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Name: Aishwarya Khanna Date: 26/10/21 Course: MA Architecture and Urbanism Details: 20060261

W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T COMPARISON OF URBAN SCALE WATER MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES IN VARIOUS C I T I E S TO A N A LY S E VA R I O U S SOLUTIONS FOR DELHI

CONTENTS CHAPTER 1 Water Cycle over the World and Water Shortage

Page no. 6

CHAPTER 2 The Centralisation of Cities: Bacteriological Cities

Page no. 11

CHAPTER 3 How hydrology and Water Management affects the Urbanisation

Page no. 12

CHAPTER 4 Ganges and Yamuna Doab History

Page no.18

CHAPTER 5 Government Policies in Delhi Groundwater in Delhi Rainwater Harvesting in Three Urban Villages of Delhi

Page no. 21

CHAPTER 6 Yamuna River and the Development around it Evolution of the city Yamuna Riverfront Development and integration in surrounding area

Page no. 26

CHAPTER 7 Small scale and Large - Scale Projects Small Scale Projects

Page no.32

Contents Page

Lodz, Poland (Blue-Green Network) 2

Contents Page

Page No. Seeping Boundaries : Informal Infrastructures of Dirt, Demolition and Sewage in the West Bank 36 Turenscape , Shanghai, Houtan Park 37 Whitney Water Purification Facility + Park (Connecticut, USA) 38 Large Scale Projects Wash : Urban Hydrological Networks for Resilient Cultural Ecologies (Stormwater and Greywater) 40 41 Winton Wetland Restoration (Cultural Aspect)

Bronx Blue Terminal, New York Turenscape , Shanghai, Houtan Park Water Core Home Portland, Oregon, USA Turenscape Stormwater Park, Harbin, China Reconstructing the Void: Owens Lake (Historical Precedent) Dendritic Zoning, New Jersey CHAPTER 8 The Conclusion (Inferences and Analysis from Small-Scale and Large-Scale Projects

42 43 49 50 52 53

Page no. 54 and 55

LIU DD – L OW IM P ACT DE VE L OP M E NT (THIS TE IN 1 9 7 7 IN USA FOR M ANAGING OF STO S U DS - SUSTAI N AB L E SYSTE M S (THIS TE R ADOP TE D IN 1 9 8 KINGDOM FOR M ANAG

UR BAN DE SIGN RM W AS COINE D SUSTAI NA BL E RM W AT E R)

URBAN DRAINAGE M INOL OG Y W AS 0 S IN UNITE D ING STORM W AT E R)

B MP- BE ST M ANAGE M E NT P R ACTICE S (THIS TE RM INOL O GY W AS ADOP TE D IN E UROP E FOR M ANAGING W ASTE W ATE R ) WS U D- W ATE R SE NSITI VE URBAN DE SIGN (THIS TE RM INOL O GY W AS ADOP TE D IN 1 9 9 0 S IN AUSTRAL I A FOR INTE GRAT I NG SUSTAIN A BL E W ATE R M ANAGE M E NT AND DE CE NTRAL I SE D STOR M W AT E R M ANAGE M E NT) GI- GR E E N INFR ASTR U C T UR E (THIS TE RM INOL OGY W AS ADOP TE D IN 1 9 9 0 S IN USA)- THE P RIM ARY GOAL W AS TO INTE GR ATE GR E E N INFRASTR U C T UR E BY ADOP TING RAINW ATE R HARVE STI NG TE CHNIQ UE S , ROOFTOP COL L E CTI ON SYSTE M S AND GRE E N ROOFS.

DIFFE R E NT STR ATE G IE S AR E UND E R TA K E N IN A LL TH E COUNTR IE S FOR MANAG ING WATE R . DE LH I H AS A H OT A N D H U MI D CL I MAT E , A N D I T I S D E VE LOPING B LUE AND G R E E N INFRASTRUCTURE WITH THE STR ATE GY OF INTE G R ATE D UR BAN WATE R MANAG E ME NT PR INCIPLE S. INTE G R ATE D UR BAN WATE R MANAGEMENT IS ABOUT CONSIDE R ING ALL TYPE S OF WATE R G R OUNDWATE R , R AINWATE R , AND G R E YWATE R . SINCE ANCIE NT TIME S, TH E TE R MS H AVE BE E N USE D D IFFE R E NTLY ACR OSS TH E COUNTR IE S FOR MANAG ING WATE R .

OBJECTIVE:

AIM:

ANAL YSING M ACRO SCAL E OF W ATE R M ANAGE M E NT .

M INI

SCAL E

LEARNING THROUGH DIFFERENT MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES UN DERTAKEN ACROSS THE G L O B E , A N D D E L H I , A N A N A LY S I S C A N BE FORMED ON OVERCOMING THE WAT ER S T RES S ED REG I ON S .

C H A P T E R 1 : W AT E R C Y C L E O V E R T H E W O R L D A N D W AT E R S H O R TA G E

CHAPTER 1: WATER CYCLE OVER THE WORLD AND WATER SHORTAGE •

Lomborg (2001) predicted, “Global water crisis will be the major issue of the twenty-first century”. The same is being observed as well in the current times with too much extraction of groundwater. In the past, there have been many infrastructure developments favoured by policy makers rather than providing to the demand of the community (Larbi Bouguerra, 2006).

–Et.

Precipitation.

Evapotranspiration.

± S. =

Changes in storage.

Figure 1: The influence of development on slope hydrology, indicating the role of urbanisation and agriculture

Discharge in stream

Figure 2: ‘Blue’ and ‘green’ water partitioned in the land phase of the hydrological cycle (a) as a global balance and (b) as management domains,

With the current global trends of extracting freshwater 4000 km 3yr-1 and just 2000 km 3yr-1 of consumption, the rivers are drying up which raises the concern for the oceans (Smakhtin et al., 2004; CA, 2007). From the social and ecological perspective, the blue water depletion through rivers, lakes and groundwater created a challenging situation. This is highly going to affect the production of crops. For preserving resources and to balance economy, we need to focus on green water to manage runoff.

Figure 3: The global hydrological cycle with volume in thousands of cubic kilometers

Groundwater is often neglected which is prominent for water supply, (Newson, Malcolm, (2009) Land, Water and Development Sustainable and adaptive management of rivers, Routledge ). It is much needed in the semi-arid and humid tropics, and for surface ecosystems, biodiversity. It also affects infrastructure such as mining, engineering, construction, and waste disposal. Moreover, ‘acidification’ is an environmental concern happening in the oceans because of increased concentrations of carbon dioxide.The developed nations are great investors in water. USA, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand have developed the river basins but still there is lack of consideration of sustainability aspect. The technical management requires inputs of science. The climate emergency has made it crucial for focussing on scientific and social aspects for better management of river basins.

3240 km³ water is used annually on a global scale. The major usage of water in Asia is done for agricultural purposes accounting to 69%, while in 8 Europe and North America, it is done for municipal and industrial sectors accounting to 23% and 8% respectively. The usage isincreasing day by day

GE OGRAP HI CA L L Y , INDIA IS IN THE NORTHE RN HE M ISP HE RE HAVING A L ONG COASTL IN E AND HAS A RANGE OF M OUNTAI NS , P L ATE AUS, P L AINS, AND RIVE RS. THE M OUNTAIN S ARE THE M AIN SOUR CE OF W ATE R W ITH SNOW AND GL ACIE R M E L T. W ITH M OUNTAIN S IN THE NORTH AND P L ATE AUS AND OCE ANS IN THE SOUTH, INDIA HAS AN E XTE NSI VE CL IM ATE .W H IL E THE RAINFAL L VARIE S FROM 0 M M TO 1 1 ,0 0 0 M M P E R ANNUM FR OM R E GION TO R E GION IN THE M ONTHS OF JANUARY AND JUL Y (TABL E 1 ), THE AVE RAGE TE M P E RATURE VAR IE S FR OM 4 7 °C TO -4 0 °C IN SUM M E RS AND W INTE RS. T HE ANNUAL RAINFAL L IS AROUND 4 0 0 0 KM ³. SE ASONAL R AINFAL L IS AR OUND 3 0 0 0 KM ³. SOUTH-W E S T AND NORTH-E A S T M ONSOONS, CYCL ONIC DE P RE SSION S AND W E STE R N DISTUR B AN CE S CAUSE S R AINFAL L IN INDIA.T HE SCAR CIT Y OF FRE SHW ATE R IS INCRE ASIN G DAY BY DAY DUE TO INCRE ASIN G P OP UL ATION . FOR INDUSTR IAL P URP OSE S, THE W ATE R DE M AND P E R CAP ITA FOR 2 0 2 5 IS 2 4 M 3 /YE AR /P E R SON (CHAR L E S A. JONE S).

Table1: Annual rainfall over India

The annual rainfall is around 4000 km³. Seasonal rainfall is around 3000km³. South-West and North-East monsoons, cyclonic depressions and western disturbances causes rainfall in India. The scarcity of freshwater is increasing day by day due to increasing population. For industrial purposes, the water demand per capita for 2025 is 24m3/year/person (Charles A. Jones). The prediction of Indian population is of 613 million people for the year 2050. The water demand can only be controlled by creating water efficient technologies and water storage reservoirs that conserve water during monsoons. The water supply is decreasing because of the water pollution and expansion of cities vertically or horizontally. The vertical expansion of a city or a space, for instance, a housing, requires development on a concentrated scale, which can be done by creating tanks or systems whereas in horizontal growth, several equipment and formation of water channels is required to supply water. In some cities, the freshwater supply is not available the entire day. For instance, Chennai receives water in Northeast monsoon, i.e., for two to three months in a year. To ensure good urban working; water bodies, resources, pollution control, treatment of industrial and human wastes and recycling of wastewater are certain measures that can be adopted.

613 million population vs 24 cubic metre of water required per person

C H A P T E R 2 T H E C E N T R A L I S A T O F C I T I E S B A C T E R I O L O G I C A L C I T I E S

: I O N – -

R IVE R S AR E THE M AIN SOUR CE OF W ATE R IN AL L THE CITIE S . THE M ANAGING OF W ATE R RE QUIRE S E FFOR T FR OM M UNICIP AL DE P AR TM E NTS , P OL ITICI AN S , URBANIS TS , AR CHITE C T S, E NGINE E RS AND P L ANNE R S .

THE M ANAGING AL SO NE E DS TO BE AS HYGIE NIC AS IT COUL D BE , BUT THIS IS COINE D AS ‘BACTE RIO L O G I CA L CITY’ (M ATTHE W GANDY). IT INVOL VE S UNDE RSTA ND I NG OF SCIE NCE AND TE CHNOL OG Y W ITH THE ADM INISTR A T IV E BODIE S. 1 9 TH CE NTURY M ARKE D A M AJOR RISE IN W ATE R-BOR NE DISE ASE S SUCH AS TYP HOID AND CHOL E RA. VARIOUS STRATE GI E S W E RE IM P L E M E NTE D BY GOVE R NM E NT S TO COL L E CT DATA AND FOR M AN ANAL YSIS TO P RE VE NT SP RE ADING OF SUCH DISE ASE S . (M CDOWE L L , SE TH (2 0 1 8 ), WATE R IN DE X: DE SIGN STR ATE GIE S FOR DR OUGHT, FL OODIN G AN D CON TAM IN A T ION ,UV A SOA )ANOTHE R AP P ROACH UNDE RTAKE N W AS IM P L E M E NTIN G CE NTRAL I SE D W ATE R SUP P L Y SYSTE M S. P RIVATE COM P ANIE S W ITH THE IR P RIVATE L ANDS DIDN’T SHARE W ATE R SUP P L Y SE R VICE S . L OS ANGE L E S AND NE W OR L E ANS E XP E RIE NCE D A DE CL INE IN P RIVATE L Y OW NE D L ANDS AND AL L OW E D M UNICIP AL SE RVICE S TO TAKE OVE R THE CONTROL FOR M ANAGING W ATE R SUP P L Y. BACTE RIO L O G I CA L CITY DE M ANDE D A DE VE L OP M E NT OF UR BAN GOVE RNM E NT TO RE SOL VE TE CHNI CAL M ATTE RS. THE CONSTAN T CHANGE S HAP P E NING FOR M AINTAIN I NG HYGIE NE , HE AL TH AND CL E ANL INE S S CHANGE D THE CUL TUR AL AND R E GIONAL IDE NTITY IN M ANY AR E AS. THE P UBL IC P R ACTICE S L IKE W ASHING W E RE P RIVATISE D AND THE P UBL IC DE M AND L IKE W ATE R SUP P L Y W AS INTE RTW I NE D INTO A SINGL E NE TW OR K OF CE NTRAL I SE D AND M UNICIP AL L Y CONTR OL L E D M E TR OP OL IT AN FOR M . THE CAP ITAL INVE STM E N T S BY P RIVATE COM P ANIE S HAVE RE DE SIGNE D THE L ANDSCAP I NG BY DISCARDI NG THE HOM OGE NE OU S L ANDSCAP E S . THIS HASN`T BE E N OBSE RVE D IN INDIA. THE TE CHNOCR A T I C E VOL UTION AR Y CITY DE VE L OP E D IN 2 0 TH CE NTURY DE VE L OP E D AS A M E TROP OL IT AN URBAN FORM .

C H A P T E R 3 : H O W H Y D R O L O G Y A N D W AT E R M A N A G E M E N T A F F E C T S T H E U R B A N I S AT I O N

CHAPTER 3: HOW HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT AFFECTS THE URBANISATION I N T E R N A L

1. Inertia 2. Technical, financial and managerial resources for implementation 3. Leadership of the organisation 4. Organisational or personnel changes

E X T E R N A L

1. 2. 3. 4.

Environmental or economic regulatory approvals Liability issues Information to stakeholders Implementation of the strategy.

Long-term contracts are effective method for capital improvements of the city. Privatisation of water supply in the past has benefitted many cities in terms of wage benefits to employees. AD-HOC RESTRICTIONS:- Absence of a management program. Example- Classical municipal prohibitions of lawn and garden, watering and car washing during times of shortage or restrictions on agricultural or industrial use in times of drought. WATER CHARGES:- Fee α Amount of water used to induce conservation. SUBSIDIES:- Control water pollution and giving subsidy to users for saving or recycling it WATER USE PERMITS:- Volumetric Flow Rate The permits can be of three basis:- constant use, prioritised and flexible.

Calculating water quantity according to population Mathematics is an important subject. While predicted is a dependent variable and influential is an independent variable. Mean Water –Y-Customers – N Standard error – y-Sample size – n Probability - α Relative error – r Normal deviation – t Population variance – S Absolute error in calculation – d Mean of standard error= Square root of the difference of no. Of customers and the sample size / no. Of customers ) x Population variance / square root of sample size

(Population variance)2 = Summation of sample size x square of difference of standard error/sample size—1 Probability condition or denoted by α is calculated by multiplying relative error to the difference of mean water and standard error/mean water ≥ relative error Absolute error is the difference of mean of population variance and sample size such as no. Of plants. For instance, there are 500 industries in 20 states with 50 plants each. Similarly, true population mean can be calculated where True population mean is calculated by the difference of mean water and standard error/mean water ≥ absolute error

CHAPTER 3: HOW HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT AFFECTS THE URBANISATION Calculating water quantity according to population Mathematics is an important subject. While predicted is a dependent variable and influential is an independent variable. Mean Water –Y-Customers – N Standard error – y-Sample size – n Probability - α Relative error – r Normal deviation – t Population variance – S Absolute error in calculation – d

The product of mean water and relative error gives the value of product of standard error and normal deviation = normal deviation x square root of difference of no. Of customers-sample size/no. Of customers multiplied by population variance/ square root of sample size.

For instance, population variance is 180 gallons and average water usage is 250 gallons per litre per day and the no. Of customers are 80,000. 95% of water is predicted to be used, so the confidence value denoted by n 0 Equals to 4956.

Sp denotes annual percentage use and Mp denotes minimum monthly percentage use. Sp = 100 - (Mp . 12 ) These are calculated by odd and even seasonal months. Qn = Billed water use q n = Average water use An = No. Of accounts billed

The sample size can also be calculated by multiplying the square of (normal deviation to population variance/Mean water) / the square of (normal deviation to population variance/Mean water) multiplied by percentage of no. Of customers + 1 The true value or confidence value is calculated by the formula of the square of (normal deviation x population variance/relative error multiplied by mean of water.

CHAPTER 3: HOW HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT AFFECTS THE URBANISATION The development in the developing nation occurs in a local neighbourhood such as intelligent systems or high-resolution remote sensing systems in the buildings. Sustainable management practices and sewage treatment infrastructures transports the water to different urban areas. According to Weeks (2010), the way to think about urbanisation is incorporating various disciplines such as economy, population, social and built environment. Simplified drainage structures are formed by constructing roads in which these run underground and transport water easily. To avoid accumulation of surface water, the road is raised. Very often, the land is cleared to form new cities from the scratch. For instance, Lanzhou, New Area in China. Green urban spaces help in keeping the air purified, reducing carbon footprint, encourages socialising and hence developing an ecosystem. While doing construction over these spaces, the soil mixes with the natural soil and this creates difficulty for easy percolation and runoff. This creates an impact on the surroundings of the building by forming pavements and associated infrastructure with it along with the services. The hydrology of green spaces can be determined by the porous nature and the sub surface transfer capacity. The materials of the building also affect the transpiration and water cycle. Urban Heat Island ef fect is noticed in the areas where the buildings or spaces have many heat absorbing materials, materials that produce heat and areas with no green spaces. This affects the rainfall pattern in that zone. China experienced rainfall during the dry season at its southern side because of increased concentration of aerosols that contribute to atmospheric cooling. The materials play a significant role as well. If glass is used for a façade of a building, the runoff occurs easily. The buildings with brick or concrete materials have load bearing or cavity walls that causes the water to percolate through the pores of these materials and enter the building. Similarly, the materials used on rooftops also affect the rainwater harvesting runoff. Not only that but it’s size and pitch pose adverse impacts too on rainwater harvesting. The general pattern followed for all the rainwater harvesting techniques is that the runoff goes into drains through gutters. The housing sectors have started adopting sustainable rainwater harvesting management strategies to conserve water and help understand the importance of water to the future generations. The driveways have become the next alternative to rain gardens as the water percolates easily from one sub surface to another. This being practiced in whole of the neighbourhood causes the water to accumulate and reduces the rate of evapotranspiration as well. So, the maintenance or the security of the vehicles is prioritized over the maintenance of gardens. With decrease in evapotranspiration, the chances of flooding increase.

WATER MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS AD-HOC RESTRICTIONS:- Absence of a management program. Example- Classical municipal prohibitions of lawn and garden, watering and car washing during times of shortage or restrictions on agricultural or industrial use in times of drought. WATER CHARGES:- Fee α Amount of water used to induce conservation.

SUBSIDIES:- Control water pollution and giving subsidy to users for saving or recycling it WATER USE PERMITS:- Volumetric Flow Rate The permits can be of three basis:- constant use, prioritised and flexible.

CHAPTER 3: HOW HYDROLOGY AND WATER MANAGEMENT AFFECTS THE URBANISATION Varied materials have different water behaviour observed. The water infiltrates through pores or the joints in the case of bricks. Asphalt and bitumen, which are used in driveways, experience evaporative losses. Permeable paving, bio filtering sealed, planting trees is a widespread practice observed over the housing sector. According to a study, 1% increase in built environment of the urban space sums up to 100% increment in runoff. The subsurface flow entirely depends upon the area of the built space and its longevity. More extraction of groundwater depletes the water table and deteriorates the self-cleansing capacity of the groundwater. 25% of the world’s population has no access to clean drinking water. The authorities should work on tracking the contaminants and treating them. Heavy rainfall often erodes soil and causes landslides. Overuse of groundwater produces large cavities beneath the surface. This should be catered by proper planning of landscape and groundwater management. Point and non-point source pollutants contaminate the water changing its chemical composition and carrying it to distant locations. The effluents from industries should be treated before discharging the water into streams to maintain the sanitation and avoid disrupting the aquatic life. Networks of Sustainable Urban Drainage Systems are being implemented in many cities by National and international authorities to make use of greywater from the households. This system has been implemented in North America, Europe, and Australia, but not in the developing nations. Many developed cities still rely on pumping water from the ground, with no proper planning of sewage systems. Rooftop rainwater harvesting techniques along with the green spaces help in keeping the building cool by lowering its roof temperature, increases stormwater management. Trees infiltrate water into the surface, but the limitation is that these might grow with roots affecting the paving and urban infrastructure as well. The retention basins in the ground of major urban developments such as industries or housing, helps in treating stormwater. These collect the impurities or the sediments and contaminants. This strategy helps in effective functioning of urban spaces and maintaining biodiversity. Retention ponds and wetlands are maintained regularly to reduce the hydraulic residence time (HRT) which helps in reduction of retaining water. Bioretention systems, mostly used in United States, comprise of buffer spaces, sand filter beds, grass, impoundment areas. Infiltration systems are filled with sediments to filter water naturally and recharge and replenish water. Information Communications Technology and GIS (Geographical Information Systems) are some of the techniques which can help manage and track the treatment of wastewater.

POTENTIAL THIRD PARTIES TO WATER TRANSFER URBAN:- Downstream urban uses Landscaping firms and employees Retailers of lawn and garden supplies RURAL:- Farm workers Farm service companies and employees Rural retailers and service providers Downstream farmers Local governments

ENVIRONMENTAL Fish and Wildlife habitat Those affected by potential land subsidence, overdraft and well interference Those affected by potential groundwater quality deterioriation. GENERAL Taxpayers Third Party Involvement Can affect the farming region of a city

G R O U N D W A T E R T A B L E N I T RI T E I S ON E OF T H E M E T AL S W H I C H I S T H E M AI N P O L L U T AN T T H AT C AU S E S P O L L U T I O N I N T H E S E W AGE AN D I S H I GH L Y D AN GE R OU S F OR AQ U AT I C L I F E . AL T H OU GH , N I T R I T E C ON C E N T R AT I ON I S GOOD F OR P L AN T S . A B AL AN C E D AM O U N T O F M E T AL C O N C E N T R AT I O N I N T H E W AT E R I S B E N E F I C I AL F OR H U M AN B O D I E S AN D F O R N U T R I E N T S T H AT S E T T L E D OW N I N S OI L AN D T H E N AF F E C T T H E P L AN T S .

CL E ANING OR TRE ATING GR OUNDW ATE R IS M OR E DIFFIC UL T THAN SURFACE W ATE R . M AJOR CAUSE S OF CONTAM IN A TE D GR OUNDW A TE R AR E THE HUM AN ACTIVI TI E S , AFFL UE NT S FR OM INDUSTR IE S AND FACTOR IE S, M INING, R UNOFF OF P E STICIDE S AND FE RTIL ISE R S FROM THE FE R TIL E SOIL S. THE FIVE CATE GOR IE S THAT CL ASSIFY GROUNDW AT E R QUAL ITY INDE X:

CLAS S I: NATUR AL CLAS S II: M E ANS

L OW CHE M ICAL M E ANS CHE M ICAL

COM P ONE NTS

COM P ONE NT S

CLAS S III: AGR ICUL T UR AL (HUM AN HE AL TH)

AND

W ATE R

BY NATUR AL SOURCE

CLAS S IV : AGR ICUL T U R AL AND INDUSTR I AL DE M AND (TRE ATE D FOR DR INKING P UR P OSE S)

CLAS S

NOT

FIT

FOR

DR INKING

INDUS BASIN IS SHARE D BY THR E E DIFFE R E NT COUNTRIE S – CHINA, P AKISTA N, AND INDIA.C H IN A HAS L E SS USABL E SUR FACE W ATE R AS A RE SOURCE W HICH M AKE S OTHE R AR E AS OF INDUS BASIN TO USE GR OUNDW A TE R ITSE L F FOR M OST OF THE P URP OSE S. THUS, THE NE IGHBOU RI N G COUNTRY INDIA AL SO R E L IE S M OR E ON GR OUNDW ATE R .

Table2: Detection Methods of different types of parameters in rivers

C H A P T E R 4 : G A N G E S A N D Y A M U N A D O A B H I S T O R Y THE GANGE S CANAL M ADE BY THE BRITISH E AST INDIA COM P ANY HAS A HIGH-YIE L D IN G SOIL AROUND IT. THE FAL L OW SOIL W AS TRANSIT I ONE D TO CUL TIVA BL E L AND. IT AL SO M ADE THE COM P ANY TO TAKE M OR E R E SP ONSIB L E DE CISION S IN TE R M S OF SE CUR ITY AND FINANCE . THE HYDR OL OGY INCL UDE D ARTIFI CI AL IR R IGATI O N W HICH DE VE L OP E D AGR AR IAN CUL TUR E .

Figure 4 : Ganges Basin

•

The north has grey, brown water of Ganges and in South, azure coloured water in Yamuna. These two rivers together form the Doab (land between these rivers). The fabric around the Doab was of agricultural and industrial communities. The Ganges Canal was not only capable of removing swamps but also for purifying air and cleansing each town (Richard Baird Smith,1854). Although before it’s construction, most of the work of Doab was done by linking canals to Jamuna (Jumna)/ Yamuna. During 1854, Ganga Jamuna Doab became a site that was highly experimented for irrigation experiments and this led to extending canals from Yamuna River. This experimentation of building and rebuilding started in 1803 and continued till 1825, and the Doab Canal was also repaired which is 5 Kilometres to the south of the Yamuna River, later known as EJC (Eastern Jamuna Canal). The reconstruction and experimentation benefitted Delhi by providing water to residents from Western Jamuna Canal and to farmers from Eastern Jamuna Canal.

Figure 5: Proby Cautley, “Plan of the Heads of the Eastern Jamuna Canal”. Ganges Canal: A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges and Jamuna Canals, North-western provinces, in reply to strictures by Major General Sir Arthur Cotton.

•

1837 marked for an emergency of expanding the EJC.

•

Ganga basin is known as the granary of India. The Ganges River Basin has a cultural significance to managing water. Deforestation in the past has led to decreased flow in rivers. There also have been changes in carbon dioxide concentration, large-scale land-use, construction of highways, bridges, and industrialisation. The incremental population led to massive urbanisation, from 90 million in 1960s to 190 million in 1990s. The river flow is regulated by canals and water pumps. Ganges Canal has been considered as “works of nature herself” with “innumerable channels, spreading plentiful of waters” and being “incalculable benefit to the people” (Norton).

•

PAPER WATER is the estimated quantity of water.

•

REAL WATER especially used by farmers cannot be estimated and hence, smart systems can be applied in the different water aquifers, reservoirs or tubewells.

Figure 6:Temporal variation of population in Ganga basin and India as a whole

C H A P T E R 5 : G O V E R N M E N T P O L I C I E S I N D E L H I

CHAPTER 5: GOVERNMENT POLICIES IN DELHI In the case of Delhi, drinking water has concentrations of metals, nitrate, fluorides which makes it unfit amounting to 45.5% of ground water. The river basins of India are on the verge of becoming drains and thus, the crop production has reduced. Delhi is dependent on the Ganges, Yamuna, and Indus basin . The expected population by 2031 is 27 million which will thus increase the water demand. Building management strategies with water efficient technologies, supplyin g of recycled and fresh water, and providing water to all slums irrespective of economic status are some of the steps decided to be taken by the government. From the basins of India, proposed dams in Himalayas, ground water aquifers, treated wastewater, rainwater from adjoining state of Haryana flows into Yamuna River. Rest surface water flows fro m Wazirabad and Tajewala Barrage. The proposed dams through which Delhi will also receive water are Renuka Dam, Himachal Pradesh, Kishau Dam, Uttarakhand, Lakhwar Vyasi Dam and Sardar Yamuna Link.

10% groundwater is consumed by industrial sector, 50% by domestic sector and 40% for irrigation purposes. The floodplain which is 97 sq Km has alluvium deposits.

Sewage treatment plants treat 1349 MLD of wastewater and rest is discharged into the drain without treating it. Soil aquifer treatment plants can be a solution for this.

Figure 8: Groundwater and surface water

Figure 7: Source wise water supply for Delhi

GROUNDWATER IN DELHI Stretched up to 35 kilometers, the Yamuna River enters from North through Wazirabad barrage and exits the periphery from the South through Okhla barrage, stretched up to 97 square kilometers. The embankment is categorized into various floodplains - older on eastern and western sides, active, peneplains and upland areas. The central and southern parts have quarzitic rocks. The alluvium deposit on the southern side, the Chhatarpur basin has clayey formation from fine to compact gravels due to the weathering of quartzite rocks. As noticed from the section, the thickness of the basement rock gradually increases away from the ridges. The alluvial floodplain plain is regarded as the richest resource for groundwater. The southern side has saline groundwater. The aquifer system in the alluvial floodplain is categorised into three groups. Group I constitute unconfined and up to 60 mbgl (metres below ground level) from the surface, group II has confined or semi confined with 65200 mbgl and group III ranges from 200 to 300 mbgl from the surface. The wells sunk into the hard rock from 80-150 mgbl. As the major abstraction of water is either done from the surfaces of adjacent territories adjoining the state or through the groundwater, this has caused overexploitation. A natural aquifer controls the contours of groundwater. The depression level in alluvial plain ranges from 170 to 180 masl (metres above sea level) on the southwestern side, 192 to 216 masl , 240 masl over the ridge. These depressions affect the drain on the southwestern drain known as Najafgarh drain. On the left side, groundwater flows away from this drain and on its right side, it flows towards the drain.

Figure 9: -Map of National Capital Territory (NCT) of Delhi showing the major topographic features and the study area

GROUNDWATER IN DELHI Chloride and sulphate content in the Chhatarpur basin makes it saline because of the seepage through drains and wastewater. Depth Fresh/Saline water interface in Delhi Nitrate, phosphate, and lead constituents are found in most of the districts of Delhi. Around 125000 rooftop rainwater harvesting structures are predicted by the Central Government Water Board to collect rainwater and recharge groundwater with 80% efficiency in times of normal rainfall. The major regions of Delhi such as Rashtrapati Bhawan, Lodhi Gardens, Indian Institute of Technology and Shram Shakti Bhawan have rainwater collection and artificial recharge structures to cater the groundwater recharge. The construction of four check dams around Jawaharlal Nehru University with 49.05 MCM capacity increases the reservoir depth up to 2.55 metres. The low-lying areas, discharge zones and water logging make the groundwater saline. The irrigation also adds up chloride and nitrate content in water increasing its salinity. The industries and factories contaminate the groundwater by increase in nitrate concentrations, especially noticed in west, northwest, and southwest districts. Open landfill sites on the adjoining area of the state of Delhi adds up to water contamination as well. Even the thermal power plants release ash content polluting the Yamuna River. The fluoride content is produced from irrigation, runoff, and weathering of fluoride minerals or through brick industries. Altogether, irrigation, runoff of fertilisers and pesticides contaminates the groundwater and adds up to metal concentration. The three government agencies managing the groundwater are Central Government of Water Board, Delhi Jal Board and Central Pollution Control Board. For Yamuna floodplains, the Central Government of Water Board bore tube wells to avoid overexploitation of groundwater by 85 MGD to 45 MGD. The freshwater resources are also affected by the mixing of brackish water. This raises the need to identify the shallow zones with brackish water and treat them with careful planning and scientific management. The dual piping system can help segregate the brackish and freshwater to manage supply or this could be mixed with freshwater with permissible limits of drinking standards required. The rainwater harvesting has helped increase the water level from 1 to 4 metres. Figure 10: Depth Fresh/Saline water interface in Delhi

RAINWATER HARVESTING IN THREE URBAN VILLAGES OF DELHI •

Chloride and sulphate content in the Chhatarpur basin makes it saline because of the seepage through drains and wastewater. Depth Fresh/Saline water interface in Delhi Nitrate, phosphate, and lead constituents are found in most of the districts of Delhi. Around 125000 rooftop rainwater harvesting stru ctures are predicted by the Central Government Water Board to collect rainwater and recharge groundwater with 80% efficiency in times of normal rainfall. The major regions of Del hi such as Rashtrapati Bhawan, Lodhi Gardens, Indian Institute of Technology and Shram Shakti Bhawan have rainwater collection and artificial recharge structures to cater the groundwater recharge. The construction of four check dams around Jawaharlal Nehru University with 49.05 MCM capacity increases the reservoir depth up to 2.55 metres. The low-lying areas, discharge zones and water logging make the groundwater saline. The irrigation also adds up chloride and nitrate content in water increasing its salinity. The industries and factories contaminate the groundwater by increase in nitrate concentrations, especially noticed in west, northwest, and southwest districts. Open landfill sites on the adjoining area of the state of Delhi adds up to water contamination as well. Even the thermal power plants release ash content polluting the Yamuna River. The fluoride content is produced from irr igation, runoff, and weathering of fluoride minerals or through brick industries. Altogether, irrigation, runoff of fertilisers and pesticides contaminates the groundwater and adds up to metal concentration. The three government agencies managing the groundwater are Central Government of Water Board, Delhi Jal Board and Central Pollution Control Board. For Yamu na floodplains, the Central Government of Water Board bore tube wells to avoid overexploitation of groundwater by 85 MGD to 45 MGD. The freshwater resources are also affected by the mixing of brackish water. This raises the need to identify the shallow zones with brackish water and treat them with careful planning and scientific management. The dual pipin g system can help segregate the brackish and freshwater to manage supply or this could be mixed with freshwater with permissible limits of drinking standards required. The rainwater harvesting has helped increase the water level from 1 to 4 metres.

CHAPTER 6: YAMUNA RIVER AND THE DEVELOPMENT AROUND IT

Liberalisation reforms of 1990s

Global economy

International event — the 2010 Commonwealth Games

Socio-Economic inequalities

Export Processing Zones As Delhi formed itself by expanding horizontally and then in concentric circles after decentralisation around the Yamuna River, it can be mentioned that it is a territory or part of Yamuna flood plain. The city has seen constant built up spaces by uprooting the farming lands and sites. Various water bodies have dried up and some are filled with sewage.

Fi gure. 11: -1950-2008, Urba n Expansion, Ma p of Delhi

Special Economic Zones (2000)

Export Processing Zones

Urban Landscape – High – End Residential Complexes, Exclusive Shopping Malls

72 out of 575 in India

(IT), electronic hardware and IT-enabling services (ITES) in Gurgaon and Noida

Figure 12:-Land Use Pattern in Delhi

E V O L U T I O N O F T H E C I T Y E AR L IE R

THE

NINE TE E NT H

CE NTU RY, THE YAM UNA R IVE R W AS P AR T OF INDUS BASIN. THE N IT CHANGE D ITS COURSE TOW ARDS GANGA RIVE R. A GR ADUAL DE VE L OP M E NT W AS SE E N W ITH THE SE TTL E M E NT S BE TW E E N R IVE R AND RIDGE . GE OM E TRIC P ATTE R N W AS FOR M E D BE TW E E N THE R IDGE AND THE RIVE R TO CIRCUL A TE THE M OVE M E NT FOR VE HICL E S. THIS FOR M ATIO N CR E ATE D OP E N SP ACE S IN ORDE R. THE M AJOR E CONOM IC ZONE S W E RE THE N DE CE NTRAL I ZE D, AND THIS L E D TO P L ANNING URBAN SP ACE S INTO SE QUE NCE AND M AKING M OVE M E NT COR R IDOR S .

Figure 13: Evolution of Delhi

E V O L U T I O N O F T H E C I T Y E AR L IE R

THE

NINE TE E NT H

Figure 14: Delhi urban expansion 1950–2008 (sources: Survey of India — maps 1950, 1970, 1976 and 1980; ISRO — satellite image IRS1—C 1997; Census of India (2001); Delhi Development Authority (2007); Digital Globe — satellite image 2008);

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY •

As Delhi formed itself by expanding horizontally and then in concentric circles after decentralisation around the Yamuna River, it can be mentioned that it is a territory or part of Yamuna flood plain. The city has seen constant built up spaces by uprooting the farming lands and sites. Various water bodies have dried up and some are filled with sewage. In the pre-colonial period, the structures were lakes, stepwells, and stream, for example, Agrasen Ki Baoli. Agrasen Ki Baoli is a stepwell. Stepwells were an architectural intervention for accessing groundwater. It regulates thermal comfort in hot and humid climate by generating a cooling effect. The arches and steps are the major design elements. The principle is of convex mirror, that lets light enter the space and is reflected by the centre, I.e., the focal point making the space highly lit as far as possible. The stepwell is made by big blocks of stone. During pre- colonial times, most of the structures were demolished and health and hygiene became the driving factors for administration on water and society. Less population produced no pressure of treating wastewater. Until nineteenth century, the major source of water was groundwater and stored water in wells and tanks. Waters from Yamuna was extracted when it changed its course and became a part of the city. Many lakes and streams diminished because of the settlements. The wetland seepage and water percolation through rocks beneath the wells helped in the water harvesting, for instance, Surajkund and Anangtal. During Sultanate period, the forts had stepwells and tanks. The underground movement of water helped maintain the runoff. The embankment around the River Yamuna had underground network of canals which was laid during the rule of Mughals. Band-I-Akbari and Band-I-Shahejani are the major dams that still control the flooding in Delhi. In these times, people lived equally and so they formed settlements around water. During the British rule, electrical and pumped water system was adopted, and the urban villages relied on using water from the ponds. The treatment plants and sanitation were prioritized only in administrative areas. This created inequality among the people as this was not implemented in the other parts of the city. It was the post-colonial period when the water was transported between dams to supply drinking water to residents, and this affected the groundwater table.

Figure 15: Agrasen ki Baoli

EVOLUTION OF THE CITY •

The river Yamuna experienced higher levels of water due to unexpected monsoons in 2010. This made the houses near it submerge and people evacuated from that place. It also affected the dams and Taje Walla barrage in the adjoining state/region. Highway routes and expressways constructed over the Yamuna River after post industrialization has only led to the linking of Delhi to the adjoining states.The acidic formation in the river adds up to its deterioration and the water becomes unusable for the people nearby. It affects the riverbed, the farms, and the crops around it. Although the river holds significant cultural value to Hinduism, it lacks an identity for the residents of the city. The market known as Jamna Bazaar has steps that hold immense value to Hindus. One could see people bathing near these that is as well. On the banks of the river are farmlands which are irrigated by the water of the Yamuna River, but this affects the production of crops as the rivercontains untreated industrial effluents released from the factories.

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The user group comprises of the people living near the riverbed. They dry their clothes near the steps, women do the usual picking of garbage around it and then bathe in the river. This led to clearing of poor people sound around the river to avoid contaminating the river. The Commonwealth Games held in 2010 brought in construction of housings near the river.

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In 2013, many urban mega projects were constructed around the river which intertwined with the landscape as well. These included shopping facilities, hospitals, metros.

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The city has experienced a ribbon development towards the river. The resettlement colonies and urban villages were formed atthe outskirts and many slums were formed around the river. The major development with organized planning happened from the river towardsperiphery of the city. Many open and green spaces added up to the landscape adjacent to the river and disintegrated the settlements from the river acting as a buffer between the two regions.

YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT • Yamuna river in Delhi is an urban median dividing the city into two parts – East and West Bank. The East Bank has green and residential spaces, while the West Bank has open and institutional spaces. The current aim as per the government is to integrate blue and green infrastructure which enhances the river’s water quality rather than letting it be just a sewage channel . TREATMENT PLANT

YAMUNA RIVER PROPOSED LANDSCAPING

PRAGATI MAIDAN

• Even the whole city’s sewage is thrown into the river by not treating it. Sustainable stormwater management techniques in integration to the surrounding areas can improve the river’s ecological health. • The existing landscape on the west side of the river has a forest cover area and an industrial area. This is being enhanced by forming more open spaces. Moreover, the open spaces will help in managing the stormwater, flood and treat water for the sewage control. Some more design elements include transforming paved areas into planted zones. The plants will help regulate the runoff by absorbing the major nutrients from water and then replenishing the groundwater table as well.

INDRAPRASTHA METRO STATION

Figure 16: Yamuna Riverfront Development, Near Indraprastha

Integration in surrounding area

The bicycle paths, trails, and walkways alongside the river near Indraprastha Marg in integration to the green spaces will add up to making the space more modern with the institutional buildings such as Indira Gandhi International Indoor Stadium, Pragati Maidan. As the aim is to have less paved areas, the green spaces with multiple features including amphitheater will contribute to the amenity and livability of the West Bank.

Functionality • Appropriate Design • The green open spaces on the West Bank are thereby helping manage the stormwater sustainably. As the major goal of the sustainable stormwater management is to reduce stormwater by runoff by treating it closely to the source. As rightly said by Herbert Dreseitl, “managing runoff is not only a technical but also a design-oriented problem.” The green spaces and water are the most crucial design elements on an urban scale. Imposing stormwater as a natural design element with decentralised solutions in housing or industries stands out to be functional and aesthetically pleasing at the same time. It makes the city have a liveable experience with diurnal and seasonal changes. integration of creativity, materials and designs can altogether create a sustainable urban environment for densely populated areas such as Delhi.

YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT

C H A P T E R 7 : S M A L L S C A L E A N D L A R G E S C A L E P R O J E C T S

LODZ, POLAND (BLUE-GREEN NETWORK)-SMALL SCALE PROJECT This city has a humid continental climate, and it is an integrated urban watershed management plan example. It involves blue green infrastructure planning as well as decentralized stormwater management. The Sokolowka river receiving stormwater is also a recreational area which directly indicates a comparison to be made with Yamuna Riverfront Development plan. With an annual rainfall of 516 mm, the textile city also known as ‘Polish Manchester’ needed a restoration solution for the river. Flowing in the north-western part of the city, the river’s catchment area is roughly 50 square kilometers with an attached stormwater drainage system which is three times the size of the catchment area. Earlier the dense urban development reduced the landscape’s ability to retain water leading to seasonal flooding. The restoration happened by analyzing ecohydrological aspects. The zones formed include: 1) Hydrodynamic Sedimentation Zone - The material used in this area is concrete and lamellar reducing energy inflow and enhancing sedimentation. This zone with sedimentation barriers lets the water flow by filtering it to some extent. 2) Biogeochemical Processes Zone- This is the filtration zone made with limestone. The gravel gabions and thick limestone regulates the flow and then it is passed to the post treatment zone a wetland that has leakproof partitions and macrophytes.

Figure 17 Sokolowka River By-Pass Channel

3)Post-Treatment Zone- It is separated from the other zones by a concrete curb. The strategies that can be applied to the city of Delhi include all of these since these are the usual common practices that are applied.

LODZ, POLAND (BLUE-GREEN NETWORK)-SMALL SCALE PROJECT The concept for integrated water and city planning done for the project included: 1)Protection, management, and spatial development for river corridors in Lodz 2)Spatial development of the city in respect to stormwater management 3)Considering blue-green network and infrastructure. The development happened over a period. In 2010, stations for online monitoring system were installed which could help in regulating the waterflow. Secondly, tree development with planned BMP (management of wastewater) and rehabilitation of river. Zabieniec and Teresa residences constructed in 2008 and 2006 respectively were an addition to have a view of the river as well. The sedimentary/biofiltration system helped in treating the underground reservoir of the river. The Marina Apartments are also one of the housing residences that have wastewater treatment plant. A park constructed on north and south banks of the river forms a green space and enhances the livability of the area. It also acts as a node, or a buffer space rightly placed in the center between the residential apartments. Most of the river canalized with concrete slabs, the middle and lower sections of the valley have retained a seminatural character with patches of meadows, wetlands, and forest. The strategies that can be applied in the city of Delhi include none since this is stormwater management. The city doesn't faces much of flooding.

Figure 15 Sokolowka River By-Pass Channel

SEEPING BOUNDARIES: INFORMAL INFRASTRUCTURES OF DIRT, DEMOLITION, AND SEWAGE IN THE WEST BANK (SMALL-SCALE PROJECT) The Israeli state with a contoured site has military residents with their privately owned houses. Some of them were demolished to maintain the treatment of sewage in the West Bank area. The demolished remains help filter the stormwater runoff and accumulates the sewage of the military neighbourhood. These remains are classified into three categories: Demolition boulders filtering large debris, demolition rocks filtering particulate matter, demolition dirt and gravel filtering fine particulate matter. This wastewater gets treated naturally and irrigates the agricultural fields on the lower level than the settlement. Although, since the demolished remains cannot fully filter the wastewater, so phytoremediation plants help in treating the sewage. This also ensures saving in terms of costs and transportation for water supply. Similar design approach can be taken up in the outskirts of the Delhi where the landfill sites can be treated. These landfill sites are already landscaped in some parts of the site but thiscan be improved which will beautify this turning point and be a landmark node of the city.

LANDFILL SITE 2 LANDFILL SITE 1

Figure 19: By-Pass Road, Landfill site

Figure 18: Wastewater Treatment with on-site demolition reorganisation

TURENSCAPE, SHANGHAI HOUTAN PARK •

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Cascades and terraces

This landscape park has several industrial sites and remains which has polluted the Huangpu River near it. To treat this polluted river, cascades and terraces have been designed with the nutrient rich plant species for oxygenation and removal of sediments from the river. The amount of water treated amounts to 2400 cubic meters which can be reused. The character of the site has been maintained by using the industrial remains for creating these terraces and cascades. The polluted water after passing through cascade terraces, passes through the aeration wall and is filtered through the sub surface filter which has nutrient-rich growing species of plants. Thus, this filtration happens in three stages – aeration/ transition zone, phytoremediation, and constructed wetland. and furthermore, the water is poured into the constructed wetland generating suitable environment for the aquatic life. The cascades and terraces act as water features.

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The construction of this filtration zone requires 300mm of backfill planting soil layer, 250mm of clay with a slope ratio of 1:2 and the existing or prime soil beneath it. The reinforced concrete top is retained from the water by a rubble wall with waterproof mortar.

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The waterproof retaining wall is 400mm thick wall.

Cascades and terraces Cascades and terraces

Cascades Cascades and and terraces terraces

Figure 20: DND Flyway, Cascades and Terraces

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Similar design approach can be taken up in the residential neighbourhood near Yamuna Expressway wherein creating man-made contours can help filter the wastewater from the residences, thereby preventing dirt or pollutants getting into the river. These cascades and terraces can be Eco roofs accessed by these residential people. Furthermore, these eco-roofs will segregate the living residential community from the flowing river, acting as a buffer zone to avoid people from accessing the river water. To treat the acid formed in the river, filtration plants can be designed along these to filtrate water near this non-point source as well.

WHITNEY WATER PURIFICATION FACILITY + PARK (CONNECTICUT, USA; 200 The Park is designed like an inverted drop of water with a purification plant installed beneath it in the ground. The public space or the green roof, has skylights which are in inverted bubble forms bringing the natural light inside the purification plant. A groundwater heating system with 88 wells is a renewable source of energy meeting the demands of heating and cooling without using any fossil fuel. A local energy company is meeting the energy demands of the park; thus, it is banning the use of HCFCs, CFCs or Halons. By preserving the existing wetlands and natural vegetation, the site has been consciously designed without disturbing it. The east side of the park has a catchment area for managing stormwater. In Delhi, this strategy can be applied in some newly built housing societies.

Figure 21: Whitney Water Purification Facility + Park

Figure 22 : Concept of inverted bubble skylights

CHAPTER 8: LARGE SCALE PROJECTS Figure 23 : Movement corridors in Delhi

T H E L A R G E - S C A L E P R OJ E C T S AND DES IGN S T RAT EGIES W HICH CAN BE IMPLEMENTED IN URBAN S PACES OF DEL HI IN REL AT ION TO W AT ER AND L AND

WASH: URBAN HYDROLOGICAL NETWORKS FOR RESILIENT CULTURAL ECOLOGIES (STORMWATER AND GREYWATER) The cities face water scarcity in the chronological order of firstly the depletion • of local water resources, secondly, importing water from adjoining cities. The third phase focuses on recycling wastewater with centralised system which increases the operational costs of the usage of water. Lastly, the evident measure is to adapting to desalination, an expensive and energy intensive process that also involves numerous ecological concerns. An interesting intervention is implemented in the city of Los Angeles to reuse greywater and reduce unsustainable water importation for transforming the mono functional space into a multifunctional community watershed. The problem of scarcity of water in this city is due to the mismanagement of resources, different cultural practices and landscape typologies. Although the water is treated in three different stages, by means of technology, it is finally dumped into Pacific Ocean or mixed with salt water for desalination on pumping it back to the residential neighbourhood. The waste which is trashed into the concrete channel of the river makes it indeficit of supplying it to the neighbourhood. The change in climate with less rainfall has made the city rely on this desalinating process more. The greywater can be recycled for irrigating the plants in the gardens. This greywater is of use as it has high rich nutrients obtained from the liquid detergents or soaps. On maximising this, water supply from the ocean or the adjoining state can be avoided. The need for investing in large sewer systems and desalination plants will be eliminated.

Similar situation has been observed in terms of costs and usage of water which has ultimately changed the water levels of Delhi.

WINTON WETLAND RESTORATION (CULTURAL ASPECT) •

This site has used water as a focal point to attract tourists and at the same time, store water and restore it for the agricultural lands around it. It has bike tracks, camps and various other water activities to promote well-being of the individuals visiting the site. It is just like a living laboratory or classroom that enhances the user experience by being an open public space. Being a man-made installation, the water is restored with careful management of pests, weeds and any fire hazards that can be caused on the site. The site area is 3000 hectares accounting to a large public space catering approximately thousands of people especially the children and the adults. The place is serving the community by creating recreational spaces, jobs and meeting space. It is benefitting the community that lives just near it.

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Similar approach can be implemented in Yamuna Riverfront Development Project.

Figure 24: Yamuna Riverfront Development, Near Indraprastha

BRONX BLUE TERMINAL, NEW YORK •

Although this is a huge scale project, a terminal for ships, but there are numerous design interventions that can be adapted in Yamuna Riverfront Development as well. The project includes shipping and service industries, marine transportation, wildlife habitat, urban recreation, cultural activities and other elements so that, it acts as a liquid connective tissue.

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The challenge is to protect against storm-related flooding. Various other activities are also included such as energy production, recreation and education. The water is being defined as a public space to adapt to future uses. A cellular system is designed for easy maintenance, so that each cell or pod can be removed and treated as and when required. These pods collect carbon dioxide which is transported to reef island for algae production. The algae pods are located along the shore which help in energy production.

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This chain of pods creates a recreational fabric along the shore. The inflatable carbon dioxide containers alongwith the communication equipment and pod array joints and buoyant base collect carbon dioxide and is transported to algae bioreactors which has a protective glass and algae tubes. The algae grow because of the carbon dioxide which acts as a biofuel.

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It also works as water barrier, controlling the wave power and segregating the recreational water activity from major waterways. The floating marshlands with marshland habitat and vegetation community has monitoring equipment with supporting frame and fish community beneath it.

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The floating wetland pods has remediating plants, which treats the toxicated water and also absorbs the metals produced from industries.

Figure 25:The Carbon collection pods and floating islands

Figure 26: floating islands

TURENSCAPE, SHANGHAI HOUTAN PARK China has many cities which account to either the problem of flooding, or water shortage. Using landscape as a sponge can be a sustainable model for many cities. The earth is excavated and casted along the periphery of the mound or the wetland. The water gets filtered from the ponds surrounding it and flows into the wetland. Minimal maintenance plants are planted along the wetland. Five sustainable materials such as wood, bamboo, brick, stone, and metal are used in building up the skywalk connected over this wetland. Due to heavy rainfall, the wetland overflowed with water but after following these design strategies, the park became a positive environmental amenity. The stormwater is passed through the ponds after filtration into the wetland. Around 500,000 cubic meters of stormwater is filtered in this park. For an area of 300 square kilometres. Following is the cross-section.

Figure 27:Section of the wetland in stormwater park

The stormwater park has been listed as a National Urban Wetland Park. It is a prominent sustainable urbanism model which can be

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This strategy has been followed in wetlands, but this can also be applied to several ongoing lake revival projects in Delhi. The lakes should be left untouched to prevent any threat in near future. These can have carbon dioxide collection floating pods. The self-reproductive plants requiring less maintenance over time can benefit the planning of the park and be costeffective.

Figure 28:Floating islands

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WATER CORE HOME

This is a universally accepted instance for controlling pollution in the lakes as it has been a primary concern for many cities over the past few decades. A treatment on a microscopic level is far better than macro level. The microlevel treatment can be done in three different scales – Block, lot and home.

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A block scale refers to a park, open public space, or a neighbourhood. It can have permeable pavement, rain garden or green street.

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A lot scale refers to the machine equipment i.e., underground cistern, above ground cistern, rain barrel or rain bladder.

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A home scale refers to the roof cladding, façade cladding, attic storage and bathroom stacks.

Figure 29:Water Core Home

Figure 30:Different scale of equipments used for projects

WATER CORE HOME •

Pavers made of concrete help in infiltrating surface runoff through stone or filter media below. This can also be made of asphalt and provide pore spaces for storing and passing water. Pervious concrete has generally a life span of 20-40 years with typical porosity of 15-20%. This is a low maintenance fine material.

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The permeable pavement helps in capturing a capacity of .75” rainstorm. The construction generally involves four elements, i.e., water, porous concrete/asphalt, course stone aggregate substrate and uncompacted subgrade. Amount of water depends on the precipitation levels. Thereby, this also predicts the volume for the coarse aggregate layer. The course stone aggregate layer must be minimum of 24”. The depth varies from 12-36” with a void percentage of 2540%. The asphalt or porous concrete infiltrates water into course stone aggregate substrate. The porous concrete should generally be of 5-8 inches in depth with an infiltration rate of 3-5 gal/min/sqft. The uncompacted sub-grade has no machinery allowed over the design area. The lot scale calculation is done by calculating surface areas for concrete pavements of a lot on the edges, the middle and the summation of all the areas.

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Water

Asphalt/porous concrete aggregate Paved Coarse Aggregate Paved Coarse Aggregate Uncompacted layer Figure 31: Concrete layers for pathways

The paved edges are 6 feet wide with a capacity of 110 gallons of porous concrete, 659 gallons of course stone aggregate substrate costing upto 400-1000$. The middle width of the pavement is 4 feet with 73 gallons of porous concrete and 439 gallons of course stone aggregate costing 270-670$. The width of all the pavements adds upto 20 feet with 366 gallons of porous concrete and 2200 gallons of course stone aggregate costing 1325-3400$.

Figure 32: Floating Pods

WATER CORE HOME •

The permeable pavement helps in capturing a capacity of .75” rainstorm. The construction generally involves four elements, i.e., water, porous concrete/asphalt, course stone aggregate substrate and uncompacted subgrade. Amount of water depends on the precipitation levels. Thereby, this also predicts the volume for the coarse aggregate layer. The course stone aggregate layer must be minimum of 24”. The depth varies from 12-36” with a void percentage of 25-40%. The asphalt or porous concrete infiltrates water into course stone aggregate substrate. The porous concrete should generally be of 5-8 inches in depth with an infiltration rate of 3-5 gal/min/sqft. The uncompacted sub-grade has no machinery allowed over the design area.

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The lot scale calculation is done by calculating surface areas for concrete pavements of a lot on the edges, the middle and the summation of all the areas.

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The aggregate used in parking for the entire block calculates upto 60,800 gallons of .5” storm with 80% in the alleys, 60% in street parking with total capacity of 36,053 gallons costing 72,000-182,000$ and 140% in all alleys and street parking.

Figure 33: Concrete layers in road

WATER CORE HOME •

The raingardens with plant species and native vegetation help in the regulation of stormwater flow and removes pollutants. The rain is channeled from roofs, driveways, yards and other impervious surfaces. These are generally high maintenance as these require seasonal weeding and trimming.

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The construction for these requires 10 feet clearance between structure and the rain garden. The dimensions are dependent on the slope of the lawn and the depth varies depending on the characteristics of the soil. At the lower end of the garden, a berm is created to contain and store water during wet events. Generally, no new earthen material is needed to create this berm. The vegetation includes deep rooted native plants, low shrubs and wildflowers.

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The combination of green alleys, streets and parking lots helps in evapotranspiration of rainwater. These include permeable pavement, sidewalk planters, landscaped medians, bio swales, inlet restrictors, greenways and trees. These can be constructed by using recycled materials to adapt a sustainable approach.

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The construction of green street costs upto 250$.

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The porous pavement costs upto 4 gallons per square foot with 0.35$ gallon of storage.

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The rain garden costs 2 gallons per square foot at a cost of 3.75$ per gallon of storage. The stormwater tree holds upto 500 gallons per year.

Figure 34:Different scales of managing water – city, micro-watershed, block, lot

47 Figure 36:Concrete and pavement

PORTLAND, OREGON, USA •

To manage stormwater as the city receives heavy rainfall, two major types of system are installed. One of these is a combined sewer system and the other is a separated system. The stormwater runoff mixes with sewage overloading the drains. The similar approach of decentralised solutions including green streets, rain gardens, swales, planters, downspouts are installed to keep the stormwater out as much as possible.

Planning strategies •

Ecoroof program, Green Streets Program, Downspout disconnection program and innovative wet weather program.

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Aesthetically, the city becomes liveable because of the trees on the lanes and vegetation on the roofs. The decentralised stormwater management attracts public attention and promotes livability for the citizens. It inspires them to actively take part in the decentralised water management solution with green roofs, impervious surfaces and landscape design engaging them with the built form. Several workshops conducted enlighten the students and parents with the knowledge of such sewer systems.

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A Disconnect Downspouts Program aims to keep stormwater out of the sewer system. To inculcate this strategy with everyone, the government offered fee discounts so that the residences practice this. For their well-being, they also created some art installations depicting the falling water spreading to the ground. Moreover, walking tours, green streets and ecoroof virtual tours, landscape art exhibition programs inspire them to keep practicing this. This program has helped remove 1.5 gallons of water per year from the combined sewer system.

PORTLAND, OREGON, USA FUNCTIONALITY •

It is improved by providing technical assistance in planning and construction.

MAINTENANCE

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This approach is of high maintenance as careful removal of weeds and dead plants is done to maintain the aesthetical integrity.

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Overall, planning of garden streets and one-way bike paths with stormwater sites in most of the green spaces provide space for recreation.

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The Environmental Protection Agency has funded the government to capitalise on the grey to green initiative. The city has been declared “Most Sustainable City in the USA”

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The disconnect downspouts initiative has been implemented in many schools and ecoroofs are installed on the apartment roofs. To overcome the overflow of the drainage, combined sewage system was expanded and enlarged, and the decentralised solutions were increased.

•

Similar design principle can be adapted in the adjoining states of Delhi, especially Gurugram which is a low lying plain often experiencing overflowing drains on the major interconnecting roadways. The large amenities can install downspouts in high rises making it an art feature. These downspouts could filter the water in the community gardens or green streets on the ground level of these high-rises. This will cool the space and provide aesthetic appeal.

Figure 37: Downspouts can be installed here to enhance the cooling environment

•

Figure 38: Downspouts can be installed here

The downspouts can also play vital role on the west bank of the Yamuna River along the Central Vista Redevelopment with the ongoing construction of major parliamentary buildings. Although, the past trends depict that Delhi receives less rainfall, the future buildings should implement this as it will help maintain the groundwater table and be aesthetically pleasing as well. The impervious pavements and green surfaces around the river will percolate the water and be a feature of public space within this project site.

TURENSCAPE STORMWATER PARK, HARBIN, CHINA

•

Cascades and terraces

Cascades and terraces Cascades and terraces

Figure 39: DND Flyway, Cascades and Terraces

RECONSTRUCTING THE VOID: OWENS LAKE (HISTORICAL PRECEDENT) •

•

Los Angeles, located in the western part of the world, has an exceptionally long history in the changing paradigm of the hydrological relationship with the land use patterns and the rivers and lakes. In the early 19th century, the whole city was dependent on the Owens Lake which is around 200 miles away from the coastal plain. The water was channeled through numerous aqueducts just as in the case of city of Manchester. The valley faced many dust storms. Sanquin valley is the nearest to the coastal plain which had relic landscape of farming sites which were transformed into vegetable gardens. These vegetable gardens were subdivided into more sections which were demolished in 2008. The engineers worked on creating the aqueducts to deliver ten times more water to the cities. A series of construction for aqueducts began in 1906 and continued till 2013 with different river aqueducts being constructed including Owens River Aqueduct, Colorado River Aqueduct and Los Angeles Water Project. The river aqueducts helped engineers to funnel the water into the ocean. The aqueducts were networked with irrigation systems to provide water to the farming lands. After the construction of Los Angeles aqueduct in 1970, the wells were created which pumped the water to the farming communities. The groundwater table depleted and the phreatophytes plants were replaced by the sand dunes converting the south of Haiwee reservoir into a desert.

•

The challenges faced by the city included depletion of groundwater table, the death of Owens River Lake due to high water intake from aqueducts, lowering of Mono Lake water level, and toxic dust storms created from the Owens Lake.

•

These dust storms caused many health-related issues to not only the people of the city but also the neighbouring country such as China. These health problems included cancer, breathing problems and eye irritation. These dust storms and fog storms occurred twice a year containing harmful particles such as arsenic, metals, salts, lead and selenium. To prevent dust storms, a treaty was signed between the legislative bodies to preserve the waterscape for the birds which were getting extinct. 5000 irrigation bubblers were spaced in every thousand feet along with fiber optic cables creating “whiplines” to maintain the air quality index. As the Owens Lake was depleting, it could take seven years to refill it with water by transporting it from aqueducts. The formation of clay clods on the lakebed because of the deposition of dust storms required trenches and berms to be excavated again in the lake-bed for water to flow back. Now that it is entirely dried up, it had mudflats and brine pools with many flies and microbes. The Eastern Sierra still receives fraction of water through this dried-up lake which apparently has no ducks roaming around. 51

RECONSTRUCTING THE VOID: OWENS LAKE (HISTORICAL PRECEDENT) •

Earlier, these aqueducts being the main source of fresh water supply to the Los Angeles city, provided water until the 21st century when the water became scarce and Eastern Sierra just received 50% of the supply. 2014 was the major transformational year for the United States as the lakes and aqueducts dried up and groundwater projects were launched such as the Cadiz Water Project. To the east of the Los Angeles, the Colorado river experienced salinity, acid mine drainage, pesticide runoff from the farmlands and radioactive effluents released by the industries. The fresh water supply received from the icebergs of Alaska in the Colorado river to the rest of the city through pipes was impossible as it can be costly and is also not feasible technically.

•

Two major groundwater treatment plants were installed in the year 2013. One of these was the largest in the world costing up to 800 million dollars providing one fourth of the city with water. Los Angeles receives less rainfall as compared to San Gabriel River, thereby it infiltrates 27000 acre-feet/year.

Figure 40: Owens Lake

Figure 41: Owens Lake (200 miles away)

RECONSTRUCTING THE VOID: OWENS LAKE (HISTORICAL PRECEDENT) •

The water treatment plant known as Hyperion Sewage Treatment Plant, treats 362 million gallons of wastewater and dumps it into Santa Monica Bay wherein it is treated the third time to transport into the residential sectors of the Los Angeles. Tillman and Glendale Reclamation plants provide 89 gallons of water per day. To maintain the hygienic conditions of the water, the effluents are removed before recharging groundwater and then discharged into Santa Monica Bay. 29000m gallons of water per year is transported from the Mono Basin watershed to Owens River Lake. Then it is transported to the three reservoirs-Lake Crowley, Pleasant Valley and Tinemaha Reservoir. These reservoirs transport 17,800m gallons for irrigation, 3600m gallons for ranching, 3400m gallons for industrial projects, 3400m gallons to the wildlife, and 170m gallons is evaporated. Haiwee North and South reservoirs receive 77,300m gallons. 31000m gallons of dust is deposited in the Owens Lake. Finally, 55000m gallons of water is transported from Haiwee North and South reservoirs to be used in the city of the Los Angeles for various purposes such as 4% for industrial purposes, 5% for leaks, 7% for municipal, 17% for commercial, 29% for multi-family homes and 38% for single-family homes. To fulfil the demands of the city with the available amount of water, many solutions such as water recycling, creating water reservoirs and forming in ground storage tanks, creating water reservoirs and forming in ground storage tanks can be done.

Figure 42: Los Angeles Residential Neighbourhood Water Supply

DENDRITIC ZONING, NEW JERSEY •

This city has experienced different land use patterns along the river which has also made a compromise on the residences near it. To cater the growth of the city along with the transportation networks, the Right of Way has been chosen as a design principle to facilitate the movement of vehicles alongwith the river flowing over the city. The different junctions and the nodes created over the highways make the traffic flow smoothly over the city. This made the city grow vertically and horizontally.

•

The interchanging nodes along the motorways or highways are designed with fluidic paths with right of way spike providing aerial views of the river. It creates a hydrological relationship with the built environment of the cityscape reorganizing activities into different urban zones. The 300-foot buffer space running along the streams and the river has made sustainable use of forests and agriculture.

•

The linear planning of zones includes recreational activities, golf courses, residential neighbourhoods, forestlands, food processing plants and recreation fields. The dense forest lands account to heavy precipitation and flooding which is maintained by the 300foot buffer space.

Figure 43: The interchanging nodes at New Jersey for creating different zones of activities within the city and segregating them with 300 foot of buffer space

CHAPTER 8: The Conclusion

Inferences and analysis from Small Scale Projects S.No .

Principle Interventions

Site/ Location

Cascades and terraces

Lodz, poland (blue-green network)

Yamuna Riverfront Development

Phytoremediation plants to treat sewage

Sokolowka River By Pass Channel - Stormwater Development

Already in process

Man-Made contours for creating a buffer

Wastewater Treatment in Israeli State

Landfill Site at By-Pass Road Sonepat

Less use of CFLs, halogens and Led's by making skylights

USA- Whitney Water Purification Facility

Purification plants in privatised sites such as 55 housing, offices

Reference

Site/ Location in Delhi

CHAPTER 8: The Conclusion

Inferences and analysis from Large Scale Projects

S.No .

Principle Interventions

Site/ Location

Treating greywater and re-using it to irrigate plants or fields by avoiding desalination and water supply from oceans, downspouts,

Wash: urban hydrological networks for resilient cultural ecologies (stormwater and greywater), Portland Oregon, USA

Privatised sites such as housing, offices etc.; Buildings being formed in Central Vista Redevelopment Lake Revival Projects,

Carbon dioxide collection floating pods in rivers for having plants in the water bodies

Bronx Blue Terminal – New York

Yamuna Riverfront Development

Permeable pavements in housing blocks

Water Core Home Prototype

Housing societies, residence colonies, shopping complexes

Creating water reservoirs, underground water storage tanks, dendrtic zoning of roads and highways with the waterscape and eco-roofs

Reconstructing the void: owens lake, Dendritic zoning, new jersey

Yamuna Expressway

Reference

Site/ Location in Delhi

CHAPTER 8: The Conclusion •

Since the available groundwater and changing rainfall patterns has made the architects, urbanists and practitioners deeply think about adapting to the effective water management strategy. Although, each continent and country has their respective policies regarding the same, with minute differences in each of them. The recent changes in adapting the blue green network for perfect balance between waterscape and landscape is of utmost importance. To cater the groundwater table replenishment with increasing migration pattern is the change Delhi looks upon. Although, the linking of dams and forming new water channel linkages with adjoining states can benefit Delhi, but this will require making of more sewer systems and water treatment plants. Therefore, relying on existing water plants and treating the lakes and drains is a better approach that shall be adopted for the treatment of greywater. Moreover, forming downspouts in newly constructed government buildings can help increase the groundwater replenishment. The rooftop rainwater collection is an approach which has been followed up in nearly many green buildings, universities and schools. The depletion of groundwater table has led to installation of pressured pumps in nearly all buildings which leads to usage of more electricity and hence creating a necessity of building dams. The linking of canals to these new dams being formed from the adjoining state of Punjab can increase the water supply but is questionable. To achieve the current demand by making use of the existing amount of water available through the natural resource of Yamuna River within the periphery of Delhi and Haryana.

Even the newly constructed residences cater to rooftop collection of rainwater. This shall be improved by creating 2 x 2 metre manholes or collectors in the congested colonies. Numerous dried up sites can be replenished by treating the lake water and reviving the site. Phytoremediation plants and carbon collection pods are the newest interventions which can be applied in these lake revival and Yamuna riverfront development project. The growing statistical population and the demand of health among the poor and children requires treating the landfill sites by forming cascades and terraces so that the rainwater lows smoothly. Since, Delhi has a variation in the terrain as it is not entirely in plains adjacent to Aravalli Hills, such cascades and terraces can be formed in built spaces which are highly congested and linearly planned. This will help in the treatment of greywater and re-using it for filtrating plants. Creating buffer spaces between river and land will also benefit the culture of society by preventing river from getting polluted by the usual household activities. Lastly or evidently, it can be concluded that linking of Sutlej Canal might help in meeting the current demand of water supply with the existing trends of usage but it can increase the costs of building and linking. Therefore, reusing and recycling the greywater with the certain parameters afore mentioned will benefit the state of Delhi in achieving the aesthetics and managing water sustainably. 57

CHAPTER 8: The Conclusion •

Water services have no boundaries. Therefore, accurate service maps are difficult to be produced. The GIS technology helps in doing that. Water used in joint family housing as compared to single family housing is used less.

•

Devices such as Electronic Remote Meter Reading Devices and Automatic Meter Reading Devices are not beneficial to some extent and rather a community or urban space should have an integrated system. The individual meters can have deviations in the reading or the calculation and this could lead to errors in reading. Although the computer readings are accurate in some colonies or communities, but an integrated meter for the whole community will ease the reading demand and it will also benefit the community. The constant checking of individual meters is done by moving into different houses. A single integrated meter should also be installed in a zone to avoid the constant checking of meters in individual homes. Efficiency is achieved

Selling Region

Purchasing Region

Farming employment Farming employment declines rate rises Less fish and birds Killed because of less withdrawl of o fish and birds

By exercising monopoly and trading with interest of both parties or states. Example-Arizona SPOT MARKET TRANSFERS are better than contingent or permanent transfers. (2-10 years). Junior water rights are less expensive than senior water rights. Paying farmers not to use their rights to water can help save it in the scarce period.

PAGE NO./SOURCE

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FIGURE1

TITLE

BOOKS

The influence of development on (Source: Land, Water and Development, Page 68, fig. 68, figure 3.8 urbanisation and agricuture 3.8) ‘Blue’ and ‘green’ water partitioned in the land phase of the

FIGURE 2

hydrological cycle (a) as a global balance and (b) as management domains,

(Source: Land, Water and Development, Page 54, fig. 54,fig.3.1 3.1)

FIGURE 3

The global hydrological cycle with volume in thousands of cubic kilometers

(Source: Land, Water and Development, Page 56, fig. 3.2)

TABLE 1

Annual rainfall over India

Kothiyari, (1996), Rainfall and Temperature Trends in India, John Wiley and Sons

TABLE 2

Detection Methods of Source: Li ,Daoliang, (2019), Water Quality different types of parameters Monitoring and Management Basis, Technology and in rivers Case Studies, Academic Press

56, fig.3.2

FIGURE 4

Ganges basin

Acciavatti, Anthony, (2015), Ganges Water Machine: Designing New India’s Ancient River, Applied Research and Design

FIGURE 5

Proby Cautley, “Plan of the Acciavatti, Anthony, (2015), Ganges Water Machine: Heads of the Eastern Jamuna Designing New India’s Ancient River, Applied Canal”. Ganges Canal Research and Design

119

A disquisition on the heads of the Ganges and Jamuna Canals, North-western provinces, in reply to Acciavatti, Anthony, (2015), Ganges Water Machine: strictures by Major General Designing New India’s Ancient River, Applied Sir Arthur Cotton Research and Design

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FIGURE 6

TEMPORAL VARIATION IN GANGA BASIN AND Kothiyari, (1996), Rainfall and Temperature Trends in India, John Wiley and Sons INDIA AS WHOLE

FIGURE 7

SOURCE WISE WATER SUPPLY FOR DELHI

Delhi Jal Board : online

FIGURE 8

GROUNDWATER AND SURFACE WATER

Delhi Jal Board : online

FIGURE 9

MAP OF NCT OF DELHI SHOWING MAJOR TOPOGRAPHICAL AREAS

(PDF- Urban Metabolism of River Yamuna in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. (researchgate.net), online)

FIGURE 10

DEPTH FRESH / SALINE WATER INTERFACE IN DELHI

FIGURE 11

URBAN EXPANSION , MAP OF DELHI

Survey of India — maps 1950, 1970, 1976 and 1980; ISRO — satellite image IRS1—C 1997; Census of India (2001

FIGURE 12

LAND USE PATTERN OF DELHI

Shekhar, Shashank, Groundwater management in NCT Delhi: Government of India: [Online]: [Accessed on June 7, 2021] http://indiaenvironmentportal.org.in/files/Kaushik.pdf

FIGURE 13

Evolution of Delhi

FIGURE 14

Delhi urban expansion 1950–2008

PAGE NO./SOU RCE

(sources: Survey of India — maps 1950, 1970, 1976 and 1980; ISRO — satellite image IRS1— C 1997; Census of India (2001); Delhi Development Authority (2007); Digital Globe — satellite image 2008);

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FIGURE 13

YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT, NEAR INDRAPRASTHA

Map

FIGURE 14

SOKOLOWKA RIVER-BY PASS CHANNEL

Hoyer,Jacqueline,Dickhaut,Wolfgang,Kronawitter,Lucas(2011),Water Sensitive Urban Design,Jovis

FIGURE 15

SOKOLOWKA RIVER-BY PASS CHANNEL

Hoyer,Jacqueline,Dickhaut,Wolfgang,Kronawitter,Lucas(2011),Water Sensitive Urban Design,Jovis

FIGURE 16

Wastewater Treatment with on-site demolition WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION reorganisation

FIGURE 17

By-Pass Road, Landfill site

Map

FIGURE 18

DND Flyway, Cascades and Terraces

Map

FIGURE 19

Whitney Water Purification Facility + Park

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

FIGURE 20

Concept of inverted bubble skylights

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 21

The Carbon collection pods and floating islands

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152

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FIGURE 22

floating islands

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FIGURE 23

Section of the wetland in stormwater park

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 24

Floating islands

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 25

Water Core Home

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 26

Different scale of equipments used for projects McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 27

Concrete layers for pathways

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 28

Floating Pods

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 29

Concrete layers in road

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 30

Different scales of managing water – city, micro- McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, watershed, block, lot FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 31

Green street

FIGURE 32

Downspouts can be installed here to enhance McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR the cooling environment DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 33

Downspouts can be installed here to enhance McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR the cooling environment DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 34

Owens Lake

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 35

Owens Lake (200 miles away)

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 36

Los Angeles Residential Neighbourhood Water McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR Supply DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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FIGURE 37

The interchanging nodes at New Jersey for creating different zones of activities within the city and segregating them with 300 foot of buffer space

156

McDowell, Seth (2018), WATER INDEX: DESIGN STRATEGIES FOR DROUGHT, FLOODING AND CONTAMINATION ,UVA SOA

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CITATIONS AND REFERENCES Delhi Urban Art Commission (2015), CITY LEVEL PROJECTS YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT Indraprastha Zone [Online] [Accessed on 31/05/21] http://e.duac.org/images/pdf/13.%20ITO%20river%20front.pdf Farswan, S. et al. (2019) “Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Sites in a Part of North-West Delhi, India Using Geomatic Tools,” Environmental Earth Sciences, 78(11). doi: 10.1007/s12665-019-8332-y

CGWB (2013) Groundwater information booklet of North West district, NCT, Delhi. http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Delhi/North%20West.pdf. Accessed 31/05/21 Wing, K.Y., Radhakrishnan, M., Shie-Yui Liong, Zevenbergen, C. & Pathirana, A. 2017, "Effectiveness of ABC Waters Design Features for Runoff Quantity Control in Urban Singapore", Water, vol. 9, no. 8, pp. 577.

National Archives of Singapore (2017) The water that binds Stringing together hearts, communities, and nature at Pang Sua Pond (Singapore, 25 March 2017) Online [Accessed on 17/05/21]https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/data/pdfdoc/20170325002/Press%20Release-PangSua.pdf Bauer S, Linke HJ and Wagner M (2020) “Combining Industrial and Urban Water-Reuse Concepts for Increasing the Water Resources in Water-Scarce Regions,” Water environment research : a research publication of the Water Environment Federation, 92(7), pp. 1027–1041. doi: 10.1002/wer.1298. Schramm, E. et al. (2019) “Keeping Flows Separate: Good Management Practices in Novel Urban Water Systems Derived from Error Ana lyses,” Water, 11(12), pp. 2597–2597. doi: 10.3390/w11122597.

Delhi Urban Art Commission (2015), CITY LEVEL PROJECTS YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT Indraprastha Zone [Online] [Accessed on 31/05/21] http://e.duac.org/images/pdf/13.%20ITO%20river%20front.pdf Farswan, S. et al. (2019) “Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Sites in a Part of North-West Delhi, India Using Geomatic Tools,” Environmental Earth Sciences, 78(11). doi: 10.1007/s12665-019-8332-y

CGWB (2013) Groundwater information booklet of North West district, NCT, Delhi. http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Delhi/North%20West.pdf. Accessed 31/05/21 Newson, Malcolm, (2009) Land, Water and Development Sustainable and adaptive management of rivers, Routledge Acciavatti, Anthony, (2015), Ganges Water Machine: Designing New India’s Ancient River, Applied Research and Design

Iyer, Ramaswamy, (2009), Water, Pearson India Jain, Sharad, (et. al 2007), Hydrology and Water Resources of India, Springer Kothiyari, (1996), Rainfall and Temperature Trends in India, John Wiley and Sons Bowonder, Chhetri, (1984), Urban Water Supply in India: Environmental Issues, Elsevier Science Publishers Rai,Suresh, (2011), Water Management for a Megacity: National Capital Territory of Delhi (2016), Water Policy for Delhi Mays, (2002) "Urban Water Supply Handbook "

Delhi Urban Art Commission (2015), CITY LEVEL PROJECTS YAMUNA RIVERFRONT DEVELOPMENT Indraprastha Zone [Online] [Accessed on 31/05/21] http://e.duac.org/images/pdf/13.%20ITO%20river%20front.pdf

Farswan, S. et al. (2019) “Assessment of Rainwater Harvesting Sites in a Part of North-West Delhi, India Using Geomatic Tools,” Environmental Earth Sciences, 78(11). doi: 10.1007/s12665-019-8332-y

National Archives of Singapore (2017) The water that binds Stringing together hearts, communities, and nature at Pang Sua Pond (Singapore, 25 March 2017) Online [Accessed on 17/05/21]https://www.nas.gov.sg/archivesonline/data/pdfdoc/20170325002/Press%20Release-PangSua.pdf Bauer S, Linke HJ and Wagner M (2020) “Combining Industrial and Urban Water -Reuse Concepts for Increasing the Water Resources in Water-Scarce Regions,” Water environment research : a research publication of the Water Environment Federation, 92(7), pp. 1027 –1041. doi: 10.1002/wer.1298.

Schramm, E. et al. (2019) “Keeping Flows Separate: Good Management Practices in Novel Urban Water Systems Derived from Error Analyses,” Water, 11(12), pp. 2597–2597. doi: 10.3390/w11122597.

CGWB (2013) Groundwater information booklet of North West district, NCT, Delhi. http://cgwb.gov.in/District_Profile/Delhi/North%20West.pdf. Accessed 31/05/21 (PDF- Urban Metabolism of River Yamuna in the National Capital Territory of Delhi, India. (researchgate.net), online)