities. It is the process of giving form, shape and character to groups of building, the whole of neighbourhood and the city.” - Urbandesign.org 30

These two different terms operate on a different level with unique focuses, although they share many of the same goals. They both work towards creating sustainable and flexible spaces that improve the quality of life for people living, working, and traveling to the area. The definition of ‘urban planning’ here does not aim at building a disagreement with the statement of Henri Lefebvre in the previous section. It was generated through a literature review in order to mainly clarify it with the term ‘urban design’, and eventually to point out their sharing potential in facilitating urban services. Urban design involves place-making Place-making is the creation of a setting that imparts a sense of place to an area. This process is achieved by establishing identifiable neighbourhoods, unique architecture, aesthetically pleasing public places and vistas,

Region/Subregion

identifiable landmarks and focal points, and a human element established by compatible scales of development and ongoing public stewardship. Other key elements of placemaking include: lively commercial centres, mixed-use development with ground-floor retail uses, human-scale and context-sensitive design; safe and attractive public areas; image-making; and decorative elements in the public realm. In their book, Palermo and Ponzini asserted that there’s a need to reconsider placemaking as an innovative and potentially autonomous field, competing with more traditional disciplines such as urban planning, urban design, architecture and others. At the same time, for urban experts and policymakers, critically reflecting upon the physical and social contexts of their interventions becomes compulsory, so that facing placemaking today is a way to renew the civic and social role of urban planning and urban design (Palermo and Ponzini 2015).

City/Town

Neighbourhood

[Fig.1] Urban design has a wide range of applications. Source: urbandesign.org

Urban planning and service design Citizens who can choose, move to neighbourhoods and cities that provide public transport, health services, schools, day-care centres, playgrounds, green areas and shops. However, these requirements are acknowledged, but not well enough implemented. And service designers are less trained to cope with urban rules, intended as abstract patterns that define physical relationships that are lying behind the urban form, which are usually left to municipal building authorities, their administrators, lawyers, and economists. Design for services and social innovation Several European cities have been experimenting with new approaches to governance, in order to develop more efficient ways of

identifying issues and co-producing solutions with diverse stakeholders. In fact, many social innovation acceleration programmes, public-private experimental partnerships and crowd-sourcing and crowd-funding initiatives put in place by public administrations, or by private entities with public endorsement, have created a favourable local system for social innovators. The role of design, and in particular service design, in the above framework is today acknowledge because of its transformational capacity due to its aptitude for systemic thinking, sensemaking and skill training. By ‘empowering people’ to conceive, develop and produce solutions together, for example, to innovate, design dialogues with management, organisational disciplines, economies, social sciences and sustainability studies.

“Social innovation is innovation that is explicitly for the social and public good. It is innovation inspired by the desire to meet social needs which can be neglected by traditional forms of market provision and which have often been poorly served or unresolved by services organised by the state.” - Murray, Caulier-Grice & Mulgan

2.3.2. Collaborative service and sustainable urban visions The notion of collaborative service was first used by Jegou and Manzini in 2008, to discuss how services based on a tight collaboration between providers and users and based on the sharing of materials resources, knowledge and competences could support the transition towards more environmentally and socially sustainable ways of living.

the design phase, after designers leave the project, people are left in the ground without appropriate knowledge or capabilities to manage the service’ and it is suggested that ‘to overcome this limitation, more sustained and open design strategies to build users’ learning, ownership and capabilities are needed’ (Yu and Sangiorgi 2014).

When discussing the role of the designers in supporting the emergence of collaborative services, Jegou and Manzini argue that, the designer’s role here is to contribute to the development of the promising cases by designing the ‘enabling solutions’ which might be understood as ‘a system of products, services, communication and whatever is necessary, to improve the accessibility, effectiveness and replicability of a collaborative service’ (Meroni and Sangiorgi 2011).

Design for sustainable future

Furthermore, it is recognised that when the collaborative solutions are the main emphasis, co-design as a strategic approach is typical too (Meroni and Sangiorgi 2011). They state: ‘with this perspective, the role of designers is moving towards the one of facilitator of multidisciplinary processes, forging connections among people and organisations, bringing users to the centre of each project and defining the platforms and tools needed to enable and encourage participation’. Likewise, for instance, Selloni (2015) also clearly recognises and in her research explores the roles as ‘process facilitator’; however, she points out how the designer needs to engage also with the implementation phase of the service (Selloni 2015). In a similar way, Yu and Sangiorgi (2014) argue that ‘codesign activities predominantly happen in

In recent years, new perspectives, ideas and technologies are being harnessed to push design beyond being engaged just with consumer culture and exploring new forms of practice. There is a growing consensus that design can be a mode of innovation that provides a set of skills, tools and methods that guide people to new socially innovative solutions or improvement of existing ones.

“Many programmes and initiatives put in place by public administrations, or by private entities with public endorsement, have created a favourable local system for social innovators.” - Anne Chick 33

Chapter 3

Context of research Daga Kholpa new urban centre

Urbanisation in West Africa A unique form of urbanisation The condition of Senegal

Plan for an Emerging Senegal A bet on infrastructure

Daga Kholpa development plan Overview of the plan Existing conditions of Daga Kholpa Development phases Main functions on cooperative development zone Expected inhabitants Participatory development projects

3.1. Urbanisation in West Africa 3.1.1. A unique form of urbanisation In Africa, urbanisation is not happening in the same ways it has happened in other places around the globe. And with a closer look, the uniqueness is higher. This section will provide some insights through literature review regarding the urbanisation within the West African context, including Senegal - the main case of this research. Firstly, there are evidences of interfering characteristics of the process in this area, and secondly, the information and materials for exactly the context of Senegal are not available enough to utilise. The main attempt is to have the right consideration of the urban basement in which, the urban services could finally be provided for its residents. Urbanisation from rural areas Globally, urbanisation represents one of the four demographic megatrends (DESA 2019), and also one of the main demographic transformations confronting Africa today, with attendant implications for the region’s long-term development trajectory. It is undoubtedly true that Africa is currently the fastest urbanising region of the world (World Bank 2016), and that many more Africans now live in urban areas than at any other point in history (Resnick 2014). Driven by a combination of factors, even if in the absence of rural migration, the urbanisation in Africa has still proceeded (Heinrigs 2019). In other words, much of the urbanisation across Africa now is fuelled more natural population growth in cities or urban-to-urban, rather than rural-to-urban, migration. On the one hand, the conditions

in which the new environment for living supposed to flourish, in case of converting formerly rural areas into urban settlements, have impoverished foundation, that affects not only the development of spaces but also the people’s way of living. On the other hand, as land is urbanised and serviced it often generates a very high income for land owners. In a typical model, the increase will be pocketed by the landowner, despite the fact that they did not contribute in any way. The relationship between rural and urban areas now is not just the origin and/or destination but become more complex in the formation of peri-urban areas, which are increasingly becoming part of the urban system (Rigon et al. 2018). Area-wide forms of governance and planning are highly recommended while should not aim to increase investment in rural areas as a way to slow city growth by staunching migration. Instead, area-wide governance with a focus on peri-urban areas are becoming increasingly important, that can help strengthen a city’s relationship with surrounding rural areas. Food security is one issue in which understanding these rural–urban linkages is critical. Reproduction of colonial cities While African urban history was ancient, it is clear that Europeans brought a new type of city based on grid patterns and ‘monumental’ architecture (Chenal 2017; Keeton and Nijhuis 2019). In the colonial era, the ‘actual’ city was that of the ‘whites’, while ‘indigenous’ areas were not considered part of the city and tended to be identified with the village model.

Contemporary urban development in Africa is characterised, broadly speaking, by two forms: the unregulated urban growth associated with informal communities and the highly-planned execution of new town or gated community development. Both the current styles of formation of space, the new town and the ‘informal’ settlement, are unsustainable (World Bank 2016; Hallegatte et al. 2017; Murray 2017). Even more extreme, spaces where companies act as proxies for civic administration, managing urban security, infrastructure, waste management and other facilities are for urban elites, whilst ordinary, lower income citizens make do with an increasingly decrepit urban landscape elsewhere (Smith 2017). Fantasy through national vision The aspiration of many governments across Africa is recently represented through number of ambitious plans and visions (PS 2013; Smith 2017). By manipulating the appealing of images, those ‘plans’ are often erected regardless the difference in their relation to where they are located (Myers 2011; Smith 2017). The emptiness of those estates even if right after their inauguration, paradoxically, encouraged the urban dreams: they belonged to the realm of the future and therefore remained potentially accessible to everyone (Smith 2017). As residents try to anticipate and live towards the future, they inevitably do so from the present – a present in which fantastical images of the future are in circulation. They mostly pre-empted for this uncertain future by exiting before it’s too late, otherwise they will keep waiting impermanently in order to prolong their uncertainty. While the cities move on around them, their dwellings are static, stuck in place and time.

Informality is the norm The concept of informality is used to describe entire areas and a large sector of economic activities in African cities (Rigon et al. 2018). The areas are often informal settlements that fall into the problematic UN-Habitat definition of slums, which looks at the characteristics of households in the area. In terms of the economy, informality is seen as a separate, self-standing sector that must be formalised in order to extend taxation and regulation or, for those with good intentions, social protection. In African cities, informality is the norm, with urban value chains and services containing formal and informal elements that are interdependent. Products and services may be delivered through chains with informal and formal stages, for example, and ‘formal’ enterprises have informal practices, including informal employment of unskilled labour. In addition, employees in the formal sector rely on informal services to deliver productive work, such as transport and food stalls. Understanding the hybridity of formality as part of urban practices across all city actors is a necessary step in the construction of an African urbanism that can underpin the development of planning and management strategies that start with valuing and acknowledging existing urban realities. Power decentralisation In African context, much of the impetus for decentralisation has been primarily political (Resnick 2014a, 2014b). The fastest urbanising rate has hindered the capacity of providing adequate services in urban areas - such as sanitation, potable water, sustainable housing and electricity - it is increasingly becoming an important priority for African governments. Yet, due to the embracing of decentralisation policies in Africa, a trend that has been

enthusiastically supported by the international donor community, responsibility for providing these services has often been transferred to sub-national authorities. Where a situation of vertically divided government prevails — meaning that an opposition party is in control at the sub-national level. There are two main justifications following. (1) Improved governance, specifically by bringing decisions closer to the people, it might empower local citizens and increase both upward and downward accountability between elected decision-makers and local citizens. (2) Improved service delivery, in this perspective, decentralisation can facilitate the ability of local governments to tailor services to local preferences and needs as well as encouraging competition among local government to retain residents by providing the most efficient services. Decentralisation must involve shifting power (in planning) and resources (largely achieved through fiscal autonomy) towards lower tiers of government rather than creating local institutions under central control, as is often the case. Moreover, decentralisation has to take into consideration the ‘diversity of traditional practices and the complex local politics of ethnic relations’ (UN-Habitat 2014). Planning from below The reality on the ground in many African cities is characterised by ‘agency from below’, in which urban residents build their houses and provide their own services through various forms of individual and collective action (Rigon et al. 2018). This self-help approach to housing and services is a major force shaping and making African cities. A significant part of urban management and planning takes place outside the control of city authorities.

The centrality of ‘agency from below’ in planning and managing cities can contribute to the emergence of a hybrid urbanism that can find new models and concepts appropriate for the specific needs of diverse African cities, leaving behind European models. The value of citizen participation in local governance and planning is increasingly recognised in different African countries, opening opportunities. For instance, the 2010 Constitution of Kenya put a strong emphasis on citizen participation and explicitly mentioned their participation in at least 16 articles. Urban infrastructure The presence of infrastructure has historically played a key role in the origin and growth of many major African cities, often developed around the main port or railway. However, today African cities suffer from an urban and national infrastructure gap. Public transport is costly and lacking, presenting a major challenge to labour mobility. Traffic congestion affects many residents and decreases productivity. The way in which infrastructure is provided can also contribute to addressing the other challenges of inequality and poverty. Infrastructure can be pro-poor, prioritising the needs of the urban poor and developing mechanisms for cross-subsidising low-income residents, or it can increase inequality and poverty by serving high-income developments and ignoring informal settlements.

___ [Fig.2] A perspective rendering of Akon City - smart city in development in Senegal - found by Akon, the Grammy nominated artist. Source: www.akoin.io, retrieved 05.4.2021

1900

1967

1986

2009 2013

[Fig.3] Historical change in the built-up area of Dakar, images obtained from the Global Crisis Atlas and Google Maps. Source: JICA (2016)

3.1.2. The condition of Senegal 3.1.2.1. Degree of urbanisation On March 5th 2020, the United Nations Statistical Commission endorsed the ‘Degree of Urbanization’ as a recommended method for international comparisons since national definitions of urban and rural areas always differ significantly from one country to another.

1975

Historically, the data on buildings had a higher spatial resolution than data on people. As a result, definitions used buildings as a proxy for the spatial concentration of population. The Degree of Urbanization identifies three types of settlements:

1990

2000

2015

• Cities, which have a population of at least 50,000 inhabitants in contiguous dense grid cells (>1,500 inhabitants per km2); • Towns and semi-dense areas, which have a population of at least 5,000 inhabitants in contiguous grid cells with a density of at least 300 inhabitants per km2; and • Rural areas, which consist mostly of lowdensity grid cells. By standardising the classification approach and applying it at the global level, it can help identify and measure the effectiveness of the policies in different countries that improve the quality of life in these areas. It will also help monitor access to services and infrastructure and other Sustainable Development Goals’ indicators in a way that enables meaningful comparison and aggregation.

___ [Fig.4] Degree of urbanisation in Dakar, computation from Global Human Settlement Layer https://ghsl.jrc. ec.europa.eu/CFS.php, retrieved 01.5.2020

Saint-Louis

Louga

Dakar

Thiès

Diourbel

Kaffrine

Fatick Kaolack

Ziguinchor

Sédhiou

Kolda

[Fig.5] Territorial distribution of 14 Depar

3.1.2.2. Urban growth in Senegal

A recent trend of urbanisation in Senegal is the dominance of Dakar Region as the primary city, with some regional urban centres scattered around that support each hinterland. Dakar Region (inside Dakar Department), with a population of 3,429,370 (2016), is the outstanding urban pole in Senegal. It serves as the political and administrative capital of Senegal, as well as the international gateway for global trade and business activities. A group of secondary urban centres are scattered rather intensively behind Dakar, such as Thiès, Diourbel, Fatick and Kaolack and, towards the north, Louga and SaintLouis. These urban centres in the western part of Senegal function as nodes providing various urban services to the hinterlands, and transferring agro-products from the hinterlands to other areas. The western part is more suitable for agriculture with rich groundwater resources, and it therefore has a larger population-supporting capacity.

Matam

Tambacounda

Kédougou

rtments, own visualisation

Human capital

Financing the economy

27 flagship projects

Gradual modernisation of the social economy

Multi-service and tourism regional hub Mines and fertilisers

[Fig.6] Daga Kholpa within 27 infrastructure projects and 17 structural reforms, own elaboration

Agriculture, seafood and agrifood products

Logistical and industrial regional hub Strategic recovery of the energy sector

Daga Kholpa urban centre

Centred on 27 infrastructure projects and 17 structural reforms, the ‘Plan for an Emerging Senegal’ (PES) which was approved in February 2014, aimed at attracting foreign/private investment, reducing poverty and inequality, and ranges from power generation, agriculture to tourism and education... (PS 2013). It also involves recent oil and gas discoveries near the border with Mauritania.

Employment and social inclusion drivers

Business climate and regulations

Social habitat and ecosystem construction

Digital economy

Export and Prerequisite FDI drivers

17 major reforms

Infrastructure

3.2. Plan for an Emerging Senegal 3.2.1. A bet on infrastructure In seeking to become an emerging country by 2035, the phase 2 of the PES was presented by President Macky Sall on 17 December of 2018, at starting his second Presidential term, which covers the period of 2019-23. Senegal obtained donor pledges worth USD 14 billion. This is three times more than expected and more than twice as much as the first phase (OECD 2018). The country recorded solid economic growth exceeding 6% from 2013 to 2017 (OECD 2018). However, the downside showed that youth unemployment remains endemic, nearly 50% of the population do not have health coverage and the goal of universal primary education has not yet been achieved.

Structural transformation of the economic framework

Promotion of human capital Good governance and rule of law

[Fig.7] The PES is organised around three axes, own elaboration

The plan “is starting to bear some good fruits… but with all of the development challenges, that seem to be still not enough for the population to feel it”, said Sidy Diop, head of francophone Africa for Deloitte. While there has been progress in healthcare and education - which are central to the PES - the biggest challenge remains these type of social infrastructure, for which financing is limited. While evidence showing economic growth might be clear, there have been concerns about Senegal’s ability to move towards productivity growth driven by the private sector. In a talk with Financial Times in 2018, President Sall agreed that the public sector of Senegal has limits, therefore the government will continue to improve the business environment so that the private enterprise can take over development. But of course, “this may take a while”, said Amadou Sy, an adviser with the IMF, which has signalled approval for Senegal’s policies.

Within the framework of the PES, which defines Senegal’s development pillars, Dakar and its adjacent areas are expected to play an important role in achieving the objectives of the PES, as the national capital, international gateway and centre of economic activities. Alternative visions for urban development should be coming. Followed by profound economic, social and environmental effects, and these effects may be either positive or negative, no country has ever experienced significant development progress without undergoing a major population shift towards cities and urban centres.

Directeur de Development Urbain – Plan Directeur 2035’, initiated in 2014 and ending in 2035, aims at urban development of the region of Dakar and its surroundings for the period 2015-2035.

The Government of Senegal has been making an effort to control urban growth by preparing Urban Development Master Plans (in 1948, 1967, 1980 and 2000). Those successive plans, however, have failed to control urban growth fully due to non-compliance with the land use guidelines set forth, especially in the suburbs where the development of large irregular settlements took place on flood areas. The Dakar Urban Development Master Plan by the Horizon 2025 was prepared in 2001. It had the ambition of rebalancing the regional structure by creating new urban poles outside the existing Dakar agglomeration. However, the ‘Urban Planning Master Plan 2025’ (Plan Directeur d’Urbanisme – PDU) encountered various obstacles in its implementation that necessitated its revision to the ‘Plan Directeur 2035’. Among the major obstacles that faced the PDU 2025 were: delays in the plan preparation process (initiated in 2001, the project was only approved in 2009); lack of involvement of stakeholders such as local communities; lack of relevance of some management guidelines; and lack of anticipation of current urban changes. The Urban Development Master Plan named ‘Plan

While ‘new urban centres’ are presented as a rational response to projections of high urban population growth and unsustainable patterns of urbanisation, clearly the pressing housing needs of Africa (in general) and Senegal (in particular)’s urban poor are in no way met by these projects: almost all these investments seem directed at the ‘rapidly growing’ middle and high classes of Africa’s cities (Grant 2015; Hattingh et al. 2012; KPMG 2012).

Its main objectives are: • Sustainable urban development; • Compact cities connected with a transport network; • Robust and resilient city and; • Vibrant city with active interaction between information, goods and people.

To overcome this trap, as part of the second phase of the PES, 100,000 social housing program has been warmed up (Octorber 2019) and 60% of these are planned to locate in Daga Kholpa, which towards households with modest and irregular incomes, promised Sall’s government. Sounds good... However, new developments including Daga Kholpa always cannot bypass its correlate economic engines.

3.3. Daga Kholpa development plan 3.3.1. Overview of the plan 3.3.1.1. Main concept The plan proposes to transform the current mono-polar urban structure of Dakar Region into a multi-polar structure by the creation of the new poles which will develop as autonomous urban areas surrounded by green areas and agricultural land effectively connected to each other and to other urban centres. The general vision and future role of Daga Kholpa development area are set out within the framework of the vision for the 2035 Master Plan:

Daga Kholpa urban centre

[Fig.8] Location of Daga Kholpa urban centre in the neighbouring area of Dakar, computation from Global Human Settlement Layer https://ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/CFS.php, retrieved 01.5.2020

• To help balance the growth of the city of Dakar • To complement Blaise Diagne International Airport activities • To support the growth of the Diamniadio urban pole

[Fig.9] Proposed land use plan 2035. Source: JICA (2016)

3.3.1.2. Multi-functionalism The main street, with a length of approximately 5km, is aligned in parallel with the national road in the south. Along this street, a commercial area is planned so that retail shops can be opened, stimulating the circulation of pedestrians. This street is planned to ensure pedestrians can safely and quietly stroll around, rather than to support logistical networks. Along the main street, two CBDs (Central Business District) and the existing villages are located, providing pedestrians with new and old landscapes of Senegal. At the centre of this project area, the park zone and the community zone cross, and the overlapping area is planned as a sports park. These zones create the core of the project area. Residential areas surround this main core, allowing all residents equal access to the core. A logistical zone expands from

Land use Residential areas Publicly used facilities

the junction of the national road and the main north-south road eastward along the national road with high accessibility to and from the international airport ensured. A theme park is proposed at the western end on the southern side of the arterial road leading to Diamniadio. Having the theme park in this location will give a sense of its ‘welcoming’ to the visitors who are coming from the Diamniadio direction, as the face of Daga Kholpa. It was agreed that the existing villages and the surrounding agricultural area need to be preserved, so these are integrated in the detailed plan. These areas will be restructured with an improved settlement pattern and better infrastructure. It will be important to keep some rooms for demands for land development that may arise in the near future.

Details • Open space, green area • Public buildings and services

Road Logistics

• Commercial and business

Sub total

Area (km2)

Ratio (%)

12.65 3.19 1.28 1.76 4.39 2.38

49 13 5 7 17 9

25.65

100

Restructured area

• Reorganisation of the land uses and improvement of the infrastructures in the existing villages and surrounding areas including farm lands

9.16

Other areas

• Cemetery, reserved area for future development

4.10

38.91

Total (Project area) [Table 2] Proposed land use ratio. Source: JICA (2016)

3.3.2. Existing conditions of Daga Kholpa 3.3.2.1. An environmental sensibility analysis

proposals that take into account not only the advantages that this will provide, but also the many nuisances it will generate, such as noise.

From the environmental viewpoint, there is always plenty of possible conditions and risks created by urban development in any specific area. In comparison with various candidates, Daga Kholpa site showed the greatest environmental relevance due to the Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) of the 2035 Master Plan, which was conducted from March to May 2015 by SOTERCO, a Senegalese consultancy company. An environmental sensibility analysis based on the assessment is summarised below.

Social sensibility

Environmental sensibility The area of Daga Kholpa does not show great vulnerability, with an absence of threatened fauna or flora and sensitive ecosystems. Regarding groundwater resources, ongoing urbanisation and the establishment of many extractive industries are already threatening the quality of the resources. However, the elaboration and implementation of Daga Kholpa would have little impact on the phenomenon if it is carried out with consideration for the preservation of the environment by providing a sanitation system to prevent the infiltration of wastewater. The issue of storm-water drainage is the most serious problem for the development of Daga Kholpa. Indeed, the configuration of the site, with a succession of valleys, presents important runoffs, which will entail risks of flooding if appropriate measures are not taken to drain rainwater properly. There is a risk that urbanisation of this site may block the flow paths of water to the outlets. The proximity of Blaise Diagne International Airport also requires the development of

Recently in Daga Kholpa, a firm (MINTECH) has been hired to assess the likely loss of goods and properties. The process, which started about a year ago, first generated some social tensions that were later addressed with increased consultation and information, and the consideration of the demands of local populations in the process. More specifically, the Government has informed the public that surrounding villages will not be impacted and instead will be restructured and upgraded. In addition, some land will be reserved for the use of local communities, most likely as subdivisions for residential purposes so that affected persons can generate revenues from the sale of the land. Consultation with local authorities in October and November 2020 conducted by Minister of the MoUDH, the Governor of the Department of Mbour, MINTECH confirmed that tensions have subsided and that local communities are in favour of the project. There is social acceptability of the program by the population, but the authorities will have to consider the consequences of urban development, especially in terms of loss of agricultural lands and the restriction of resource accessibility. There is already a predominance of land used for rain-fed agriculture or orchards. Although those lands belong to the nation, they have been exploited by villagers for generations, and continue to provide a significant share of their income. A participatory approach will and should be adopted; involving the local population in the whole development process and above all allowing the villagers to benefit from the plots and equipment that will be created.

3.3.2.2. General conditions Historical background In this area, the two biggest communes are Daga and Kholpa. According to the Daga commune local authority, the history of Daga dates back to the 14th century, when it was founded by a group of settlers from the village of Dialaw. The head of this group belonged to the Serer Lemou family. According to the Kholpa commune local authority, the history of Kholpa dates back to the 16th century, when a couple belonging to the Serer Daya family emigrated from the village of Fouta (the present Kholpa commune chief also belongs to this family). When the couple arrived in the forest that used to occupy the site of the commune, they cut down a big tree and built the first hut there. The name of the commune, Kholpa, originates from ‘Kholya’, the name of that tree in Serer. Nature (a) Geology According to the SEA, this area belongs to the horst of Diass, the characteristics of which include a succession of plateaus and small valleys. Since there are no perennial streams, the surface water is poor in the dry season. On the other hand, in the rainy season, intermittent streams are active and temporary ponds form in lower areas or in valleys fed by the runoff water from plateaus and hills. (b) Climate According to the SEA, the area is a SahelSudanese eco-geographical area, with a three month rainy season which lasts from July to September, and a long dry season which lasts for the rest of the year. Due to its

proximity to the ocean, the site is frequently under the influence of maritime trade winds. (c) Land cover The outcome of the SEA shows that the soil quality is good enough for agricultural activities and building construction. The fallow land and land covered by orchard is overlaying the most surface, followed by savanna, bare soil, quarry and housing area. (d) Biology Since the area does not feature many niches or shelters for animals, according to the outcome of the SEA, this area has no large wild animals. The fauna is composed of 1) small rodents, 2) reptiles, and 3) birds. The area also features few plant species, with the exception of shrub flora. Given these circumstances, the agricultural land that occupies more than 70% of this area will encounter no negative impact on the existence of wild species. Living environment According to the SEA, the villagers live in relative peace, since the villages are located far from the national road and there is very little traffic running through them. It has been a concern of farmers for several decades that the demand for drinking water is not always met, as it is for example in Pout, Sébikhotane and Mbour. The two villages of Daga and Kholpa are connected to the SDE (Sénégalaise des Eaux) system, yet many households are not catered for because of the insufficient quantity of water available. Nowadays, wells are allowed to be approximately 20m deep to capture highquality water, which is then managed and redistributed for the villages by a management committee.

Socioeconomic factors (a) Statistics The Diass commune consists of 19 villages. Economically, rain-fed agriculture is the main activity, which is practiced by the majority of villagers. This is followed by cattle breeding and small-scale trade. (b) Education An elementary school, a middle school and a Koranic school exist in the Daga village, and there are a French and an Arabic school in the Kholpa village. These schools are easily accessible from both villages.

This taxi fee is almost the same as the general fee for the public bus in downtown Dakar. (c) Urban facilities Large mosques are located in both Daga and Kholpa communes. There is no public cemetery, and some villagers requested that the JICA Study Team take this into consideration in their detailed plan during the stakeholders’ meeting held in Diass. (d) Disaster and environment

Spatial factors

The extension of the watershed and increase in the flow velocities can cause washouts, thus exposing the site to erosion in some areas. Regarding pollution, although quarrying operations have been performed close to the project area, there has been no negative impact on the quality of the soil. The ambient air is clear. Although a laterite track runs through the area from north to south across the highway, car traffic releasing significant pollution is almost non-existent.

(a) Land use

(e) Heritage

According to JICA Study Team, the existence of existing villages and farm lands in the middle of the project area is so important that require careful consideration later. Except the village areas, most of the areas is classified as agriculture land, including the fallow land, orchard, savanna and even the areas that are not suitable for agriculture.

A series of SEA surveys has been unable to identify any cultural heritage in the project area. However, interviews with members of the commune indicated certain objects to be preserved, including specific stones – known as ‘Padiokhane’ or ‘Ndioorokh’ – as well as the trees known as ‘Kove’ in Sener, which are located in the Fogne house and in Hine.

(b) Transport There is no public transport in the project area. The main method of transport is taxisharing in order to get to Diamniadio or Mbour. This taxi is a private car and costs 1,000 CFA/journey, e.g. when a taxi is shared by five people, the fee is 200 CFA/person.

___ Source: JICA (2016), Project for Urban Master Plan of Dakar and Neighboring Area for 2035, Final Report

3.3.3. Development phases 3.3.3.1. Current status Through the process of investigation and comparison among official documents released by Senegal’s government related to the project, other evidences of the realisation procedure have been also taken into account: words and data from other reliable sources, the status of other development in tandem (urban transport, logistic infrastructure, water resources, sewage and sanitation, solid waste management, electricity...), images obtained

from Google Earth maps, materials and information of a stakeholder in architectural design for housing, information from a Dakarbased building construction company, nonprofit projects towards the site; since its legal creation was registered in 2017, up to March 2018, the urban centre project of the Department of Urbanisation and Architecture in Daga Kholpa is in the implementation phase which is 11% completed.

3.3.3.2. Stakeholders Pre-project design study

Supervision Department of Urbanisation and Architecture; Ministry of Town Planning, Housing and Public Health Funding Senegalese government

Advisory support

Building construction

Intervention projects

3.3.3.3. Public vs. private 3.3.3.3.1. Institutional set-up for implementation The Daga Kholpa development project should be approached as a single integrated project with top-down appointed structures for both the project initiation and implementation phases. Three different set-ups are proposed for the project implementation and management structure. The tasks to be dealt with in any of the three set-ups will include all technical, administrative and financial aspects and processes including proposing development phasing, land preparation, land acquisition, resettlement, compensation, ten-

dering and awarding of projects, permission for development, monitoring and follow-up on major infrastructure construction projects. Tasks will also include providing management services for infrastructure, public utilities, car parks and landscaped open areas, preparation of special area development plans, etc. The project is now involving public private partnership over the option of being led by the public sector or establishing an independent development agency.

3.3.3.3.2. Cooperative development zone (ZAC) Cooperative development zone is one of the direct land value capture* tools in urban development. Within the whole project site of Daga Kholpa, there is obligatory process in the early stage of planning in order to avoid land speculations and/or illegal land transactions - including the Restructuring, the Urban Renewal, the Land Consolidation and the Cooperative Development Zone. Simultaneously, the Restructuring might be one of the most complex tasks since it deals with the area that existing villages are inhabiting and using land. Therefore, the requirements are not just technical but more on participatory approach. Until September of 2020, there has been no concern of land conflict, however, the inclusive involvement was asked by the population in the implementation of the

project (Le Quotidien 2020). Among other grievances, the population also asked for the delimitation of the extension zones first and the concerted restructuring of the villages concerned, the compensation of the expropriated according to the context, and taking into account the social dimension, support for the local population. (*) Land value capture is a financing tool that allows local governments to charge fees and taxes to developers and property owners and raise revenue that can then be reinvested into community and city services. It is a technical term for a simple idea that’s applicable to cities of all types and it is especially important and underutilized in developing cities. This tool has been more commonly used in developed cities, but developing cities have much to gain if they can implement land value capture effectively.

___ [Fig.10] Cooperative development zone, own collage. Source: Google Earth https://earth.google.com/ web/@14.64710472,-17.12635412,33.02988142a,19257.92094199d,35y,0h,0t,0r (accessed 16.5.2020); JICA (2016), Project for Urban Master Plan of Dakar and Neighboring Area for 2035, Final Report; Pitágoras Group (2018), Housing project in Daga Kholpa

3.3.4. Main functions on cooperative development zone

Residential Housing

Industrial Area

Sports and Recreation Area

Hotel Bank

AREA 2.35 km2 HOUSING UNITS 2,000

Fire Station

[Fig.11] Functional division on cooperative development zone. Source: Pitágoras Group

Market

Sewage Treatment Plant Fotovoltaic Plant

Waste Collection and Processing Fotovoltaic Plant

Services Hospital Commerce Office Building Mosque

School

Water Purification Plant 57

3.3.5. Expected inhabitants 3.3.5.1. Existing villages The Diass commune consists of 19 villages. Of these villages, 1) Boukhou, 2) Daga, 3) Diass, 4) Kandam, 5) Kholpa and 6) Mbourouk are located inside the project area. The total population of these six villages is 10,406 (2016). In addition, some unnamed small villages are also located in the project area. Theoretically, an urban area contrasts to rural areas (Cerdà 2018) such as villages and hamlets, therefore one could argue that, even if the developers of the project showing their attitude to preserve the existing villages through re-organisation of the land uses

Village Bandia Bambara Bandia Sessene Boukhou Daga Diass Gandoul Kandam Kholpa Kirène Mbayard Mbourouk Ndayane Packy Popenguine Raffo Samekedj Thicky Toglu Serere Lu Wolof TOTAL

Population 134 1,058 2,178 1,602 4,794 622 814 951 2,353 871 67 4,331 1,691 3,334 445 1,390 3,391 2,748 936

33,710

[Table 3] Population of 19 villages in Diass commune

and improvement of the infrastructures in the existing villages and surrounding areas including farm lands, and even if the villagers could benefit from new opportunities for living and working (Noorloos and Kloosterboer 2017) the situation in a near future is hard to predict since the new space will be multipurpose, in which residential, commercial and speculative development is often combined with knowledge, technological or environmental innovation. Once again, this multi-functionalism reinforces the enclave self-contained character of new cities, and provides a rationale for privatised governance.

3.3.5.2. Possible newcomers

RESIDENCE

BUSINESS & ORGANISATION

RELIGION & CULTURE [Table 4] Possible newcomers grouped by spatial functions

3.3.5.3. Projected population distribution for 2035 Zone

Unit

Diamniadio

Daga Kholpa

Area

km2

66.08

38.91

pers pers/km2

28,700 434

13,100 337

Growth rate 2025 Population 2025

%/year pers

18 209,000

16 77,700

Growth rate 2035 Population 2035 Density 2035

%/year pers pers/km2

10 542,400 8,208

9 183,900 4,726

pers

626,100

321,800

pers/km2

9,475

8,270

Population 2013 Density 2013

Maximum polulation Maximum density

[Table 5] Projected population distribution of Daga Kholpa for 2035, own elaboration. Source: JICA (2016)

residence

single resident | family

property management

property manager

tourism

tourist | diaspora

retailer and wholesaler hospitality

individual retailer | supermarket restaurant | hotel

government

officer | staff

healthcare

healthcare worker | patient and family

education

student | educator

construction/ industrial site transportation

worker | engineer | technician operator | passenger

place of worship

pilgrim

graveyard

visitor 59

3.3.6. Participatory development projects 3.3.6.1. Takku Bey (2015 - in progress) The project took place in the village of Daga Dialaw at the neighbouring areas, in Senegal. Since 2015, it has contributed to reducing the population’s economic and social vulnerability rate, through a food security program that enhances the skills and abilities of the female population. Thanks to the contributions of the Otto per Mille Valdese, the Banca Sella Group and the Lecco Committee for Peace and Cooperation between Peoples, in partnership with JahKarlo organisation.

It has so far been possible to: • Start an agro-ecological fermette, consisting of vegetable gardens, orchard, a chicken coop. Introducing agricultural techniques that improve soil fertility, productivity and biodiversity • Design, build and equip a multifunctional centre for the transformation (production of fruit juices and syrups) and the marketing of agro-food products • To train women and young people of the village on the techniques of production, conservation and transformation of agropastoral products and in business management • Design, build as a prototype and experiment with a solar dryer, involving and training the students of the Politecnico di Milano • Structuring the GIE Takku Bey to allow it to function properly, to use resources efficiently, to start generating profits and to increase his ability to achieve his social goal • To intervene on the Poste de Santé in Daga Dialaw with a small restructuring of the department maternity, the installation of a well pump and the purchase of some equipment • Strengthen the skills of healthcare workers of the Poste de Santé in Daga Dialaw • Sensitise the population and in particular the women of the village on nutrition and prevention

[Fig.12] The Takku Bey project aims, among other things, to encourage the development of the local economy through the cultivation and processing of typical products such as chilli, okra and bissap. Credit: facebook.com/ISFMI

3.3.6.2. Ëlëku Daga (2018 - in progress) Following the growth of the population of the capital of Senegal - Dakar and the decision to ease the population pressure on Dakar through the creation of new urban centres in Diamniadio and Daga Kholpa, the village of Daga Dialaw (1,914 inhabitants) will soon be transformed into an urban centre which will host approximately 190,000 people. At the request of the local authorities and the population of Daga, Ingegneria Senza Frontiere – Milano (ISF-MI) carried out an investigation which showed that the existing inhabitants know only briefly the development plan and feel unheard, helpless in the face of an imposition, threatened by speculation building, from the expropriation of land, from the disappearance of agro-pastoral activities, from the loss of values and social ties. The ‘Ëlëku Daga - the future of Daga, inclusive and sustainable city’ project aims to support the ability of the population of Daga Dialaw to contribute to planning and managing the birth of new urban centre of Daga Kholpa in a participatory way, promoting one inclusive and sustainable community development, and by protecting existing natural resources and cultural heritage. The intervention develops on two axes: (1) the promotion of a path for planning and participatory management of the new urban centre of Daga Kholpa and (2) the setting up of an aggregation space for young people through the exchange of good practices with the students of the Politecnico di Milano. [Fig.13] Poster of the event ‘Sustainable cities and communities. A case study from Senegal. Some reflections on an international project from Lecco’

II. RESEARCH

March 1st Part | Milan Framing topic & initial area Reanalysis of the potential of the context

Framing potential area: Daga Kholpa new urban developmen

Analysis of existing documentations, current status of the p Literature review on urbanisation and urban planning

Literature review on urban services and urb Analysis of the service area Interviews with stakeholders

Analysis of case st

Building fu

[Fig.14] Research timeline

October

December

March

nt plan

plan

ban food system

tudies

uture scenarios

Concept generation

2nd Part | Dakar

Phenomenological observation Co-Design

3rd Part

PSSD & Business model

Chapter 4

Aim and methodology Purpose of this study and research methods applied

Aim Main aim Specific objectives

Methodology Overall methodology Tools and methods applied

Research timeline

4.1. Aim

This study aims to understand which adaptations of service design tools and methods, and which kinds of stakeholders involvement, are needed to support the longterm development in the case of a brand new urban centre (Daga Kholpa Project - DKP). The study is thought also as the starting point to apply design tools and methods not only for new services in new urban settings, but also during new urban developments, in order to make them less painful. Specific objectives of this study are:

1. Learn how to apply design tools and methods in this particular case of DKP to adapt to multiple layers of developing 2. Evaluate how potential stakeholders of DKP, specifically from bottom up, be involved, perceive and use design tools to enrich the design outcome 3. Articulate the research materials to propose related solution and service that may become enterprise that will populate new setting of DKP in a near future

4.2. Methodology 4.2.1. Overall methodology It was started with a detailed analysis of the future development plan, reflecting on the urbanisation of West African countries and the current condition of Senegal, also other earlier development projects were taken into account. This very first phase gave an overview of the project and allowed to define the profiles of possible future users. It was then dived into more specific service areas of agriculture, nutrition and food that would be connected to the different user’s need with regards, also, to the architectural master plan. In parallel, interviews with experts (as stakeholders) helped to gain more professional insights while case studies analysis helped investigate which are the solutions already working on the market or the new ideas that are developing on the world. A set of future scenarios in this phase helped to reflect the composite of insights from previous parts, then built a sufficiently vivid and plausible future world in which the problems, challenges and opportunities can be clearly seen and comprehended. The above deep dive phase was followed by a series of activities, namely co-designing, with an attempt to involve and gain insights from possible and potential users as well as stakeholders of the project. Finally, it was entered a concept generation and a following development phase in which specific solution(s) would be defined and prototyped, including the draft of a viable business model and plans.

4.2.2. Tools and methods applied

DISCOVER

DEFINE

•

Solution

•

DELIVER

Hypothesis

Topic •

DEVELOP

insight into the problem

the area to focus upon

potential solutions

solution that might work

RESEARCH

CHALLENGE DEFINITION

IDEA GENERATION

PSS DESIGN

Global, African • and Senegal’s food system analysis • Early test • Focus on urban food system Megatrends analysis Interviews Case studies analysis Scenarios building

Phenomenological observation Co-design Match insights and trends

Urbanisation and Senegal’s condition analysis Daga Kholpa project analysis Comparison with earlier projects

•

• • • • • •

• • • • • • •

Offering map System map Sustainability scanner Personas User and stakeholder journey Business model and plans Roadmap

[Fig.15] Tools and methods applied during research and design process

March

October

December

March

DESK RESEARCH OBSERVATION & CO-DESIGN PSS DESIGN

[Fig.16] Research timeline, summarised

4.3. Research timeline

The first part of the research has been carried out in Milan, Italy presented in chapter 3 in the context of a remote internship with Enjoy Agriculture* as a designer, from March until October 2020, the second part has been following until December 2020 in Dakar, Senegal, the final part has been finalised in Hanoi and Saigon, Vietnam. A preliminary research of 7 months allowed the designer to retrieve in-depth knowledge around the focused context and the urban development project. In order to stay a bit closer to the real condition, a phenomenological observation was needed, then the co-design activities were conducted with a lot of support from all the participants. Finally, the possible solution was considered to develop from all perspectives: the product service system offering, the user journey, the touch-points, the spatial/urban requirements, the impact measurement and indicators, the stakeholder engagement, the business model and plans. ___ (*) Established in March 2019, Enjoy Agriculture is a digital marketplace featuring agro-experiences across Africa (with the starting point is Senegal), allowing travellers and tourists to integrate agriculture related activities (fishing, farming, cooking, food processing, etc.) as part of their travel itinerary, while connecting with indigenous community. Its vision is to make agritourism an attractive pole of sustainable development in Africa and support farmers to acquire additional incomes by diversifying their work through agritourism.

Chapter 5

Service area Agricultural, nutritional and food related area

What is food?

Past ideas about the future of food

Food sector and agriculture

A focus on the food system Food system thinking Current patterns of African food system

From food system to urban food system Invitation to integrate food with urban planning Some megatrends are shaping the future Key drivers and opportunities

Current situation in Senegal

Interviews

Case studies

5.1. What is food? Food was thought a simple thing until the last century. It was only planted, cultivated and consumed, not fabricated or modified by technology. However, today a food may be produced artificially, nano-capsulated, genetically edited, printed and even planted underground or above the sea or even on another planet, like Mars. For this reason, we should redefine food. According to recent developments, food can be defined as:

a consumable matter that is obtainable with suitable technologies or operations such as lab-growing, printing and genetic modification or nanotechnology applications, either with the utilisation of soil or not, and grown in any suitable place.

[Fig.17] Concept of future food. Credit: Blanchard (2018)

5.2. Past ideas about the future of food In 1893, Mary E. Lease, a feminist and activist, thought that the future of food may entail more convenient preparation and cooking via artificial foods. In 1896, Marcellin Berthelot, a French chemist, thought that the future of food would be ‘meal pills’. In 1900, the Boston Globe predicted that food would be transported conveniently via pneumatic tubes in 2000. In a more ambitious endeavour, Noel Hodson’s Foodtubes project proposed that food would be delivered to retailers via an underground capsule-pipeline systems, and thereby saving energy and reducing pollution. Also, Clifford Simak’s novel, written in 1961, describes socalled butcher plants that can provide protein similar to meat. His novel described the first genetically modified food, a ‘flavr savr’ tomato, 30 years ago. In 2000, the following topics are considered important for the future of the agriculture industry: precision agriculture, low leaching cropping systems, the management

of soil biological processes, and maximum recirculation (Kirchmann and Thorvaldsson 2000). The future of food has been gaining in importance for humanity. This is probably because of the decreasing natural sources due to the rapidly increasing world population. Many studies have been carried out about the future of food and the agriculture industries. Some non-governmental organisations, such as the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), have prepared reports on the future of food and agriculture (FAO 2017, 2018). As a futurist projection, food will have the following properties: easy, personal, digitalcovered technology, will have multiple tastes, will be sustainable, natural, functional, and healthy.

5.3. Food sector and agriculture In the 1800s, the main problem for agriculture was the limited production of agricultural products. With the green industrial revolution, today’s agricultural system overcame this problem but unfortunately, starvation is still a big problem in many parts of the world. With the growing global population, food safety is expected to become one of the most important issues in the near future. The food sector has relations with the entire food production process from soil to industry, and, more importantly, it is one of the most vulnerable industries affected by weather conditions. Today’s consumers are more careful about their health and the effects of technology on the environment. For this reason, most of the technologies that could totally revolutionise

the feeding habits of people, from growing to consuming, are not used directly in the food and agriculture industries. Nanotechnology and genetic modification technology are two such technologies. Nevertheless, an increasing number of consumers benefit from these new technologies daily. Due to this reason, the future of these technologies is promising but there are unpredictable risks. Beyond nanotechnology and genetic modification technologies, more sustainable and ready-to-use technologies have emerged, such as 3D printers, vertical agricultural systems and industry 4.0, which are also suitable for food production. Unmanned aerial vehicles may also change the logistics in food and agricultural industries in the future in a more sustainable way.

5.4. A focus on the food system 5.4.1. Food system thinking The concept of food security has evolved from its first articulation as a “secure, adequate and suitable supply of food for everyone” expressed at the 1943 Hot Springs conference. Most notably, it shifted to “the availability at all times of adequate world food supplies of basic food-stuff... to sustain a steady expansion... and to offset fluctuations in production and prices” in 1976, and to the commonly used 1996 FAO definition of food security as “the situation that exists when all people, at all times, have physical and economic access to sufficient safe and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and food preferences for an active and healthy life” (Battersby and Haysom 2019). As a result of this refining of the concept of food security, the vast majority of food security and food poverty work in the African urban context now focuses at the household scale. According to the FAO, the achievement of food security is based on four pillars, or critical dimensions: availability, access, utilisation, and stability (FAO 2006). Working with these four pillars, it is clear that although food insecurity primarily manifests at the household scale, its causes extend well beyond this scale. Therefore, it should be apparent that the policies, planning, and programming produced to address food security should extend their scale of intervention beyond the household scale. The trap has been that the primary scale of analysis has become the primary scale of intervention. Extending the scale of intervention beyond the household scale requires a far more critical engagement with the food system,

that could cover a wide range of scales from street to neighbourhood to city to region. The food system, food environment and consumers choices The food system includes four broad categories of processes: agricultural production; food storage, transportation, and trade; food processing and transformation; and food retailing. The food environment is defined as the “collective physical, economic, policy, and sociocultural surroundings, opportunities and conditions that influence people’s food and beverage choices and nutritional status”. The food environment is the ‘interface’ between the food system and the consumer. It is affected by the food system, and in turn, the characteristics and policies of the food environment directly affect consumer food purchasing choices and diets. Key food environment drivers of food choices include prices and other economic factors; food availability, quality, and taste; and food promotion, marketing, labelling, and safety. At the consumer level, major drivers of food choices include preferences, affordability, health and nutrition knowledge, time, and physical accessibility. ‘Food System Thinking’ A shift was made from a focus solely on food production to one that also incorporates food consumption, retail and policy. The food system approaches integrate multiple

FOOD SYSTEM AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTION FOOD PROCESSING AND TRANSFORMATION FOOD STORAGE, TRANSPORTATION AND TRADE

ENVIRONM D E OO ONSUMER N C

FOOD RETAILING

HEALTHY DIETS

activities, actors, and motivations; multiple environments and drivers; and multiple outcomes of food systems activities. Therefore, the approach allows food chain activities to be linked to their social, economic and environmental context and to contribute to addressing the root causes of malnutrition in all its forms. The food system thinking can help identify points of intervention across the whole food system that can help alleviate malnutrition; establish connection with other systems (e.g. energy, infrastructure, information); and better understand the synergies and trade-offs of interventions (between food and nutrition security, environment and other societal goals). Besides providing a framework to structure the debate around a highly complex issue, food systems thinking allows for an integrated assessment that can focus on impacts and leverage points in different domains of the food system.

[Fig.18] Food system, food environment and consumers choices, own elaboration

5.4.2. Current patterns of African food system 5.4.2.1. Production Value added to GDP In Africa, the share of agriculture in total Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been declining gradually over the past four decades. SubSaharan Africa (SSA) is second to South Asia in terms of contribution of agriculture to the overall economic activities – 15.3 per cent and 16.2 per cent, respectively – compared with Latin America and the Caribbean (4.9 per cent) and Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) member countries (1.5 per cent). The high share of agriculture in GDP reflects the fact that agricultural transformation has not taken place in Africa and its potential is yet to be fully explored to serve as the engine of economic growth, the driver of income generation and the propellant of wealth creation. Africa has yet to benefit from the power of agriculture in driving growth and development as is being enjoyed in other regions. Although agriculture’s share of GDP has decreased by about 3.1 percentage points –

from 18.4 per cent in 1981 to 15.3 per cent in 2019 (Fig.19) – the structural transformation envisioned has yet to take place. During this period, the manufacturing sector, which was to benefit from the decline in agriculture also fell by 5.4 percentage points. This further confirms the deindustrialisation process in Africa, a process bolstered by unguarded deregulation and globalisation as well as institutional inertia. The losses in agriculture and manufacturing sectors were, instead, absorbed by the services sector dominated by informal activities. Due to the characteristics of the informal sector – low productivity, low income and poor working conditions – combined with the fact that it is being used to cope with poverty and unemployment in most SSA countries, it failed to use labour re-allocation to initiate the much needed transformation. Indeed, SSA is bypassing structural economic transformation (Losch 2014, Odusola 2017). This, again, offers a unique opportunity for the region to use agriculture to drive industrialisation and development through productivity enhancement.

The development of agriculture is at the heart of Plan for an Emerging Senegal. In 2019, agriculture represented 15% of GDP, employing 52% of the total labour force. About 80% of people in rural areas work in this sector. Commercial farming represented 10% of the land under production. And 90% of agricultural land is worked by small-scale, family-based farms engaged in subsistence agriculture. 80

[Fig.19] Sub-Saharan Africa: Agriculture, manufacturing and services value added (% of GDP), 1981-2019 60

Services value added

Agriculture value added

2019

2017

2015

2013

2011

2009

2007

2005

2003

2001

1999

1997

1995

1993

1991

1989

1987

1985

1983

1981

Manufacturing value added

Source: Computation from the World Development Indicators (accessed 11.2020)

Agricultural approach vs. industrial one The importance of agriculture as a necessary and realistic option for the transformation of Africa is undoubted. This positioning faces however a renewed debate among academics, international agencies and governments about the sector offering the best prospects for an inclusive growth process and employment. There are extremely contrasted points of view between proponents of industrialisation on the one hand, and advocates of agriculture on the other hand. For the ‘industrialists’, agricultural productivity is too low and progress will be too slow and difficult in order to deal with employment needs and poverty reduction. Manufacturing appears to be the most powerful option to meet the scale of the challenges, knowing that globalisation offers new perspectives for ‘light manufacturing’ and that rising costs in Asia will give Africa a competitive advantage. These are opportunities that must to be seized. However, even if things can move quickly, the perspectives for industrialisation

in the next two decades do not match with the labour force increase. Millions of new jobs could be created, at best, when hundreds of millions are necessary, and the record of manufacturing and free zones over the last forty years suggests alertness. In comparison, the ‘agriculturists’ present the argument of ‘elementary arithmetic’ (Headey et al. 2010): agriculture absorbed the majority of the labour force over the last decades; the rural population will remain the majority till the 2030s; agriculture is the backbone of rural livelihoods – around 90% of rural households have a farm, even if off-farm diversification increases; and the prospects for growth of agricultural markets – urban, regional, global – are huge due to rising population and urbanisation. Therefore, the challenge is to develop the production and the many upstream and downstream activities (transformation, trade and services) and to boost farm incomes because they have strong cross-sectoral effects and generate a new rural demand which strengthens and amplifies the dynamics of diversification.

Attracting new workforce Accessibility to technology or finance could be improved and infrastructure could be developed, but none of these efforts will ensure food security if we do not entice more young people to enter into farming. One alarmist reaction to the prospect of an aging farmer population coupled with a young and growing global population are fears that there won’t be enough farmers to feed the world’s population in a single generation. But there is little evidence to support this claim. A more likely scenario is that economies that fail to attract young people to the farm sector will experience diminished productivity in their agricultural sectors. In sub-Saharan Africa, about 89 percent of rural youth work in agriculture, a sector which contributes one-third to one half of most countries’ GDP in the region; consequently, the young, rural workforce contributes about one-quarter to one-third of the continent’s GDP though its work in agriculture. If young people, faced with a lack of education and work opportunities in rural areas, move to cities, African economies could suffer. Agriculture is probably one of the most difficult ways to make a living and, above all, it does not provide a desirable social status (Losch 2014). Nonetheless, it remains an important source of income for rural youth. While structural and rural transformation progresses in Africa, the share of people employed in agriculture will continue to decline as expected. At the same time the number of people working on the farm will continue to rise as the number of rural youth continues to increase. This has changed and is changing the face of agriculture, making it a younger and more dynamic sector.

5.4.2.2. Processing and post-harvest As population and urbanization rates rapidly increase across the region while hundreds of millions of people continue to face food insecurity, the demand for food has never been greater. However, capacity to process both food and cash crops is low, reducing the value that Africa could get from its agriculture. Africa still has low levels of agro-processing and because of its reliance on the export of raw commodities, this hasn’t improved much in recent years. Agro-processing gross value added as a share of total GDP in Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Nigeria and Rwanda is only between 3 and 4 per cent. In 2019 the whole of West Africa had just 57 industrial and semiindustrial facilities to mill rice, a staple food in the region. In addition, there are limitations on the optimal use of adapted technologies for different contexts, such as availability of lowcost and low-energy cold storage solutions. Where facilities do exist, they are expensive. Rice milling in Nigeria is four times more costly than in India, while cashew processing is 2.6 times more expensive in Côte d’Ivoire than in Vietnam. Post-harvest losses and wastage during and after food processing also represent a major loss for African agriculture. It is estimated that 48 million people every year in south of the Sahara could be fed on the post-harvest wastages alone. Even if crop yields increased, significant investment needs to be channelled into post-harvest handling, including storage and processing for local food supply to be resilient.

5.4.2.3. Access to market

5.4.2.4. Consumers

A key challenge for farmers to access markets for their products is often the weak state of roads and infrastructure in the country. Due to this, the final price for consumers is going to be added.

Demand for food items has increased due to Africa’s population increase, especially among its youth. Food production has increased to respond to that increased demand.

This is the case for food SMEs since the current infrastructure in their country most of the time did not meet their needs. And even if farms produce enough to process and sell, the cost of transportation to reach worthwhile markets can be too costly and farmers might not choose to invest in the first place. Information asymmetries and traders and transporters who may have excessive bargaining power in certain markets – as may be the case with fish or cash crops like cocoa – as well as police road checks, limited safe storage options and border delays all lead to high transportation costs. A low but increasing level of e-commerce and e-markets is trying to solve some of those issues. Government purchasing or government-facilitated market platforms (like commodity exchanges and auction houses) can be an important market, especially for key staple food and cash crops, respectively. However, on the former, government purchasing power is also low: Food reserves in West Africa would need to be tripled for governments to effectively address an emergency situation. To date, the planning and prioritisation of infrastructure and market has largely ignored nutrition, but the growing realization that poor-quality diets underpin a huge share of the global burden of disease and hence affect the future human and economic potential of all countries suggests that planning ‘for nutrition’ must become the norm.

While there is a clear need to develop more productive food-producing systems that are more environmentally benign, a major advance also needs to be made on demand side of the equation. Much demand change stems from urbanisation, with consumers gaining access to a wider range of more processed foods, many with ‘empty’ calories (Tilman and Clark, 2014). The change in consumers’ preferences and consumption patterns drives food system changes. Major determinants of consumption include food preferences (for example, taste and appearance), allocation (such as who eats first in a household), cultural norms (such as exclusion of certain foods for religious reasons), cooking skill, and convenience (such as delivery). The most important, arguably, is affordability, which is dictated both by the price that results from the chain of enterprises involved in producing, processing, packaging, trading, shipping, storing, advertising, and selling food, and by people’s ability to pay. It is interesting to think how much less would be wasted if the best practices at each stage of the food chain were adopted in every region. For example, at the consumption stage, the region with the lowest share of food waste is sub-Saharan Africa (it was noticed also in the case of Senegal during co-design activities). Meanwhile, the lowest production losses are achieved in industrialised Asia, and post-harvest handling and storage losses are lowest in North America.

5.5. From food system to urban-food system 5.5.1. Invitation to integrate food with urban planning Food is no longer a stranger to planning practice: local governments are starting to view food systems as a top priority and to be involved in urban planning (Cabannes and Marocchino 2018), incorporating food in their planning agenda prioritising comprehensive plans, zoning and other regulatory forms instead of financial investment or physical infrastructure. And also integrating food into urban planning does not depend so much on the entry point but depend a lot on local political, historical and social conditions.

1900s 1880 London was the first industrial, metropolitan city to accommodate vast slum areas. Urban agriculture soon became a tool for providing the urban poor with fruit and vegetables.

The ‘garden city’ movement, which sought to solve the problems of expanding conurbations in the UK, made food systems an integral part of urban planning. Garden cities included common gardens, cooperative kitchens and a productive green belt.

1930s 1920s The early Zionist settlers in Israel regarded small urban farms as being critical to the development of a new society.

[Fig.20] Integrating food with urban planning: A historical overview, own elaboration

Food production was also at the core of the ‘Village Radieux’, designed by the modern architect Le Corbusier, who tried to extend notions of rational planning to the countryside. Made up of modern family farms, the model village accommodated collective amenities (including a cooperative, a silo, a garage, a club and a school) for a small group of farmers from the French region of Sarthe.

The 2000 Quito Declaration for Latin American and Caribbean cities was a milestone in terms of encouraging local authorities to include urban agriculture in their local plans.

Thousands of small urban farms had been set up throughout the country of Isarel, mainly in new towns. Most of these, managed by a single family, were situated next to more densely populated neighbourhood.

2000

The Milan Urban Food Policy Pact (MUFPP), signed by representatives of 120 cities, was the first declaration to put food at the core of city development. It invited local authorities to adopt a series of measures in order to boost food security for their citizens.

2015

1942

1980 Food security and food planning first featured in official declarations on the future of cities.

2013 The Bonn Declaration of Mayors, signed by 20 city leaders, highlighted the importance of the newly coined concept of cityregion food systems for bringing food security to cities.

2016 The New Urban Agenda (NUA) adopted at the Habitat III Summit in Quito. The NUA promotes urban planning and tools for strengthening food systems planning and creating public spaces to improve food security.

5.5.2. Some megatrends are shaping the future The current global food system does not provide food and nutrition security for all (Serraj and Pingali 2019), and there are concerns that it may not provide sustainable food and nutrition security in the future in a way that integrates environmental and social impact with agricultural and economic development.

1 | Climate change and environmental degradation Even if all emissions from human activities suddenly stop, the climate will continue to change. And if anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions continue unabated, they will further increase global warming, ocean acidification, desertification, and changing climate patterns. Aggravated by pollution, overexploitation of natural resources, and environmental degradation, these emissions will lead to severe, pervasive, and irreversible changes for people, assets, economies, and ecosystems around the world. 2 | Growing consumerism By 2030 the consumer class is expected to reach 5 billion people — 2 billion more people with increased purchasing power than today. Most of this growth will be in Asia: by 2030, China and India together will represent 66% of the global middle-class population and 59% of middle-class consumption. While the expanding middle class could drive economic development, changes in consumption patterns are expected to increase demand for food, water, and energy by approximately 35%, 40%, and 50% respectively by 2030. 3 | Aggravating resource scarcity Global demand for materials increased 10-fold during the 20th century and is set to double again by 2030 compared with 2010. Demand for water, food, energy, land, and minerals will continue to rise substantially, given the increasing purchasing power of a growing population. Bottlenecks in supply could be aggravated by climate change, making natural resources increasingly scarce and more expensive to source.

4 | Increasing demographic imbalances

7 | The changing nature of work

By 2030, the world’s population is estimated to reach 8.5 billion, mostly getting older and more urban than today. Change will be uneven across regions: population growth will be rapid in many still-developing economies and stalled in many developed countries.

By 2030, the tech-savvy, hyperconnected millennials will represent 75% of the workforce. Digitisation, the entry of new generations into the workforce, and longerworking older generations are changing the forms of employment, career models, and organisational structures. Advances in technology and automation have the potential to replace both routine and cognitive tasks while increasing the need for new skills and creating unprecedented opportunities.

5 | Accelerating technological change and hyperconnectivity Advances in genetics, nanotechnology, robotics and artificial intelligence, photonics, quantum technologies, and other emerging technologies, and the synergies among them, are accelerating. They are changing the nature and speed of new scientific discoveries and are challenging our understanding of what is possible. Hyperconnectivity, the Internet of Things, augmented reality, and collective intelligence systems, combined with falling costs of implementation of new technologies, are transforming entire systems of production, management, and governance. 6 | Diversifying education and learning New generations and hyperconnectivity are rapidly changing both educational needs and modes of delivery. Advances in cognitive science, availability of information, new pedagogical approaches, and an emphasis on lifelong learning are diversifying interests and ways of learning, as well as access to education. “I don’t know” has become increasingly obsolete. The historical link between education and school based learning could weaken in the future, with informal learning gaining more recognition. This could have revolutionary as well as disruptive effects on the global education landscape and the intelligence of future generations.

8 | Shifting health challenges Global health concerns are shifting. Scientific advances and better living standards have led to longer and healthier lives and reduced the incidence of infectious diseases. However, obesity, malnutrition, antimicrobial resistance, and noncommunicable diseases pose increasing health burdens. Cardiovascular and chronic respiratory diseases, diabetes, cancer, depression, and anxiety are only some of the symptoms of unhealthy lifestyles, growing pollution, and other anthropogenic causes, combined with reactive rather than preventive medicine. 9 | Continuing urbanisation More than half of the world’s population is living in cities. By 2030 the urban population share is expected to reach 60% — some 4.9 billion people. Much of the growth in the urban population is expected to take place in Africa and Asia. Cities increasingly function as autonomous entities, setting social and economic standards. The urban identity will grow in importance compared with the national identity.

5.5.3. Key drivers and opportunities 5.5.3.1. Key drivers (or threats) Climate change

Energy

Climate change and related shifts in the distribution of extreme events are increasingly clear and pose sizable challenges for food production and stability. Ability to understand the diversity of climate responses is limited by the complexity associated with differences in latitudes, agroecological zones, and agricultural systems interactions.

Keeping global warming to an increase less than 2°C will require dramatic reductions in carbon emissions. Renewable energy including bioenergy will play a growing role in the global energy mix. There is substantial potential to produce additional bioenergy by closing the gap between projected and potential crop yields, making land available for bioenergy crops through restoration of degraded land and sustainable intensification of pastureland used for livestock production, and reducing waste and losses in the food chain.

Urbanisation and demographic transition Expected demographic trends (until 2050) translate into expected increases in ruralurban migration rates in low- and lowermiddle-income countries (primarily in Africa); this is even more pronounced for youth. By 2050, 82.4% of the world’s urban population will be based in less-developed regions; urbanisation is leading to more diverse national diets, with increased demand for livestock and horticultural products and processed and precooked foods, and reduced demand for traditional food staples. Small farms will play a diminishing role in feeding urban populations with food staples, but many will be successful in producing some high-value and labourintensive products for urban markets. Global trade As climate change becomes more damaging to food production, there is more reason for countries to be open to international food markets and allow trade to buffer seasonal fluctuations in each country’s domestic production and to reduce the volatility of global food prices. Trade opening should be considered among the food policy options of national governments seeking to reduce income inequality and to raise food quality.

Environment and natural resources There is a risk of emergence of a waterscarcity-dominated regime, where extreme regional water pressures – induced by human activities and climate change – compromise the freshwater reserves essential for life and economic stability, such as water for drinking, sanitation, and food production. Climate change, fragmented and lost habitat, overfishing, coastal pollution, and the invasive species rate of spread are among the highest risk factors for continued biodiversity losses. Diet and nutrition While high quality diets are critical and agriculture plays a key role, investments in agriculture will need to interface with investments in education, water systems, roads, disease control, disaster management, poverty reduction. For overall sustainability, policies and incentive structures for farmers will need to consider inherent trade-offs (nutrition, yields, water productivity...). Data to inform nutrition and health policy are sparse and require investment.

Urbanisation, demographic transitions Ecological intensification Climate change

Breeding & biotech

D SYSTEM O S FO

Global trade

Input production Precision agriculture

Diet & nutrition

Agriculture

Consumption

Process & trade

Bioeconomy

Waste management Energy

Agribusiness investment

Disruptive technology Environment & natural resources

[Fig.21] Key drivers or threats (dark rounds) and opportunities (light rounds) of food systems, own elaboration

[Fig.22] Biofortified rice at CIAT’s headquarters. Credit: flicker.com/ Palmer, N. (2010)

5.5.3.2. Opportunities Ecological intensification

Disruptive technology

New forms of agroecological intensification are needed to produce more food where needed and to make use of natural ecosystem functions to reduce the need for and increase the efficiency of external inputs. Promising avenues are explored based on experiences in Sub-Saharan Africa in which agroecological principles are used to design restorative, resource-use-efficient agriculture.

Bioinformatics, smart farming, synthetic biology, food design, and the protein transition often play a role in addressing the Grand Societal Challenges (GSCs); the connection is less well-recognized for vertical agriculture, aquaculture, and conservation technology. The future of the agro-food sector will be disruptive, shaped by new technologies in new contexts; many technologies can achieve combination of economic, social, and environmental objectives, but the most important question in the future will concern how society will deal with new technological possibilities?

Breeding and biotech Biotechnology already makes a significant contribution to crop and animal improvement. Innovations in crop improvement expected to accelerate genetic gain in breeding include more efficient use of genetic resources; accessing of genomic regions and generation of novel variation through mutagenesis, gene editing, and genetic engineering; and exploitation of heterosis through hybrids and apomixes. New varieties should be delivered to farmers as part of a package that includes optimal production methods and looks at the entire farming system. Bioeconomy While the agriculture sector is currently the largest component of the bioeconomy in terms of biomass share, employment and turnover, the bioenergy and biomaterials share could grow significantly in the coming decades, influencing the competition between biomass for food and biomass for energy and materials. The driving forces of the bioeconomy on the supply side include the perceived scarcity and price of fossil fuels; the need for climate change mitigation; biotechnology innovations; and efforts to improve the sustainability of the economic system, in particular by linking to the circular economy concept.

Agribusiness investment Mapping capital flows to African agriculture highlights the critical need for addressing the ‘missing middle’ to enable scaling up of agribusiness investment across the region. Promising commercial opportunities in agricultural development are presented from an agritech venture capitalist’s perspective, with particular focus on three of the most important factors for commercial agricultural development over the coming decades in Africa, where new technologies may have greatest impact: water, protein, and data. Precision agriculture The new generation of precision agriculture will be characterized by high-performance cloud/ mobile computing, intensive big data analysis, artificial intelligent perception, real-time control and automation. Precision agriculture applications relevant for smallholders include inexpensive online massive data, real-time monitoring, optimization and control, use of mobile devices, and social media applications.

5.6. Current situation in Senegal Urban and peri-urban agriculture In Senegal, the agricultural sector is regarded as the pivot of the national economy. The agricultural activities practiced in Senegal are livestock breeding, cereal farming, horticulture, arboriculture, and fishery (fishing and aquaculture). Almost 46% of the Senegalese households are involved in agriculture. Although 74% of them are located in rural areas, the share of urban agricultural households (including the so-called ‘Sunday peasants’) is not negligible (ANSD 2014). In Dakar region in particular, the large majority of the agricultural households (94%) are located in urban and peri-urban areas. Considering the case in Dakar region for years, urban and peri-urban agriculture has many functions which can help to address many of the challenges facing the region: ● Nutritional function: given the proximity between consumers and producers, urban and peri-urban agriculture ensures the provision of fresh food (especially perishable fruit and vegetables). ● Economic function: urban and peri-urban agriculture lowers food prices by cutting off the many intermediaries that connect rural farmers to urban consumers, transportation costs, the costs of the cold chain. Moreover, it provides seasonal employment for urban dwellers and temporary rural migrants in a region where unemployment is high. Finally, urban and peri-urban agriculture facilitates access to market information (e.g. market prices, demand) by producers, which is an important factor of profitability. ● Social function: urban and peri-urban

agriculture participates in the integration of rural migrants in the city. ● Environmental function: urban and periurban agriculture does not contribute to the degradation of air quality in urban areas, but, on the contrary, it participates in the greening of the city. Local chains The food sold in Senegal comes from local farms and processors, as well as from other parts of the country (both rural and urban areas) and from abroad. Particular in Dakar, food retailer is largely informal and it is dominated by women. The city has about 12,000 food retail outlets, which can be classified under three categories: ● Small grocery stores: there are about 9,000 small grocery stores in Dakar accounting for 80% of retail food outlets in the city, including the so called ‘boutiques’, kiosks, convenience stores, mini-marts, gas marts, roadside stalls. Small grocery stores sell a limited range of food products (e.g. everyday staples, wheat bread, fruit and vegetables). Most convenience stores and boutiques do not carry frozen foods as electricity supply can be unreliable with frequent power outages and few have their own generators. ● Open-air markets: there are between 50 and 100 open-air markets in Dakar. They are large open areas where between 10 to 100 stalls (5-10m2 wide) generally sell local produce and processed food and tend to be staple cereals, fresh fruits, vegetables, meat or fish. Market vendors buy their goods from wholesalers or sub-wholesalers, who are often located in the same traditional market

or in buildings nearby. Market customers are most often women of lower economic class or household staff shopping for daily needs. A new trend has been observed is a so-called ‘farmer market’ in which the local producers and local products enhance each other’s value in a pop-up event once a month with a little emphasis on buying local and community wellness. ● Modern supermarkets: Dakar is the city with the greatest concentration of modern supermarkets. Modern supermarkets in Dakar are about 200, representing less than 2% of food outlets in the city. Their consumers are generally expatriates or affluent Senegalese or Lebanese residents (at least a quarter high-income consumers in Senegal reside in Dakar). Casino, the French supermarket chain leads the way in this category, followed by Auchan, Carrefour... Casino supermarkets have a deli with ready-to-eat foods, which is a novelty in Senegal, but reflects a growing trend of eating out for a small segment of the population. Modern supermarkets sell a full range of diverse food (e.g. meat, dairy, fruits and vegetables), mainly including imported pre-packaged industrialized consumeroriented food products and beverages. Consumer habits In Senegal, consumer habits are rapidly changing in association with growing urbanisation. Urban consumers generally rely on purchased foods, either originating from rural area or imported into the country. Although low purchasing power is a primary determinant of food choice, consumers’ willingness to pay depends also on safety, freshness, taste and other preferences. One important trend is the consumption of

processed food, since people, and women in particular, cannot afford to spend 4-5 hours preparing a meal. In cities more food is being eaten outside the home, at street stalls and restaurants which are proliferating (PozoVergnes and Vorley 2015). Some current changes in food habits among urban people are largely due to their exposure to western tastes and habits, which are experienced (either virtually or directly) through mass media, spreading of fast food outlets and international restaurants, and life experiences abroad. Some changes include the habit of eating with cutlery instead that with their hands (as a matter of hygiene), or eating only three meals a day instead of snacking (to avoid overnutrition and ensuing health problems). It was proven that in addition to infectious disease and undernutrition, Senegal must now face problems associated with overweight and obesity (Macia et al. 2017, Bayer 2019). Another major health problem related to diet that arose in Senegal in the last years is diabetes. This is accentuated among better-off people, whom tend to consume more sugar, pastry, meat (preferably red), fried foods, combined with the wide use of perfumed rice, which is ubiquitous in the diet of Senegalese. However, nowadays in Senegal risks of developing diabetes are not confined to wealthier groups, as a nutritional transition characterized by increasing consumption of long-lasting sugar products (e.g. industrialized juice, carbonated sugary drinks, café-touba, tea, quail milk), particularly in urban areas, is spreading throughout the society as a whole. The proliferation of mini-markets (supérettes) filled with often imported industrialized products with high sugar content (e.g. juices,

sweets, sodas, sausages, etc.) in urban areas, particularly in Dakar, confirms the increase of the demand of such products. Decades of ‘food imports’ (Hart 1982) have shaped consumer tastes and preferences. The main dilemma for different actors in food chains there is not just changing consumer behaviour but also ensuring that healthier food is affordable for all. Waste management Beyond collecting waste (through sewers and garbage service), its treatment, recycling, and reuse is key for the development of sustainable cities. Indeed, the high nutrient potential (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus content) of recycled urban waste might be re-used as input in urban agriculture. In addition to its original function, that is, to produce food, the agricultural sector is more and more entrusted with a new function: contributing to the protection of the environment. On the one hand, it is a question of satisfying the food needs of the world’s population; on the other hand, it is necessary to review the agricultural production methods and means in order to protect the environment, dismantling conventional intensive agriculture that relies on massive use of chemicals. In such perspective, urbanisation can become an opportunity for agricultural sustainable development, and vice versa. Indeed, in a context of rapid urbanisation characterized by the insalubrity resulting from an increased production of waste and an inefficiency of the different urban waste management policies, urban and peri-urban crop farmers can absorb a large part of the organic waste generated by the city, by turning it into fertilisers.

Urban governance While urban governance can potentially impact on all parts of urban food systems (Smit 2016), the crisis of governance characterising Senegal and resulting in fragmented food policies lacking consistency, inter-sectoral strategies, and continuity, opened up spaces for a resilient action by non-governmental actors that organise or promote collective enterprises initiating food security programs. Their successes are having structural and lasting impacts on public policies, becoming guidelines for their systematisation. Such guidelines still need to be connected within a more coherent food security policy framework. Key governance activities that can impact on urban food systems include: the provision of infrastructure, such as water, electricity, and roads, which are essential for the processing, distribution and storage of food; the provision of support (advice, credit, tax incentives, etc.) for the production and processing of food; the regulatory environment, which can include land use planning and retail sites, shopping hours laws, labour market regulations, and advertising codes, health claims legislation and consumer protection; and education and awareness raising (both formal and informal) about nutrition and diet can impact on the types of food that are produced and consumed.

[Fig.23] Bean diversity at the CIAT gene bank. Credit: flicker.com/ Palmer, N. (2017)

5.7. Interviews Six interviews were conducted between background-diverse targeted interviewees. These involved: one architect, one city strategist, one researcher who currently focuses on urbanisation, a coordinator and an expert who are currently involving in urban context related projects, and another expert professional in order to collect in-depth information about their personal opinions, thoughts, contemplations, experiences and feelings. Although all of the interviews were conducted remotely, the outcome of this part contributed through several insights and helped to illuminate the hypothesis that build up during the desk analysis.

Romarick A.

Architect Global Archiconsult Bénin

Currently what are your main projects for African metropolises? I am currently working on three main projects. The first is the International Archigenieur Africa Competition that I pilot with the AFRIKArchi team. This architecture, town planning and civil engineering competition dedicated to Africa, free and open to professionals and students. The second is ‘Le Grand Cotonou’. Led with the Global Archiconsult team as well as a multidisciplinary panel of professionals. This architectural, urban and landscape charter project aims to provide sustainable solutions to respond to the multiple ills from which the economic capital of Cotonou suffers. We are trying to respond, for example, to the blatant urban sprawl of the city, to the lack of servicing of neighbourhoods, particularly outlying districts, the strong demand for housing, the lack of functional urban planning, by proposing solutions such as vertical town planning, that is to say building more in height, or peri-urban agriculture and many other solutions that we will submit to the municipality of Cotonou as well as to international institutions. Once presented, we will launch the second phase which will be to find the financing to carry out initially micro-projects, then projects of a larger scale. And the third one is the Sèmè City development programme. Launched within the framework of ‘Bénin Révélé’, the Beninese government’s

investment and development programme. This international city of innovation and knowledge will house high-level training institutions, research and development centers, as well as incubators. Through this so-called smart city, the Presidency of the Republic of Benin wishes to develop an unprecedented place that will train a new generation of talents and promote the emergence of a new model of inclusive and sustainable growth. What are the challenges of the architectural, urban and landscape charter of ‘Le Grand Cotonou’? The challenges of this ambitious project are multiple. It is a question of proposing sustainable and quality landscaped green spaces in the city. Prioritise secure road and pedestrian traffic through the city and renovate lighting as well as openings, improve accessibility, sanitation and various network roads in city districts. Relieve the city’s congestion by offering solutions to the problems linked to urban sprawl and respond to the galloping demand for housing. Propose architectural, urban and landscape identities that can respond to the sensitivity of users. Propose a project studied and designed by experts, professionals, local and international actors. All this while combining technique and imagination in order to submit proposals that respect the environment. Then, these proposals will be implemented as we find the necessary funding ■

Eyerusalem S.

Research Fellow Brookings Institution U.S.

Proponents sometimes use ‘intermediary cities’ too to emphasise those cities’ roles in connecting rural and urban economies through the provision of services and facilities. Secondary cities can drive inclusive and balanced economic development in a number of different ways. Among other benefits, they can serve as processing centers for the agriculture or natural resource sectors like the case of Warri in Nigeria, commercial, trade, and service centers like Garoua in Cameroon, industry hubs like Huye District in Rwanda, administrative and tourism hubs like Saint Louis in Senegal, ports and export centers like Mombasa in Kenya.

to other vibrant cities. Planners should in turn design policies that support secondary cities, taking into consideration their trade and transport linkages, and devise reforms that will strengthen value chains and promote local skills development, based on their given comparative advantage. Thus, academics, urban practitioners, national and subnational governments, and development partners must reflect on what steps will enable their secondary cities to reach their potential. In addition to the elimination of bottlenecks, exploration into new and innovative financing sources, and identification of opportunities for rural-urban linkages, they must also consider how partnerships between subnational governments and cooperation agencies be established and strengthened.

What do you think should be considered in the future?

How could secondary cities agricultural development?

As rapid urbanisation is now the norm in Africa, given secondary cities’ potential, policymakers should incorporate them into the national and sub-national development strategies. Already, some countries have implemented plans to promote secondary cities by placing or relocating certain industries or building special economic zones there. For example, Senegal is expanding its capital Dakar to Diamniadio, Rwanda even has a six secondary cities promotion effort. When creating these plans, governments must take into account the natural endowment of the city, considering such factors as availability of fertile land, proximity to oil fields, and distance

Secondary African cities have been formed both deliberately and unintentionally to serve as the bridge between rural agriculture and urban consumption. I don’t have example from Senegal, but there are examples of Cameroon and Rwanda where their secondary cities’ agricultural advantage has been turned into large clusters of agroprocessing industries. These activities complement to the consumption in primate and other cities instead of exporting raw materials and then re-import processed food for domestic needs ■

What functions do secondary cities adopt in Africa?

support

Elisabetta D.

International Expert in Digitalisation Enabel Belgium

What is the goal of Digital for Development (D4D) team? By establishing a D4D team, Enabel shows its ambition to use digital tools in support of projects it carries out in partner countries. This is not about ‘adding’ a digital layer on existing projects, but rather about debating what can be done considering the local situation, at reasonable cost and on the long term. As a digital expert within D4D team, what does your role consist of? My role actually consists of supporting several projects of Enabel in identifying and implementing solutions that suit these criteria. Solutions are not necessarily new. We don’t plan to reinvent the wheel, but we want to put in place simple solutions, which have proven to be effective and are really useful. For instance, in some countries there are simple solutions that help farmers find out about market prices for their crops. That way, they are better prepared to negotiate a reasonable price with the middlemen who buy in their crops. Obviously, these farmers live in rural areas, and they have no television or internet; so creating a website or an app for a smartphone makes no sense now. That is why our system still focuses on promoting texting app technologies. You are participating in a cooperation project of Enabel for the Government of

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Senegal. It’s part of ‘Emerging Senegal Plan’? Yes, it is. This project has three main components: The installation of an agricultural hotspot - an agrofood industry site - in the Sine Saloum region; support to quality health care for women, children and adolescents; and, finally, the strengthening of training for youths, particularly in entrepreneurship. What is the situation of the agricultural hotspot? The development of the agricultural hotspot is part of the general strategy of the ‘Emerging Senegal Plan’ of the Government of Senegal, which has ambition to create three industry hotspots in different regions of the country. Enabel has opted to support the development of the agricultural industry in Sine Saloum. It is a region with much potential, but it has few entrepreneurial ecosystems that can create added value for local resources. The goal is to create an industrial zone focusing on processing with a view of attracting local, national or international enterprises and workers, and to help farmers find opportunities to process and commercialise their products locally. This industry hotspot is combined with two incubation programmes with the aim of helping start-ups in training, advice and financing. The first programme focuses on the green economy. It particularly aims to multiply waste valorisation initiatives but also to explore the potential of the local economy

along the Saloum River and downstream to the ocean. We want to stimulate reflection on the gathering and processing of fishery products beside the traditional farm products. The second programme regards digital innovation and the creation of a coding school. Right now, the Sine Saloum region has no innovation ecosystems, which are mostly found near Dakar. The idea is to contribute to developing local expertise which would feed and support entrepreneurship initiatives put in place near the agricultural hotspot and more in general in the region ■

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Alé B. S.

Green City Strategist Global Green Growth Institute Senegal

How does urbanisation affect Senegalese secondary cities?

space to renewable energies and energy efficiency.

With well-planned urban development, Senegalese cities could be more powerful engines of the national economy. However, like African cities, they face manifold challenges in terms of infrastructure, water supply, waste management, urban mobility, access to energy, sanitation, decent and affordable housing. In addition, there is also insecurity, poverty, underemployment, pollution and exposure to natural disasters. The recurrence and complexity of all these problems can be explained by the lack of strategies for urban development in a climate change context. This growing urbanisation has considerably increased the vulnerability of cities that are often not prepared to cope with climate shocks, to manage urban growth and to effectively seize all the opportunities it offers in terms of social, technological and environmental innovations. This situation is even more acute in secondary cities.

In this light, the ‘green cities’ model is particularly relevant in Senegal’s context, as it offers the best options for addressing climate change through sustainable mitigation and adaptation measures through job creation, poverty alleviation and the improvement of living conditions for the well-being of populations. The development of green cities goes beyond traditional environmental policy, in that it uses sustainable urban planning tools and practical experiences.

Why is the green cities model relevant in the context of Senegal? Current models for urban upgrades are expensive. They increase the costs of upgrading cities and do not allow us to take better advantage of the economic and social dividends of our cities. The sustainable city is an essential objective. It emphasises the need to change paradigm and opt for another model of urban development that is inclusive, sparing in land resources and giving more

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The objective is to create a better living environment, control urban sprawl on agricultural land, access to various energy sources and basic urban services related to water, sanitation, housing, health, improving the quality of services provided to citizens and finally creating conditions for balanced economic growth. What do you think should be changed in a near future? The government and the population have to change their behaviour in terms of their approach to the cities themselves and the environment. If they do not, the health of the population and the economy of the cities will be affected. The citizen participation and ownership of actors also need to be strengthened ■

Ndeye N. P. M.

Coordinator Micro-Gardens Project Senegal

What are the main challenges facing the food system in the city and region of Dakar? At the second level of food system, the point is the supply and logistics so that is to say it is necessary to have a good relationship with the production, for instance making sure that the commission is constant. And we have a lot of events to increase knowledge of climate change, floods, droughts... so the city and also the agriculture must be much more resilient. And other downstream are markets, markets must be much more organised and at the specialised limit. What has been put in place in Dakar to create a more sustainable and resilient food system? So at the level of the city of Dakar, the management of markets now up to the communes of the common garden to constitute a network. And at this level there, the municipalities seek partners, and by the limit, build new markets and better manage them. We also encourage urban agriculture instead of giving up, with projects such as micro-gardens which constitute market gardening from table to the table in the middle urban given the lack of suitable production spaces. Micro-gardens are small, simple, inexpensive production units suited to high density urban neighbourhood. And this allows families to eat vegetables from those who grow vegetables and sell their surplus. The benefit is tangible because micro gardens are real green lungs for the capital of Senegal,

whose landscape is dominated by concrete. With the micro-gardens programme, we are also developing the concept of a green city that is able to successfully adapt to the consequences of climate change and the scarcity of agricultural land. The programme also aims to contribute to regreening the capital. In a city where vegetation is particularly absent, the social and health benefits of expanding micro gardening is extremely important. What could still be done to improve the food system in the city and region of Dakar? Find systems with the most resilient room, take into account the external constraints, and especially encourage family culture. And ideally the micro-gardens programme should be integrated into the city’s master plan ■

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Siny S.

CEO Le Lionceau Senegal

Why did you focus only on baby food? I made this choice since I had experience in this sector, but above all, because I am convinced that health depends on the diet that we have during the first thousand days of life. I saw my country changes over the years, both positively and negatively. Since I was five, when my Grandma and I cooked large batches of thieboudienne, it’s rice with fish, for street children of our neighbourhood every friday, I felt deeply touched by the condition of street children in Senegal. Passionate about food industry, I decided to go abroad to continue my studies and graduated as a food processing engineer. As I observed, Senegalese parents do not differentiate between a specific baby food and a non-baby food diet. For example, they have the habit of taking vegetables from the traditional dish and crushing them to feed their babies. It’s too salty and not good for the baby. Acting on Senegalese young children nutritional status during their first thousand days of life allow us to positively impact their entire physical, mental and cognitive development, giving to the adults of tomorrow the best chance of succeeding and as a result, of producing positive effects on our society.

here in Africa. We have millet, fonio, cowpea, baobab fruit, etc. The worst part is that most of these products rot in the fields, creating a lot of post-harvest losses. Thus, we have resources in abundance, but we have to go and find them, which is a real challenge. So, we wanted to enhance them by making them products for babies. At the same time, by working with local products, an entire value chain is impacted. In the baby food market, there are only imported products. When a baby consumes our food, there is an effect from the field to the consumer. Because we will have bought the raw materials from a local farmer or a group of farmers, which allows them to have more stable incomes and better conditions that are adapted to local tastes. For example, we associate millet with bananas, which is naturally sweet, and it is a mixture that parents used to give children in the form of porridge. We have readapted it and brought some innovation to its formulation. Who is your target group of users for the moment?

Why did you bet on promoting local products?

Our products are being sold directly, delivered to home or via a monthly subscription system. For the moment, we mainly target the middle class of Dakar and it’s only to start. The objective is to go to rural areas, but we have to make economies of scale.

First of all, we have extraordinary resources

What is the goal of Le Lionceau towards the

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future of food system in Senegal? Concerning our food system vision, we’d like to restore a fairer, job-creating and healthy agriculture. We base our approach on four points, partnerships selection that is exclusively focused on small farmers, training farmers with the aim of complementing their ancestral farming techniques with modern knowledge, cooperatives through the implementation of public/NGO/private partnerships, and lobbying in which our goal is the voting of laws framing strictly agricultural land, the allocation of land to big national and foreign companies, and protecting it as much as possible from rapid urbanisation ■

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5.8. Case studies To investigate which are the solutions already working on the market or the new ideas that are developing on the world, case studies are the best way to prove to support the researched trend. The manifestations of them and the possible solutions addressed to significant problems can be the starting point for further investigations and design.

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[Fig.24] Hydroponic farm of FreshDirect. Credit: instagram.com/freshdirectng

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FRESH DIRECT Nigeria | 2014 Instead of using farmland some distance outside the city, Fresh Direct turned to repurposing old shipping containers to grow crops using hydroponics and vertical farming. This allows farming to happen right in the heart of Nigeria’s urban areas, which have been battling with a population that is growing at an alarmingly fast pace. Fresh Direct says that this technology also allows the company to produce 10 times more yield using only 7 percent of the land. Other technologies like drip irrigation, cold storage, and specific transportation processes reduce water use, decrease post-harvest loss, and slash the price - all while ensuring quality of produce. Fresh Direct was found with a goal to make agriculture easy and fun for young people, empower them with employment. The process is designed to work like this: youth apply to be independent urban farmers with Fresh Direct. Once accepted, the company trains them and finances the container farm with a collateral-free micro-loan obtained through a bank. Finally, Fresh Direct provides a guaranteed market for the urban farmer’s crop yield.

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[Fig.25] O2’s nutritionists always make sure to compose balanced and varied menus, adapted to the working environment. Credit: o2-africa.com

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O2 CATERING AND SERVICE Senegal | 2015 O² is a contractor for institutional catering and hotel trade, specialised in base camps and platforms, in West Africa. They stated themselves as a breath of fresh air for everyone looking for quality services adapted to their needs, in particular in an unwelcoming working place. With maximum flexibility, O² fully manages the working environment and offers a whole package of customised services including: catering, housing, laundry, security and hobbies, with only limits being the existing law, safety and environmental compliance. For the catering service, O² works with trustworthy providers specially selected to offer high quality meals, cooked by experienced chefs and served by a skilled and dynamic staff, according to the HACCP regulations. Their nutritionists always make sure to compose balanced and varied menus, adapted to the working environment. O² thoroughly care about the quality and hygiene of their products to offer a perfect catering and housing service, in accordance with local and regional regulations. Moreover, security and safety have an essential role in their service delivery because they know that they are vital to the personal and physical well-being of all.

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[Fig.26] Agri-wallet develops and implements innovative mobile wallets that help vulnerable people (low income, women, youth) save money earmarked for specific purposes. Credit: agri-wallet.com

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AGRI-WALLET Kenya | 2017 Access to finance is a serious challenge for smallholder farmers worldwide, and the majority of them are still underfinanced. Agriwallet is a digital wallet providing a business account for farmers, which they can use to save, buy, and earn. Farmers can open an Agri-wallet account for free. When farmers earn revenue through sales, they can choose to be paid in money through M-Pesa (a Kenyan mobile payment system) or partly in tokens for their wallet. Tokens are then earmarked for purchasing input supplies from merchants that have been vetted by Dodore, comparable to a voucher system. These tokens can be used to purchase inputs for the next cropping season. Furthermore, because credit takes the form of tokens rather than currency, lenders are more willing to provide farmers with loans. Agri-wallet is based on blockchain technology: it is a cryptocurrency, a type of monopoly money, which has no value except in the agricultural supply chain. As part of an ‘ecosystem’ with earmarked credit, Agri-wallet helps farmers to save and in turn enables them to access short term loans through Rabobank – without the conventional stack of paperwork. For the moment, since many African still don’t have smart phone, instead users can send text messages on oldschool cellular phones to access the service.

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[Fig.27] Afrikamart enables farmers to sell their products directly through a distribution network made of supermarkets, processors, retailers and export companies. Credit: afrikamart.com

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AFRIKAMART Senegal | 2018 In addressing three of the biggest challenges in the agrifood sector: effective agriculture, market access and logistics, Afrikamart was created to unlock the potential of agri-business in Africa. Afrikamart is a web and mobile based supply chain that allows farmers to distribute their products through a B2B buyers network. Afrikamart intensively leverages on digital to provide steady supply of fresh produce at a fair cost. To do so, they work with different stakeholders such as farmers, cooperatives, pack houses, logistics companies, in different countries, bypassing unnecessary middlemen thus creating costefficient supply chains. Afrikamart anticipate harvest and build production programs aligned with market demand to advise their farmers, they optimise the product collection and put together all transportation means possible in order to move the crops in bulk, they also have a shared cold chain storage to mutualise costs.

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[Fig.28] Umthunzi is a marketplace for seasonal, organic grown by small-scale farmers. Credit: umthunzifarmingcommunity.co.za

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UMTHUNZI FARMING COMMUNITY South Africa | 2018 In March 2018, small-scale farmers across the Cape Flats had a crisis: hundreds of brinjals (eggplants) were ripening in their fields and they had nowhere to sell them. Without adequate business skills and access to market, vegetables rotted in their fields and the farmers would suffer a severe loss of income if they could not connect with customers and sell their delicious vegetables. In response to this, Emma Hosking and Kim Bloch founded Umthunzi Farming Community, a marketplace for seasonal and organic vegetables, grown by small-scale farmers. What started with three farmers and ten friends buying vegetables via WhatsApp, is now a network of over 70 small-scale organic farmers from Khayelitsha, Gugulethu, Nyanga, Mitchells Plain, Philippi, Schaapkraal, Langa, Athlone and Malmesbury. Umthunzi Farming Community aims to economically empower small-scale urban farmers in low-income areas of Cape Town. They assist farmers with marketing, sales and distribution of organic produce as well as business skills development, that creates an urban food system where small-scale farmers are key contributors who provide nourishing food, help job creation and support healthy, prosperous communities.

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Chapter 6

Phenomenological observation A personal immersion in the sites

Dakar

Diamniadio

Daga Kholpa

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Ideally, this task should be performed from the very beginning of the research. Nevertheless, an obliged change in the research plan was necessary in order to adapt to the new uncertainty that led to the postponement in direct travelling to the field. The belated endeavour was finally taken to achieve a personal immersion in the site and to get familiar with the development plan of Daga Kholpa. Along the way, other development sites were taken into account as the confrontation.

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[Fig.29] Phenomenological mapping in Dakar, own collage

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6.1. Dakar Once arriving at Blaise Diagne, passengers will figure car or taxi are among the limited possible means to get to the city of Dakar. Meanwhile, a new system of public transportation is being promoted on several banners inside the airport. The ongoing Regional Express Train project is expected to have the travel time under 50 minutes between the city and the airport. One of the available public transportations in the city is ndiaga ndiaye, which is not highly suggested due to its inconvenience under the year-round hot heat, exceptionally during covid.

The main streets and roads are quite friendly for motorised traffic while the space for pedestrians and bicycles are still not well designed in terms of practicality. Simultaneously, branch lines were noticed with rough, stony surface and water spilling all over the place, even without any raining. The proximity between medium height builidings and humble houses creates a dakar-style amicable inequality. Public outdoor spaces for physical exercising, surprisingly, could be found on the seashore where residents are free to work out with their favourite equipments or simply freestyling their exercises. There is also a noticeable difference in the habit of consuming food between those who would go with any edible product, regardless of nutritional values, and those who are more sophisticated in considering what to eat and how to eat. The city is bulging in its own height and to its periphery. Numerous unfinished infrastructures indicates its ceaseless effort in achieving an ambitious national vision.

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6.2. Diamniadio Through quick and informal inquiries, all of the people asked are familiar with Diamniadio development area, among them, the majority has positive opinion on the up–to–date status of this project while there is still little scepticism on the price that new city might pay in the exchange between traditional and modern way of living.

[Fig.30] Phenomenological mapping in Diamniadio, own collage

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To reach the area from Dakar, it is recommended to go through the A1 route that might take approximately half an hour to get the site by car. Few buildings for administrative and governmental use were found. The area unexpectedly looked deserted, not only because of being in a sunday but also of its unfulfilled appearance. Several sparse inhabited blocks were filled with the mix of Indian and Senegalese workers (said Mary). When crossing over the old Diamniadio to get towards Daga Kholpa, part of the railway for the planned Regional Express Train was recognised by the taxi driver. The traces showed an abandoned-for-years-like work.

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6.3. Daga Kholpa Unlike Diamniadio, not too many people knows or knows well about the development plan in Daga Kholpa. Combining to that, the satellite view of the site is being checked monthly using Tomtom and OpenStreetMap. In terms of physical facility, there has been nothing changed for half a year. However, there is evidence of an attempt at involving voices from the villagers, especially the youth, to express their desire and concern of the development that is supposed to happen on their land. It recently could be found through a series of online news. In general, under the 2035 national vision, there is a blend of hope and hesitation to predict a future destiny for the project. The site was visited after passing by Diamniadio. The area has been apparently less touched in comparison to Diamniadio. A wayfinding signage of ‘Kholpa’ on a side of N1 route seemed to be helpful to let us know a correct turn to the location, and a nearby power plant reconfirmed it once again. A football match was taking place on an empty ground that attracted quite a lot of young villagers since it is regularly their communal activity for the weekend. A mosque, a school and some other built infrastructures were faintly interleaved with green wild carpet. Baobab and cashew were recognised while abundance of unknown plants covered anywhere but the red soil road. The area gave the impression of a leisurely transformation regardless the rampant urbanisation could be going to happen elsewhere on the country.

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[Fig.31] Phenomenological mapping in Daga Kholpa, own collage

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Chapter 7

Future scenarios A plausible visualisation of what might happen in Daga Kholpa

From flood to bloom

Moving farm

Ready-to-cook couscous

Speciality for you

Info food

Frugal digital Description Who needs it? Why is it appropriate for the future?

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Predicting the future of food and how different trends and events will impact the food system in such a rapidly changing context like Senegal is a challenging task. Specifically when we look at a still-on-going urban development plan like the case of Daga Kholpa. A set of future scenarios in this stage therefore aims to reflect the composite of insights from previous parts, then built a sufficiently vivid and plausible future world in which we can clearly see and comprehend the problems, challenges and opportunities that such an environment would present.

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SCENARIO 01

7.1. FROM FLOOD TO BLOOM

[Fig.32] From flood to bloom, own collage

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Description In response to the unpredictable extreme weather events, that in the case of Daga Kholpa is period flood, there should be an adaptive irrigation system that supports the transformation of a catastrophe into a new, positive resource for the town, especially for farming. There should be a stream of information about the state of the sites at risk of overflowing provide for partnered companies and public institutions, in order to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of coordinated recovery action.

Who needs it? People who are in charge of managing new Daga Kholpa’s infrastructures will gain the most benefit through this system, by reusing the resources, as well as the surrounded villagers and city’s residents.

Why is it appropriate for the future? Daga Kholpa needs to adapt to every situation, also the extreme ones such as catastrophes. Traditionally, agriculture was one of the drivers affecting climate change, but in the future, urban and peri-urban agriculture is considered as a strategy that can bring multiple benefits and help to build resilient urban food systems at the city region level.

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SCENARIO 02

7.2. MOVING FARM

[Fig.33] Moving farm, own collage

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Description Plenty of organic farm facilities will be scattered inside and even around Daga Kholpa, some of the farms will move to residential, hospital, school, office, industrial... areas and offer mobile units that provide fresh products and services to consumers. It will have a system that will combine production, distribution and processing.

Who needs it? There will be a win-win opportunity for food producers and any kind of consumers in Daga Kholpa, since one side will benefit from jobs creation when the other side will benefit from convenient services. The local environment will benefit too, with green models of farming and logistics.

Why is it appropriate for the future? Moving farm will make this a major urban food producing area, but one of the town’s most important functions will be the integration of indoor and outdoor farming activities. Vertical form of farming will preserve agricultural land in the town, manage production and distribution to provide food, protection, and convenience for consumers.

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SCENARIO 03

7.3. READY-TO-COOK COUSCOUS

[Fig.34] Ready-to-cook couscous, own collage

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Description As a cornerstone of the local and regional diet, couscous is produced when semolina is mixed with water and rubbed between hands until small granules are formed. Traditionally, it could take from sunrise to sunset for Senegalese women to make couscous from scratch, before making it dishes. To shorten the preparation, there should be the provision of processed couscous using local millet (for instance) while maintaining nutritional value and original taste. Another version of the idea will be ready-to-eat product.

Who needs it? Single people who will be coming just to work and also Daga Kholpa’s families, during and after non-stop working day, might not be able to organise much of their time for cooking.

Why is it appropriate for the future? This scenario takes couscous as a local representation when taking into account one of the new normal habits of somewhat time-poor urban actors who will want to spend their time in half way cooking and resting, hence the offer of an acceptable choice for food products concerning quality, locality, time-saving and generating a sense of caring.

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SCENARIO 04

7.4. SPECIALITY FOR YOU

[Fig.35] Speciality for you, own collage

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Description In Daga Kholpa, there could be a service that will offer special meals in replacement of medicine. This will be served not only in hospitals’ diets but also as options in restaurants, schools, parks, etc.

Who needs it? Mainly patients will need it, but people who will be gradually more aware about their health status through everyday meal could also use it. The community in a longer term will benefit from this behavioural switching.

Why is it appropriate for the future? Today, every single nation on Earth is getting fatter. Obesity-related diseases, such as type 2 diabetes, are soaring on a trajectory that will cripple many health services. Senegal is and will not be the exception burdening this phenomenon. Healthy eating will be important to keep ones’ bodies in tip-top condition and can save untold numbers of lives.

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SCENARIO 05

7.5. INFO FOOD

[Fig.36] Info food, own collage

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Description In order to feed certain percentage of its population, Daga Kholpa is being planned to have its own system of agricultural production, in this context, there could be a process to keep track of food products that will be circulating or entering the town, the related data and information will create the regional food identity.

Who needs it? The companies and local representative will need this to control the flow of internal production as well as import that might help to build trust and reputation over the consumers’ strict requirements. The regional agriculture will love this because of its effort towards indigenous breeds preservation.

Why is it appropriate for the future? Consumers are only willing to entrust their healthfulness to the businesses lay their cards on the table with regards to nutritional information and provenance. The process will help local farms’ and farmers’ products verified with the support of partnered companies before reaching consumers’ hands.

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SCENARIO 06

7.6. FRUGAL DIGITAL

[Fig.37] Frugal digital, own collage

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Description There will be groups of local actors joining to exchange knowledge in order to enhance community know-how with various levels of technology, skills, tools... Different groups will connect to form a strong network in which the roles between learners and educators are always exchangeable.

Who needs it? The coming generation of local producers, namely farmers, agronomists, food processors, entrepreneurs, and even young students, who will be proactively and consciously wake up their regional power by utilising their own resources with the support of frugal innovation, depending on the development of infrastructures.

Why is it appropriate for the future? In an era of rapid digital change, the lifelong learning activities should be fostered continuously. In the case of Daga Kholpa, they will empower the local workforce to contribute to their adaptive and resilient communities, with the aim of consolidating before expanding the impacts.

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Chapter 8

Co-Design Develop, enrich and assess the concept with stakeholders

Service concept Description Main activities Actors

Co-design Online questionnaire Expert’s session Concept redevelopment User’s session

Service redevelopment

8.1. Service concept 8.1.1. Description Switching consumer behaviour towards sustainability and locality In the future, sustainability will be a necessity rather than a trend. The aim of the concept is to facilitate shifting towards more sustainable models of consumerism and, to do this, the service focuses on how people acquire and consume local food and agricultural products with the starting point is Daga Kholpa.

COMMUNITY Promote the formation of a strong community and making users active participants of the service. UTILISATION OF THE RESOURCE Inspire new ways of producing and consuming food with the aim of utilising limited resource and minimising waste. HABITS OF CONSUMPTION Encouraging change in consumer habits towards a circular and local economy while maintaining a healthy lifestyle.

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8.1.2. Main activities

FARMING

SHARING

COOKING

EATING

BUYING

DELIVERY

EVENTS

TAILORING

8.1.3. Actors Users The subscribers as users and co-providers of the service. As co-providers they can be involved in production, logistics and management of the service. As users they can benefit from the service and from events and activities related to it. Companies Companies act as partners, providing with new products or activities, corresponding to the values of sustainability of the service. In this way, users can use products and test their benefits. Companies can receive feedbacks from potential users.

• Residents: will have local food from local producers, diversify income by hosting travellers, grow a communal garden for some kinds of food, have a communal storage and shared kitchen. • Local producers: who might or might not be farmers will benefit from a source of consumers, benefit from the internal logistics, might diversify income and exchange knowledge through agritourism, and connect to other producers. • Travellers: as locals or foreigners can eat local food grown by local producers, they might be hosted while travelling, access free meals by assisting at the garden and exchange knowledge through agritourism.

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8.2. Co-design 8.2.1. Online questionnaire Google drive 18 questions 49 responses From 5-9 to 21-9-2020

The idea carried out was that of a questionnaire to investigate the current attitudes and behaviours of people toward consuming food, agricultural products, and the possible impacts they might have in a prospective liveable society. The questionnaire, consisting of 18 questions, was identified as a quick and easily spreadable tool to determine possible paths to take and the first limitations. The questionnaire started with some questions regarding how people feel about their life recently. The next section addressed their shopping habits, followed by a section on their cooking behaviours. The next sections were on eating out and information sources. And the last but not least were questions that relate to their personal background - general demographics. The questionnaire was posted onto two facebook groups in which the targeted members are studying or working in Senegal, with a mixture of both locals and expatriates. It was an initial attempt at involving local respondents with an apparent awareness of the unthorough nature of that channel (Kemp 2020) within the context.

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[Fig.38] A user research tool. Credit: unsplash.com

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81%

29%

of people consider the origin of what they are going to eat

of people feel stressed when involving in cooking

53%

70%

of people would like to access products that are close to expiration date with a discount

of people are opened to try new types of cuisine while traveling even they have tried before or not

Most people take into account the origin of food that they are consuming Almost everyone does not want to share their kitchen and appliances with strangers Participation in cooking makes people feel positive

[Fig.39] Results and insights from online questionnaire, own elaboration

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Don’t you mind sharing your kitchen and appliances with others?

I don’t mind sharing I don’t want to share Maybe It depends on the people, no problem if they are clean I only share with my family

Among the following list of words, please select all the adjectives that describe how cooking (anything) makes you feel. Accomplished Adventurous Confident Creative Experienced Frustrated Giving Happy Inadequate Interesting Loved Loving Sad Satisfied Stressed 0

How much influence did/does each of the following have on your level of interest in food? 1- not at all important

5- extremely important

25 20 15 10 5 0

Your family’s interest in food

Your ethnic heritage

Your friends’ Previous travel interest in food experiences

Experiences through job

Television

Books

Magazines

Internet

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8.2.2. Expert’s session Awa, Senegalese, CEO at Soreetul, 32 y.o. 30-10-2020 | 6:30 pm

IDEA For the first co-design session with the expert, an idea of a neighbourhoodbased service for farming, cooking, sharing food was presented. The service was characterised by the aim of changing consumer behaviours towards sustainability, three types of actors involved (user, co-provider and company) and eight actions (farm, cook, eat, share, buy, delivery, customise and manage) that could be performed by the actors. It was presented as an open system of exchange between neighbours.

AIM The aim of the co-design session was to address some of the issues raised by the users that were collected from the online questionnaire’s responses and understand how they might be solved within different channels. A second aim was to scrutinise the possibilities might be opened for incubating new service with the reflection of an experienced expert in the local context. And lastly, the third aim was to understand how companies might be included as providers of products within the system.

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[Fig.40] Co-design session with expert. Credit: author

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HOW IT WAS PLANNED

ICEBREAKER duration 5’

LIMITS BRAINSTORMING duration 30’

DISCUSSION duration 5’

duration 30’

duration 5’

SERVICE INTRODUCTION

CASE STUDIES SORTING

HOW IT HAPPENED

PAPERS

PAPERS • BOOKLET • POST-IT

Become confident with the activities

Tackle users’ limits

Feedback and suggestions

ICEBREAKER

LIMITS BRAINSTORMING

DISCUSSION

duration 10’

duration 40’

duration 5’

SERVICE INTRODUCTION

duration 10’

duration 35’

CASE STUDIES SORTING

About service concept POSTER • LEAFLETS • MAP

Know more about products providers PAPERS • CARDS • POST-IT

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PERFORMANCE

The session began with an icebreaker which required the participant to briefly talk about the challenges and opportunities she has come across while running her business. The brief activity was intended as a way to begin a conversation around existing issues, some of which may reflect what the users had established from the online questionnaire’s responses. Following the icebreaker, the second activity involved the expert being introduced to the concerns identified by the users and discussing how she has solved them or what potential solutions might be in the future. Here, the expert was presented with five general matters (reputation, affordability, personalisation, facilitation, participation) and was invited to share her ideas through two rounds: the first one was immediately occurred then a future scenario was shared before going through the second round. This exercise proved quite interesting because the opinions from the users were not in any way new, but the expert had various suggestions for tackling them over two rounds of exercising. Following this exercise was a case studies sorting. The focus of this exercise was involving companies as products providers for the system, and the aim was to understand how this might be accomplished. For both exercises, the expert was presented with simple tools to write her ideas or suggestions or thoughts on. In both cases, she preferred to discuss and give opinions, while the designer took notes on the tools. After completing all three exercises, there was a brief chat regarding the future of the concept.

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TOOLS Introduction poster Neighbourhood map Opportunities/Challenges cards User concerns Scenario booklet Roadmap wheel Post-it

Introduction | Poster A poster briefly describing the aim of the service, the participating actors and their roles and the actions they can perform within the system. The tool was a simple visual support for the other activities.

Introduction | Map and leaflet The map was a stylized representation of the ZAC inside Daga Kholpa and some of the relevant infrastructure. In the meantime, the leaflet gave an overview about the project with a specific focus on its location and the indicated functions.

Icebreaker | Opportunities/Challenges cards The card was used as an icebreaker, with two pages in each, dedicated to writing out the opportunities the participant has come across while running her business and the challenges she has faced. The goal of the card was to allow for the participant to become acquainted and to introduce the topic of the next exercise, that is, the user concerns. By talking about her own challenges, the participant was guided towards the next discussion. The tool performed as expected since it was a straightforward tool.

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[Fig.41] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

1st activity | User concerns | Boundary object The concerns tool comprised of several user concern areas (synthesised from the online questionnaire’s responses), attached to a simple sheet in the form of quotes. The expert was asked to discuss each point briefly and offer ideas on how it might be resolved or if it could be resolved at all. For each category, she was provided with small yellow post-its to keep track of her ideas and suggestions and attach them next to the relevant issue. In order to keep a structure, she was introduced to a future scenario, then coming back to reflect with new possible solutions using small green postits to keep track. The aim of the boundary object was to better understand existing and potential solutions to the problem areas and the channels through which they might be realized. In terms of supporting discussion and brainstorming, the boundary object performed well. When it came to actually writing down her suggestions, the participant was more keen on having the designer do it, while she kept up a discussion. Here, it seemed the post-its were insufficient to get her to write things down on her own.

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TOOLS Introduction poster Neighbourhood map Opportunities/Challenges cards User concerns Scenario booklet Roadmap wheel Post-it

1st activity | Scenario booklet A future scenario, based on the insights from previous stages, was shared in between two rounds of brainstorming aimed to suggest a fresh flow of ideas for the participant, it was given in the form of a booklet.

2nd activity | Roadmap wheel This tool was used to better understand the condition and environment for putting into action a range of services while investigating the role of companies as products providers within the service system. The circle included three areas (right away, wait a moment, see you in the next life) that represent the roadmap for implementing those services in considering the context of Senegal. The red half illustrated the unlikeliness when the blue half illustrated the possibilities for incubating. Eleven case studies cards acted very well in providing information and visualisation, but due to the limited space of the tool, small post-its were used for sorting instead.

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[Fig.42] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

EVALUATION

Participation The level of engagement for the participant was super high, as both exercises were prolonged beyond the initially planned duration. The participant was comfortable discussing and sharing her opinions and were adept at understanding the demands of each exercise and answering them.

Tools effectiveness The main goal with the tools was to have expert evaluate and reflect the direction of the service on local context. The tools performed as intended and were quite effective in structuring the session and ensuring the participant considered multiple options within the service context. They also prompted the participant to explain her choices.

WHAT WOULD BE CHANGED? If the designer was to redo this session he would think about providing participant with different tools for tracking the discussion. While the postits with different colours were valuable in making sure she considered the different typologies of solutions (currently, potentially...), she wasn’t inclined to actually write on them, making the exercise resemble a discussion. This still provided the necessary information, but it would be interesting to see how the outcome would vary if the participant was to do more the writing herself. In addition, it would be useful to do a co-design session with several participants, because the tools would benefit from contrasting points of view and discussion.

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[Fig.43] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

PARTICIPATION

EFFECTIVENESS 161

INSIGHTS

MAKE HEALTHIER CHOICES MORE ACCESSIBLE DIVERSIFY WAYS OF CONTRIBUTING OF FOOD PRODUCERS REPORT THE IMPACT OF A PRODUCT TO RAISE AWARENESS INCENTIVES FOR THOSE WHO CONSUME LOCALLY POLICIES THAT DISRUPT CONSUMPTION AND POLLUTION CONSIDER THE LEVEL OF INNOVATION

The session with the expert turned out to be full of insights due to the significant advantage of Soreetul who are acting between consumers and producers. The insights thus linked to a group of potential actors - the local producers - that the designer could not reach because of the communicational reasons. Through the expert’s sharing, the designer understood that one of the main challenges that her business is facing is (also) means of communication. The majority of her providers now are the ladies who are working at their own farm, garden or workshop, including the ones who are illiterate or not too much sharp in accessing smart devices. In this regard, the potential source of producers at Daga Kholpa is approximately ten thousand villagers. Recently, during covid’s time, people are much more aware about the impact of food on their health status. However, as evidenced by the owner of Soreetul, to direct consumers towards more sustainable and healthier habits, we must first of all educate and convince them. She shared optimistically her business’ vision with the national policy makers’ in terms of promoting local products benefits. And on the side of the producers, there should not be only the encouragement to support them on the output but also the same effort (like the one towards the consumers) to raise their knowledge in sustainable habits, such as using natural methods for their farm, reducing the reliance on chemical stuffs, recycling organic resources by composting, etc. Until now, the business just works with traditional farm located far from the city

centre, but the expert agreed on considering the offer from urban-based farms if they would decrease the duration and cost of transportation and storage, and if they would provide more unique products than the traditional farms. The sharing spirit helps reducing the food waste in Senegal down to nearly zero, due to the fact that people are willing to share their leftover or surplus directly to the ones who are more difficult than them in acquiring daily meals. Therefore, one of Awa’s suggestions was that the designer could work on something provoke the local or national spirit, like the spirit of ‘teranga’ for instance. Testing events are often taken place when her business wants to introduce a new product to a new market with a new pool of consumers. Regarding the more technical part of the service, following the activities with Awa, the designer understood that the business strategy that best fits the type of service: the social business reveals to be the right strategy even from the point of view of the potential of scaling. Moreover, the expert suggested to widen the focus out of neighbourhood if the activities of farming is still under consideration. Besides, the session brought to light themes such as the importance of gaining the trust of the users through a presentation of professional products, it will firstly gain the attraction and secondly protect them from being broken through possible long process of logistics.

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8.2.3. Concept redevelopment

PLACE PLATFORM COMPANIES FOOD RELATED PRODUCTS

USERS VILLAGERS

Products providers Accessing Managing Cooking Logistics

[Fig.44] Concept redevelopment, own elaboration

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ACTORS TOUCH POINTS

The initial concept was quite broad, with many possibilities considered. The aim of the first co-design session was to narrow down these possibilities, understand which are relevant and how they could function. Following the co-design session, some changes were made to the service concept, in order to accommodate the insights that were generated. To begin with, the focus was placed simply accessing, eliminating the other types of acquisition. The designer decided to involve both Daga Kholpa villagers, companies and residents as potential product/service providers, as she found it necessary to further explore this option. The idea to have the community co-provide the service was kept in order to be further tested. Regarding the food products reliability and creating narratives, the designer thought about developing stories around some selected products in the service. Stories of the products are not only related to the recipe, its contained nutrition, who produced it and the production of it, but they can also tell something about the journey of the ingredients before becoming food, its family and its life cycle, its commission in conserving the local breed.

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8.2.4. User’s session Oumar, Senegalese, computer scientist, 29 y.o. Mary, Senegalese, developer, 29 y.o Elisabetta, Italian, specialist in digitalisation, 33 y.o. 18-11-2020 | 4:45 pm

IDEA The idea for the service presented in the co-design session with the users was similar to the first co-design session with the expert. The concept of a service intended to change consumer habits was kept, as were the interactions happening in the service. A change was made in that new focuses were introduced to clarify the goals of the service. These included a focus on active community, changing consumer behaviours and utilising the limited resources.

AIM The aim of the co-design session was to understand the perceptions of potential users on the type of interactions were being considered implementing in the system. Furthermore, the next aim is to understand what reservations the users would have regarding switching their behaviour in consuming food. And finally, to see how users would act in certain scenarios within the service, what steps they would take and how the context of the neighbourhood would shape their decisions.

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[Fig.45] Co-design session with users. Credit: author

HOW IT WAS PLANNED

CASE STUDIES DISCOVERY

ICEBREAKER duration 5’

duration 20’

DISCUSSION duration 5’

duration 30’

duration 5’

SERVICE INTRODUCTION

SCENARIO EXPLORATION

HOW IT HAPPENED

CASE STUDIES CARDS • NOTES

Limits and opportunities of similar services Become confident with the activities

ICEBREAKER duration 5’

CASE STUDIES DISCOVERY duration 30’

duration 5’

SERVICE INTRODUCTION

Feedback and suggestions

BREAK

duration 5’

DISCUSSION duration 10’

duration 20’

SCENARIO EXPLORATION

About service concept POSTER • LEAFLETS

Understanding the flow of the service MAP • SCENARIO WHEEL • JOURNEY TRACK

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PERFORMANCE

Three users were chosen as they represent possible users as temporary residents and young workers. The session was organized in two activities, a discussion and a scenario exploration activity. To begin the session, each participant briefly introduced themselves. Then they moved on to the discussion activity. For this, they had to choose one of nine cards, representing different case studies of similar services, read the brief description aloud and give their opinion on the service (would they use it, what they like about it, what their reservations would be). In this case, for the first case study, a little prompt on our part was necessary, after which the discussion flowed quite freely. The users seemed to be vaguely familiar with the concepts of the services, if not the specific services themselves. They were quite keen on expressing their opinions, especially regarding their reservations. The activity was planned to last for around 20 minutes, but ended up a little longer, close to half an hour. Apart from understanding the users’ opinions on the services, the exercise served as a way to introduce the different types of interactions the users might encounter in our system and give the users some knowledge on how similar services function. The second exercise was a scenario exploration. Here, the users were presented with a map of the neighbourhood, a wheel of scenarios and a sheet to help them structure and track their journey. The map was intended as an interactive tool that would aid the users in structuring their journey and understanding where in the neighbourhood they would perform which activities. The scenarios were presented in a wheel-of-fortune way to add a playful element to the interaction. Finally, the tracking sheet was meant to remind users which aspects they need to think of when considering their scenario. To avoid interrupting the scenario exploration, it was the designer who filled out the tracking sheet, while the users were allowed to freely discuss their journey. The exercise went smoothly from the beginning, with the users being able to clearly discuss their potential journeys. There was however little direct interaction with the map itself. The users preferred to discuss rather than show their journey, with the map serving more as a framework for the physical and social context of their journeys. The co-design session finished with a brief, informal chat about their opinions on the future, strengths and weaknesses of the service.

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TOOLS Introduction poster Case studies cards Neighbourhood map Scenarios wheel Journey tracker

1st activity | Case studies cards Nine cards representing different case studies of services and events focusing on food and agricultural products within different sectors (kitchen for rent, prepared meals provision, support for farming, etc). Each card briefly explained one case study in several sentences. The tool was used to introduce the users to existing services with similar values or operating models, as well as to encourage them to think about alternative ways of consuming and prepare them for the scenario exploration. It was also intended as a way to gauge their opinions on the potentially user-service interactions. The tool performed as expected, with the users choosing a card, reading it aloud and then engaging in animated discussions.

2nd activity | Scenarios wheel Eight scenarios were presented to the users. The scenarios were built to resemble potential situations within the service, focusing on different aspects (cooking, farming, etc). The goal of the scenarios was to give the users a situation in which they could develop a part of their journey. They were asked to imagine themselves within the scenario and talk about how they would interact with the service, given their situation. The scenarios were effective in contextualising the service for the users and were valuable in understanding potential user behaviours. The scenarios were embodied in a wheel of fortune style tool, to add an interactive aspect to the exercises.

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[Fig.46] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author

TOOLS Introduction poster Case studies cards Neighbourhood map Scenarios wheel Journey tracker

2nd activity | Neighbourhood map | Boundary object The map was a stylized representation of the ZAC inside Daga Kholpa and some of the relevant infrastructure. It was intended as a boundary object and as a setting for the scenario exploration activity, where users were expected to show their movements during their journey on the map itself. Each user was represented by a small character, drawn to resemble them. The tool was used to facilitate the user journey and to ensure they kept the scale of the neighbourhood in mind when acting out the scenarios. The interaction of the users with the tool was not entirely as expected. They generally preferred to discuss their scenarios rather than act them out within the map, apart from one instance where the user in question utilized the map exactly as intended. However, the map was effective in enabling the users to keep the scale and infrastructure of the neighbourhood in mind, ensuring their scenarios were in-context.

2nd activity | Journey tracker The trackers were intended to help the users structure their journeys, by providing them with several categories to think about (what actions they do, where they do them, when and for how long and with who). The users were supposed to fill the forms out themselves while discussing their journey. However, during the first exercise, the designer realised users were more interested in discussing without having to write, so the designer decided that it would be her who filled out the sheets, while the users had a reference sheet in front of them to keep the structure in mind. The tool was effective in that it ensured the users included all the relevant information in their journey.

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[Fig.47] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author

EVALUATION

Participation While a little reluctant at first, the users were able to freely express themselves by the end of the session. At moments, prompts on the designer’s part were necessary, or the users needed a detail explained. Overall the participation level was quite high, as all participants were keen on sharing their insights.

Tools effectiveness The tools proved effective, albeit in a way different than originally planned. While the designer intended the participant to interact more directly with the tools, they were instead more useful as facilitators for the discussion and for maintaining the context of the exercises. When used by the designer, they proved useful in tracking the journeys of the participant.

WHAT WOULD BE CHANGED? The designer would think of providing tools for tracking the journey that the participants themselves would be more willing to use, rather than delegating that task to the designer. While the tools in general gained quite high interaction with the participants, it was expected a higher level of interaction between the participants themselves. Therefore, the designer would provide tools for using among participants that enhance them to exchange more eagerly. In addition, the designer would also involve more participants because the time frame necessary to use the tools allows for this and the entire session would benefit from several more points of view on scenario exploration.

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[Fig.48] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author

PARTICIPATION

EFFECTIVENESS 175

INSIGHTS

CONVENIENCE Users set the priority on time saving a bit higher than the effort to have decent meals, especially during the full long day working

PREFERENCE People’s choices of nutrition reflect strongly the community where they belong to, concerning mainly religious and geographical aspects

WIN-WIN Users would adjust their choice of food products to support local actors for gaining both sides benefit

AWARENESS The users are doubtful about the transparency of food production and about the likelihood that the situation would change as well

QUALITY They prefer to spend a little more but to have a reliable and quick logistics service, rather than having someone from the community deliver it for free

The co-design session with the users was not very useful in providing project opportunities, but it proved to be very effective in identifying limits and fears on the part of users, bringing attention to both new and known topics. The identified users appeared to be very sceptical about similar services, emphasising the need for a service that aims to make the experience of healthy food choices in the urban context. First of all, the users shared their interest in being involved in the activities of urban farming model, even if lacking of (spare) time or skills. Having ‘table-garden’ at the balcony, one of the users revealed the fact that initial investment was negligible but it takes time to maintain and protect the garden over natural factors (weather, birds, insects, seasonal diseases...) and man-made factors (routine, knowledge...). It therefore turned out to be a leisure instead of being seen as a chance that one is going to contribute before consuming. One of the ideas went to integrate urban farming into school, office as educational or recreational activities, that might be profitable for many actors. To direct the future consumers towards healthier habits, all of the users agreed that there should be the education first. Moreover, apart from the acceptance of new ways of eating, there should be the change against the traditional perception of body size that was shared by the participants, in this context, there is positive traditional representations of stoutness - the social validation of the big belly for men and large hips for women - may also contribute to the gradual development of obesity in the country.

Both of the users expressed the same desire to know the origin of food products that they are going to consume. In this regard, similarly to have stories of the products mentioned in the previous session, something makes the information traceable might be welcomed. The idea of testing event was perceived positively among participants since they found it could be a proactive way to engage themselves in the community. Once again, the spirit of sharing was stressed, but particularly for the cooking facilities, such as kitchen, appliances, the users seemed to hesitate over the issues related to private sphere, one of the exceptions could be several professional tools, machines that are not used regularly. At the end of the session, a possible direction of the service was hypothesised thanks to Mary, speaking of the future ‘residents’ of Daga Kholpa. Her own experience in PLASMA IMMO suggested the designer to think of a probable flow of people - the one who will come to build the new town. The service redeveloped below has taken the advice provided by the expert and the possible users very seriously, helping the designer to define the type of business strategy, the type of relationship with companies and users and the role of the latter as service co-providers.

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8.3. Service redevelopment

HEALTHY(-IER) FOOD CHOICES One of the main insights from two co-design sessions was that the decision of consuming food products in the cities relies heavily on the proximity of the users’ location and the places for accessing food. The question was raised that in an environment where the unhealthy choice is consistently the cheapest, easiest, and most available option - where does one go? Considering a probable flow of users who will come to build the new infrastructures and reside in Daga Kholpa before any other residents ever, excepted the existing villagers, namely workers, engineers, technicians, managers, etc., the possible direction was carefully adjusted based on previous versions of service concept. A decent catering solution will pop up which involves the villagers as raw products suppliers along with other bigger providers, they can also be involved as co-providers of the service in processing, cooking, delivery (if needed), etc. The service therefore will be set up in parallel with the processing of the construction site(s). Once the first targeted group of users gradually moves (because the construction should finish anyway), the next targets can transfer to other potential groups coming for real functions of the new city, such as patients, school’s kids, office’s staffs, etc. whilst the service co-providers can remain with a little adaptation.

PRODUCTS STORIES The importance, for users, is to know the origin of what they are consuming and, according to the expert, to create an appealing narrative around the product. This idea was evaluated in the co-design session with users, where the designer learned that users like different types of stories depending on the type of product. Another aspect to include in the stories was how consuming a product changes the users’ health status and negative impact on the environment, as a way to prompt people to think about what consuming a product means in social and environmental terms.

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PHYSICAL SPACES The physical spaces might serve as main touchpoints of the service where most of the activities can happen, such as: an equipped kitchen for collecting and storing ingredients, preparing and cooking everyday meals; an on-site canteen might become point for gathering, relaxing and of course, eating; mobile units that might move around and reach any remote site; vending machines for accessing healthy snacks during the day. Another consideration could be the adaptive urban farming model for residents, they do not need to have a farm or garden in their home but in the neighbourhood or anywhere open to the public, and that might become place to exchange knowledge with villagers.

DIGITAL CHANNEL For the very first phase of service, a digital channel might not be compulsory, however, it was suggested to have several features going digital after time, for instance, on the channel, the users can see available options of products and service offer, can read stories, can watch tutorials, etc.

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Chapter 9

PSS-Design Product service system design and business modelling

Mission and vision

What we offer

System map

Sustainability scanner

Personas, user journey and spatial envision

Business modelling Business model canvas Value creation Market dimensions Establishing and growth Operational costs KPIs

Solution roadmap

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The proposed solution in this chapter was carefully considered taking into account all the research materials during previous phases. This chapter therefore consists of the full development of the solution from all perspectives: its mission and vision, the product service system offering, the impact measurement and indicators, the user experience, the touchpoints, the spatial/urban requirements, the stakeholder engagement, the business model and plans, a roadmap for implementing.

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MISSION To create a service that advocates a more selective eating habit by providing people with nutritious meals made from assorted home-grown products.

VISION Becoming a stable establishment that supports healthier local communities, in which facilities are accessible at all time and agro-products play an important part in the sustainability of the economic system.

[Fig.49] GAPA’s logo, own design

9.2. What we offer

Agro-products

Facilities

B2B Promotion Testing

C2C

Catering

Support

B2C

Events

[Fig.50] GAPA’s offering map, own elaboration

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Social space

Selling Processing Cooking Recycling Equipped kitchen Canteen Food court

Mobile units Vending machines

Promotional events Neighbourhood setting Specific target groups Access meals Prepare meals Distribution / Delivery Special menu Career training Expert’s consultation Testing events Ephemeral markets Exhibition on sustainable topics Urban garden 187

9.3. System map Canteen Companies

Mobile units Vending machines

Processors Kitchen

Farms

[Fig.51] GAPA’s system map, own elaboration

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● Construction site ● Hospital ● School ● Transportation ...

Users Ephemeral market Villagers

Stories, tutorials

food flow

info flow

material flow (non-food)

financial flow human performance 189

9.4. Sustainability scanner Encourage sustainable behaviours Consuming locally and regionally are practices that encourage sustainable behaviours.

Give space to natu

Support smallholder farm to be less dependant on a Hence the use of the pro might benefit a natural he

Promote diversity Cultural diversity, since it’s a inclusive service and promotes the community creation.

Make the best of what exists. Reduce the need for the new Since the new urban space will be formed, this system might assist the process less painful while respecting the existing condition.

Create relational contexts Activities promoted by the service, in which residents can collaborate. Temporary residents will have the opportunity to live in an inclusive environment, enhance the sense of belonging. 190

Produce at zero w

Using products from loca extending their contributi back to the farms to crea

ure, re-naturalise things

mers practicing natural farming artificial methods in agriculture. oduce in catering and feeding ealthy community.

waste

al and regional farms and tion by recycling them ate a zero-watse system.

[Fig.52] GAPA’s sustainability scanner, own elaboration

Bring people and things closer Aware people of the impacts of food production, giving them the possibility to get closer to sustainable actors that partner with the service.

Empower people Gives residents the possibility to have an active role inside the service. Empower people, providing them alternative consumer models.

Develop networks Connections among the residents thanks to the events, the local catering system. Connections with our partners.

Use the sun, wind and biomass The renewable energies are encouraged to use in key activities of the service such as farming, processing, distributing, cooking... 191

9.5. Personas

[Fig.53] Persona 1. Credit: unsplash.com

Serena 33 y.o.

Farmer Status: Single Archetype: Inquisitive

192

“Making use of the advantages for a good head start”

As a villager of Kholpa, Serena partook her family’s farming work at their farm since small. After her study at the university, Serena

went back to pursue her farming interests and apply her knowledge onto practical work.

Frustrations ● Inconsistent output from farming, therefore her income is not always stable ● Young people of her age do not really show great enthusiasm about farming

Goals ● Open variety of options for selling products regardless the quantity ● Connect to community of young people where long term benefit of local farming is perceived and shared

Motivations Price Convenience Speed Loyalty

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1. She signs up to join Gapa Farm

2. Gapa agent visits her farm and registers her onto system

3. Serena chooses to keep contacting through phone call and receiving notification via SMS

4. She grows organic vegetables, herbs and eggs on her farm

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5. Gapa agents and experts give Serena farming advice anytime

6. The system arranges requests from partner processors and Gapa Kitchen, then an agent contacts Serena to let her know the order

7. At the end of the season, she harvests to fulfil the order

8. Gapa agent comes and collects produce; and issues her with a receipt

9. Gapa agent arranges the delivery directly to the processing point or Gapa Kitchen

10. Serena receives payment through OrangeMoney within 24 hours 195

[Fig.54] Persona 2. Credit: unsplash.com

Ghaly 26 y.o. Cook Status: Engaged Archetype: Considerate

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“I’m not only passionate about cooking but also about food culture”

Ghaly had been living in the village of Daga until 17. He finished the training course of cooking at a vocational school in Dakar,

however, he found it hard to stay for working due to the high competition in the city.

Frustrations ● He struggled to make a living in cities for years ● Difficult to find ingredient sources that meet his requirement, meal’s quality and nutrients are thus dramatically scaled down

Goals ● Apply his passion on cooking to contribute for the local condition and context ● Provide him with the fresh and tasty sources of seasonal ingredients

Motivations Price Convenience Speed Loyalty

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1. He signs up to join Gapa Kitchen

2. He is contacted for an appointment

3. Since Ghaly already had a cooking certificate, the experience in cooking at a school in Dakar and due to the system’s demand, he is suggested to join one-week training program in Gapa Kitchen as a cook

4. He quickly gets familiar with the required tasks, then he spends time to get to know the cooking space, the storage, his colleagues, their partner list and the regulation to managing food safety

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5. In the early morning, he checks through the scheduled menu and the daily delivered goods from partners for today’s ingredients

6. They start the preparation and make the cooking done before lunchtime

7. The well done meals are delivered to canteen at the same time with table setting

8. The workers come to enjoy nutritious meals

9. He discusses with a Gapa expert and the client to design next month menu, taking into account meals for halal, allergy, NCD and more

10. Then he calculates the ratio to order seasonal ingredients from Gapa Farm 199

[Fig.55] Persona 3. Credit: unsplash.com

Fatou 36 y.o.

Manager Status: Married Archetype: Meticulous

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“Healthy individuals make a healthy organisation and a healthy nation”

Working for a professional contractor, Fatou specially pays her attention to solve employees’ issues. The project in Daga Kholpa

has given her a chance for the first time to take care of her people’s eating and nutrition.

Frustrations ● Incapable of finding a reliable catering service for her current team allocated in distance ● Difficulties in providing a general solution to the team’s specific demands on meals

Goals ● Facilitate the distribution of meals inside (her) working space so that food can be reached by everyone ● Tools to collect, analyse and organise nutrient related demands into meals with diverse options

Motivations Price Convenience Speed Loyalty

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1. She signs up to join Gapa Catering

2. Gapa agent contacts her to consult the needs

3. Gapa agent gives her a plan and quotation

4. She chooses the yearly plan, signs the contract and proceeds the payment through OrangeMoney

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5. A paper survey is conducted to collect more detailed information from the staff and workers

6. A Gapa expert discusses with Fatou and the cook at Gapa Kitchen to design the most appropriate monthly menus

7. Fatou sometimes comes to the canteen before lunchtime checking space setting to see if it meets the contract’s agreement

8. She enjoys meal while observing the environment and people in canteen

9. Every two months, she collects survey to learn about the worker’s satisfaction, their complaints or suggestions

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[Fig.56] Persona 4. Credit: unsplash.com

Hamidou 21 y.o.

Worker Status: Single Archetype: Spontaneous

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“I need bigger meals in order to sustain a full day at work”

Hamidou has attended one of the projects in Daga Kholpa and will stay at the construction site in a temporary block.

Frustrations ● The average portion of lunch sometimes does not fulfil his need, and also his colleagues ● Having to work away from home constantly, he neglects getting himself proper meals

Goals ● Have more possibilities for not only quality but also portion of available food choice ● Access decent meals everyday without stressfulness in his mind

Motivations Price Convenience Speed Loyalty

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1. He fills out a survey to help the manager and Gapa service collecting necessary information

2. Every morning, Hamidou spends some coins for a café at one of the mobile catering units close to his working site

3. For lunchtime, he and his colleagues enjoy variety of delicious options in canteen

4. In the afternoon, he sometimes has nuts and dried fruits as snack at the vending machines

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5. A survey is asked every two months from the manager and Gapa service to learn about Hamidou and other worker’s satisfaction, complaints or suggestions.

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FARM

[Fig.57] GAPA’s farm, own visualisation

KITCHEN

[Fig.58] GAPA’s kitchen, own visualisation

CANTEEN

[Fig.59] Canteen in one of the construction sites, own visualisation

9.6. Business modelling 9.6.1. Business model canvas Problem New urban formation and development harms the existing condition for farming and agriculture in an area Need of healthier food choice in urban space Newcomers struggle to enter the community

Solution System that provide people the opportunity to enhance community’s health having access to a catering service in their working place minimising travel and service costs Convenient and nutritious meals, made available by villagers and partners, are able to access during the day and across the sites Events and spaces to inform and encourage the development of the community identity

Unique value proposition Cost reduction Risk reduction Accessibility Convenience Integrated system to make the formation of a new town less painful through catering activities: • Newcomers can access everyday meals in a convenient way • Managers will not only manage the facilities but also the special needs in their employees’ diet • Villagers as key contributors will provide nourishing food that support healthy and prosperous communities • Partners assist with training and well-equipped spaces

Existing alternatives

Key metrics

Fooditude Newrest C3 Food Services Reef Caterers O2 Catering & Service GOS Catering Service Umthunzi Farming Community

Number of contracts

High level concept

Number of meals

O2 Catering & Service and Umthunzi Farming Community

Partnership with companies Farming participants

Integrated services in a single system with more accessibility

Cost structure Fixed costs: space, employees Variable costs: equipments & tools maintenance, deliveries, food products, packaging

Social impact Conflicts between the professional providers and villagers as co-providers of the service

Environmental impact Products delivery (from farms to processors, farms to kitchen) Meals delivery (from kitchen to food courts such as canteen, mobile units, vending machines...)

Revenue strea

Contracts and Subsc

Social benefit

Empower people pro of the service. Take c disease, ethnic, relig thanks to the events

Environmenta

Using products from back to the farms (e process will use eco packaging will be rec

Unfair advantage People can easily access to decent eating during their temporary residencies A unified system in which people can have multiple opportunities to change their eating habits

Channels

Customer segments Primary target: temporary residents of Daga Kholpa in the first phase will be the project’s managers and workers

Service provider legal form Social business

Secondary target: in the next phases there will be students, patients and families, healthcare workers, government staff, transportation’s operators, passengers... The early adopters will be the flows of people who come to form the new town and might need to easily access to decent meals, saving time and without being worried of daily cooking

Market dimension Daga Kholpa area with the intention to scale the service to other urban space of Dakar region, and even other region of Senegal

Physical space - Kitchen, canteen, mobile units, vending machines, gardens, farms Digital channels Social media Word of mouth

ams

criptions

Pricing strategy Periodical contracts and subscriptions for the facilities’ managers, they can choose between basic, standard, premium

oviding them alternative catering models where they can act as co-providers care of people’s health through their specific needs in diet (e.g. background gion...). Create connections among existing community and newcomers s and communal space for farming and gathering

al benefit

m local and regional farms, extending their contribution by recycling them e.g. composting or animal feed) to create a zero-waste system. Cooking o-friendly materials in order to have a low impact on the environment. The cycled as well

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9.6.2. Value creation Gapa is envisioned as a multi-sided network, focusing on the urban food system approach, for a mix of both products (food) and services (catering). After establishing a more consistent user base, Gapa plans on expanding to promotions and testing. The promotion activities will consist of local products placement within the network, where farms and farmers can promote products that embody sustainability in some facets (farming, processing, distributing, energy use, recyclability, etc.). The testing will be an offer for small processors to test their products in-context with users. However, these two activities depend on Gapa establishing itself as a caterer, which is why the focus will initially be on developing this aspect of the service.

9.6.2.1. Supply side (villagers as products and services provider; processors as products providers; companies as facilities providers) On the supply side, Gapa offers the opportunity for villagers and processors to become coproviders by selling their products through the network.

chance to rent out the facilities and equipment for kitchen, canteen, mobile units setting during construction, in which Gapa becomes a handler of the facilities for a certain period of time. After the new urban center formed with full functionality, companies will have other chances to partner with hospital, school, office, etc.

9.6.2.2. Demand side On the demand side, Gapa addresses the needs of temporary residents in acquiring decent meals frequently, in order to sustain healthy status, and save time on the other hand. Users are also offered predetermined, customizable menus, that address the needs of specific types of users (e.g. an ‘allergic eater’ menu, a ‘religious eater’ menu, a ‘diabetes eater’ menu, etc.) Higher level of users (manager) is also offered an optional service, which, for an annual fee, provides tool and expert’s advice on catering plan for their people. Finally, users are engaged through events that aim to provide additional intangible value.

Villagers sell out their products directly to the partner processors and Gapa kitchen, as well as contribute at the kitchen, the canteen and mobile units, allowing for more than one income flows.

9.6.2.3. Value capture

Processors sell out their packaged products to be used in vending machines. In addition, for small processors, Gapa provides a network for promoting their products and, once more established, a testing service.

In case of optional service, Gapa will receive additional income. However, this value is dependent on potential changes of plans and costs for the experts, meaning it is factored in at the end of each year.

When it comes to companies, they have the

Finally, once an established platform, Gapa

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Gapa captures a percentage of each transaction within the system (for both products and catering contracts).

can earn income from promotional activities and testing.

network, an on-site professional kitchen and canteen within the construction area.

9.6.3. Market dimensions

The network is the main touchpoint for users (providers + customers) to carry out transactions, with a reliant on existing mobile money channels, while the physical location is an embodiment of the service meant to facilitate community involvement through various activities.

The targeted initial market for Gapa is the Daga Kholpa project and the surrounding area of it. Daga Kholpa is projected for a maximum of 322,000 inhabitants. The estimated populations of 78,000 in 2025 and 184,000 in 2035 are assumed. As a primary age group that Gapa targets we have the 20-34 residents, at a projected 37,000 by 2035, and an expanded target of 20-54, at a projected 90,000 by 2035. Since Gapa will start locally and attempt to establish a strong user base within the neighbourhood, this number is taken as a market dimension for the initial period.

9.6.4. Establishing and growth Gapa is a locally focused catering service, with the intention of capitalising on community contributing and trust between the users. In order to achieve this, the initial efforts are heavily focused on establishing Gapa within the very first community in the new Daga Kholpa and growing a large and connected user base. The main goal is to ensure there is a healthy supplier-to-customer ratio as well as high density for both, in order to achieve sufficient liquidity. This is the overall strategy Gapa will be focusing on, with the intent to leverage well connected communities into high transaction numbers. In order to test the viability of this approach, Gapa will start with a Minimum Viable Product (MVP) approach. For Gapa this includes a user

During the initial phase, Gapa will mainly operate within the construction projects in Daga Kholpa, targeting groups of workers and operational staffs. After an initial confirming period (up to 2 years max, preferably 1 year), Gapa will employ a growth strategy consisting of creating a digital channel and opening up the activities from construction sites towards other functional sites of the new city. However, in order to maintain liquidity and ensure consistent and high-quality customer experience, the expansion is predicted to roll out at a controlled rate.

9.6.5. Operational costs • 5 employees at 240,000 CFA/month (CFA = West African franc) • 560,000 CFA/month, at 80m2 X 7,000 CFA /month for kitchen and storage, rounded up • Payment channel – 1,4%/transaction + 0,25 • Marketing costs (including events) – 330,000 CFA Resulting in 14,400,000 + 6,720,000 + 330,000 = 21,450,000 CFA/year If the product and service prove viable, up to 6,560,000 CFA in investment will be necessary for digital channel.

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9.6.6. KPIs In order to track the development of our catering network, we will focus on several groups of KPIs: kitchen management metrics, function management metrics, management of finance and administration metrics, staff management metrics, and user satisfaction metrics. • The kitchen management metrics will help us understand the impact of the facilities on profit margins, efficiency, quality and food waste reduction. • The function management metrics will help us understand whether the mechanics of our network are working. • The management of finance and administration metrics will help us follow our financial situation and understand if our business model is working. • By tracking tracks number of new staff in any one week or month, we can save on unnecessary hiring and training costs to replace disgruntled employees. • While these metrics will give us an overview of what is happening in our network, to understand why, we will need to talk to our users, hence the user satisfaction metrics, which will provide some contextual clues for our users’ behaviour. Kitchen management metrics Food cost over food sales As a rule of thumb, our food costs should be about 20-40% of our total revenue. If we are serving just a small group of users a month, that number will be closer to 40%. But as our

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business (and with it, our other expenses) grows, we’ll buy food in greater bulk and should see that number go down toward 20%. Food waste per food purchased Food waste is no longer just a financial burden, but is increasingly becoming a sustainability issue, too. Keep track of how much food waste each menu item is producing so that we can optimize our procurement, storage and preparation methods to cut down on waste and increase our profit margins. Inventory turnover ratio This metric refers to the number of times our kitchen will run out of its inventory over a given time. This is another important metric for helping us manage our inventory – and making sure we don’t over or under-stock on produce. Function management metrics User location Since our aim is to start small and local and grow from there, it is also useful to understand where most of the users come from. This will also aid us in understanding if we are engaging with our community enough or if we need to change or improve strategies. Provider to user ratio The provider to customer ratio refers to the number of users each provider can serve. We will be aiming for an initial ratio of 1:5, meaning one provider can serve around 5 users monthly. This translates to us needing to focus more on acquiring sellers early on, in order to make sure there are enough items for potential users to be able to rent what

they need. Idle providers shouldn’t pose too great a threat, as there aren’t too many similar services they might turn too. However, we need to make sure to grow the number of users at a rate that keeps providers engaged enough. Repeat contracts ratio This metric refers to the number of transactions done by users who have already had transactions from our platform. It is useful to track this metric in order to understand if we are effectively building a community of users or if our transactions happen on a single-case basis for most users. The latter will signal that we need to think about a strategy shift, in order to build up and strengthen our community. Moreover, if we have a high repeat purchase ratio, we can invest more in acquiring new users, as they are likely to make repeat transactions. Business metrics

cost as close to zero as possible, meaning each use refers at least one other to our service. This cost is another metric that will help us determine if we are building up a healthy community of users, as well as understand if we are benefiting from a network effect. In case of a high CAC, we will need to modify our strategy towards building up a stronger community. In addition, this number is unlikely to be close to zero, as we will need to invest in either marketing, and after our community has grown, community management and support. Lifetime value (LTV) The LTV shows us how much value we expect a user to generate overall. This metric can be an estimate that we get by multiplying how long we expect to retain a user, the average number of transaction and average value of transaction. After at least several years, we can attempt an estimate by multiplying the average order value (GMV/# of monthly transactions) by the # of repeat purchases per user.

Gross merchandise volume To evaluate the worth of our network, we will track the total value of the transaction over a period of a year. This will allow us to understand if and at what rate our network is growing. However, in order to understand the health of our network, we will need to multiply this number by the commission we take from a transaction. Customer acquisition cost (CAC) This metric shows us how much it costs to acquire a single user. We strive to bring the

We strive for a LTV higher than the CAC. If this is not the case, our strategy needs to shift accordingly. In this situation, it would most likely involve understanding why users have a low LTV (e.g. not enough variety in offers) and focusing on improving that aspect (involving more diverse providers and options). Staff management metrics Number of new staff in any one week or month Unfortunately, employee turnover rates in the food related service are unusually high – and it can cost the managers a lot of money. Keeping a close eye on our employee turnover, and

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implementing measures to address underlying issues, will help us save on unnecessary hiring and training costs to replace disgruntled employees. User satisfaction metrics The previous metrics were mostly quantitative. The user satisfaction metric will be beneficial in giving us a qualitative insight into any potential issues. For this metric, we will attempt a combination of the Net Promoter Score (NPS) and a satisfaction test proposed by Sean Ellis (founder of GroethHacker.com).

Here, we ask our users a simple question: “How would you feel if you could no longer use (service)?” There are four possible answers: • Very disappointed • Somewhat disappointed • Not disappointed (it isn’t really that useful) • N/A – I no longer use (service) While it is a single question test and does not afford a more complex view into user motivations, it is an easy interaction and complements the NPS, by focusing on the value users are getting out of our network.

The NPS is obtained by users answering the question “How likely is it that you would recommend our service to a friend or colleague?”. This question is useful because it also gives information on the user’s satisfaction. The answers are divided into three categories: • 9-10: Promoters - Promoters are loyal enthusiasts who will keep using/buying and refers the service or the product to others. • 7-8: Passives - Passives are not enthusiastic users, but they are satisfied with the product and service. • 0-6: Detractors - Detractors are unhappy users who will share their disappointment and affect your brand. The NPS is obtained by % of Promoters - % of Detractors, ranging from -100 to +100. This is a metric useful to follow over time in order to understand how user satisfaction changes. In addition, it is useful to understand why users have given a specific answer. While more complex questionnaires might provide a more accurate picture, the NPS is a useful starting tool. In addition to this, we will employ the mentioned above Sean Ellis satisfaction test.

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___ Source: https://blog.nowsta.com/catering-businessmetrics/#:~:text=As%20a%20rule%20of%20 thumb,number%20go%20down%20toward%2020%25. https://www.spiderstrategies.com/kpi/industry/ accommodation-and-food-services/ https://hospitalityinsights.ehl.edu/starting-a-foodbusiness-performance https://www.fbla-pbl.org/media/2019-Business-Plan3rd-Place.pdf

9.7. Solution roadmap

22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

2027

5th year

2030

after 8 year

2035

after 13 year

2040

after 18 year

22-23 1st year

[Fig.60] Building up a user base and co-provider network, own collage

Goals ● Building up a user base in the first construction sites ● Building up a co-provider network in the regional context ● Reaching companies to collaborate with

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

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22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

[Fig.61] Expanding collaboration and offers, own collage

Goals ● Start collaborating with companies, renting their facilities with a discount ● Introduce customised meals/menus ● Introduce expert’s consultation offer

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

● consultation

● mobile units

● promotion

● vending machines

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22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

2027

5th year

[Fig.62] Daga Kholpa as a testing platform, own collage

Goals ● Add new offers, based on residents of Daga Khopa ● Development of the digital channel ● Start working on Daga Kholpa as a testing platform

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

● consultation

● mobile units

● promotion

● vending machines

● testing

● digital channel

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22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

2027

5th year

2030

after 8 year

[Fig.63] Ephemeral market in one of the neighbourhoods, own collage

Goals ● Ephemeral markets hosted in pop-up spaces around the neighbourhood ● Testing platform as an operational service

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

● consultation

● mobile units

● promotion

● vending machines

● testing

● digital channel ● pop-up spaces

229

22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

2027

5th year

2030

after 8 year

2035

after 13 year

[Fig.64] Various groups of new users, own collage

Goals ● Reaching other groups of user in new urban setting of Daga Kholpa

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

● consultation

● mobile units

● promotion

● vending machines

● testing

● digital channel ● pop-up spaces

231

22-23 1st year

2025

3rd year

2027

5th year

2030

after 8 year

2035

after 13 year

2040

after 18 year

[Fig.65] Connecting network of urban centres, own collage

Goals ● Consolidate the network among different urban centres

Touchpoints

Services

● farms

● catering - C2C, B2C

● kitchen

● training

● canteen

● consultation

● mobile units

● promotion

● vending machines

● testing

● digital channel ● pop-up spaces

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III.CONCLUSIONS

234

235

Chapter 10

Findings and reflections Research outcomes and conclusions

Prototyping Early testing Key takeaways

Conclusions Limitations of the study Potential directions for future development

10.1. Prototyping

ADAPTATION

Since the core activities relies heavily on travelling and tourism, the business was unavoidable affected by covid-19. The prototype at this point was the creation of the EcoMarket du Manger Local - an initiative promotes consuming local foods and products. To realise it, a facebook group was created in accordance with the capability of the team and the condition in Dakar (instead of developing an e-commerce platform and an application), also because it was faster to test and see the result. We published a digital catalogue twice a week based on the changes of our partners and providers and the availability of products that time. Sometimes, we published a ‘good recipe’ that was suggested by an expert or nutritionist using such the available products that week.

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COMMUNITY

Some draft ideas of the service were fortunately tested early during the internship with Enjoy Agriculture team from March until December 2020. Established in March 2019, Enjoy Agriculture is a digital marketplace featuring agro-experiences across Africa (with the starting point is Senegal), allowing travellers and tourists to integrate agriculture related activities as part of their travel itinerary, while connecting with indigenous community. Its vision is to make agritourism an attractive pole of sustainable development in Africa and support farmers to acquire additional incomes by diversifying their work through agritourism.

The initiative took advantage of the existing community already followed Enjoy Agriculture in order to examine the readiness and awareness of consuming local products in the context of a pandemic.

RAPIDITY

10.1.1. Early testing

When the food products are quite sensitive and vulnerable, we considered the arrangement of activities as short and fast as possible, avoid being delayed by unnecessary steps.

However, due to the constraints in time and space, other prototypes in the next stages have not been tested yet and still require to be further developed in the future.

10.1.2. Key takeaways 1

Be flexible with the business model - sometimes customer research can reveal the need to create new possibilities.

Through the EcoMarket du Manger Local, we found a way to empower our users to not just be consumers but business-people as well. This, then became one of the suggestions in developing the service concept for GAPA Catering.

When asking for feedback on our prototypes, we used a DIY tool iteration, which helped to overcome cultural and language barriers and get honest feedback.

[Fig.66] Test on a facebook group and an e-book

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10.2. Conclusions 10.2.1. Limitations of the study Some limitations to be noted have been recognised already before starting the research while some others came up during the process. The juniority of the designer had for sure been a limitation especially during the initial phase of the research. It led to increased scepticism towards the techniques and the tools, and seemed to be taken less serious than a potential senior. Not just for the perception of the participants, but also caused by insecurities of the designer. Being a single designer/researcher did exclude second opinions or alternative evaluations of the materials, which can be seen as a clear limitation and as a result an eventual loss of opportunities. Language barriers became one of the most important constraints which led to the fact that the focus was mainly English speaking community, therefore, the need of an interpreter or translator was crucial, even though from French or from local language(s). Besides, the difficulty in travelling forced the research plan to be fixed several times in order to adapt to the pandemic while keep following the research objectives.

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10.2.2. Potential directions for future development Following the scheme used for designing the catering service, other new services could be investigated while taking into consideration the on-going process of the whole urban development project. Furthermore, a scheme or methodology of evaluation could emerge to measure the success of the single implementations. To push the adaptation of tools forward, a method for feedback collection should be considered. Having just treated one specific case, a similar urban development project in size, structure and orientation could be investigated then compare differences and similarities as well as the final design outcomes ■

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List of tables

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List of figures [Fig.1] Urban design has a wide range of applications. Source: urbandesign.org [Fig.2] A perspective rendering of Akon City - smart city in development in Senegal - found by Akon, the Grammy nominated artist. Source: www.akoin.io, retrieved 05.4.2021 [Fig.3] Historical change in the built-up area of Dakar, images obtained from the Global Crisis Atlas and Google Maps. Source: JICA (2016) [Fig.4] Degree of urbanisation in Dakar, computation from Global Human Settlement Layer https:// ghsl.jrc. ec.europa.eu/CFS.php, retrieved 01.5.2020 [Fig.5] Territorial distribution of 14 Departments, own visualisation [Fig.6] Daga Kholpa within 27 infrastructure projects and 17 structural reforms, own elaboration [Fig.7] The PES is organised around three axes, own elaboration [Fig.8] Location of Daga Kholpa urban centre in the neighbouring area of Dakar, computation from Global Human Settlement Layer https:// ghsl.jrc.ec.europa.eu/CFS.php, retrieved 01.5.2020 [Fig.9] Proposed land use plan 2035. Source: JICA (2016)

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[Fig.10] Cooperative development zone, own collage. Source: Google Earth https:// earth.google.com/ web/@14.64710472,17.12635412,33.02988142a,19257.92094199 d,35y,0h,0t,0r (accessed 16.5.2020); JICA (2016), Project for Urban Master Plan of Dakar and Neighboring Area for 2035, Final Report; Pitágoras Group (2018), Housing project in Daga Kholpa [Fig.11] Functional division on cooperative development zone of Daga Kholpa. Source: Pitágoras Group [Fig.12] The Takku Bey project aims, among other things, to encourage the development of the local economy through the cultivation and processing of typical products such as chilli, okra and bissap. Credit: facebook.com/ISFMI [Fig.13] Poster of the event ‘Sustainable cities and communities. A case study from Senegal. Some reflections on an international project from Lecco’ [Fig.14] Research timeline [Fig.15] Tools and methods applied during research and design process [Fig.16] Research timeline, summarised [Fig.17] Concept of future food. Credit: Blanchard (2018) [Fig.18] Food system, food environment and consumers choices, own elaboration

[Fig.19] Sub-Saharan Africa: Agriculture, manufacturing and services value added (% of GDP), 1981-2019. Computation from the World Development Indicators, retrieved 11.2020 [Fig.20] Integrating food with urban planning: A historical overview, own elaboration [Fig.21] Key drivers or threats (dark rounds) and opportunities (light rounds) of food systems, own elaboration [Fig.22] Biofortified rice at CIAT’s headquarters. Credit: flicker.com/ Palmer, N. (2010) [Fig.23] Bean diversity at the CIAT gene bank. Credit: flicker.com/ Palmer, N. (2017) [Fig.24] Hydroponic farm of FreshDirect. Credit: instagram.com/freshdirectng [Fig.25] O2’s nutritionists always make sure to compose balanced and varied menus, adapted to the working environment. Credit: o2-africa.com [Fig.26] Agri-wallet develops and implements innovative mobile wallets that help vulnerable people (low income, women, youth) save money earmarked for specific purposes. Credit: agri-wallet.com [Fig.27] Afrikamart enables farmers to sell their products directly through a distribution network made of supermarkets, processors, retailers and export companies. Credit: afrikamart.com

[Fig.28] Umthunzi is a marketplace for seasonal, organic grown by small-scale farmers. Credit: umthunzifarmingcommunity.co.za [Fig.29] Phenomenological mapping in Dakar, own collage [Fig.30] Phenomenological mapping in Diamniadio, own collage [Fig.31] Phenomenological mapping in Daga Kholpa, own collage [Fig.32] From flood to bloom, own collage [Fig.33] Moving farm, own collage [Fig.34] Ready-to-cook couscous, own collage [Fig.35] Speciality for you, own collage [Fig.36] Info food, own collage [Fig.37] Frugal digital, own collage [Fig.38] A user research tool. Credit: unsplash.com [Fig.39] Results and insights from the online questionnaire, own elaboration [Fig.40] Co-design session with expert. Credit: author

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[Fig.41] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

[Fig.57] GAPA’s farm, own visualisation

[Fig.42] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

[Fig.58] GAPA’s kitchen, own visualisation

[Fig.43] Co-design tools with expert. Credit: author

[Fig.59] Canteen in one of the construction sites, own visualisation

[Fig.44] Concept redevelopment, own elaboration [Fig.45] Co-design session with users. Credit: author [Fig.46] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author [Fig.47] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author [Fig.48] Co-design tools with users. Credit: author [Fig.49] GAPA’s logo, own design [Fig.50] GAPA’s offering map, own elaboration

[Fig.60] Building up a user base and co-provider network, own collage [Fig.61] Expanding collaboration and offers, own collage [Fig.62] Daga Kholpa as a testing platform, own collage [Fig.63] Ephemeral market in one of the neighbourhoods, own collage [Fig.64] Various groups of new users, own collage

[Fig.51] GAPA’s system map, own elaboration

[Fig.65] Connecting network of urban centres, own collage

[Fig.52] GAPA’s sustainability scanner, own elaboration

[Fig.66] Test on a facebook group and an e-book

[Fig.53] Persona 1. Credit: unsplash.com [Fig.54] Persona 2. Credit: unsplash.com [Fig.55] Persona 3. Credit: unsplash.com [Fig.56] Persona 4. Credit: unsplash.com

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List of tables [Table 1] Ten points depict a contemporary approach to planning that can help city leaders to drive constructive change. Source: UN-Habitat (2013) [Table 2] Proposed land use ratio. Source: JICA (2016) [Table 3] Population of 19 villages in Diass commune [Table 4] Possible newcomers grouped by spatial functions [Table 5] Projected population distribution of Daga Kholpa for 2035, own elaboration. Source: JICA (2016)

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Lan NGUYEN Thesis | Design for services and mitigating unfavourable-effects of urbanisation