Grammar Reference

Articles

A (before consonants — приголосні) and an (before vowel sounds — голосні) are indefenite articles.

A and an are the indefinite articles. They refer to something not specifically known to the person you are communicating with.

Example: I saw an elephant this morning.

We use the definite article the in front of a noun when we believe the hearer/ reader knows exactly what we are referring to.

Example: I saw an elephant this morning. The elephant was really big!

She’s got two children: a girl and a boy. The girl’s eight and the boy’s fourteen. Singular and Plural Nouns

Singular (однина) a cat a toy a family a table a potato (картоплина) a tomato (помідор) but: a photo a piano shelf knife (ніж) life but: roof safe (сейф) chief (шеф) a man a woman a child an ox (бик) a goose (гуска) a foot (нога) a tooth (зуб) a mouse (миша) a louse (блоха) a fish (риба) a deer (олень) a sheep (вівця)

Plural (множина) cats toys families tables potatoes tomatoes photos pianos shelves knives lives roofs safes chiefs

men women

children oxen

geese feet teeth mice lice fish deer sheep

Past Simple: Regular Verbs

Affirmative Negative

I walked You walked He walked She walked It walked We walked You walked They walked I didn’t walk. You didn’t walk, etc.

Interrogative

Did I walk? Did you walk?, etc.

Short answers

Did I/you/we, etc. walk ... ? Yes, I/you/we, etc. did. No, I/you/we, etc. didn’t.

Form

• We form the affirmative of most regular verbs by adding -ed to the verb.

I return — I returned • Some verbs have irregular affirmative forms:

I go — I went

We use the Past Simple for: • actions which happened or finished at a definite or stated time in the past.

We left the house at 7:30 p.m. • actions which happened repeatedly in the past but do not happen any more. In this case, we can use adverbs of frequency (always, often, usually, etc.).

He often watched football matches with his brother when he was a teenager (but he doesn’t any more). • actions which happened immediately one after the other in the past.

First, he opened the window. Then, he looked down the street and saw a strange black car.

Time Expressions we use with the Past Simple:

yesterday, last night/week/year/Monday, etc., a month/two years/three years, etc. ago, in 1960, etc. Princess Diana died in 1997.

Be going to

Affirmative

I’m going to work. You’re going to work. He’s going to work. She’s going to work. It’s going to work. We’re going to work. You’re going to work. They’re going to work.

Negative

I’m not going to work. You aren’t going to work. He isn’t going to work, etc.

Interrogative

Am I going to work? Are you going to work? Is she going to work?, etc.

Use

We use be going to for: • plans and intentions we have for the near future.

I’m going to spend next summer sailing around the world. • predictions based on what we can see (evidence) or know.

They sky is very cloudy. It’s going to rain tonight.

Time Expressions we use with be going to: tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, next week/month/year, tonight, soon,

in a week/month/year, etc.

Adverbs of Frequency

Always, usually, often, sometimes, seldom, never, ever, normally,

frequently, occasionally, rarely are adverbs of frequency.

Position of the adverbs of frequency

Initial (at the beginning)

sometimes, usually, normally, often, frequently, occasionally always, never, seldom, rarely, often, usually, sometimes, ever, normally, frequently, occasionally sometimes, usually, normally, often, frequently, occasionally

Middle (before the main verb, or after the link verb)

Usually I get up early. Sometimes I think I’d like to live somewhere else. I never eat Chinese food. I am seldom late for school. We sometimes go out for a meal.

Final (at the end)

I go to a café quite often. We eat out occasionally.

always 100% I always speak English at school. usually I usually speak English at school. sometimes I sometimes speak English at work. never 0% I never speak English at home.

types of Questions

My mother went to the USA last winter. 1. General (загальне запитання).

Did my mother go to the USA last winter? 2. Special (спеціальне запитання).

Whose mother went to the USA last winter? (Питання до підмета або слів, що стосуються підмета, не потребує допоміжних дієслів).

Who went to the USA last winter?

When did my mother go to the USA?

Where did my mother go last winter?

What did my mother do last winter? 3. Alternative (альтернативне запитання).

Did my mother go to the USA or France last winter?

Did my mother go to the USA last or this winter? 4. Disjunctive or tag question (розділове запитання).

My mother went to the USA last winter, didn’t she?

Introductory It

It is was cold sunny frosty windy hot today. yesterday. Сьогодні Вчора було холодно. сонячно. морозно. вітряно. спекотно.

this/that/these/those

This (singular) and these (plural) is used with nouns to show objects or people in closer location to the speaker. That (singular) and those (plural) is used with nouns to show objects or people in further location to the speaker.

Degrees of Comparison of the Adjectives

one-syllable

two-syllables (односкладові)

(-e, -ow, -y, -er)

two and more syllables

big fast

Comparative Superlative

bigger faster the biggest the fastest

happy narrow simple clever

famous difficult generous happier narrower simpler cleverer

more famous more difficult more generous the happiest the narrowest the simplest the cleverest

the most famous the most difficult the most generous

Irregular forms good — better — the best bad — worse — the worst

The

Names of seas, oceans, channels, rivers, groups of islands The Atlantic Ocean, the Irish Sea, the English Channel, the Thames, the British Isles Names of single islands, lakes, single mountains, streets, countries, continents (but: the USA, the UK and others having the words “Union”, “Kingdom”, “United” in their name) Ireland, (island) Great Britain, France, lake Ontario, Everest (but the Urals, the Carpathians), Downing Street, Europe