Theories of Child Development

Theories of Child Development Description This e-book focus on theories of child development. There are many theories but it will focus on Jean Piaget and Brofenbrenner theories, Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson theories, Albert Bandura,.

Also, it will look at Piaget and Kohlberg theory of moral development. .

CHAPTER ONE BROFENBRENNER’S ECOLOGICAL SYSTEMS THEORY 1.0 Introduction Urie Bronfenbrenner is generally regarded as one of the world's leading scholars in the field of developmental psychology. His Ecological Systems Theory holds that development reflects the influence of several environmental systems, and it identifies five environmental systems.

Conceptualized the child’s environment as having different interconnected layers nested together with agents that influence the child’s development with varying degrees of directness. The systems model involving micro, meso, exo, macro and chronosystems are arranged in rings from those that have direct influence to the child to those whose influence are distant with indirect influence to the child.

1.1 The Systems The systems include: 

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Micro system which refers to the setting in which the individual lives. These contexts include the person's family, peers, school, and neighborhood. It is in the micro system that the most direct interactions with social agents take place; with parents, peers, and teachers. The individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings.

Mesosystem refers to the relationships between micro systems or connections between contexts. Examples are the relation of family experiences to school experiences, school experiences to church experiences, and family experiences to peer experiences. For example, children whose parents have rejected them may have difficulty developing positive relations with teachers.

Exosystem: This involves links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individual's immediate context. For example, a husband's or child's experience at home may be influenced by a mother's experiences at work. The mother might receive a promotion that requires more travel, which might increase conflict with the husband and change patterns of interaction with the child.

Macrosystem: Describes the culture in which individuals live. Cultural contexts include developing and industrialized countries, socioeconomic status, poverty, and ethnicity.

Chronosystem: This refers to the patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course, as well as socio-historical circumstances. For example, divorce is one transition. Researchers have found that the negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce. By two years after the divorce, family interaction is less chaotic and more stable. As an example of socio-historical circumstances, consider how the opportunities for women to pursue a career have increased during the last thirty years

Unlike Bronfenbrenner who described the ecological systems as nested within one another, Neal and Neal (2013) maintain that the ecological systems are networked where each system is

defined in terms of the social relationships surrounding the child and the different levels relating to one another in an overlapping but non-nested way. They further argue that the family is a microsystem where the child has direct experiences and interactions with family members face to face. Mesosystem according to them, could involve the interaction between the parents and teachers about the child’s behaviour both at home and in school in relation to his/her education (Neal and Neal, 2013).

Exosystems involve settings that influence the child’s life but in which the child does not directly participate. For instance, a child may not be involved in making the education policies but these policies will influence the child’s school experiences. The macrosystems involves the broad cultural influences or ideologies that influence the child’s educational experiences. For instance, societies that emphasize on the importance of teachers being accountable on the standards of education in the community school, will have an implication on how children will perform in their education.

The person's own biology may be considered part of the microsystem; thus the theory has sometimes been referred to "Bio-Ecological Systems Theory." As per this theoretical construction, each system contains roles, norms and rules which may shape psychological development. For example, an inner city family faces many challenges which an affluent family in a gated community does not, and vice versa. The inner city family is more likely to experience environmental hardships, such as teratogens and crime. On the other hand the sheltered family is more likely to lack the nurturing support of extended family (Vander, Crandell, Crandell, 2007).

Since its publication in 1979, Bronfenbrenner's major statement of this theory, The Ecology of Human Development (Bronfenbrenner,1979) has had widespread influence on the way psychologists and others approach the study of human beings and their environments. As a result of his groundbreaking work in human ecology, these environments from the family to economic and political structures have come to be viewed as part of the life course from childhood through adulthood.

There are many different theories related to human development. But the ecological theory emphasizes environmental factors as playing the major role to development. This theory does vary from culture to culture (Santrock, 2007).

Bronfenbrenner theory

CHAPTER TWO Erik Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development 2.0 Introduction Erik Erikson was a German psychologist who suffered serious identity crisis in his youthful years. His parents divorced when he was a young child and he stayed with his mother. He then concluded that a need for identity is a major aspect in life. He also felt that the influence of the society on the development of personality should not be underestimated.

2.2 Erik Erikson’s Theory of Personality Development The psychosocial development theory as articulated by Erikson explains eight stages through which a healthily developing human should pass, from infancy to late adulthood. Each stage involves a crisis that needs to be resolved. If the crisis in a given stage is not resolved, the individual continues to struggle with it and if not completed, is expected to reappear as problems in the future. Success in each stage leads to the development of a virtue and lays the foundation for resolving the crisis at the later stages.

Erikson’s theory Stage 1: Infancy (Birth to 18 months) In this first stage, the psychosocial crisis is defined as trust versus mistrust. The child during this stage is completely dependent on adults for fulfillment of their needs. These include, attention, feeding, changing and holding. The caregivers' responsiveness and care influences the child's personality development. If the child's needs are adequately met, the child learns to trust the caregiver and this is then extended to die other people in the child's environment. Failure to respond sensitively and appropriately to the child's needs leads to the development of mistrust.

Trust should predominate but the child should develop a little mistrust because not all people in the environment can be trusted and in some circumstances and situations cannot always guarantee trust. The virtue of hope is developed in this stage if the child develops trust. Therefore, if the concept of trust versus mistrust is not addressed, taught and handled during infancy, the individual may be negatively affected for the rest of their life. The person may be unable to form

healthy and long-lasting relationships with others. They may then lose hope and continually struggle with overcoming hard times and failures in their life and may never fully recover from them.

Stage 2: Toddler (18 months to 3 years) The psychosocial crisis at this stage of the development is autonomy versus doubt. During this stage the toddler discovers that he or she is no longer attached to the primary caregiver, but is a separate individual. Toddlers try to do everything for themselves, for example, feeding. They work in and between places, and force adults to do things their own way. They extend boundaries of their own world to include things and activities they are not able to do. During this stage children begin to make their own decisions and judgments. They begin to establish selfcontrol and self-regulation and to challenge adult authority. For example, removing clothes because they are forced by their mother to put them on. The virtue of free will is developed at this stage. However, when the toddler is not given choices or boundaries, shame and doubt may result. The strong will of the child may cause conflict between child and caregiver. Autonomy can only be gained when given reasonable choices and proper guidance from the caregiver.

Stage 3: Pre-school (3 to 5 years) During this third stage, the psychosocial crisis is initiative versus guilt. At this stage, the child wants to begin and complete his or her own actions for a purpose. The child learns to take the initiative and prepare him or herself towards roles of leadership and goal attainment.In this stage the child initiates activities and begins to form and carry out goals and make judgment about what they want to do. Through the child's acquisitions of language and motor abilities, the)" express themselves more freely and explore hence increase their imagination. The child is learning to master the world around him or her, learning basic skills and principles of physics.

For example, the get to establish that things fall down and not up, they learn to speak and count, as well, as other discoveries like round things roll.A child who fails to meet his/her goals feels guilty. A child whose initiative is restricted, for example, by being beaten, detained and discouraged constantly, develops a sense of guilt. Those who fail to resolve the crisis well may become guilty and repressed and in adulthood they may consistently inhibit their impulses and fail to express themselves. Parents should provide guidance and counseling to children and set firm limits in order to help the children develop a healthy balance in initiating activities.

Stage 4: School age (6 to 12 years) Like Freud, Erikson views this stage as that of relative emotional calmness. It is the stage of industry versus inferiority. According to him, the child can attend his schooling and learn the skills that are useful for his life which are in accordance with his societal and cultural expectations. The virtue of competence is developed in this stage since the child can learn best and receive training in key life skills. Children at this stage are becoming more aware of themselves as individuals, and will work hard at being responsible and good, and doing the right thing. They are now more reasonable when it comes to sharing and cooperating. At this stage, the children are eager to learn and accomplish more complex skills such as reading, writing and telling the time. However they may express their independence by being rebellious or disobedient. They should be helped to learn and feel success. If a child is allowed only very little success, he or she will' develop a sense of inferiority or incompetence. It should be noted, though,

that too much industry will not allow children to be children. A balance between industry and inferiority is needed to developed competency.

STAGE 5: ADOLESCENCE {12 TO 20 YEARS} During this stage, the psychosocialogical crisis is identity versus role confusion. The adolescent is increasingly concerned with how he or she appears to others. The child experiences a need to become a unique adult with an important role in life. If children fail to develop a sense of identity, they develop role confusion and they experience a high dropout rate in school. They also abuse drugs and substance and lazy around. The virtue of fidelity is developed in this stage that is, being faithful or loyal to individuals.

STAGE 6: EARLY ADULTHOOD (20 - 40YEARS) This is the stage of intimacy versus isolation. Erikson- describes this stage as a stage of romance.

He asserts that this stage is commonly manifested during the period between 19 to 34 years. He explains that during this stage a person develops a need for personal commitment to another person in an intimate manner. This intimacy is expressed through sharing of feelings and emotions and achieves a mutual devotion to each other. Commitments are done without worry, regret, fear or concern. The virtue achieved in this stage is the virtue of love which may lead to courtship and end up in marriage. A person who cannot resolve the crisis becomes isolated and he/she cannot be committed to another person in an intimate way. Isolated persons usually express worry, anxiety, resentment, fear, concern and withdrawal from any attempt to establish intimacy.

STAGE 7: MIDDLE ADULTHOOD (40 - 60 YEARS) This is the stage of generativity versus stagnation. Generativity is the concern to establish and guide the next generation. The concern is to nurture ones offspring and care for others. The virtue of caring is developed in this stage. A person who cannot develop generativity develops stagnation. A stagnant person cannot bring out about continuity to the next generation. They become extremely concerned in their personal needs and ignore the needs of others. Hence they become irresponsible.

STAGE 8: LATE ADULTHOOD (60 YEARS AND ABOVE) This is Erikson's last stage of his psychosocial theory of personality development. It is the stage of ego and integrity versus despair. In this stage, individuals look back at their lives and review or assess what their lives have been like. They tend to look back on good times with gladness, hard times with self-respect and on mistakes and regrets with forgiveness. They develop a sense of integrity. A person with integrity feels proud of his/her successes, achievements and productivity. The virtue developed in this stage is wisdom. People who fail to resolve the crisis at this stage develop despair. People with despair feel bitter about their wasted years. They always worry about death and wish that they could still live a little longer to accomplish those tasks they were not able to accomplish. However, their diminished and deteriorating health cannot allow them. They complain about others not being responsive to them and are a cause of discomfort and irritation.

2.3 Relevance of Erikson's theory Erikson's theory is relevant to real life situations in the following ways:

1. Parents and caregivers should meet the needs of children adequately. Children whose needs are not adequately met develop mistrust and fail to trust themselves, others and their environment. This influences the development of personality in the other stages and in adulthood, 2. Societal values and culture determine the kind of socialization children receive hence their personality.

3. Children should be trained to understand that not every situation, circumstance or people in the environment can be trusted or, that, these can provide us with every need we require. Therefore, there is need for them to develop independence and judge what is best.

4. Parents, teachers and caregivers should provide assistance, guidance and encouragement to children to boost their self-esteem.

2.4 References Allport, G. W. (1927). Concepts of trait and personality. Psychological Bulletin, 24, 284-293.

Allport, F. H., &Allport, G. W. (1921). Personality traits: Their classification and measurement. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 16, 6-40.

Boeree, C.G. (2006). Gordon Allport. Personality theories. Online at: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/allport.html Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1996). Rethinking and reclaiming the interdisciplinary role of personality psychology: The science of human nature should be the center of the social sciences and humanities. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 363-373.

Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore: Penguin books Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore:

Penguin books

Carver, C. S. (1996). Emergent integration in contemporary personality psychology. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 319-334.

Diener, E. (1996). Traits can be powerful, but are not enough: Lessons from subjective wellbeing. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 389-399.

Dweck, C. S. (1996). Capturing the dynamic nature of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 348-362.

Epstein, S. (1996). Recommendations for the future development of personality psychology. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 435-446.

McAdams, D. P. (1995). What do we know when we know a person? Journal of Personality, 63, 365-396.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1995). Trait explanations in personality psychology. European Journal of Personality, 9, 231-252 McClelland, D. C. (1996). Does the field of personality have a future? Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 429-434.

Mweru, M. &Njuguna J. (2009). Personality development. Nairobi: Longhorn publishers Pervin, L. A. (1985). Personality: Current controversies, issues, and directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 83-114.

Revelle, W. (1995). Personality processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 295-328.

Papalia D. E. & Olds, S.W. (1998) Human development. Seventh Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Roberts, B. W., &DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3-25.

Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., & Pierce, G. R. (1996). Views of the future. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 447-453.

CHAPTER THREE Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development 3.0 Introduction Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a Viennese trained in neurology. He developed his theory of psychoanalysis while treating patients suffering from hysteria. Hysterical patients were hypnotized and encouraged to talk about earlier events. As they talked about their conflicts, they sometimes experienced an out-pouring of emotions, which marked the end to their symptoms.

3.1 Sigmund Freud’s Psychosexual Theory of Development Freud's theory tries to explain personality on the basis of what happens in the subconscious mind and illustrates that people possess psychological energy called libido, which drives their behaviour. He explains that unconscious motives, forcibly kept from awareness because they offend and threaten the conscious mind, are among the most important determinants of behaviour.

Therefore, human beings are influenced by unknown, unconscious and controllable forces or processes.

3.2 Freud's Assumptions Freud believed that there are two important aspects that influence our behaviour determining our personality, namely psychic energy and mental events and instincts.

3.2.1 Psychic energy mid mental events These can be divided into psychic determinism and unconscious motivation.

1. Psychic determinism: According to Freud, instinctive drives generate psychic energy, which powers the mind and constantly presses for either direct or indirect releases. He believed that everything individuals do, think, act and feel have meaning and purpose, even if the person is not aware of them. Examples include gestures, dreams and yawning.

2. Unconscious motivation: Freud explained that, our mental events may be conscious, preconscious or unconscious. He, thus, suggested that the mind is made of three areas: a) The Conscious area which consists of the mental events that we are presently aware of, such as our name, gender, memory and experience. We can recall them if need be. b) The preconscious area which consists of memories, feelings, thoughts and images that we are unaware of at the moment but that can be recalled with little effort. For example, a friend's telephone number, last birthday and dressing, c) The Unconscious area which contains thoughts, feelings and desires we are not aware of.

Freud believed that the unconscious mind is the largest in both size and importance, as it is a dynamic realm of wishes, feelings and impulses that lie beyond our awareness. It is the deep inaccessible repository of urges that seek expression, directly or indirectly. It is the major determinant of behaviour as it out-shadows and conceals the preconscious area.

3.2.2 Instinct An instinct is a collection of wishes whereas a wish results from an excitation of body tissues.

Freud believed that human motivation can originate from tissue needs. When one experiences a

wish (tension resulting from excitation of body tissues) one experiences the need to satisfy the wish in order to reduce tension. For example, when thirsty, one looks for water to quench the thirst, and when hungry, one looks for food to satisfy and reduce the hunger. The reduction of this tension is experienced as pleasure. According to Freud, human behaviour is controlled by instincts. He came up with two kinds of instincts, namely life instincts and death instincts.

According to Freud, life instincts (Eros) are primarily motivated by pleasure. These lay the basis for all constructive or positive aspects of human behaviour, which include hunger, thirst, art, music, sex, love, cooperation and empathy. Death instincts (Thanatos) describe the dark and destructive side of human behaviour. It is the motive for violence and aggression against others and ourselves. It compels one to repeat horrible experiences which cannot be explained if instinct is a desire for pleasure (life instinct). It explains warfare, hatred, drug and alcohol abuse, murder and suicide. Death instincts are our unconscious wish to die, as death puts an end to the everyday struggles if life.

3.2.3 Structures of personality Later in his career, Freud revised his view of the mind. He described the mental functions by making new distinctions, which lie called the structures of personality. He came up with three structures, namely the id, ego and superego.

3.2.4 The id The id comprises the unorganized part, of the personality structure that contains the basic drives.

It is the main core of personality and the only primitive structure (the only structure present at birth). It is the source of all psychic energy (thinking dominated by wishes and impulses). It seeks immediate gratification of needs or instincts. If operates on the pleasure principle, the id is responsible for out bash drive such as food, water, sex and basic impulses. It is without a sense of time, completely illogical and will not sake "no' for an answer. The id has no direct contact with reality and functions in a totally irrational manner. Infants are regarded as operating on the id level. Satisfaction at this level is not a real satisfaction since it operates on the principle of here and now.

3.2.5 The ego In modern-day society, the term ego has many meanings. It could mean one's self-esteem, an inflated sense of self-worth 01 one's self. However, according to Freud, the ego is the part of the mind which contains the consciousness; it has direct contact with reality and functions primarily at a conscious level. It operates according to the principles of reality which seeks to gratify the id's impulses in a realistic way. This brings long-term pleasure, rather than pain or destruction, by differing gratification until a suitable object or method is identified. At this level the person weighs all possibilities to identify its effectiveness and applicability. The ego contains our partly conscious perceptions, thoughts, judgments and memories. It involves high levels of mental processes including the use of previous experiences and reality testing. The ego is the mediator between the id and the superego, allowing them to express their desires, drives and morals in a realistic and socially appropriate way. It is said that it stands for reason and caution, and develops with age. The partly conscious and partly unconscious.

3.2.6 The super ego The superego is the highest and most organized part of the personality structure. It. considers not only the real but also the ideal manner which focuses on how one ought to behave. The superego works contrary to the id. It strives to act in a socially appropriate manner and helps us fit into society. The superego strives for perfection, judging actions and producing positive feelings of pride or negative feelings of guilt. It rewards, punishes and provides role-modeling, help in transmitting societal values and ideas. The superego operates on the morality principle.

Rewarded behaviour is incorporated in part of the superego called the ego deal and serves in rewarding the person, making him or her feel good, proud and personal valued. The punished behaviour is incorporated in the part of the superego called conscience which serves to punish the person making him or her feel guilt}' or unworthy. The superego is partly conscious and partly unconscious.

3.3 Freud psychosexual stages of personality development Freud proposed that children pass through a series of psychosexual stages during which the id's pleasure-seeking tendencies are focused on a specific pleasure. These sensitive areas of the body are called erogenous zones. According to him, deprivation or overindulgence can arise during any of these stages, resulting in fixation. Fixation is a state of arrested psychosexual development in which instincts are focused on a particular psychic theme or area.

3.3.1 The oral stage - 0 to 18 months During this stage, the infant's sensual pleasure focuses on sucking, biting, chewing, swallowing and crying. The pleasure centers on the mouth. Excessive gratification or frustration of oral needs can result, later in life, in fixation on oral activities, such as being a glutton, tonguesucking, chewing sweets, excessive oral hygiene, smoking, drinking profusely and nail biting.

3.3.2 The anal stage - 18 months to 3 years During this stage, the bowel and bladder retention and elimination become a source of gratification. During toilet training, the child is first faced with an attempt to control a biological urge. Harsh toilet training can be due to compulsion, overemphasis on cleanliness, obsessive concerns with orderliness and insistence on rigid rules and rituals. Laxity in toilet training results in messy, negative and dominant adult personality traits such as indecency, rudeness or being gullible and bed-wetting.

3.3.3 The phallic stage - 3 to 6 years During this stage, pleasure shifts to the genitals. Boys seek genital stimulation and develop both unconscious sexual desires for their mother', and jealousy and hatred for their father whom they consider a rival. This feeling arouses strong guilt and fear that the father might punish the child by castrating him (castration anxiety). This situation involving the boy's love for the mother and hostility towards the father is known as the Oedipus complex. Girls, on the other hand, experience what is called, the Electra complex where they discover that they lack the penis (penis jealousy) and blame their mother for the lack of that organ. She therefore becomes attached to the father figure. Children resolve these conflicts by repressing the conflicts and by identifying with the rival parent of the same sex. This process is called identification. Children imitate the activities done by this parent such as dressing. Identification helps children to possess the opposite sex parent indirectly or vicariously and also helps form the superego as children

internalize the parent's values and moral beliefs. This stage results in the development of gender fixation and leads to flirtation, masturbation and expression of sexual desires.

3.3.4 The latency stage — 6 to 12 years During this stage, children's sexuality is dominant, the associate mainly with peers of the same sex. At this stage, children are willing to pay attention to instructions, take advice, master tasks and concentrate on their academics.

3.3.5 The genital stage - 12 to 18 years) This is a stage during adolescence when sexual Feelings are very strong and are directed towards people of the opposite sex. These changes or feelings are due to hormonal changes. Sexual attraction towards a person of the opposite sex usually leads to romance which in laser stages of life leads to courtship, marriage and raising of children.

3.4 Implications of the psychosexual theory 1. Parents should show love to all their children without favoritism in order to help them resolve their internal conflicts.

2. Children should be encouraged to express their feelings, emotions and concerns without restriction, so that they can channel then feelings and anxieties appropriately.

3. Children should be trained to balance their id and. ego, and helped to attain their superego and acquire acceptable values, norms and morals.

4. Children should be trained to control their impulses and delay the gratification of needs, because not everything we need in life should be immediately granted.

5. Parents, teachers and caregivers should be warm and responsive to the children's needs to avoid deprivation.

6. Parents, particularly during the child's phallic stage, should have a good relationship with them and ensure that they maintain a good relationship with teachers.

7. Teachers and caregivers should understand the children's home environment as well as how the children use defense mechanisms. This will help them to understand each child and also be able to address any behavioral problems.

Psychosexual theory 3.5 References Allport, G. W. (1927). Concepts of trait and personality. Psychological Bulletin, 24, 284-293.

Allport, F. H., & Allport, G. W. (1921). Personality traits: Their classification and measurement. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 16, 6-40.

Boeree, C.G. (2006). Gordon Allport. Personality theories. Online at: http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/allport.html Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of Behavior Modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

Baumeister, R. F., & Tice, D. M. (1996). Rethinking and reclaiming the interdisciplinary role of personality psychology: The science of human nature should be the center of the social sciences and humanities. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 363-373.

Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore: Penguin books Cattell, R.B. (1965). The scientific analysis of personality. Baltimore:

Penguin books

Carver, C. S. (1996). Emergent integration in contemporary personality psychology. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 319-334.

Diener, E. (1996). Traits can be powerful, but are not enough: Lessons from subjective wellbeing. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 389-399.

Dweck, C. S. (1996). Capturing the dynamic nature of personality. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 348-362.

Epstein, S. (1996). Recommendations for the future development of personality psychology. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 435-446.

McAdams, D. P. (1995). What do we know when we know a person? Journal of Personality, 63, 365-396.

McCrae, R. R., & Costa, P. T., Jr. (1995). Trait explanations in personality psychology. European Journal of Personality, 9, 231-252 McClelland, D. C. (1996). Does the field of personality have a future? Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 429-434.

Mweru, M. & Njuguna J. (2009). Personality development. Nairobi: Longhorn publishers Pervin, L. A. (1985). Personality: Current controversies, issues, and directions. Annual Review of Psychology, 36, 83-114.

Revelle, W. (1995). Personality processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 46, 295-328.

Papalia D. E. & Olds, S.W. (1998) Human development. Seventh Edition. Boston: McGraw Hill.

Roberts, B. W., & DelVecchio, W. F. (2000). The rank-order consistency of personality traits from childhood to old age: A quantitative review of longitudinal studies. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 3-25.

Sarason, I. G., Sarason, B. R., & Pierce, G. R. (1996). Views of the future. Journal of Research in Personality, 30, 447-453.

CHAPTER FOUR PIAGET’S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT 4.0 Introduction Jean Piaget was born on August 9, 1896 in Neuchâtel, Switzerland. He was a Swiss psychologist who was the first to make a systematic study of the acquisition of understanding in children development. He was the major figure in 20th-century in developmental psychology.

4.1 Key Concepts in Piaget’s Theory Schemas- A schema according to Piaget describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world. In his view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge. As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas. For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then that the child encounters a very large dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the previously existing schema to include this new information.

Assimilation- The process of taking in new information into our previously existing schema's is known as assimilation. The process is somehow subjective, because we tend to modify experience or information to fit in with our preexisting beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is an example of assimilating the animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation- Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves altering existing schemas, or ideas, as a result of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration - Piaget asserts that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children are able to move from one stage of thought into the next.

4.2 Stages of Cognitive Development According to Piaget 4.2.1 Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage The first stage of Piaget’s theory lasts from birth to approximately age two and is centered on the infant trying to make sense of the world. During the sensorimotor stage, an infant’s knowledge

of the world is limited to their sensory perceptions and motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory stimuli. Children utilize skills and abilities they were born with, such as looking, sucking, grasping, and listening, to learn more about the environment.

The development of object permanence is one of the most important accomplishments at the sensorimotor stage of development. Object permanence is a child's understanding that objects continue to exist even though they cannot be seen or heard.

The sensorimotor stage can be divided into six separate sub stages that are characterized by the development of a new skill.

Reflexes (0-1 month):During this sub stage, the child understands the environment purely through inborn reflexes such as sucking and looking.

Primary Circular Reactions (1-4 months):This sub stage involves coordinating sensation and new schemas. For example, a child may suck his or her thumb by accident and then later intentionally repeat the action. These actions are repeated because the infant finds them pleasurable.

Secondary Circular Reactions (4-8 months):During this sub stage, the child becomes more focused on the world and begins to intentionally repeat an action in order to trigger a response in the environment. For example, a child will purposefully pick up a toy in order to put it in his or her mouth.

Coordination of Reactions (8-12 months):During this sub stage, the child starts to show clearly intentional actions. He/she may also combine schemas in order to achieve a desired effect.

Children begin exploring the environment around them and will often imitate the observed behavior of others. The understanding of objects also begins during this time and children begin to recognize certain objects as having specific qualities. For example, a child might realize that a rattle will make a sound when shaken.

Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-18 months):At this sub-stage children begin a period of trial and error experimentation. For example, a child may try out different sounds or actions as a way of getting attention from a caregiver.

Early Representational Thought (18-24 months):Children begin to develop symbols to represent events or objects in the world in the final sensorimotor sub stage. During this time, children begin to move towards understanding the world through mental operations rather than purely through actions.

4.2.2 Preoperational Stage The preoperational stage occurs between ages two and six. Language development is one of the hallmarks of this period. Piaget noted that children in this stage do not yet understand concrete logic, cannot mentally manipulate information, and are unable to take the point of view of other people, which he termed egocentrism.Children also become increasingly adept at using symbols, as evidenced by the increase in playing and pretending. For example, a child is able to use an

object to represent something else, such as pretending a broom is a horse. Role playing also becomes important during the preoperational stage. Children often play the roles of "mommy," "daddy," "doctor" and many others.

Egocentrism:Piaget used a number of creative and clever techniques to study the mental abilities of children. One of the famous techniques egocentrism involved using a three dimensional display of a mountain scene. Children are asked to choose a picture that showed the scene they had observed. Most children were able to do this with little difficulty. Next, children are asked to select a picture showing what someone else would have observed when looking at the mountain from a different viewpoint. Invariably, children almost always choose the scene showing their own view of the mountain scene. According to Piaget, children experience this difficulty because they are unable to take on another person's perspective.

Conservation:Another well-known experiment involves demonstrating a child's understanding of conservation. In one conservation experiment, equal amounts of liquid are poured into two identical containers. The liquid in one container is then poured into a different shaped cup, such as a tall and thin cup, or a short and wide cup. Children are then asked which cup holds the most liquid. Despite seeing that the liquid amounts were equal, children almost always choose the cup that appears fuller. Piaget conducted a number of similar experiments on conservation of number, length, mass, weight, volume, and quantity. He found that few children showed any understanding of conservation prior to the age of five.

4.2.3 Concrete Operational Stage The concrete operational stage begins around age seven and continues until approximately age eleven. During this time, children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or hypothetical concepts.

Logic:Piaget noted that children in the concrete operational stage were fairly good at the use of inductive logic. Inductive logic involves going from a specific experience to a general principle.

On the other hand, children at this age have difficulty using deductive logic, which involves using a general principle to determine the outcome of a specific event.

Reversibility:One of the most important developments in this stage is an understanding of reversibility, or awareness that actions can be reversed. An example of this is being able to reverse the order of relationships between mental categories. For example, a child might be able to recognize that his or her dog is a female, that a female is a dog, and that a dog is an animal.

4.2.4 Formal Operational Stage The formal operational stage begins at approximately age twelve and lasts into adulthood.

During this time, people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical thought, deductive reasoning, and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

Logic:Piaget asserted that deductive logic becomes important during the formal operational stage.

Deductive logic requires the ability to use a general principle to determine a specific outcome.

This type of thinking involves hypothetical situations and is often required in science and mathematics.

Abstract Thought: While children tend to think very concretely and specifically in earlier stages, the ability to think about abstract concepts emerges during the formal operational stage. Instead of relying solely on previous experiences, children begin to consider possible outcomes and consequences of actions. This type of thinking is important in long term planning.

Problem Solving: In earlier stages, children used trial and error to solve problems. During the formal operational stage, the ability to systematically solve a problem in a logical and methodical way emerges. Children at the formal operational stage of cognitive development are often able to quickly plan an organized approach to solving a problem.

While Piaget did not specifically apply his theory to education, many educational programs are built upon the belief that children should be taught at the level for which they are developmentally prepared. In addition to this, a number of instructional strategies have been derived from Piaget's work. These strategies include providing a supportive environment, utilizing social interactions and peer teaching, and helping children see fallacies and inconsistencies in their thinking (Driscoll, 1994).

Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

5.0 Introduction

CHAPTER FIVE MORAL DEVELOPMENT

How does a human being acquire and internalize morality? This topic is devoted towards making you understand how morality develops in humans and the factors that shape it. More importantly, the interaction of morality and environmental factors will be discussed, as well as the role of other aspects of development e.g. cognitive development, social development, and personality development.

5.1 Definition of Moral Development Moral development can be defined as the process through which an individual acquires the ability to distinguish between bad and good or right and wrong. Moral behaviour means behaviour which is in conformity with the moral code of the social group. It refers to the behaviour of the members of a given culture which have been accepted and should be followed.

5.2 Factors that Influence Moral Development Moral behaviour is developed through socio-culture conditioning. At birth, the child has no conscience or scale of values. Learning to behave in a socially approved manner is a slow process which extends into adolescence. Moral behaviour seems to arise from conception of morality which is based on a consideration for the feelings of other people. Changes in moral development come with increasing age. The ways in which people come to think, act, and feel morally depends partly on developmental changes in cognitive understanding, and thus moral development has a cognitive element. For the child to develop morally, he/she has to learn the expectations of the group in terms of certain laws and rules, the sense of right and wrong, the prescribed pattern of conduct, and the rules of social life. They have to develop a conscience, which is an internal standard which controls their behaviour. The child has also to develop a feeling of guilt and shame. Children learn moral behaviour by interacting with family members, peers, and the group at large. Schooling plays a significant role in moral development, since in school, the child learns new rules. According to Piaget, moral development is related to intellectual development.

In the initial years of life, the child’s social world is limited to the home where rules are as simple and as narrow as the setup. However, as the child grows and socializes, the world continues to expand to the neighbourhood, school, society, workplace, and so on. As the social universe expands, he/she has to acquire rules of social thought and action. Every social setting will have norms and ethics which a morally upright person should adhere to. But morality is

not just about adherence; obeying rules for fear of consequences is simply prudence, unlike morality which means internalizing the rules so as to adhere simply because the contrary is wrong.

Internalization of moral behaviour follows the principle of minimal sufficiency, which states that a child will strive to internalize due to sufficient pressure applied and at the same time feeling that he/she is not being forced to do so. Gradually, the individual learns even to become altruistic i.e. to do something for others even at some cost to himself/herself. Altruism leads us to become empathetic i.e. to have a direct emotional response to other people’s emotions. The factors that influence moral development can be summarized as follows: Socio-cultural conditioning: - through socialization, the child learns about behaviours i that are approved and those that are disapproved. ii

iv

Discipline: - This is the society’s way of teaching moral behaviour approved by the group. The goal of discipline is to mouldbehaviour so that it conforms to the roles prescribed by the cultural group. The nature of discipline determines the learning of moral behaviour. iii Punishment: - Punishment makes the person to avoid socially unacceptable behaviour. It helps the person to learn what is wrong and what is right. It motivates the individual to avoid punishable behaviour.

Rewards: - Reinforcement motivates the person to avoid punishable behaviours and to repeat acceptable ones. Rewards may be tangible or verbal.

v

Schooling: - This plays a key role in shaping children’s moral behaviours.

vi

Cognitive development: - According to Piaget, moral development is related to intellectual development.

5.3 Theories of Moral Development 5.4 Piaget’s Theory Theories of moral development attempt to find answers to moral issues and how children reason or respond to moral dilemmas and how their moral growth is stimulated. Piaget theorized that, the way humans think out moral issues depends on their level of cognitive development. There is a direct relationship between cognitive development and moral development.

Heteronymous morality According to Piaget young children are egocentric. That is to say, they have difficulty taking others’ perspective into consideration. This tendency is typical of children below the age of seven or in Piaget’s pre-operational stage of cognitive development. Children at this age

generally believe that rules are inflexible mandates provided by some higher authorities, are arbitrary and cannot be changed. Breaking a rule will automatically lead to punishment.

Young children tend to judge the gravity or wrongness of an action depending on how much harm has been made regardless of the motive or intention behind an action. For instance, a child who intentionally breaks 1 cup while trying to steal sugar is considered to have committed a lesser offence than another who breaks 15 cups accidentally while opening the cupboard door. Piaget called this kind of morality heteronomous morality or morality that is subject to rules imposed by others where a child shows blind obedience to authority. The child perceives justice as resting in the person of authority; this idea is referred to as ‘ethics of authority’. The period is also referred to as moral realism or the morality of constraint, characterized by the view that rules are absolute fixed.

Morality of co-operation After age eight (8) children are able to understand that rules are not absolute but are rather formed through social consensus and are thus subject to change. Thus, they are tentative. In the case of infraction or violation of a rule, older children are now capable of considering whether the individual acted intentionally. They consider the motive behind the action. Piaget referred to this stage as morality of co-operation - the level at which children understand that people both make up rules and can change the rules, which are now seen as a product of people’s agreements. This stage reflects the change to a social orientation, an ‘ethics of mutual respect’. Moral judgments shift from an objective to a subjective orientation: the primary concern is no longer simply the objective amount of damage caused by the immoral act, but the intention or motivation now becomes more important. Children now appreciate the reciprocity of relationships.

Moral Autonomy For Piaget, the highest stage of moral development, characteristic of adolescence, is moral autonomy. Dependent on the attainment of formal or abstract reasoning ability, moral autonomy commonly begins at puberty. In a game situation, like monopoly, chess - the adolescent reveals interest not only in the rules by which the game is played but also in possible new rules to make the game more interesting or more challenging.

Piaget Theory of moral development 5.5 Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Reasoning Lawrence Kohlberg advanced the theory that moral reasoning proceeds through a series of successive stages. There is a progression from a primitive morality guided by personal fear of punishment or desire to gain, through right or wrong defined by convention (what people will say), to internalized principles that have become one’s own. As it may seem, there is a tendency to think that Kohlberg’s stages can be correlated to age, but in fact that is not the case. Very few adults are of high morality level and Kohlberg quotes moral giants such as Mahatma Gandhi and Dr. Martin Luther King Junior.

In Kohlberg’s theory, are three levels of moral reasoning which are categorized into six stages.

Level 1: Preconventional Morality It is also known as premoral level. In this level children do not understand morality and they simply obey rules to avoid punishment and to obtain approval. Behaviour is under emotional control i.e. the child is obedience and punishment oriented.

Stage 1: Heteronomous Morality – The individual does what is right simply to avoid punishment. This is the most basic level of moral reasoning. Behaviour is controlled by its consequences i.e., punishment. For instance, a child who does homework so as not to be punished would be reasoning at this stage.

Stage 2: Instrumental Behaviour/Individualism – Here the individual’s adherence to rules is simply to gain a reward. The behaviour is egocentric since the individual thinks only of his/her gains, without considering others. An act is good if its outcome is to the advantage of the individual. The individual is inclined to exchange favors – “I will do this for you if you will

do that for me”. For instance a student who dresses smartly in order to win the school principal’s commendation.

Level 2: Conventional Morality The individual learns conventional rules and conformity, and that non conformity leads to social disapproval.

Stage 3: Mutual Interpersonal Expectations or the Good Boy Good Girl Morality– The individual will do what is expected so as to gain approval from others, or so as not to be disapproved by others. The individual tries to please those around him, seeking to be viewed as good. Moral decision is based on how the parents and peer group expects him to behave.

For instance an individual who will dress smartly so that others will comment positively.

Stage 4: Social Systems and Conscience or authority and Social Order – Here the person will act as expected simply because this is the code of law and order, that is, the rule states thus. Rules are defined by institutions of the society and obedience is viewed as a civic duty or obligation. Morality is based on respect for authority and social order. You obey to sustain the system. Moral thinking is based on the dictates of authority. Confronted by a moral choice the person, may say “because he is the president; “because the bible says so,’’ or “a rule is a rule.’’ Many people tend to stagnate at this level. For example, when in a dilemma they turn to the existing constitution to justify their actions.

Level 3: Postconventional or Principled Morality This level sets in during adolescence when persons accept the rules of society, but only because they accept some general principles underlying the rules. The personal principles take priority if rules of society are in conflict with such principles. Morality is based on self– accepted principles. The person becomes flexible and develops social standards to avoid selfcondemnation and blame.

Stage 5: Social Contract or Utility and Individual Rights – The behaviour of the individual in this case is defined by a social contract which is generally agreed upon for the common good. At this stage, the individual accepts majority rule but also works to change rules that he/she feels are unfair or unjust. Adolescents question oppressive rules and will demonstrate in secondary school unlike in primary school. Rules are seen as social contracts made for a purpose, and the purpose can change if need be. The essential obligation is the contract not the content of a specific rule. The will and welfare of the majority are extremely important.

There is less emphasis on conventional order and more emphasis on personal standards of social responsibility. The person may say “the end does not justify the means’’. This is the

kind of reasoning Jesus was using when He said that, if your donkey falls in a ditch on a Sabbath, you are not breaking the law to save it and that law was made to serve man and not man to serve the law.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principle – This is the highest level of moral reasoning in which the individual acts right, based on internalized abstract ethical principles that determine one’s own moral code. Moral reasoning is conscience and principle oriented, and individuals follow selfchosen ethical principles such as justice, equality, and freedom. The person has internalized principles which he/she thinks are universally valid, holds principles irrespective of whether they are laid down by authority or not. Some principles may demand deviation from conventional rules. One may feel morally obliged to disobey rules that violate certain universal principles. Very few people reach the last stage. Examples of people who attained this level are people such as Nelson Mandela, Martin King Luther Junior, and Mahatma Gandhi among other heroes.

Studies show that people move through the same stages of moral development in a sequential invariant manner. Kohlberg assessed the individual’s level of development by means of interview in which an individual answers questions about stories that pose a moral dilemma.

For example, one story is about a man (Heinz) who stole money to buy drugs for his cancer– stricken wife. He could not afford the drugs and could not watch his die. “Was the stealing a moral or an immoral act?’’ The moral stage of an individual would be determined by the kind of justification he provides for a moral decision in such situation. a) In the preconventional level, the person focus on the personal consequences of the behaviour by avoiding punishment and say the husband should not steal the drugs because he might get caught and put in jail. The stealing is wrong because if caught one will be punished or jailed. b) In the conventional level, the person will reason that the man should not steal because it is against the law. The action is wrong because it is against the law. c) In the postconventional level, the person may say that the man should not steal the drugs because if everyone took such actions, social order could break down. If you don’t steal the drugs your conscience will haunt you, and if you steal your conscience will suffer. The action can be justified by the fact that a life will be saved.

Moral statements that reflect premoral level decrease with age. Those at the conventional level increase until about age 13 and then stabilize. Statements that reflect the principled level appear to increase slowly after age 13.

Kohlberg Theory Criticism: The theory was based on interviews with men and it is said that it may not apply so well with women. Empirical evidence in some cases has failed to confirm the progress in the developmental stages. They have shown that people do not operate consistently at a particular level of moral development. However, the theory contributed to the understanding of moral development among human beings. Studies show that many people go through the stages in a predictable manner.

5.6 Summary •

Moral development may not depend on age, but it has influence from personality and intelligence.

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Morality in a human being proceeds from a point where it is determined by consequences to a point where moral principles are internalized and become part of an individual’s personality.

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The majority of people do not attain the third stage of moral development in Kohlberg’s theory.

•

Moral development is affected by other factors such as socialisation and cognitive development.

CHAPTER SIX ATTACHMENT THEORY 6.0 introduction We all know that the initial interaction is between parents and the child. Parents usher the child into the social world through interaction. Often maternal love and care have been described as the most important influences on an infant’s future development (Bowlby, 1973). However there are children who are very close to their parents while others remain “disconnected.” In this lecture, we are going to focus on the kinds of bonds that exist between a child and the parent.

6.1 Attachment Theories Before we focus on the actual theories, it may be necessary to define the term attachment. An attachment is a relatively enduring affectional bond between two people. A person who is attached to another uses him or her as a safe base, a source of comfort in times of crisis and for encouragement. Every child has an inborn need to attach himself to someone who can be a safe base, from which he or she can adapt to the environment. John Bowlby (1907-1990) came up with two theories of attachment; Parent to child attachment and child to parent attachment theories. We are now going to focus on each of these theories.

1) Parent to Child Attachment This is the bond that a parent forms towards the baby. The bond makes a parent develop a soft spot for the child. Bowlby argued that this attachment occurs in two stages.

Phase 1: Initial Bonding This is formed a few hours after the baby is born. The bond depends on what happens within the first hours after birth. The bond develops especially if the parents get an opportunity to have early contact wit h the baby. Indeed, the first hours have been found to be crucial for development of attachment between the mother and the baby. This period is critical for development of the attachment.

Normally, as the infant experiences the world out of the mother’s womb for the first time her or his alertness is very remarkable. The baby’s eyes are open and the infantis able to make eye contact in the first few hours. After some hours babies close their eyes in sleep and are unable to open them again for sometime. This could be attributed to the fact that as an infant gets into the world very tired. The new experience puts her or him on the alert. Mothers who are able to stay with their babies for long get more attached to them than those who do not. Initial bonding is believed to prevent later parenting problems because the parent love for the child is deeply rooted.

Phase II: Meshing of Attachment Behaviour Once a mother gives birth, she is on maternity leave from formal or any other type of employment. This gives mother sample opportunities to interact with their babies in the early months. From the early weeks, the two develop a co-relation attachment or patterns of attachment behaviour.

The baby communicates his needs to the mother or caregiver through crying or smiling. In reciprocation, the caregiver soothes or caresses the baby. Activities that follow a certain signal are usually very important. Such activities may involve, picking the baby and carefully studying the signals in order to appropriately meet his needs. During this period caregivers normally switch to baby play while interacting with them. Baby play involves, changing the voice tone, smiling, blinking, opening eyes wide and such like activities.

Not all adults that interact with the baby become attached to them. There are occasions when one performs the routine requirements but not develop attachment with the baby. For attachment to develop there must be some feelings of affection. Mutual reciprocation in interaction promotes development on affection.

According to Hellen Bee (1997), the parent and child are involved in a kind of a “dance” In this dance, each of the participants learns to respond to the other’s actions. To be able to perform well, the two need to engage in frequent rehearsals. As they perform, the smoother the dance, the stronger the attachment becomes.

From Bee’s view, it is very hard for a person who has not been involved in such rehearsals to have mutual interaction with the baby. In case of discontinuity which could be caused by any form of separation, whoever steps in to take care of the child is not able to function within the set traditions. Such children as well as the substitute caregiver are thus likely to experience some discomfort in their interaction.

Paternal Attachment Since parents include fathers and mothers it is necessary for us to think about attachment of fathers with their child. Usually interaction between the fathers and their children is the same way as that of the mother if they are available.

The interaction patterns and formation of attachment between the father and the baby are mainly influenced by the father’s behaviour. Normally fathers have too high expectations from the new born and are dissatisfied with the undeveloped capabilities. This often negatively affects development of attachment. For development of attachment with their children, Fike(1993) says that fathers should consider the following points: i)

Understanding the importance of having positive expectations as they interact with their infants.

2)

ii)

Having positive attitudes towards the baby for strong relationship to develop

iii)

Communicating with infants in approval.

iv)

Appreciating the importance of holding, handling and playing with them.

v)

Getting involved in the babies’ daily routine.

vi)

Being aware of their infants’ development.

Child to Parent Attachment

This focuses on the relatively enduring affectionate feelings that a child develops towards the caregiver. The baby does not necessarily develop attachment towards the biological parents but to the most “loving” caregiver. This solely depends on the babies’ assessment of the closeness portrayed by the caregiver. Bowlby established four stages of child to parent attachment.

Phase I:Pre-initial attachment: Indiscriminate responsiveness (Birth -3months)

Have you ever noticed how calm and accepting a baby at this stage is? Some people usually misconceive this behaviour as a sign of the baby’s goodness. But the fact is; at this stage, the baby has not developed attachment whatsoever. This means that the baby shows no preference to anybody. However, a baby’s eyes follow the people around. During this period a baby may be handled by anybody without any resistance Phase II: Attachment in the Making (3-6 months) The baby has now gained ability to recognize some faces. He or she focuses on familiar people.

He shows some liking for them as compared to strangers but is not really attached to a single person.At the end of this stage, a principal attachment figure begins to emerge. This is often the mother if she has been around the baby.

Phase III (6 -21 months): Active Proximity Seeking (Clear-cut attachment) At this period, the child is attached to a single caregiver. At this time the child gradually acquires motor ability and can thus move towards the preferred person for closer interaction. During this period the aspect of object permanence emerges. This enablesa child to know that, the mother or the caregiver is somewhere even when he or she is out of sight.

You may have observed the behaviour of a young child when there is a loud thunderstorm. Did you notice the person to whom the child clung? Whoever it was, that was the child’s best preferred person. Although some children get attached to many peoplethey basically depend on the most preferred one during in time of crisis.

At around 10 months, the aspect so social referencing becomes apparent. A child uses the attachment figure, to know how to respond in new situations. For example, if a stranger gets in, a child watches the attachment figure to know whether to respond with a smile or a cry. If the attachment figure smiles at the stranger, the child is likely to behave in a similar manner. This shows that the person a child is attached to is the most articulate usher of the child into the world.

In the absence of the attachment figure, children use other familiar adults as their reference persons.

At 10 months, two predictable anxieties appear. These include separation anxiety and fear of strangers. Babies show separation protestand fear of strangers that steadily increase with age.

Due to the anxieties babies usually protest when their preferred persons leave. They also show vehement protest when an unfamiliar person approaches them. At around sixteen (16) months the anxieties drop steeply.

Although almost all babies show the anxieties the degrees vary. There are some children who show little or no protest or fear at all. These individual differences could be attributed to temperamental aspects such as approach versus withdrawal. Differences could also be associated with the degree of the family stability. For instance if there are drastic changes that take place in the family, a child may be markedly affected by the anxieties.

Phases IV Partnership Behaviour/ Multiple Attachment (3 years onwards) This is the beginning of pre-school years. The child gets autonomy from the initial caregiver and gains ability to communicate and interact freely with other children. The attachment figures expand to include siblings, extended family members, frequent visitors and friends. All these are used as reference personsat this stage.However, the initial attachment figure still remains important. The child uses the attachment figure as a source of security. Children often use the photograph of the attachment figure as a source of security when the person is absent.

At this stage, children interact with others in the community but those who feel insecure remain significantly attached to the attachment figure even at four years. Such children may awkwardly cling to their caregivers, cry and cause disruptionat school. For some, the behaviour persists for a long time.

At adolescence individuals become more peer-oriented and their interactions are mainly within the peer group. This does not indicate that the adolescent does not need the parents. It may be important to point out that adolescents depend on peers for opinions but they still need their parents’ support. Surprisingly, many adolescents seek for comfort from their parents as opposed to peers, when they encounter crisis.

Patterns of Attachment

Mary Ainsworth

(1963)came up with three main patterns of attachment. Later, another

researcher, Mary Main established a fourth pattern. The styles of attachment are based on children’s understanding of their caregivers’ reliability as sources of security. The four attachment styles are as follows: i)

Secure Attachment

The babies in this category view their attachment figures as reliable. The babies cry or protest when the mother leaves and greet her with pleasure on her return.Such babies use the mother as a secure base from which they explore the environment. A baby in this category may go out and occasionally come back to the mother for reassurance. These securely attached babies are cooperative and are not likely to show bitterness. ii)

Avoidance Attachment

These babies seem not to care whether or not their caregivers are present or absent. Babies in this category, show minimal, if any distress when their mother leaves. They also avoid her when she returns. These babies explore the environment without seeking for security from the mother. In addition, the babies show bitterness and do not reach out for help in time of need.A baby in this category may resist being held.

This attachment pattern is associated with lack of adequate emotional support from the attachment figure. The child learns to work out her or his way though with bitterness. iii) Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment The babies have an exaggerated expression of attachment need. They fear that the mother may leave even when there are no signs of leaving. Such babies become very upset when the mother goes out. On her return, the babies seek contact with the mother, but at the same time show resistance. They often get into tantrums. Such babies are difficult to comfort and hardly engage in exploration.

The style is associated with parents’ inconsistency in providing emotional care. This makes the baby keep on doubting what to expect thus creating habitual anxiety.

iv) Disorganized – disoriented Attachment This category was identified by Mary Main. Babies in this category are inconsistent in their attachment behaviour. That is they lack organized patterns of arousal. They display behaviours such greeting the caregiver with happiness when she returns but show no more interest in her.

When in distress they approach the caregiver with strange postures. Such babies seem confused and are timid or fearful.

This is the most insecure pattern of attachment. It is associated with bitter experiences such as maltreatment or severe loss.

Bowlby’s Theory 4.4

Characteristics of Children With Secure Attachments: 1. They are sociable in pre-schools. These children enjoy interacting with others 2. They have high self-esteem. They know they are valued and this promotes a feeling of self worth.

3. They have confidence in others and can trust the environment. This is prompted by their caregivers responses to their needs 4. They are resourceful and their minds are clear and fixed. This could be attributed to the fact that they are not likely to experience emotional hang-ups.

5. They are independent. These children can work on their own since they are confident.

6. They are not aggressive. Since their caregivers have been positive, they learn to be positive.

7. They are easy to manage. This is a characteristics of individuals who are not bitter.

8. They have ability to empathize with others. Through the responses of their caregivers, these children learn to respond to others’ signs of distress.

9. They have longer attention span.

10. They are likely to behave maturely

4.5

Factors That Hamper Parent to Child Attachment

Attachment between parents and their babies does not develop in a vacuum. Sometimes parents fail to develop an affectional bond with their children. This may be as a result of some of the following factors: 1. Absence of the parent: when the parent is not available due to other commitments 2. Divorce and single-parenthood: the child lives with one parent 3. Abandonment: the child depends on well- wishers 4. Severe poverty : this may preoccupy the parent, leaving no ‘space’ for the child 5. Death: when a parent is naturally absent in a baby’s life 6. Cultural beliefs: when culture requires the parent to be away from the baby 7. National instability: this often causes families’ disintegration.

8. Children impairment: the child may not be able to reciprocate in interaction overtures 9. Domestic violence: this may stress the parents 10. Health problems of the parent: when a parent is too incapacitated to interact with the child 11. Background of the parent: some parents were treated with hostility as children and do not know of any other way of relating with children.

12. Psychological problems: emotional instability and depression inhibit normal interaction 13. Drug Abuse: a parent may be too addicted to interact with the child 14. Sex preference: some parents ignore babies of the ‘unwanted sex.’

15. The parenting style or temperament: there are parents who by philosophy or nature are self centred.

16. The number of siblings: this depends on how parents’ attention is divided.

Reactive Attachment Disorder

There are situations in which a child lacks emotional bond with anybody. Such a situation is referred to as reactive attachment disorder. A child who experiences this in early childhood fails to acquire ability to interact normally with others. Such a child may experience severe emotional and social problems that persist into adulthood. As we have said earlier, bonding is a necessary aspect in a baby's growth and it develops as the infant is nurtured, consistently. When this process is interfered with, an infant may never learn how to trust the world or get involved in warm relationship.

In addition to the factors that hamper development of attachment, reactive attachment disorder is often caused by some form of early childhood abuse. The condition may occur due to neglected basic physical and emotional needs during the early stages of life. Frequent changes of the principal caregiver could also spark off the disorder. This is particularly common among young children reared in an orphanage, where caregivers turnover is high.

Characteristics of Reactive Attachment Disorder Victims The disorder is suspected if an infant fails to show signs of bonding to a caregiver by the age of eight months. Children with reactive attachment display a number of developmentally inappropriate behaviours before they are five years. Generally; 

They avoid the caregiver

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They hardly smile

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They avoid any physical contact such as touching or shaking hands

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They resist social interaction and prefer staying alone and are passive

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They are difficult to comfort

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They relate to strangers in the same way they do with familiar persons.

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They are often unaware of the surrounding social environment or on the other extreme may be too aware and nervous.

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They lack empathy for others

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They often display destructive or cruel behavior and rarely learn from mistakes

CHAPTER SEVEN ALBERT BANDURA SOCIO-COGNITIVE THEORY

7.0 Introduction The socio-cognitive theory is a learning theory that posits that people learn by watching what others do. It emphasizes that, if people are motivated to learn a particular behaviour, they could do so through clear observation.According to Albert Bandura people acquire complex behaviour through modeling. He explains behaviour in terms of a person's interactions with the environment (either external or internal). Bandura stressed drat behaviour, cognition and the environment mutually influence each other, a process lie called reciprocal determination. For example, the children's television watching habits (past environment) influences their interest or preferences (cognition or personal factor), which in turn determines the channel they select (behaviour).

7.1 Socio-Cognitive Theory The following are ways in which people interact with environment; 1. Different people prefer different environments. They will make different choice on, for example, the school to attend, the television programme to watch, the music to listen to and the friends to associate with. These environments shape the individual’s personality.

2. Different people respond to the environment differently. For example, anxious people are easily distracted. They perceive the world as more threatening and read more anxiously than individuals who are non-anxious.

3. The way people perceive and treat other people influences how they, in turn, treat them. For example, if we are angry at people, they in turn became angry at us. People with easy-going temperaments attract and enjoy close and supportive friendship with others than difficult individuals.

In the development of personality, a person is influenced by two factors. These are: 1. Observational learning. This is the ability to learn complex behaviour horn watching and imitating others.

2. Self-regulation also known as self-efficacy. This involves the ability of individuals to exercise influence over their own behaviour. If involves the thought process because individuals must believe and think how to perform a given behaviour.

7.2 Observational learning process The following are the bun components of observational learning tire: 1. The attentional process. This is perceiving and paying clout attention to the model's actions. This involves accurately observing the model in order to imitate.

2. Retention process. This involves recalling and remembering the model and its actions over a long period of time. It involves two processes of mental representation/coding of the model's actions and behaviour: These are imagery coding (representing images of the

model's actions in the mind) and verbal coding (representing the model's actions or images in form of language or verbal representations in. the mind).

3. Motor-reproduction process. This is the ability to reproduce or re-do the actions of the model. It involves translating the memory or what has been represented in our minds, into actions or behaviour. For example, walking, talking and behaving like the model.

4. Motivational process. These are driving forces towards performing an action that is observed. It includes the incentives or motivational factors. For example, comedians imitate certain people because their audiences are amused or because they get money. Young children write letters the same way their teachers do because they are given reinforcement, usually rewards or incentives such as sweets or stars drawn on their faces and hands.Note: every stage of the observational learning process requires motivation for the process to be sustained.

Albert Bandura theory 7.3 Application of the Socio-Cognitive Theory 1. Adults and other caregivers should avail themselves as appropriate models for children to imitate because children internalize the behaviour of the people they like and value.

2. The environment that children are exposed to should be one that offers children good learning experiences. For example, adults should help the children choose appropriate friends and individuals to socialize with.

3. Since television has the potential of inculcating aggression in children, appropriate programmes should be chosen so drat die children learn only desirable behaviors’.

4. Since children are active and inquisitive about everything and anything they come into contact with, parents, teachers and caregivers should respond appropriately to the children’s questions without restrictions. They should help the children feel encouraged and accepted.

5. Children should be trained to take charge of their actions, evaluate the outcome of their behaviors’ and the consequences of their actions on themselves and others in their environment.

7.4 References

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5. Bandura, A. & Walters, R. (1963). Social Learning and Personality Development.

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