Art Fallen From Heaven

Art Fallen From Heaven

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Koos van Brakel

Art Fallen From Heaven modern balinese sculpture

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In loving memory of my mother Ina Erents (1929-1971)

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Buleleng

ll

Singaraja

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Kubutambahan

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Jagaraga

bali Tegallalang l Tabanan l

Bangli l

Ubud l Nyuhkuning l Bedulu Pliatan l l Gianyar Mas l

l Klungkung

Batuan l Kesiman l Denpasar l Sanur l

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Contents

9

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Preface and acknowledgements

13

The woodcarvers

21

Commissioned and tourist sculptures, a timeline 1850-1930

35

The tourists are coming

39

The transformation of Balinese sculpture

49

Modern sculpture

55

Sale of modern Balinese wood carvings in the years 1932-1935

65

The artists’ association Pita Maha 1936-1939

83

The 1940s

93

The 1950s

99

Post-War Balinese woodcarvers (1950-2020) – by Soemantri Widagdo

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Woodcarvers, members of Pita Maha, based on the exhibitions 1936-1939

113

Exhibitions with modern Balinese sculpture 1932-1973

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Catalogue of sculptures

203

Bibliography

209

Index

215

About the Authors

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Preface and acknowledgements Detail of Statue of a priest with real hair, Buleleng, c. 1882, 47 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-370-890

There are countless publications on Bali. Oddly enough, little attention is paid to sculpture and books and articles on modern sculpture can easily be counted on the fingers of two hands. Most authors repeat the myth that modern Balinese art was created in 1930 by two sculptors, I Tegelang and Ida Bagus Gelodog. The story of the influence wielded by Walter Spies and Rudolf Bonnet, two western painters living in Bali, is repeated over and over. Moreover, two exhibitions on modern Balinese sculpture, in 2005 and 2006, in Museum Nusantara in Delft, the Netherlands, introduced the term Art Deco when describing the statues. It is a nonsensical idea that two Western painters or a Western art movement were needed to renew the rich, vibrant Balinese culture, while renewal has always been and still is an essential part of Balinese culture. After the violent conquest of Bali by the Dutch, the traditional patronage of the craftsmen by the Balinese royal houses fell away. This gap was filled by emerging tourism and the western art market. After decades of producing more or less traditional sculptures for sale to Westerners, the Balinese sculptors were looking for new ways. It was their own creativity, which ultimately ushered Balinese woodcarvers in the 1930s into the world of contemporary artistic endeavours. Ide Anak Agung Gede Agung (1921–1999), son of the ruler of Gianyar, former prime minister of the State of East Indonesia (1947–1949) and ambassador in Brussels, Paris and Vienna, underlines the creativity and urge to innovate among the Balinese artists: “This new style and form in art had manifested itself not only in painting. In the 1930s, the wellknown sculptor, Ida Bagus Nyana, from Mas, began to create new sculptures […] What Ida Bagus Nyana had accomplished with his sculpture was an equivalent of the new style and expression of the young painters in Ubud, Batuan and other places. With this, I would like to draw attention to the fact that the emergence of the new style and form of painting in Bali was not the result of the influence of foreign painters who had settled in Ubud and elsewhere, such as Walter Spies and Rudolf Bonnet, but that it sprang from a general urge among Balinese artists to find a new form of expression.” 1 This publication aims to dispel the old myths and to offer a new perspective on the transformation of Balinese sculpture. It positions the sculptors in a colonial society in transition, describes their position on the basis of various key figures, Balinese and European, and underlines the importance of the artists’ association Pita Maha, and exhibitions in the Dutch East Indies and beyond, that presented the sculptures as art, a totally new concept to Balinese society. More extensive research on the development of contemporary (post-war) Balinese woodcarving is needed and will be the subject of the sequel to this book.

1

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Wim Bakker 1985, p.3

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Detail of Ganesha, Ida Bagus Sadra (attributed to), 1950-1955, 32.5 cm, Private collection

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I would like to extend my thanks to all the individuals and institutions who have helped to make this publication possible. I would firstly like to thank the Jaap Harten Foundation for their generous support. I am also grateful to the Marinus Plantema Foundation and the Liefkes-Weegenaar Foundation for their support. I would like to offer a big thank-you to my former colleagues of the Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen: Francine Brinkgreve for her advice and support, Ingeborg Eggink and Richard van Alphen for their patience in answering my questions about individual objects and photos, Irene de Groot for her beautiful photography, Henriëtta Lidchi, Daan Kok, Pim Westerkamp and Sijbrand de Rooij. I thank the Rudolf Bonnet Foundation: Pienke Kal, Rick de Graaf and Erica Kubic, Yayasan TiTian Bali, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam: Eline Kevenaar, Freud Museum: Bryony Davis, Museum Nasional Indonesia: Nusi Lisabella and Muhammad Fahmi, Nederlands Fotomuseum Rotterdam: Carolien Provaas, Asian Art Museum San Francisco: David Armstrong, American Museum of Natural History: Laurel Kendall and Barry Landua, Nationalmuseet Danmark: Wibeke Haldrup, Kunsthistorisches Museum Wien/ Weltmuseum Wien: Ilse Jung, Leiden University Libraries, Art History Institute (rkd) the Hague, Lisa Branolte, Paul de Bont (+), Arend de Roever, Paul Homburg, Jan Veenendaal, Richard Janssen, Kees de Ruiter, Paul Baar, Jeroen de Keijzer, Iris Breetvelt, Rob Delvigne, Venduehuis The Hague: Chris Vellinga, Wim Bakker (+), David Stuart-Fox and Klaus D. Höhn. Also thanks to the many contributors for the chapter Post-War Balinese woodcarvers, including informants, artists and their families who provided valuable information on their works or the works of their parents or grandparents.

Many thanks to: Anak Agung Ngurah Moning (c. 1930–2021), Ida Bagus Tilem’s children: Ida Ayu Raka Mas and Ida Bagus Alit Surya, I Wayan Miartha (son of I Made Sutheja), I Ketut Muja (1944–2014), I Wayan Jana, I Made Supena (1970–2019), Pande Wayan Mataram, I Made Sama, I Made Sukanta Wahyu, I Made Kania, I Nyoman Sudiarta (son of I Made Runda), I Wayan Mudana, I Ketut Geledih, and I Wayan Darlun (1948– c. 2017). Sadly, some of them are no longer with us. Thanks also, to Richard J. Trepel and Richard Horstman, who have edited various versions of the chapter Post-War Balinese woodcarvers; and to I Ketut Wisnu Harimurti for researching the woodcarvers in Guwang. Also thanks to Ida Ayu Widyastuti, Ni Gusti Ayu Indryana Karya and Anak Agung Rai Saraswati for their assistance in securing exhibition catalogues and permission to take photographs at the Museum Puri Lukisan.

Last but not least, my thanks go to Elsbeth Dekker, with whom I had many conversations and who has edited the first version of my text, and to Soemantri Widagdo, with whom I exchanged many WhatsApps and emails on the subject of modern Balinese sculpture and who wrote the chapter Post-War Balinese woodcarvers (1950–2020).

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13

The Woodcarvers

“The first human beings were extremely imperfect creatures. They walked around naked, had no permanent dwellings and slept together like animals. They ate whatever nature happened to offer them. The gods were so disturbed by this behaviour that they asked Bhatara Guru for an audience. He was the highest and wisest of them, and so it was with him that they wanted to discuss what was to be done.

Consequently, various gods were sent to earth to teach men manners and customs and to instruct them in the arts and crafts. The god Brahma showed them how to forge weapons and tools and gave the specialists in this field the name pande besi (ironsmiths). The god Mahadewa took over the general training of goldsmiths and silversmiths; Sang Citra Gotra gave them special instruction in making jewellery. Smiths who excelled in work with precious metals were called pande mas (goldsmiths) from then on.

The god Citra Kara introduced the art of painting and drawing to man and named those who had a talent for arranging colours with their hands and brushes sangging (painters or draughtsmen).

Bhagawan Wiswakarmma instructed the undagi (carpenters) and the astakosali (architects and sculptors), and the goddess Angga Ratih and her retinue of heavenly nymphs brought the women cotton and weaving tools and showed them how to weave plain cloth.”2

1 Kris stand representing the demon king Rawana, who fights against Rama in the Ramayana epic. From the palace of Denpasar, Badung, 19th century, 88x27x24 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-1602-185

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Six Tumpek (auspicious) Saturdays of the 210-day Balinese calendar (pawukon) keep the memory alive of the fact that the gods descended to earth to instruct the people in manners and customs and to instruct them in the arts and crafts. During Tumpek Landep, offerings are made to iron objects such as the kris and the instruments of the gamelan orchestra. During Tumpek Krulut, people make offerings to the bronze gamelan, masks and dance costumes, and during Tumpek Wayang, people honour the wayang puppets, masks and dance costumes. During these days, craftsmen and artists seek lasting inspiration from the gods.

Hinduism, with its many gods and the intertwining of religion and daily life, brought Bali a great wealth of temples, paintings, statues and religious and ceremonial objects. Patronage of the monarchs resulted in commissions for work on the palaces and the manufacture of wooden and stone statues, furniture, kris daggers, gold and silver jewellery and textiles. Nieuwenkamp writes about the palace at Tabanan: “When the poeri was taken possession of, it contained a mass of beautiful carvings and sculptures, such as elaborately carved doors, windows, pillars and mouldings, numerous wooden statues in the houses and at the wells.”3 With the exception of a few centuries-old stone statues, statues are not an object of veneration. Free-standing 2

Ramseyer, p.60

3

Nieuwenkamp 1910, p.175

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14 2 Winged lion with small male and female figures on its back. During temple ceremonies, the gods temporarily reside in such statues.

North Bali, c. 1900, 62x54x48 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-2407-1, ex collection J. P. Kleiweg de Zwaan (1875-1971) physician and physical anthropologist

wooden statues serve as kris stands (see fig. 1) or are part of palaces and temples, always on the outside, never in the temples; they do not fulfil any other role. Wooden statues of Garuda and the winged lion (singa) serve as a base for the pillars supporting the roof of richly decorated pavilions (bale) and the winged lion is also seen as a base for the pillars of rice barns in North Bali. Both are auspicious animals and guardians.

The many gods in Balinese Hinduism are considered to be manifestations of one supreme god: Acintya (He who cannot be imagined), also called Tunggal (Devine Oneness), Sang Hyang Widhi Wasa (The Devine Order). His omnipresence is symbolised by an empty seat on a lotus throne. When important ceremonies and rituals take place in the temple, it is decorated to receive the gods. Only then do the gods temporarily reside in the temple in small statues, (arca lingga or pratima), which are carried in procession to the temple. (see fig.2) Woodcarvers act as architects in the construction of temples and palaces and manufacture the images of gods on their mounts, the masks and all kinds of other objects for ceremonial, ritual and everyday use, such as the small figurines (togog) as kris handles or as beautifully decorated handles for the betel pounders, the carved boxes for cockspurs or lontar manuscripts and the wooden bases for the gamelan.

There is no word in Balinese for artist; a sculptor is called decorator (sangging), carpenter (tukang kayu) or architect (undagi). The sangging, because of his long experience, is particularly knowledgeable about the work to be carried out, while the undagi, often also a priest, knows the regulations for carrying out the work, particularly through his knowledge of the scriptures. However, Graeme MacRae and S. Parker note that in the construction projects they visited, no one bears the title undagi.4 The closest one is the kepala tukang, foreman. “The person known as undagi is not 4

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Graeme MacRae and S. Parker, p.273

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3 Four high caste woodcarvers at work, North Bali, 1880-1900. Notice the large sculpture in the background.

Collection J. de Keijzer

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a universal participant in the process. Rather, it is appropriate to speak of the application of keundagian, a body of knowledge combining the spiritual, artistic and practical dimensions of the design process and linking the work/knowledge of both pedanda5 and tukang. The function may be exercised by a person claiming the title of undagi, but also by pedanda with sufficient practical experience, tukang with sufficient artistic and spiritual knowledge, owners and patrons with sufficient hereditary or economic power to lay claim (rightly or wrongly) to such knowledge, or alternative specialists, such as sangging, with competing claims to such knowledge.” 6 “Unlike an undagi, who is only a tukang working on a temple, the sangging is the artist who does the designs. He has been consecrated for this and knows the relevant mantras. He has the authority to perform the first cut on the first joint and the last cuts on the last joint, and also to carve sacred images in temples. He, and not the undagi, is the person who knows how to bring an image to life.” 7 Craftsmen practising the same craft, such as painters and gold and silversmiths, traditionally lived in quarters near the palace of the monarch, the main patron.

Woodcarvers and architects, on the other hand, lived scattered across Bali and never united in any kind of guild. “Among the innumerable sculptors and carvers, who live all over Bali […] there are artists whose names are known far and wide. Often a village sends for one of these specialists from far away to design pilasters and antefixes, to coordinate the work to be done on a temple and, together with a number of masons 5

Priest

6

Graeme MacRae and S. Parker, p.275

7

Graeme MacRae and S. Parker, p.273

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4 Chairs, decorated with crowned snakes and winged lions. Buleleng, Sawan-Menyali region, 1900–1930, 111x55x55 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-Liefkes-206a-b. Chairs were introduced by the Dutch so that touring officials could sit comfortably when visiting the palaces.

5 Table. The tabletop is supported by Wilmana, the mount of the demon king Rawana. He is standing on four snakes. Buleleng, SawanMenyali region, 1900–1930, 75x70x33.5 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-Liefkes-206c

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6 Pair of doors from the palace of Denpasar, Badung, 19th century, 260x45x9 cm, Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen rv-1586-32

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and bricklayers, to carry it out. During the time of princely rule, such specialists were undoubtedly also summoned to the palaces and residencies of the aristocracy, which used to be as elaborately decorated as temples.” 8 Although the work of woodcarvers and architects is anonymous, they were appreciated for their individual style and craftsmanship. Name and fame has always been attached to individual woodcarvers, as opposed to other craftsmen.9 Some were versatile and, like I Gusti Nyoman Lempad (c. 1862–1978), acted as architect, painter and sculptor.

“Of course, such an artist is known far and wide in the region and is regarded as an arbiter and sought out by those who, when looking at his works, have the admittedly still uncertain feeling that a similar dewa (deity), sometimes settles in their bodies as well. They then bring him their first sample in the form of a small sculpture or painting, and occasionally a small group is seen sitting somewhere, where the elder critically discusses the products of the young people and advises or discourages whether it is already time to erect an altar for the felt dewa.” 10 Woodcarvers possessed a unique position of their own, which even a monarch had to take into account. For example, the king of Bangli once asked a woodcarver to decorate his palace. The latter, however, refused because he wanted to renovate his own house. The king then sent some workmen to help him complete the house and thus force him to comply with his wishes.11 When a woodcarver works on a temple, the village community to which the temple belongs must also take care of his house and land.

In the 1930s, more than fifty percent of the woodcarvers belonged to the three higher castes, the Triwangsa, of whom twenty-nine per cent belonged to the Brahmin caste.12 Especially members of the two highest castes were taught dance, music, painting and sculpture as part of their education. They also read the ancient texts and knew what rules should be followed when building temples and making statues of the gods. Knowledge and skills were passed on in a master-apprentice relationship, often from father to son. When the Assistant Governor of South Bali H. J. E. F. Schwartz (1906–1909) asked a sculptor why he gave his sculpture such unnatural shapes and proportions, the latter replied that he was bound by fixed rules. When asked if all woodcarvers in Bali followed these rules, the answer was, “No, only those who have been taught by good teachers.” 13 Krause described in 1918 how this was done. “In Bangli, I often saw old Dewa Gedeh Raij14, brother of the last raja of Bangli, who was an excellent woodcarver, sitting in front of his puri15 amidst people of all castes, taking from the hand of this or that member of his audience a carved figure, which 8

Ramseyer, p.66

9

Eiseman 1988, p.41

10

G. Krause – Kunst op Bali in: Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant 12/1/1918

11

G. Krause – Kunst op Bali in: Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant 12/1/1918

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Sitsen 1938, p.3 There are four castes: Brahmanas (Brahmin), the priests; Satrias (Kshatriyas), princes and nobility; Wesias (Vaishyas), traders and administrative forces and Sudras (Shudras), basically the other Balinese, including the farmers. The name of men of the Brahmana caste begins with Ida Bagus, of men of the Satria caste with Cokorda, Anak Agung or I Dewa. The names of men from the third caste begin with I Gusti. Finally, the names of men of the Sudra caste begin with I.

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13

F. D. K. Bosch 1921, p.117

14

Dewa Gede Rai

15

Palace

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7 A woodcarver works on a panel, in the background, two woodcarvers are working on statues of Garuda with Rama on his back, an incarnation of the god Wisnu. Rama is

he examined from all sides and discussed in the greatest seriousness with the usually young artist, in order to hand it back to him.” 16 Carrying out large assignments, such as making the wooden bases of a gamelan orchestra, is teamwork. Teacher and pupils work together on one and the same product. The master woodcarver makes the drawing, an apprentice traces the lines with a chisel, a second apprentice shapes the decoration, the master applies the details and an apprentice is responsible for polishing. Woodcarvings are almost always painted, varnished or gold leafed. The nature and execution of the work imply that plagiarism was an unknown concept in Bali. Properly executed carvings for the temples and palaces have to comply with certain rules. That there was enough room for regional style differences despite iconographic and architectural rules is shown by the differences in temple construction, wayang kulit puppets17 and painting and woodcarving art between North and South Bali.

considered the ideal monarch on Bali. 1930s, photo: Nederlands Fotomuseum wmr-432337

When it is not necessary to carry out the work on site, the woodcarver usually works in the family compound amidst the hustle and bustle of everyday life. A description of probably a banjar (village community) in Denpasar paints the following picture: “It is a prosperous village where the woodcarvers live. There are 40 people living in this enclosure – people of high caste. The master carver is now an old man. He has passed on the tenets of his art to younger men. The young apprentices are sitting cross-legged in a little hut with open sides and set upon stilts. Hung against the sloping roofsides are samples of their carving: most of the pieces have already been sold and are awaiting delivery. On a shelf running along the walls are rows of little gods and demons grinning at us. The boys work in leisurely fashion; choosing with great deliberation a chisel from the bunch of chisels at their side, and then hitting it with hard or soft blows with the little mallet in their capable hands.” 18 16 G. Krause – Kunst op Bali in: Nieuwe Rotterdamsche Courant 12/1/1918 17 Wayang kulit is a traditional puppet-shadow play with flat, two-dimensional, puppets made out of water buffalo and goat hide, mounted on sticks 18 Adele de Leeuw, p.168

8 Balinese wood carving at the annual market in Surabaya, Atelier Kurkdjian, 1905–1906, photo: Leiden University Libraries KITLV 10853, ex collection S. C. van Musschenbroek

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Commissioned and tourist sculptures, a timeline 1850–1930 9 Rama and his wife Sita, North Bali, c. 1850, sandalwood, 59 and 57 cm, National Museum of Denmark c. 91 and c. 92

Around the middle of the 19th century, the colonial administration of the Dutch East Indies took an interest in Bali and slowly tightened its grip on the island. After military expeditions in 1846 and 1848, the raja (king), of Buleleng was defeated in 1849.

Singaraja, the former capital of the Buleleng empire, became the seat of the Dutch Resident of Bali and Lombok and Buleleng harbour developed into a busy industrial port with a heterogeneous population of Balinese, Arabs, Chinese and Europeans.

The main street was lined with shops owned by Armenians and Arabs. A whole new market developed for wood carvings, textiles and silver and gold work. Buyers were the crews of ships calling at Buleleng port, military personnel, civil servants and scientists.

Commissions granted for major events such as the International Colonial and Export Trade Exhibition in Amsterdam in 1883, the Exposition Universelle (World fair exhibition) in Paris in 1900 and the annual fairs popular in the Dutch East Indies undoubtedly gave a huge boost to the local art scene. Wooden sculptures from this period can be found in many European museum collections, first and foremost in the Netherlands. Most of these early statues arrived in museum collections as temple sculptures or sculptures with religious connotations but were, in fact, early tourist products or statues made to order. They depict noble men and women, dancers, Garudas, winged lions, priests, demonic beasts and gods and heroes. The government official J. E. Jasper wrote in 1909: “And as for the carving art of the woodcarver in Bali, it is mostly applied to the so-called togogs, the polychromed statues, which represent human figures, either

10 Wooden polychromed sculptures, North Bali, Atelier Kurkdjian, c. 1915, photo: Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen tm-60027016

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from the people, or from the aristocracy, or from the Hindu epics, which are still well known in Bali. Mythical animals are also sometimes sculpted.” 19 The following examples show what types of sculptures were made and who the buyers were. They were made and painted according to a centuries-old tradition and, apart from their smaller size, hardly differ from the sculptures for the temples and palaces. It is striking that some of the statues were already unpainted in the 19th century. Since there were no special requirements for their appearance, except for those commissioned, and there was also no iconographic need for painting, it is understandable that this additional work was sometimes omitted.

11 Rama and his wife Sita, North Bali, 1850-1860, 43 cm and 38.5 cm, Nationaal

The two statues that Danish merchant Mads Lange sent from Bali to Denmark in 1851 are among the oldest examples of sculptures made especially for Westerners (see fig. 9). The Ethnographic Museum in Copenhagen received the sculptures in December of that year. Mads Lange traded from a walled factory near Kuta in the period 1839– 1856. His success was mainly due to his ability to establish personal connections with the local monarchs. The Dutch, who also tried to establish trade in Bali, were less successful and in May 1844, they appointed Lange as their commercial agent with the right to fly the Dutch flag. The sculptures are of high quality and, apart from the lack of painting, traditional in design.

Museum van Wereldculturen rv-1171-18 and rv-1171-3

19

J. E. Jasper 1909, p.188. Jasper depicts an unpainted wooden sculpture of a dancer from the people and painted sculptures of Rama and of Wisnu on Garuda

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12 Rama, Buleleng, c. 1870, 54.6 cm, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam wm-5207,

Two likewise unpainted statues in the collection of the Nationaal Museum van Wereldculturen show stylistic similarities to the statues donated by Mads Lange.20

ex collection C. van Eck 13 Laksmana, the brother of Rama, Buleleng, c. 1870, 54.5 cm, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam wm-5208, ex collection C. van Eck 14 Sita, wife of Rama, Buleleng, c. 1870,

In October 1877, C. van Eck, captain of the Dutch East Indies Steamship Company, donated three palm-wood sculptures to the municipality of Rotterdam, which later transferred them to the Museum of Ethnology, opened in 1885, now the Wereldmuseum Rotterdam.

This type of sculpture was made in large quantities for sale.

52.3 cm, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam wm-5206, ex collection C. van Eck

The sculptures by the hand of the woodcarver I Dewa Kompiang Ketut Kandel, previously employed by the last monarch of Buleleng and residing in the banjar (village community) Agung of Singaraja, are examples of the shift from patronage of sculptors by the monarchs to European buyers. The dancer and winged singa, are part of a small collection, which D. C. Rietbergen, Controleur (local government official) at the Residency Bali and Lombok, donated in 1885 to the Rotterdam Museum of Ethnology, the present Wereldmuseum.

20

These were bought at an auction of the firm Jacob Schulman in Amersfoort on 26 April 1898, numbers 13 and 14 in the catalogue, ex collection Mr Stipriaan Luiscius

15 Winged lion by the woodcarver I Dewa Kompiang Ketut Kandel, Buleleng, c. 1880, 19 cm, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam wm-2599, ex collection D. C. Rietbergen 16 Sculpture of a dancer by the woodcarver I Dewa Kompiang Ketut Kandel, Buleleng, c. 1880, 63 cm, Wereldmuseum Rotterdam wm-2598, ex collection D. C. Rietbergen

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