Typenote

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What Is Typography?

Typography is the study for the beauty and practicality of type. Thought the use of visual devices of type such as: typeface, point-size, and compositional treatment of type and space such as: line length, leading, tracking, kerning, beauty and practicality of type can be achieved. In this case, each visual device contributes to the appearance and the style of the type to make it visually beautiful. Together, each typographic technique contributes to the legibility, readability, and composition balance on the media and in the space to make it visually functional. Therefore, typography itself is art.

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Prehistoric Visual Communication Early human markings found in Africa are over two hundred thousand years old. From the early Paleolithic to the Neolithic period (35,000 to 4000 bce), early Africans and Europeans left paintings in caves, including the Lascaux caves in southern France and Altamira in Spain. Black was made from charcoal, and a range of warm tones, from light yellows through red-browns, were made from red and yellow iron oxides. This palette of pigments was mixed with fat as a medium. Images of animals were drawn and painted upon the walls of these former subterranean water channels occupied as a refuge by prehistoric men and women. Perhaps the pigment was smeared onto the walls with a finger, or a brush was fabricated from bristles or reeds.

This was not the beginning of art as we know it. Rather, it was the dawning of visual communications, because these early pictures were made for survival and for utilitarian and ritualistic purposes.

The presence of what appear to be spear marks in the sides of some of these animal images indicates that they were used in magical rites designed to gain power over animals and success in the hunt. Abstract geometric signs, including dots, squares, and other configurations, are intermingled with the animals in many cave paintings. Whether they represent manmade objects or are proto-writing is not known, and never will be, because they were made before the beginning of recorded history. The animals painted in the caves are pictographs— elementary pictures or sketches that represent the things depicted. Throughout the world, from Africa to North America to the islands of New Zealand, prehistoric people left numerous petroglyphs, which are carved or scratched signs or simple figures on rock. T N

Cave painting, Altamira, Spain, 16,000– 9000 BCE.The artists did not simply invent visual solutions at random in response to circumstances or impulses. They produced highly organized works of art, designed according to formal and cultural conventions.

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The First Illustrated Manuscripts

Vignette from the Papyrus of Ani, c. 1420 BCE. Ani, a royal scribe, temple accountant, and Thebes, and Thuthu, arrive for his final judgment.

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Egyptian Manuscripts

The Egyptians were the first people to produce illustrated manuscripts in which words and pictures were combined to communicate information. A preoccupation with death and a strong belief in the afterlife compelled the Egyptians to evolve a complex mythology about the journey into the afterlife. Through inventive myth and legend, the inexplicable was explained and faced. A final judgment would ultimately allow the deceased either to be admitted into the company of the gods or to suffer eternal damnation.

The prayer of every Egyptian was to be cleansed of

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sin and found worthy at the final judgment. Scribes and artists were commissioned to prepare funerary papyri, called the Chapters of Coming Forth by Day.

The Book of the Dead A nineteenth-century scholar named them the Book of the Dead, and this name is generally used today.

The Book of the Dead was written as a first-person narrative by the deceased and placed in the tomb to help triumph over the dangers of the underworld.

The artists who illustrated the Book of the Dead papyri were called upon to foretell what would occur

after each subject died and entered the afterlife.

Magical spells could enable the deceased to turn into powerful creatures; passwords to enter various states of the underworld were provided, and the protection of the gods was sought. Wonderful futures were illustrated. One might dwell in the Fields of Peace, ascend into the heavens to live as a star, travel the sky with the sun god Ra in his solar boat, or help Osiris rule the underworld. T N

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Chinese Calligraphy Early Development

Similar to Egyptian hieroglyphics and Mayan writing in Central America, the Chinese writing system is a purely visual language. It is not alphabetical, and every symbol is composed of a number of differently shaped lines within an imaginary square. Legend holds that Chinese was first written about 1800 bce by Tsang Chieh, who was inspired to invent writing by contemplating the claw marks of birds and footprints of animals. Tsang Chieh proceeded to develop elementary pictographs of things in nature. These images are highly stylized and composed of a minimum number of lines, but they are easily deciphered.

The earliest known Chinese writing is called chiakuwen, or “bone-and-shell” script, used from 1800 to 1200 bce. It was closely bound to the art of divination, an effort to foretell future events through communication with the gods or long-dead ancestors. This ancient writing—as with hieroglyphics and cuneiform—was pictographic. Chinese pictographs are found incised on tortoise shells and large animals’ flat shoulder bones, called oracle bones, which convey communications between the living and the dead.

Oracle Bone c. 1700-1000 B.C.E. used extensively during the Shang Dynasty to predict the outcome of battles, the weather, and even toothaches.

Four-handled vessel with chinwen, or bronze script, inscription, eleventh century BCE.

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Chinwen and Li-shu

The next phase of Chinese calligraphy, called chinwen, consisted of inscriptions on cast-bronze objects, including food and water vessels, musical instruments, weapons, mirrors, coins, and seals Messages were inscribed in the casting molds to preserve answers received from gods and ancestors during divination.

The permanence of bronze also made it suitable for important treaties, penal codes, and legal contracts.

Ceremonial vessels used to hold food offerings during ancestor worship and vessels inscribed with dedications contained well-formed characters in orderly alignment.

Li-shu (also called “clerical” style), which had a major impact on Chinese calligraphy, can be divided into the Qing and Han styles. Later, Cheng Miao made a further simplification of the hsiao chuan, often referred to as the “Li transformation.” Writing was made much easier through changing the more rounded strokes into straight and angular ones.

Li-shu tablet of Hua Shan Pagoda, example of Han style from Eastern Han Dynasty (165 CE).

The development of Li-shu reached its peak during the Eastern Han Dynasty and engendered various styles.

Throughout the four centuries of Han rule, the vast majority of tablets were written in Lishu. Within its flat structure, Li-shu is carefully and neatly executed, delicate with many variations. This style represents a watershed in the development of Chinese character, ushering in a new era of Chinese calligraphy. At the same time, it laid the foundation for the adoption of chen-shu. T N

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Invention of Printing Press Introducing Printing Press

Key to the Invention

The judgment of history, however, is that Johann Gensfleisch zum Gutenberg (late 14th century to 1468) of Mainz, Germany, first brought together the complex systems and subsystems necessary to print a typographic book around the year 1450.

In September 1428 he was exiled from Mainz for his leadership role in a power struggle between the landed noblemen and the burghers of the trade guilds who sought a greater political voice. He relocated in Strasbourg, 160 kilometers (100 miles) to the south - west, and became a successful and prosperous gem cutter and metalworker.

The key to Gutenberg’s invention was the type mold, used for casting the individual letters. Each character had to be plane parallel in every direction and the exact same height. Gutenberg’s two-part type mold, which adjusted to accept matrixes for narrow characters (1) as well as wide ones (M), permitted large volumes of type to be cast with critical tolerances. Type required a metal that was soft enough to cast but hard enough to hold up for thousands of impressions, and that did not expand and contract when melted, poured into the type mold, then returned to a solid state as it cooled.

As a metalsmith, Gutenberg knew that the silvery white metal antimony expands when it cools from a liquid to a solid state, in contrast to most metals, which contract when cooled. He developed a unique alloy of 80 percent lead, 5 percent tin, and 15 percent antimony to maintain a constant mass throughout the process of manufacturing type. Gutenberg needed as many as fifty thousand single pieces of type in use at a time, so the speed, accuracy, and economy achieved by this type mold and its casting process were critical. The type was stored in compartmentalized cases and pulled out letter by letter to set the lines. After a page was printed, the type was returned to the compartments letter by letter. T N

These early-nineteenth-century engravings illustrate Gutenberg’s system for casting type.

A steel punch is used to stamp an impression of the letterform into a softer brass matrix. After the matrix is slipped into the bottom of the two-part type mold, the mold is filled with the molten lead alloy to cast a piece of type. After the lead alloy cools, the type mold is opened and the type is removed.

A. Punch B. Matrix C. Type mold (with matrix removed to show a newly cast H) D. and E. Type mold (opened so that the newly cast H can be removed)

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Caslon and Baskerville Type and design ideas were imported across the English Channel from Holland until a native genius emerged in the person of William Caslon (1692– 1766). Caslon’s type designs were not particularly fashionable or innovative. They owed their tremendous popularity and appeal to an outstanding legibility and sturdy texture that made them “comfortable” and “friendly to the eye.” Beginning with the Dutch types of his day, Caslon increased the contrast between thick and thin strokes by making the former slightly heavier. Caslon’s fonts have variety in their design, giving them an uneven, rhythmic texture that adds to their visual interest and appeal.

Caslon worked in a tradition of Old Style roman typographic design that had begun over two hundred years earlier during the Italian Renaissance. This tradition was bolstered by John Baskerville (1706–75), an innovator who broke the prevailing rules of design and printing in the books he produced at his press in Birmingham, England. Baskerville was involved in all facets of the bookmaking process. He designed, cast, and set type; improved the printing press; conceived and commissioned new papers; and designed and published the books he printed. T N

William Caslon, broad-side type specimen, 1734. This was the first broadside type specimen issued by Caslon

John Baskerville, type specimen, 1764.

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Art Nouveau Increased trade and communication between Asian and European countries during the late nineteenth century caused a cultural collision; both East and West experienced change as a result of reciprocal influences. Asian art provided European and North American artists with approaches to space, color, drawing conventions, and subject matter that were radically unlike Western traditions. This revitalized graphic design during the last decade of the nineteenth century.

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Art Noveau in Japan

Ukiyo-e means “pictures of the floating world” and defines an art movement of Japan’s Tokugawa period (1603–1867). Ukiyo-e blended the realistic narratives of emaki (traditional picture scrolls) with influences from decorative arts. The earliest ukiyo-e works were screen paintings depicting the entertainment districts called “the floating world” of Edo (modern Tokyo) and other cities.

Katsushika Hokusai, The Great Wave off Kanagawa, around 1830.

Art nouveau was an international decorative style that thrived roughly during the two Art Nouveau decades (c. 1890–1910) that girded the turn of the century. It encompassed all the design arts—architecture, furniture and product design, fashion, and graphics— and consequently embraced posters, packages, and advertisements, etc. Art nouveau’s identifying visual quality is an organic, plantlike line. Vine tendrils, flowers (such as the rose and lily), birds (particularly peacocks), and the human female form were frequent motifs from which this fluid line was adapted. T N

Alphonse Mucha, Moët & Chandon Crémant Impérial, 1899

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24 Filippo Marinetti, “Une assemblée tumultueuse”, foldout from Les mots en liberté futuristes, 1919

Futurism in Typography Futurism was launched when the Italian poet Filippo Marinetti (1876–1944) published his Manifesto of Futurism in the Paris newspaper Le Figaro on 20 February 1909. Marinetti’s stirring words established futurism as a revolutionary movement in which all the arts were to test their ideas and forms against the new realities of scientific and industrial society.

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Marinetti and his followers produced an explosive and emotionally charged poetry that defied correct syntax and grammar. In January 1913, Giovanni Papini (1881–1956) began publication of the journal Lacerba in Florence, and typographic design was pulled onto the artistic battlefield. The June 1913 issue published Marinetti’s article calling for a typographic revolution against the classical tradition. Harmony was rejected as a design quality because it contradicted “the leaps and bursts of style running through the page”.

On a page, three or four ink colors and twenty typefaces (italics for quick impressions, boldface for violent noises and sounds) could redouble words’ expressive power. Free, dynamic, and piercing words could be given the velocity of stars, clouds, airplanes, trains, waves, explosives, molecules, and atoms. A new and painterly typographic design, called parole in libertá or “words in freedom,” was born on the page. T N

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The Bauhaus The Bauhaus

The Bauhaus was the logical consequence of a German concern for design in industrial society that began in the opening years of the century. As discussed in chapter 12, the Deutsche Werkbund worked to elevate standards of design and public taste, attracting architects, artists, public and industry officials, educators, and critics to its ranks. The Werkbund attempted to unify artists and craftsmen with industry in order to elevate the functional and aesthetic qualities of mass production, particularly in low-cost consumer products.

Gropius and Van de Velde

Gropius had served a three-year assistantship in Peter Behrens’s architectural office beginning in 1907.

Behrens’s advocacy of a new objectivity and theories of proportion had an impact on the development of the young Gropius’s thinking. Henri van de Velde was also an important influence. During the 1890s, Van de Velde declared the engineer to be the new architect and called for logical design using new technologies and materials of science: reinforced concrete, steel, aluminum, and linoleum. T N

Johannes Itten, Analyses of Old Masters, 1921

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26 April Greiman, cover for WET magazine, 1979

Wolfgang Weingart, Kunstdruck, Graphik, Antiquariat, BĂźcher-Plakat, 1962

Postmodern Design In design, postmodernism designated the work of architects and designers who were breaking with the international style so prevalent since the Bauhaus.

Postmodernism sent shock waves through the design establishment as it challenged the order and clarity of modern design, particularly corporate design. (Some observers reject the term postmodern, arguing that it is merely a continuation of the modern movement.

Late modernism and mannerism are proffered as alternative terms for late twentieth-century design.)

Design forms and terminology have political and social meaning, expressing attitudes and values of T Y P E N OT E

their time; postmodernism gained a strong foothold among the generation of designers who emerged in the 1970s.

Perhaps the international style had been so thoroughly refined, explored, and accepted that a backlash was inevitable. Historical references, decoration, and the vernacular were disdained by modernists, while postmodern designers drew upon these resources to expand the range of design possibilities. T N

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The Digital Revolution During the last quarter of the twentieth century and the first decade of the twenty-first century, electronic and computer technology advanced at an extraordinary pace, transforming many areas of human activity. Graphic design was irrevocably changed by digital computer hardware and software and the explosive growth of the Internet. Many years earlier, the Industrial Revolution had begun fragmenting the process of creating and printing graphic communications into a series of specialized steps. After phototype became prevalent during the 1960s, skilled specialists included graphic designers, who created page layouts; typesetters, who operated text and display typesetting equipment; production artists, who pasted all of the elements into position on boards; camera operators, who made photographic negatives of the pasteups, art, and photographs; strippers, who assembled these negatives together; platemakers, who prepared the printing plates; and press operators, who ran the printing presses.

By the 1990s, digital technology enabled one person operating a desktop computer to control most—or even all—of these functions. New photo-optical printing machines used computer-controlled lasers to photosensitize printing drums, making short-run and even individualized full-color press sheets possible. T N

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NORMATIVE PRINCIPLES T YPOGRAPHIC SYNTA X T YPOGRAPHIC EX AMPLE

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Normative refers to the “classic” or “standard conventions of typography”. Normative Principles is about the basic typographic principles: kerning, tracking, column width, leading, alignments, ligatures, rags and hanging punctuation.

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Kerning Kerning or letterspacing refers to the adjusting of the space between two letters. If letters in a typeface are spaced too uniformly, they make a pattern that doesn’t look uniform enough. Gaps occur, for example, around letters whose forms angle outward

or frame an open space (W, Y, V, T, L). In digital typefaces used today, the space between letters is controlled by a table of kerning pairs, which specify spaces between different letter combinations.

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60pt Minion Pro 60pt Helvectia 60pt Lucida

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Column Width The length of a line depends, to a large extent, on the size of the type. Reading long lines of type causes fatigue: the reader must move his head when he reaches the end of each line to search for the beginning of

the next. A good rule of thumb is to set a line about two and a half alphabets long (65 characters). Studies have shown that reading a line of 50 to 70 characters is the most comfortable.

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9.5pt Minion Pro 116 9.5pt Minion Pro 59 9.5pt Minion Pro 38

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Leading Leading refers to the distance from the baseline of one line of type to another. It is also called leading, in reference to the strips of lead used to separate lines of metal type. The default setting in most layout and imaging software is slightly greater than the cap

height of the letters. Expanding this distance creates a text block with a lighter, more open colour. As the line spacing increases further, the lines of type become independent linear elements rather than parts of an overall texture.

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 17pt Bad Leading: Too loose

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9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 6pt Bad Leading: Too Tight

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Tracking Tracking or letterspacing, refers to the adjusting of spacing across a word, line, or column of text. It is common practice to letterspace capitals and small capitals, which appear more regal when standing apart. By slightly expanding the tracking across a

body of text, the designer can create a more airy field. Negative tracking is rarely desirable. This device should be used sparingly, to adjust one or more lines of justified type.

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: +50

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Rags Rags refers to the shape created on either side of a column of text. In a flush left/ragged right text, the left edge is considered “hard” and the right edge is considered “soft”. A “good” rag looks pleasantly uneven,

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with no lines that are excessively long or short, and hyphenation kept to a minimum. A rag is “bad” when it looks too even (or too uneven), or when it begins to form regular shapes like wedges or diving boards.

“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.” At the most basic level, we need to distinguish between dominance and leadership. In some groups, a dominant individual will seize power and assert control. This is the world of animal herds, of palace intrigue, authoritarian dictatorships, and mafia families. However, while these situations all make for great television, dominance isn’t leadership. Rather, over the years I’ve become more focused on the nature of leadership as a relationship – an honor that is bestowed upon a person by followers who are willing to place their trust in them. The key question thus becomes what are the qualities in a person that cause others to trust him or her with the leadership of their group? Framed this way, the question becomes timeless, and as applicable to hunter-gather groups on the east African savannah eons ago, as it is to military, government, nonprofit, or corporate groups today. Based on my studies and experience over the years, I have concluded that a simple model captures the three key traits people require in order to bestow the mantle of leadership on someone.

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9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Left Rag: Even

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“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.” At the most basic level, we need to distinguish between dominance and leadership. In some groups, a dominant individual will seize power and assert control. This is the world of animal herds, of palace intrigue, authoritarian dictatorships, and mafia families.

However, while these situations all make for great television, dominance isn’t leadership. Rather, over the years I’ve become more focused on the nature of leadership as a relationship – an honor that is bestowed upon a person by followers who are willing to place their trust in them. The key question thus becomes what are the qualities in a person that cause others to trust him or her with the leadership of their group? Framed this way, the question becomes timeless, and as applicable to hunter-gather groups on the east African savannah eons ago, as it is to military, government, nonprofit, or corporate groups today. Based on my studies and experience over the years, I have concluded that a simple model captures the three key traits people require in order to bestow the mantle of leadership on someone.

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Left Rag: Too uneven

> recommendation T Y P E N OT E

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Alignment Aligenment refers to the arrangement of text into columns with either hard or soft edges. Each basic style of alignment brings aesthetic qualities and potential hazards to the design of the page or computer screen.

> 9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Left

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Center

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Right

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Justified

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Ligature Ligatures refer to two or more letters tied to a single character. The sequence ffi, for example, forms a ligature in most Latin text faces.

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“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Left Ligature: Change in fi in “field”

Hanging Puctuation Hanging Puctuation is particularly important in larger sizes of text, such as headlines, or in quoted material, no matter what its size. By hanging the punctuation off the aligned edge, we eliminate any

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visual interruption of the text. Punctuation marks that are typically hung include periods, commas, hyphens, dashes, and quotation marks.

“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

9.5pt Minion Pro 62 Leading: 11.4pt Tracking: -10 Align: Left

> recommendation T Y P E N OT E

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Typographic syntax is the process of arranging elements into a cohesive whole; the rhythmic and dimensional field in which typographic communication exists. This field consists of positive form (typographic elements) and negative form (the white paper).

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Study 1 Interpret your quote using one body text font of your choice and one type size only. Choose an appropriate text size — you want white space and room to creatively interpret your quote. Use roman (regular)

and bold weights, so choose a typeface with suitable contrast in visual weight. Pay close attention to key words that communicate the quote and use them for emphasis and different levels of hierarchy.

“Leadership

means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.”

As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

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Supportive

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Study 2 Interpret your quote again using your chosen typeface, two font sizes of suitable visual difference, roman and bold weights and rules of different weights/thicknesses.

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lopment with the pub “L ea de rs hi p

the knowledge and understandi

m w ea st ith t ns s a du nd he ha ea ce ing pu rin pi ch ne of blic g th on w w o a e ee ill b ide ur nd res rs e as str ex ul , w de , ate p ts e mo ma gie and of o em n na s in u br stra ge am g r re ac b rs o th se e ly an ng e k a th th d st n rc o h e e ne be com inv wle an w st p est dg d an in an or e de d its ies s.” an ve th l e fiel int As d un opm un d. o w co “A ou e in der ent nv s r g tr en ind ro otio us up na try , l.”

investors.” As we int managers and companies into

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“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

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w and the unconventional.”

Taking risks

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Study 3 Interpret your quote again using your chosen typeface, three font sizes of suitable visual difference, roman and bold weights, rules of different weights/thicknesses and one appropriate image.

“Leadership means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companied into our group, each will be demonstrably the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

ns mea p i h t ls s der e resu nd a e h a L t “ rch he ring sha r resea t with t ng i u n o d e m of an elop nd exp and v e d ge lic a pub nowled k the

Balance

Be clear and specific

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“Leadership gies trate ur s e intro o f o w d ding rs.” As ers an n a t ch sto nag ers und gst inve as, ma oup, ea in e n gr st amo new id to our the be rs, e duc anied in strably pionee he t p y on com e dem industr ew and al.” b n s will . “A ce the vention ld ie n its f embra unco we

means sharing the results of our research and development with the public and expanding the knowledge and understanding of our

strategies amongst investors.” As we introduce new ideas, managers and companies into our group, each will be demonstrably

the best in its field. “As industry pioneers, we embrace the new and the unconventional.”

Management

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T YPOGRAPHIC HISTORY NORMATIVE PRINCIPLES T YPOGRAPHIC SYNTA X

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The Negra Anuario El Gato y la Caja https://www.behance.net/gallery/44764135/ Editorial-Anuario-El-Gato-y-la-Caja

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Left: Non-Verbal Club GUIMARÃES JAZZ 2011 POSTERS https://www.behance.net/gallery/2684869/ GUIMARAES-JAZZ-2011-POSTERS Right top and bottom: “loslegen” magazine Kris Braun, Morphoria Design Collective https://www.behance.net/gallery/7792403/ loslegen-magazine

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Milo Themes, Baldean Mihai, Loredana Papp-Dinea Typography: Google Fonts Combinations https://www.behance.net/gallery/35768979/ Typography-Google-Fonts-Combinations T Y P E N OT E

Alexey Barhan Good Vibes Posters https://www.behance.net/gallery/44309199/ Good-Vibes-Posters

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Cosas Visuales post-projects112 https://flic.kr/p/ eh1AHS

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Moving Studio Open City Documentary Festival London 2015 https://www.behance.net/gallery/30767755/Open-City-Documentary -Festival-London-2015

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Lorena ManhĂŁes the mother journal https://www.behance.net/gallery/30970909/ the-mother-journal

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Left: Trina Daniel Concordia Undergraduate Exhibition https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/447967494166376589/ Right: Atelier MartinoĂąa Teatro Oficina 2010/2011 Theatre Posters https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/447967494166054071/

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BIBLIOGRAPHY Page 8-9: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/28/e8/55/28e8553f6e5621f72a9236f1ec54af0d.jpg

Page 22 Left: http://www.bauhaus.de/en/ausstellungen/sammlung/209_gebrauchsgrafik/401

Page 10-11: http://www.masseiana.org/plates/ani_plates/pl24.JPG

Page 22 Right: http://www.businessnewsdaily.com/images/i/000/010/797/original/ chess-leader.jpg?interpolation=lanczos-none&fit=around%7C700:500

Page 12 Left: https://spchumanities.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/07-03_aahothl02.jpg

Page 44-45: https://www.behance.net/gallery/44764135/Editorial-Anuario-El-Gato-y-la-Caja

Page 12 Bottom: http://www.historygraphicdesign.com/images/00001/y60.png

Page 46: https://www.behance.net/gallery/2684869/GUIMARAES-JAZZ-2011-POSTERS

Page 13 Bottom: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/736x/9f/5a/fd/ 9f5afd4742e5dbaf6c4d7ed7569c16ea.jpg

Page 47 Left and Bottom: http://file2.answcdn.com/answ-cld/image/upload/w_760,c_fill,g_ faces:center,fl_lossy,q_60/v1400949912/geqsxdwsxwtzxx7e8gxc.jpg

Page 14: http://file2.answcdn.com/answ-cld/image/upload/w_760,c_fill,g_ faces:center,fl_lossy,q_60/v1400949912/geqsxdwsxwtzxx7e8gxc.jpg

Page 48 Left: https://www.behance.net/gallery/35768979/Typography-Google-Fonts-Combinations

Page 16 Left: https://classconnection.s3.amazonaws.com/950/flashcards/2441950/png/ screen_shot_2013-10-29_at_90746_pm-14206E733D325B05AF4.png

Page 48-49 Middle: https://www.behance.net/gallery/44309199/Good-Vibes-Posters

Page 16 Right: http://trlc.no/wp-content/uploads/sites/635/2016/07/685px-A_Specimen_by_William_Caslon.jpg

Page 49 Right: https://flic.kr/p/eh1AHS

Page 17-18: https://s-media-cache-ak0.pinimg.com/originals/06/0d/e8/060de81f1cba3eddb33c9babc8528997.jpg

Page 50: https://www.behance.net/gallery/30767755/Open-City-Documentary -Festival-London-2015

Page 19: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Great_Wave_off_ Kanagawa2.jpg

Page 51: http://tagawa-rc.com/artist/mucha/mucha_1/mucha_half/24.jpg

Page 20: http://tagawa-rc.com/artist/mucha/mucha_1/mucha_half/24.jpg

Page 52: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/447967494166376589/

Page 21: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/CXIwQOvWwAA8SQw.jpg:large

Page 53: https://www.pinterest.com/pin/447967494166054071/

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