Catalyst Journal December 2024

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Cardiovascular Disease: How Diet and Exercise Can Help Protect Your Heart by Sahana Soosaipillai Page 7 - Atomic Bonding by Maryam Ismayilova Page 8 - Is selessness nature or nurture? by Nicole Lee Page 10

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Editor’s Note

By Maya Leschziner It’s been a fantastic opportunity to edit this term’s edition of the Catalyst journal. I am sure that you will enjoy the plethora of articles as much as I have! In this edition, we have work outlining topics as universal as the psychology of rst impressions, as relevant as capturing and sequestering Carbon dioxide, and as fascinating as LEH’s Windows to the Stars project.

There really is something for everyone, and LEH’s diverse passion for STEM has really shone through.

At the end of the journal, there are competitions and events, locally and nationally available, and I really encourage everyone to get involved as much as you can. Even if you have never entered a science based competition before, it’s a great way to meet new people, gain condence and explore your curiosity and interest!

As part of a new STEM initiative, the STEM and HALE reps have collaborated to launch a Science Fiction writing competition as addressed in this section of the journal. We found that many competitions were too restrictive across disciplines, and we really wanted to create a space for those who love and appreciate the intersection between STEM and humanities. We look forward to your entries!

Additionally, I am extremely excited to announce LEH’s new podcast ‘STEM sistas’. Hosted

by Kiara Perera and I, we will be interviewing inspirational women in STEM to nd out more about their exciting careers and the boundaries that they broke to make STEM industries a more inclusive space. We have some really exciting guests, such as the Forensic Chemist who worked on the Grenfell Towers case, and the Dean of Dartmouth Engineering.

We hope you enjoy it when it launches!

Thank you very much to all the contributors for their hard work and their engrossing research. I also want to say a huge thank you to Heidi who helped me massively and gave me lots of articles to work with! And, nally, thank you for reading, and we will see you for the next edition in the Summer.

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The psychology of rst impressions: how we judge each other in seconds

By Lila Botha First impressions play a vital role in shaping how we perceive and interact with other people. Many studies have suggested that people can form opinions about others in a matter of seconds, based off of minimal information. The concept of rst impressions is central to both everyday interactions and broader social phenomena, so how do we know whether they’re reliable or prone to bias?

There are key scientic factors behind rst impressions: cognitive processing, nonverbal cues and the Halo effect. Cognitive processing is responsible for an individual’s rapid judgement-making, where a rst impression is formed in milliseconds. Our brains automatically assess key attributes such as age, gender, race and works to categorise them, a survival mechanism that aims to identify if someone is a threat or ally. Nonverbal communication plays a huge role in rst impressions where up to 93% is shown through body language and tone of voice, according to psychologist Albert Mehrabian. Facial expressions are often the rst thing people notice, where it is common for individuals to analyse these facial cues to make judgements. The Halo effect also occurs when an overall positive or negative impression of someone is inuenced by one outstanding characteristic.

For example, a person who is perceived as physically attractive may also be seen as more competent or intelligent, even without supporting evidence.

Cognitive biases also play a large role in making rst impressions. People commonly categorise others based in visible characteristics. These stereotypes can shape how we perceive someone in the initial moments, often resulting in automatic judgements that are not always accurate or fair. People also commonly engage in attribution bias, where an individual will interpret other’s actions through the lens of their rst impression. If they were to have a favourable rst impression, the individual may attribute someone’s mistakes to external factors, such a stress or fatigue, whilst blaming others more harshly when we have a negative rst impression.

First impressions can also be inuenced by different contexts. In job interviews, studies show that rst impressions heavily inuence hiring decisions, where candidates are typically judged on their appearance, body language and their ability to communicate. If someone’s rst impression is positive, they are more likely to be remembered favourably and will be given more opportunities for further interaction.

First impressions are often surprisingly accurate, especially when people are evaluated on traits like trustworthiness or likability. Intuition plays a signicant role in this, where judgements are relied on subconscious cues that are accurate but may also be biased.

First impressions are powerful, however they are not set in stone. Our brain has the ability to update our perceptions based on new information which can allow people to reassess their initial judgements.

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Semaglutides and their off label usage.

By Maya Leschziner As part of my EPQ, I am investigating the socioeconomic impacts of injecting semaglutides as a means for weight loss. However, it is also interesting and important to look, scientifically, at how they work.

Ozempic is an injection used to treat Type 2 Diabetes in adults. It is not approved for weight loss, but some physicians prescribe it off label for this purpose.

Type 2 diabetes is a non communicable disease that occurs when the body’s cells gain resistance to the hormone insulin, or when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin.

Insulin is the hormone produced that reduces your blood glucose levels by converting glucose to glycogen in the liver. It’s often linked to being overweight or inactive, or having a family history of Type 2 Diabetes. If you have Type 2 diabetes, your risk of developing other diseases, such as heart disease, stroke, eye and kidney disease, also increase.

Ozempic’s active ingredient is semaglutide. Semaglutide belongs to the incretin mimetics (medications used to treat diabetes) class of drugs that stimulate the release of insulin after food consumption. As a GLP-1 receptor agonist (meaning it mimics the hormone GLP-1), semaglutide mimics incretin. Incretin is the hormone that controls the amount of insulin released by the pancreas after eating. This results in glucose dependent insulin secretion, and lessens glucagon secretion (the hormone that does the opposite to insulin). Ozempic also slows gastric emptying, preventing glucose spikes and helping people to feel full for longer.

Therefore, a common side effect of Ozempic is weight loss - as it essentially acts as an appetite suppressant.

Ozempic has been at the heart of pop culture and memes for a while now. Celebrities such as the Kardashians constantly face ‘ozempic allegations’ - insinuations from the public that they are using the semaglutide for the off label usage of weight loss.

Worryingly, nowadays you can obtain Ozempic after filling out a short online questionnaire that can see the drug delivered swiftly to your door, and as a result, it has become very popular. Social media has even seen the rise of semaglutide ‘dealers’ - which poses the risk of the drug being laced with other chemicals and ingredients. This means dosages and patients are extremely unregulated - increasing the risk of hyperglycemia, which has effects as fatal as seizures.

This increased demand for the drug (which was already scarce) is creating shortages and increased prices that adversely affect patients who need it to ensure their bodies can release enough insulin to control their diabetes.

In conclusion, Ozempic works by mimicking an Insulin producing hormone, increasing the amount of glucose which is converted to glycagon, therefore lowering blood sugar levels and reducing the risk of hyperglycaemia, which prevents diabetic ketoacidosis, an extremely dangerous prospect. Ozempic is clearly a valuable, life saving means for treating Type 2 diabetes, that can have weight loss effects for those with BMIs over 30. However, it is also important that Ozempic distribution is regulated by physicians to prevent those who are not overweight from using it purely as a means for weight loss. If not, this limits stock for those that need it the most.

Cardiovascular Disease: How Diet and Exercise Can Help Protect Your Heart

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By Sahana Soosaipillai Cardiovascular disease is a common word used for multiple conditions like heart disease, stroke, and high blood pressure, it is a leading cause of death worldwide. While factors like genetics and age influence risk, lifestyle choices especially diet and exercise play a critical role in both preventing and managing cardiovascular disease.

The Role of Diet in Heart Health Having a strong and healthy heart is one of main factors that can reduce the chance of reaching a cardiovascular disease. Diets rich in fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and healthy fats (such as fish, nuts, and olive oil) help lower bad (LDL) cholesterol and blood pressure, while boosting good (HDL) cholesterol. Omega-3 fatty acids, found in fatty fish like salmon, can reduce inflammation of blood vessels and improve its overall function, further protecting the heart.

Furthermore, diets high in saturated fats (such as red meat and full-fat dairy) and processed foods can raise the bad (LDL) cholesterol, leading to plaque buildup in the arteries.

Additionally, reducing sodium intake helps control blood pressure, while limiting the amount of preservative sugars can prevent obesity and diabetes both of which are major risk factors for heart disease.

The Power of Exercise Regular physical activity can strengthen the heart and improve circulation around the cardiac system. Aerobic exercises, such as walking, running, or swimming, can help lower blood pressure, improve cholesterol levels, and maintain a healthy weight. Exercise also enhances insulin sensitivity, which is especially important for those at risk for diabetes. about 30 minutes per day for five days a week can significantly reduce the risk of heart disease and stroke. Strength training, such as weightlifting or bodyweight exercises, also supports cardiovascular health by improving muscle mass and metabolism.

The Union of Diet and Exercise When combined, a healthy diet and regular exercise provide a powerful impact on heart health. Diet fuels the body with the nutrients it needs to function optimally, while exercise helps keep a healthy weight, lower stress, and improve cardiovascular fitness. Together, they can reduce inflammation of blood vessels to overall improve blood vessel function and lower the risk of developing heart disease.

Conclusion Cardiovascular disease is predominantly preventable through lifestyle changes. A balanced, heart-healthy diet, along with regular physical activity, can lower cholesterol, blood pressure, and body weight—key factors in protecting your heart. By making simple changes to what we eat and how active we are, we can take control of our heart health and significantly reduce our risk of cardiovascular disease.

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Atomic bonds

By Maryam Ismayilova

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Is selflessness nature or nurture?

By Nicole Lee Have you ever wondered why anyone would be selfless? It often seems to never benefit the giver, only the receiver.

Well, I have. Turns out it could be survival instincts that program us to behave selflessly.

The more scientific, official word for selflessness in this context is ‘altruism’. Altruism is defined as the ‘willingness to do things that bring advantages to others, even if it results in disadvantage for yourself’ 1 - to an extent where self-sacrifice could take place.

Here are some compelling biological theories and reasons, adapted from evolution, such as natural selection methods that could sway us to behave selflessly.

1. Kin Selection Hamilton suggested that, in a group setting, an individual is more likely to sacrifice for its kind (family), willing to risk their own life to benefit genetic relatives in order to pass on their genes; organisms often select to foster prosocial2 behaviors towards their closest kin as it contributes to their own continual existence. Evolutionists believe organisms often instinctively prioritise gene survival over individual survival.

Hence, in simpler terms, you could be selfless towards your family due to the subconscious desire to prolong the survival of your genes.

2. Reciprocal Exchange It is altruism among two genetically unrelated individuals is suggested to occur within a context of reciprocal exchange.

Reciprocal altruism is rooted in the expectations of payback, so they are performed as a form of investment. It can be considered as a strategy that is adapted over time, via generations of species. It is motivated by ‘favour-in-return', and since animals were able to establish this long-term relationship between species, it suggests the evolutionary benefit for this behaviour, and so it is highly likely to be inherited from past generations as an advantageous gene, for optimal survival of both species.

3. Sexual Selection According to David Moore et al. 2013, they deduced that women are more attracted to men who display altruistic behaviour. In his experiment, 32 self-reported heterosexual women who took part showed preferences for self-reported heterosexual men displaying ‘helping’ behaviour, Moore theorises their desirability has increased as it communicated their inclusive fitness levels to others.

Altruistic gestures have been found to be mating signals, that promotes biological ‘fitness’ to others that could be recipients of direct benefits from them: especially men towards women, as researchers discovered women tend to seek mates based onwho can provide the best possible upbringing to their children, such as generosity, competence, and resources.

So, basically, performing selfless acts could be a strategy to attract mates.

Altruism. (n.d.). Cambridge.org. Retrieved June 30, 2024, from https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/english/altruism 2 intended to help or benefit another person or group 1

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4. Age As we age (after puberty), our reproductive value declines. Hamilton believes that is a valid reason that our capacity for altruism will increase as we grow older.

He deduces that we are more likely to invest our efforts into our offspring or wider relatives that are younger than us due to aging, so that they can reproduce, pass on the genes and increase the inclusive fitness of the whole kin. This considers a motivation to show altruistic behaviours towards our relatives (non-nuclear kin).

5. Multi-level Selection According to David Sloan Wilson 2007, he discovered multi-level selection in honeybees, they experience pressures and feel obligated to help other members in their groups, for it brings benefits to the entire group when their leader outcompetes other groups, including themselves.

In other words, showing altruistic behaviours to help a group originates from an intrinsic desire to benefit oneself indirectly.

Hope this has inspired you to evaluate this among many other aspects of our behaviour that could be influenced by our nature, from evolution, like our survival instincts; to connect the dots and understand us as humans more!

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How does a Honeybee Swarm Use the Waggle Dance and Politics to Elect the Best Site for its New Hive?

By Willow Griffith Honeybee colonies (genus Apis3) are superorganisms; each bee works together to achieve a common goal4, in this case, the reproduction of an entire colony. This involves a swarm of bees performing a mass exodus from the parental hive and forming a cluster of bees (known as a bivouac) until the site of the new colony is approved. The site will be decided by an oligarchy of bees5 which must act with both speed and accuracy if they are to succeed.6 Approximately ve percent of the bees in a swarm are nest-site scouts7, who assess potential sites to form their new hive. These scouts perform waggle dances which encode the locations of suitable nest spots8. Waggle dances serve to advertise the site to other scouts and recruit them to the site. Newly recruited scouts decode the dance to locate the prospective site and independently evaluate it so that the swarm’s future is not blindly dictated by a singular bee’s evaluation.9 The dance also communicates the quality of the site10 through the duration of the dance; if high-quality nest spots (A) and mediocre-quality nest spots (B) are both discovered, A will be advertised for longer11. Therefore, A is more likely than B to recruit scouts; be part of the election; and thus, become the location of the colony’s hive. Since the properties of a site inuence the swarm’s likelihood of surviving12, the communication of site quality is critical.

Scouts will vote for their preferred site simply by spending time there. Once a minimum threshold of 20-30 scouts accumulates at the site, the site has been elected!13 The size of the quorum has been ne-tuned via natural selection to perfect the balance between speed and accuracy in choosing the best site (speed is crucial as the bees are vulnerable in the bivouac14). Mathematical modelling demonstrates that decreasing the quorum size results in faster but more error-prone decisions while increasing the quorum size dramatically slows the decision-making but makes the decisions only slightly more accurate15. This supports the suitability of the honeybee’s technique for decision-making.

Another aid in reaching the quorum quickly is the positive feedback mechanism. When an exemplary site is discovered, scouts are more likely to dance for it (due to its high quality)16.

Consequently, uncommitted scouts are more likely to be recruited and hence to advertise the 3

(The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2023) (Page, et al., 2016) 5 (Juliana Rangel, 2010) 6 (Seeley T. D., 2010) 7 (Juliana Rangel, 2010) 8 (Lindauer, 1955) 9 (Seeley T. D., 2010) 10 (Lindauer, 1955) 11 (Seeley & Buhrman, Nest-site selection honey bees: how well do swarms implement the "best-of-N" descion rule?, 2001) 12 (Seeley & Morse, The nest of the honey bee (Apis mellifera L.), 1976) 13 (Seeley & Visscher, Quorum sensing during nest-site selection by honeybee, 2004) 14 (DePaolis, 2019) 15 (Passino & Seeley, 2006) 16 (Janson, Middendorf, & Beekman, 2007) https://academic.oup.com/beheco/article/18/2/384/203557# 4

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site, engendering yet more recruits. 17 Furthermore, scouts gradually decrease the number of circuits in their waggle dances upon each returning trip from a site and hence will eventually stop supporting unworthy sites. This helps to ensure that inferior sites lose popularity while superior sites gain.18 In conclusion, many components make up the scouts’ strategy for deciding on the best nest site: waggle dances, repeated scrutiny of sites, the size of the quorum, etc19. All these components have evolved over millions of years20 to produce a debatably perfect political microcosm, which prevents the swarm from sacricing too much valuable time and energy.

References Available Upon Request

17

(Seeley, Visscher, & Passino, 2006)

18

(Seeley T. D., Consensus building during nest-site selection in honey bee swarms: the expiration of dissent, 2003) 19 (Seeley T. D., 2010) 20 (Goulson, 2014) 11

How Can We Capture And Sequester Carbon Dioxide?

By Chelsea Lee In 2015 the Paris Agreement stated: “to limit global warming to 1.5°C [by 2100], greenhouse gas emissions must peak before 2025 at the latest and decline 43% by 2030.” As carbon emissions play a signicant role in greenhouse gas emissions, to suppress global warming, we must decarbonise.

If a catalyst increases the rate of a reaction without altering its own properties, could the Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) technology serve as a catalyst to achieve the Carbon Net Zero Resolution? (Assuming that once the technology is developed, it can be used for a sustained period of time without any signicant alterations.)

Carbon Capture is an idea proposed in the early 20th century to capture carbon and store it underground. To optimise efciency and cost, CCS processes must be tailored to specic sources. CCS is therefore divided into three main categories: Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage (BECCS), Direct Air Capture (DAC) and Point-Source CCS. In BECCS, biomass (such as wood and grass), a source of carbon sink, is grown to absorb CO2 from the atmosphere through photosynthesis, harvested, then burnt to produce energy while capturing the carbon produced in the process. It is most used in decarbonising sectors, such as the heavy industry, aviation and trucking to achieve Carbon Net Zero by 2050.21 DAC captures and isolates CO2 directly from the atmosphere, which can be independently installed in any location; point-source CCS is designed to capture CO2 from specic locations like power plants and foundries before their emissions are released to the atmosphere. Since BECCS introduces considerably more uncertainties, and DAC would also not be an ideal method due to the low CO2 concentration in air, of approximately 0.04%22, point-source CCS is currently more commonly used to maximise efciency and minimise risks.

Methods of point-source CCS include post-combustion, pre-combustion, and oxy-fuel combustion. To begin with, post-combustion CCS is a relatively mature technology. It removes CO2 from industrial ue gases, gas emissions released by the industrial operation typically composed of CO2, H2O, CO, SO2, etc. - with the assistance of various absorbents or adsorbents. Chemical solvents, typically monoethanolamine(MEA)-based, have been extensively used as absorbents since the 1930s. Whilst MEA-based solvents, 20-30% amines by weight in water3, was originally used in acid-gas sweetening to selectively absorb CO2 from a mixture of CO2 and H2S, now, it is generally used for CO2 absorption in ue gas. Since MEA-based solvents are relatively cheap, soluble, biodegradable and have a large CO2 absorption capacity, it has become one of the most common chemical solvents used in postcombustion CCS. However, various new commercial solvents have been recently developed that are better suited in all or most of these categories, thus MEA-based solvents are likely to be replaced in the future.

Mathilde Fajardy, Carl Greenfield (2023). “Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage”, IEA50, International Energy Agency, 11 July. Available at: https://www.iea.org/energy-system/carbon-captureutilisation-and-storage/bioenergy-with-carbon-capture-and-st orage#tracking 22 Alan Buis (2019). “The Atmosphere: Getting a Handle on Carbon Dioxide”, Global Climate Change, NASA, October 9. Available at: https://climate.nasa.gov/news/2915/the-atmosphere-getting-a-handle-on-carbon-dioxide/ 3 Howard Herzog, Jerry Meldon, Alan Hatton (2009). "Advanced Post Combustion CO2 Capture", Massachusetts Institute of Technology, April. Available at: https://sequestration.mit.edu/pdf/Advanced_Post_Combustion_CO2_Capture.pdf (accessed: 10 February 2024) 21

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More environmentally friendly and sustainable sequestration methods involve physical sorbents, where they isolate CO2 by adhering CO2 molecules to their surfaces. Hence, they are reusable and no greenhouse gases are produced in the reaction. Although zeolite and limestone are excellent examples of mature CO2 adsorbents in use, their ability to sequester CO2 degrades overtime, contributing to additional operation costs of CCS. For instance, zeolite becomes immensely incompetent when it encounters water (steam). As water is one of the main products in combustion, it would lead to an inefcient CO2 adsorption process.

Additional dehydration processes must therefore be introduced to increase efciency, further boosting capital and operation costs. Although great potential is seen in adsorbents to sustainably capture CO2 in post-combustion CCS, more experimental research is required to improve its competitiveness in the market.

While coal remains the dominant source of power generation23, and power production continues to be one of the world’s largest CO2 emitter, releasing over 261Mt in 202224, postcombustion CCS is an ideal point-source method to capture carbon from coal power plants.

Despite the relatively low concentration of CO2 in ue gas of 8% to 15%25, developing postcombustion CCS would be a sensible step to catalyse our progress towards the Carbon Neutral Resolution, because it is one of the most efcient CCS methods as of now.

Pre-combustion CCS sequesters CO2 prior to combustion, which is an option for integrated gasication combined cycle (IGCC) power plants, where electricity is produced from combusting fuel. Fuel is rst gasied under heat and pressure to form syngas, a gaseous mixture of CO and H2. The syngas then undergo the water-gas shift reaction (WGSR), forming CO2 and additional H2. CO2 is later captured through absorption, adsorption, or membrane separation methods. Once CO2 is removed, the remaining hydrogen-rich gas could be used in hydrogen fuel cells or diluted with nitrogen and fed into a gas turbine combined cycle to generate electricity. As syngas has a high ratio of CO to H2, removing CO2 after the WGSR is more efcient than sequestering CO2 in post-combustion CCS. Although pre-combustion CCS is relatively cheaper and more efcient than postcombustion, there are signicantly fewer IGCC plants existing and available to install it, because IGCC plants are more costly to construct and maintain. The corrosive nature of syngas also suggests that both plants must be shut down occasionally to repair the damage, potentially causing temporary regional power failures.

Oxy-fuel combustion, the last but not least of point-source CCS, combusts fuel with pure oxygen to produce CO2 and H2O in fossil fuel power plants. It has only been recently developed as a new point-source technology, and is projected to become a dominant method, because it theoretically ensures complete combustion of fuels and, therefore, eliminates the production of other greenhouse gases while having ultra low emissions. The high ratio of CO2 in ue gas from oxy-fuel combustion also suggests higher efciency of CCS. However, due to the lack of data, capital and operation costs especially the cost of producing streams of pure oxygen - remain uncertain, discouraging rms from installing the oxy-fuel combustion technology. Nevertheless, the uncertainty and cost of oxy-fuel combustion is

(IEA (2021), “World Energy Balances: Overview”, IEA, Paris. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/world-energy-balances-overview) 24 IEA (2023). “CO2 Emissions in 2022, IEA”, Paris. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/co2-emissions-in-2022 25 Mohammad Songolzadeh, Mansooreh Soleimani, Maryam Takht Ravanchi, Reza Songolzadeh (2014). “ Carbon Dioxide Separation from Flue Gases: A Technological Review Emphasising Reduction in Greenhouse Gas Emissions”, National Library of Medicine, PMC3947793. Available at: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3947793/ 23

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likely to be minimised through further research and development, since it is a relatively new technology and its potential has not yet peaked.

As post-combustion CCS is currently the only technology that can be retrotted into existing power plants, it serves a greater audience compared to pre-combustion and oxy-fuel combustion, which must be integrated into the design of a power plant. Hence, only postcombustion capture plants could be turned down temporarily to meet regional power demand peaks, where energy required to operate the capture plant could instead be supplied to households.

Although some CCS technologies are currently more favourable than others, this may not always be the same because renewable energy is becoming increasingly popular, and is estimated to overtake fossil fuel as the dominant source of energy in ve years26. This suggests that point-source combustion CCS processes would gradually become less favoured, due to the depleting number of combustion power plants in use, whilst BECCS, DAC, or other point-source processes could replace them as technology advances. Yet, it seems that post-combustion CCS is the most ideal catalyst to offset CO2 emissions in the next decade.

Once carbon is captured from the power plants, it is compressed and liqueed under high pressure, and then transported through pipelines, ships and road tankers to their storage points. The transportation process has also introduced safety concerns including leakages, because no infrastructure has yet been approved by nations to temporarily store CO2 safely.

Captured carbon is usually injected into porous rocks or deep geological formations.

Inserting CO2 into porous rocks under high pressure penetrates their microscopic pores, allowing CO2 to be locked and held within. As these porous rocks are located under an impermeable caprock, the caprock acts as a seal to prevent CO2 from escaping upwards.

Alternatively, liqueed CO2 can be injected underground, into deep geological formations such as oil and gas reservoirs through pipelines to eliminate contact between excess carbon and the atmosphere and perform enhanced oil recovery (EOR).

A dominant use of captured carbon is EOR. To recover oil and gas reserves, CO2 is injected and dissolved into oil and gas reservoirs to increase their mobility and productivity, maximising the yield of production to meet global energy demands. Although EOR helps storing and utilising the captured CO2, it only employs less than 10%8. As oil and gas produced with EOR would then be combusted to generate more energy, releasing more carbon that needs additional energy to be recaptured and utilised, the negative emission cycle only aggravates carbon emissions. Other atypical uses of captured carbon include reforming into fuel, plastics, ink, growing bacteria and algae. Because reforming structures of these products are cost and energy intensive, these products are not yet competitive enough to become protable in the market. Unfortunately, if we keep sequestering CO2 from the atmosphere, there will only be increasingly more carbon stored in hidden areas, escalating risks of leakage. Until now, CCS is merely a short-term supplement to subdue a long-term problem.

When we come across CCS, we may not have considered how much CO2 CCS plants actually capture while emitting CO2. Building CCS plants also emits a notable amount of CO2, which

IEA (2022). “Renewables 2022, IEA”, Paris. Available at: https://www.iea.org/reports/renewables-2022 8 Howard Herzog (2023). "Carbon Capture", Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 20 January. Available at: https://climate.mit.edu/explainers/carbon-capture 26

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substantially increases the carbon emissions per capture plant. How many years would it take to recapture these CO2 emitted? We do not have an answer yet.

Although the CCS technology is able to marginally reduce our carbon emissions, do the benets of CCS outweigh the costs? Performing CCS requires a considerable amount of resources, such as energy to operate the CCS plant, labour for research and development, solvents and sorbents for CO2 isolation, leading to resource depletion as the technology gets increasingly popular. Due to the non-renewable nature of resources, providing them to CCS would therefore withdraw their supply to other industries. Furthermore, many governments were reluctant to encourage the installation of CCS in their countries because of the risks and uncertainties associated with the technology. Leakage, a primary concern, could cause non-reversible environmental and health issues, not to mention other less noticeable costs including noise pollution and opportunity costs of the resources in use.

Besides, is everyone willing to be involved in the Carbon Net Zero Resolution? A survey recently conducted in the US showed that roughly 60% of the population were concerned about global warming, yet most of them were not willing to pay for measures tackling climate change27. Even if we have a notable number of CCS plants globally, the carbon emissions would continually increase as population increases without humans committing to reduce carbon footprint at an individual level.

As humans discover new theories and progress towards new goals, the Carbon Capture and Storage technology would evolve accordingly. The Carbon Capture and Storage technology, therefore, would not remain unchanged, meaning that it would not meet the conditions of being a catalyst. However, the CCS technology could metaphorically catalyse the time required to begin a carbon neutral era, and even reduce CO2 concentration in air to a level before the Industrial Age - only if everyone is willing to take part in the process.

To effectively catalyse our progress to the Carbon Net Zero Resolution, governments must unify to raise public awareness on climate change and encourage involvement in reducing carbon footprint. Governments could incentivise this by introducing carbon tax credits to encourage rms from limiting their carbon emissions, as well as subsidising the development of CCS to innovate solutions to the uncertainties and high cost of newer CCS technologies including oxy-fuel and pre-combustion.

In conclusion, CCS is an ideal catalyst to offset some carbon emissions in the short-term, but it would not be the ultimate solution to mitigate carbon emissions when humans are continually polluting the environment. To achieve Carbon Net Zero, we should boost the renewable energy production sector, incentivise rms to invest in CCS technology through government funding or subsidies, and most importantly, stop human pollution.

Jessica Lovering, Alex Trembath (2017). "Why carbon capture is not enough", University of Texas, 33:4.

Available at: https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/44577320.pdf?refreqid=fastlydefault%3A9bfb1ffa15a3a95a3af1de222f4c7e0d &ab_segments=0%2FSYC7052%2Fcontrol&origin=&initiator=search-results&acceptTC=1 (accessed: 27 January 2024) 27

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Understanding the natural gait

By Sophie Goodwin

Introduction Human gait is dened as bipedal, biphasic forward propulsion of the centre of gravity of the human body. In this experiment the effect of different footwear on a person’s gait is investigated. The different footwear include: bare foot, Crocs, laced shoes, walking boots and ankle foot orthoses (AFO). In this experiment two people took part in the tests.

Subject A has no known conditions that could affect their gait, whereas Subject B has cerebral palsy and therefore has an abnormal gait often referred to as the “scissor gait”. The scissor gait is characterised by: “[the] legs [being] exed slightly at the hips and knees like crouching, with the knees and thighs hitting or crossing in a scissors-like movement”. [1] The hypothesis Hypothesis 1: Subject B will have larger accelerations in all axes, than Subject A, for all shoe types. This is due to Subject B's muscle spasticity which causes an irregular and uncontrolled gait.

Hypothesis 2: The ankle foot orthoses (rigid plastic shell stretching from tips of toes around the heel and all the way up to the top of the calf ) worn in conjunction with the specialist footwear (i.e. Leather boot with with deep inexible sole) will give rise to larger accelerations in all directions than any other footwear type.

The Vertigo Device (see Figure 1) was used to measure acceleration of the subjects in this experiment.

The footwear worn by the subjects during the experiment is summarised below in Table 1 and pictures of the footwear are presented in gures: 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Barefoot

Crocs

Rubber-sole laced shoes

Walking boots (with a vibram cleat)

Ankle foot orthoses (AFOs/splints)

Subject A

Worn

Worn

Worn

Worn

Not worn

Subject B

Worn

Worn

Worn

Not worn

Worn

Table 1 Method This experiment took place inside a house.

First the Vertigo was set up using the instructions on the Vertigo website https://vertigo.engineering/#/.

The Secure Digital Memory Card (SD card) was inserted into the Vertigo (see Figure 6), and it was ensured that the Global Positioning System (GPS) was connected so that acceleration data could be viewed via the Vertigo website.

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Then an elastic cord was attached to the Vertigo Device using elastic bands.

Then the cord (with the Vertigo device) was secured to the subject’s back. The acceleration axis of Vertigo Device are as follows: ax – left and right movement of the subject ay – forwards and backwards movement of the subject az – up and down movement of the subject To ensure that the Vertigo was completely horizontal, packing was inserted in between the Vertigo and the subject’s back to ensure it did not droop downwards.

After this the collection of data by the Vertigo would be started.

In this section of the experiment, the subject would walk, in as straight a line as possible along a path through the house. When they reached the end of the path, the subject would then turn around and walk back to the start. At this point the collection of data would be complete for that experiment . After the data from all the experiments had been collected, the SD card would be inserted into the computer and the data would be viewed on the Vertigo website.

Preparation for post processing The instruction for processing the data are as follows: - Take the SD card out of vertigo device - The SD card has a data le in it - On the website, open and load the data le - Review the data using the review/graphing tools Although the website offers further post-processing facilities (e.g. integration of the acceleration timetrace), we did not make use of that facility because we were reviewing the time-trace directly. The website assisted in that by showing on-screen values at any point of the time-trace.

Post-processing of the results The Vertigo is: - continually recording between the start and stop. - each recording is saved as a separate data le - the continuous recording includes: • GPS (connects with satellite) • IMU (based accelerometers) • AHRS • Atmospheric data GPS is the abbreviation for Global Positioning System, that uses a system of orbiting satellites around the earth to determine the location of the Vertigo device in terms of Longitude, Latitude and altitude.

IMU is the abbreviation for Inertial Measuring Unit, that uses a set of dynamometers to determine x, y and z axes accelerations relative to the device. The units of the accelerations are g i.e. (g = 9.807m/s).

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AHRS is the abbreviation for Altitude and Heading Reference System, that evaluate: a scalar rotational quantity, and x, y and z vector components that represent a unit length vector that can be used to transform the local reference into the Global reference frame (NED).

Atmospheric parameters that are determined include temperature, pressure and humidity.

For the purpose of the present study the relevant parameters are the accelerations from the IMU. Figure 11 below presents a time-trace of the accelerations evaluated by the IMU during one of the experiments. This shows accelerations in the three directions (north, east and down).

Results The following tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are a visual assessment made from the graphs, comparing the highest peak and lowest peak and showing their range:

Table 2 – accelerations of subjects with barefeet Table 2 shows that the range Subject A’s acceleration is quite regular, suggesting that Subject A has a wellcontrolled gait. In comparison, Subject B’s has quite an inconsistent range, suggesting that Subject B has a less regular gait.

Table 3 – acceleration of subjects with crocs Table 3 again shows that Subject A’s range of acceleration are less than Subject B’s. However, this table indicates that the footwear worn encouraged larger accelerations due to its looseness and exibility. In addition, this table shows Subject B had larger acceleration in the ax-axis, than in the other axes, further suggesting that the footwear was quite loose and un-supportive.

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Table 4 – acceleration of subjects with shoes Table 4 shows that Subject A’s largest accelerations are less profound than Subject B’s.

However, this table indicates that the footwear worn encouraged larger accelerations due to its looseness and exibility.

This table also shows how Subject B had larger acceleration, in the ax axis, than in the other axes, further suggesting that the footwear was quite loose and un-supportive.

However, this table shows that when wearing shoes, Subject B a less extreme range of accelerations. In comparison, when wearing shoes, Subject A has a larger range of acceleration.

Table 5 – accelerations of subject with walking shoes with AFOs

Table 6 – acceleration of subject

Table 5 and 6 shows that Subject B’s range of acceleration was larger than that of Subject A when wearing shoes with a high stiffness. This greater range of acceleration can be explained by the high stiffness of the shoes around the sole, heel and ankle, which could cause rapid deceleration when hitting the ground.

Conclusion As indicated by the results tables, two conclusions can be made.

1. The rst is that Subject B has a large range of acceleration in all axes measured, in comparison to that of Subject A. This suggests that Subject B's spastic cerebral palsy may cause an irregular/uncontrolled gait.

2. The acceleration increased for Subject B when they wore a rigid AFO that restricts rotation of the foot relative to the lower leg.

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New Scientist Live

By Josya Ahi

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Window to the Stars Symposium

By Saskia Hanson

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3D Bioprinting: Shaping the future of organ transplantation

By Khushali Khandelwal

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Synthetic Biology for the Future of Medicine

By Shimmy Sah Briginshaw Synthetic biology is an interdisciplinary eld that combines our understanding of biological processes, systems, and organisms with engineering principles to create man-made solutions. This rapidly advancing eld holds signicant potential for medicine, as it offers the ability to facilitate, enhance, and restore numerous metabolic processes with greater efciency.

In April 2003, the Human Genome Project (HGP) successfully mapped the entire genetic makeup of humans, marking a signicant leap in medical advancements. This breakthrough allowed us to understand, identify, and address defective genes that cause diseases. The gene mapping achieved through the HGP is fundamental to the development of synthetic biology.

Genetic Regulation and Expression in Synthetic Biology Genetic diversity, often inuenced by epigenetic factors, results in variations in base sequences that contribute to different phenotypes. Synthetic biology aims to alter the regulation and expression of genes. Genetic expression is far more complex than simply the distinction between coding and noncoding genes. It is better understood as a spectrum, where genes are expressed to varying degrees.

The strength of gene expression depends on the balance between two factors: the concentration of a protein (involved in degradative biological pathways) and the number of mRNA transcripts in a cell (involved in protein synthesis pathways). By understanding the factors that regulate gene expression, scientists can modify these processes to create desired outcomes. This knowledge allows them to break down the process of protein synthesis into its building blocks, which can then be engineered for specic medical applications.

Engineering Genetic Circuits for Medicine One of the more technical aspects of synthetic biology involves creating "genetic circuits" using computer simulations. These circuits, which are inspired by natural biological systems, can be engineered to function in a feedback loop—mimicking the homeostasis mechanisms of the body. By controlling the oscillations of these circuits, scientists can program cells to release proteins in a precise, pulse-like pattern. This approach holds immense potential for applications in medicine, such as gene therapy or personalized treatments.

However, it is important to note that while these concepts are promising, they remain largely experimental. As of now, the application of synthetic biology in human trials has not yet been fully realized, and there are risks that need to be carefully managed.

Potential Applications in Medicine Synthetic biology could revolutionize several areas of medicine. For instance, it could be used to embed genes that produce essential enzymes, hormones, or proteins that patients may be lacking.

This could be particularly benecial in treating genetic disorders or conditions where the body cannot produce certain proteins on its own. Additionally, synthetic biology might be applied to create immune responses that target and destroy cancer cells, offering a new avenue for cancer treatment.

Moreover, synthetic biology has the potential to transform pharmaceutical drug development. By using engineered microorganisms or cells to produce complex therapeutic compounds, synthetic biology could make drug production more efcient, cost-effective, and tailored to individual patients’ needs.

Conclusion Synthetic biology represents a frontier in medicine, where biology meets engineering to solve complex health challenges. While we are still in the early stages of exploring its full potential, the future of medicine could be signicantly shaped by the advances in this eld. As we continue to develop new tools for manipulating genetic material and designing biological systems, synthetic biology may open the door to treatments that were once considered impossible.

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Science Fiction Short Story competition   

Write a 500-1000 word short story in the genre of science ction.

Possible themes could include time travel, extraterrestrial life or dystopia!

Email your entries to leades@lehs.org.uk and prizes will be awarded.

STEM Sistas Podcast  

Hosted by Maya and Kiara, we will be interviewing fascinating women in STEM and nding out more about their careers!

Guests include Alexis Abramson, Dean of Dartmouth Engineering, Niamh Nic Daeid, Forensic Chemist, and Katrina Forest, Bacteriologist.

Imperial Science and Innovation Competition 

UK competition information can be found here: https://www.imperial.ac.uk/natural-sciences/about-us/outreach/uk-schoolsscience-competition/ and the deadline for registration is Friday 13th December, video submission deadline is Friday 24thJanuary, with the final occurring on Wednesday 24th April.

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International competition information can be found here: https://www.imperial.ac.uk/natural-sciences/aboutus/outreach/international-schools-science-competition/ and the deadline for registration is Friday 31st January, video submission deadline is Friday 28th February, with the final occurring in June 2025.

London STEM summer camp 

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The London International Youth Science Forum (LIYSF) welcomes 500 of the best young science students aged 16 – 21 years old from over 80 countries around the world in London. I would like to invite you to send students to attend the 66th edition, held – 23rd July to 6th August 2025 - https://www.liysf.org.uk/ Longest running student science forum of it’s kind, held annually since 1959 15 day program held at Imperial College London, 23rd July to 6th August 2025 No chaperone required – event in London is staffed on-site and students encouraged to participate as a university style course. All events with on-site staff team and experienced on-call staff, safety protocols. Hence age requirement 16+

International Greenwich Olympiad 

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Find the competition at this link: https://igolondon.co.uk/