Nam Cibus Martians - Mars Architecture Bachelor Thesis Book

Nam Cibus Martians

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NAM CIBUS MARTIANS Fuel for Martians

Khaled AlLabban

A thesis book for the Final Architectural Project submitted to the Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Art, and Design, American University in Dubai In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Bachelor of Architecture Fall 2018 3

Copyright Khaled AlLabban 2018

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Approval of the Thesis Book for Final Architectural Project Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Art, and Design, American University in Dubai

NAM CIBUS MARTIANS Khaled AlLabban

Student Signature:

Date:

Advisor / Professor Name: Jose Carrillo Advisor / Professor Signature:

Date:

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Abstract The dream of man to set foot on Mars will soon become a reality. Mars has been a subject of interest for a long time. It is studied by many space organizations and missions to colonize it are in motion.

There are many issues with colonizing Mars. The atmosphere is one hundred times thinner than Earth’s atmosphere. The temperatures on the surface are extremely cold beyond human tolerance. Solar radiation harm objects on the surface due to the weak magnetic field of the planet. All the traces of water found on the planet are frozen underground. Lastly, dust storms occur regularly while some cover the entire planet for months. Mars has no traces of previous life forms. The first crew which set foot on Mars would have to transport everything they need from equipment to even food and water to be able to survive on Mars. This is not a solution for the intended long-term stay and colonization of Mars. Future Martians have to build their own homes, grow their food, and drink their water to colonize the Red Planet truly. They have to find ways to power all of their operations and build a community they would enjoy living in.

This thesis mainly focuses on food generation and aims to solve it using planting.

Throughout the thesis, different options will be studied and analyzed leading to the ‘best solution.’ The thesis considers scientific factors in combination with architectural solutions to build a project that acts as a habitat for both humans and plants. The project has short-term and long-term goals.

The short-term goal is to achieve survivability of the first generations colonizing Mars.

The long-term goal is to build an enjoyable complete habitat for the future generation Martians.

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Dedication It has been a long and difficult journey.

I could not have passed through it without my family. Thank you Dad for helping me and consoling me through the tough times. Thank you Mom for supporting me and encouraging me throughout my life. Thank you both for everything.

Acknowledgement I want to thank Professor Jose Carrillo, my thesis supervisor, without him I would not be how I am now. He has pushed me beyond what I thought were my limits. Ever since my first studio with Professor Jose, I have worked harder and cared for my work more than I ever before. I sincerely appreciate all his encouragement and guidance. You have my eternal respect and gratitude. Thank you.

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MARS

[1] Mars Facts. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https://mars. nasa.gov/allaboutmars/ facts/#?c=inspace&s=distance [2] TED. (2016, May 05). Your kids might live on Mars. Here’s how they’ll survive | Stephen Petranek.

Retrieved from https://www. youtube.com/watch?v=t9c7aheZxls [3] Mars Facts. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://nineplanets.org/mars. html

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1.1 Introduction Many would ask, why should we go to Mars? The answer is quite simple really, curiosity. We as humans are curious by instinct. We are always inclined to explore.

Our ancestors who lived in a small piece of land started migrating all around the world until the human race explored every land on Earth. Why stop here? In a few decades, time man could set foot on Mars just as Neil Armstrong took the first step on the moon.

Figure 1: Vitug, E. (2015, October 02). How Will We Get Off Mars? Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ how-will-we-get-off-mars

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Mars is the closest planet to Earth that can potentially host human life. As a result, the topic has become widely adopted by many space-related organizations. Many Mars missions started in the past decade by organizations such as NASA, ESA (European Space Agency), ISRO (Indian Space Research Organization), Roscosmos (Russian Space Agency), and many others.

They are all working on making the dream of colonizing Mars a reality.

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1.2 Problem on Mars

Figure 2: LaguBatak. (n.d.).

Download Massive Dust Storm Raging Across Mars Endangers Nasa Rover Mp3 Download Terbaru 2018. Retrieved from https://bataklagu.com/massivedust-storm-raging-across-marsendangers-nasa-rover.html

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Getting to Mars is one thing, sustaining life on Mars has its set of challenges. The state of Mars at this moment of time does not support human life, and humans can only survive in protected environments. Due to unknown reasons, Mars’ magnetic field has become very weak and only covers certain parts of the planet. As a result, the Martian atmosphere is ten times thinner than the Earth’s atmosphere. The Martian atmosphere consists of 95% carbon dioxide making it unbreathable. The weakness of the magnetic field also allows harmful radiation to reach the surface. The above conditions have left Mars as a cold, dry planet. Researchers and scientists are working on creating solutions to these issues. [2]

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1.3 Project Goal and Assumptions To survive on Mars, humans need food, water, oxygen, energy, and protection from radiation and the weather. The project will be focusing on human nutrition and food generation. It will also address other issues such as oxygen generation, energy generation, and water recycling. This project will assume that another strategy is active to solve the issue of the magnetic field’s weakness. This will thicken the Martian atmosphere over time. This will provide protection from the harmful radiation and allow for any terraforming changes to stay permanently.

Figure 3: Crowley, C. (2016,

June 27). Scientists P ​ retty Sure Humans Could Eat Food Grown in Martian Soil.

Retrieved from http://www. grubstreet.com/2016/06/ scientists-say-plants-grown-insimulated-martin-soil-are-safe. html

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The project’s mission is to create a unique Martian environment where the future generations of the human race can live.

Survival is not the only element that is vital to this project’s success but also future thinking and making this new environment enjoyable.

The project will terraform the Martian regolith and atmosphere while providing the first generation of Martians the resources they need to survive. The end product we want to achieve after hundreds of years is a space where Martians can live in without the need for a protective environment. To give future Martians the freedom that we Earthlings enjoy today. [1]

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1.4 Plants as a Solution The medium this project will use to provide the mentioned solutions will be plants. Why plants? To grow plants, we need nutrients, water, and sunlight. Ice water has been discovered underneath the Martian surface, and the Martian regolith consists of rocks and soil containing most of the required nutrients. Plants seem like a perfect solution to many of the challenges mentioned previously. We can use plants to generate oxygen, food, energy, and water. The project will also use algae as they provide many benefits such as generating oxygen, purifying water, and creating biofuels. The use and benefits of algae will be further explained in another chapter.

Figure 4: Lovett, R. A. (2017, October 04). Water found near Martian equator. Retrieved from https://cosmosmagazine.com/ geoscience/water-found-nearmartian-equator

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‘Nam Cibus Martians’ is a Latin phrase that has two translations in English. It translates to ‘Fuel for Martians’ and ‘Food for Martians.’ As the name of the book suggests, the project aim will be to create a habitat that hosts both humans and plants fueling the future Martian generations. [3]

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1.5 Research Approach and Methodology

Figure 5: Done by author

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The research will provide background information the reader needs to understand the logic behind the decisions that will be made. This will include information about humans, plants, Earth soil, and Mars (climate, soil, and special features). The research approach of this book will be mainly scientific.

Facts and statistics will be given then using critical thinking project decisions will be made.

The book will also analyze many case studies that include both scientific experiments and architectural proposals for Mars. The final step will be to make decisions based on the information and analysis provided and start shaping what the project will be.

EARTH SOIL

MARS SOIL

RESEARCH PLANTS NUTRITION

ARCHITECTURE

HUMAN NUTRITION

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FRAMEWORK

[4] Wardlaw, G. M., Smith, A. M., & Collene, A. (2016). Wardlaws contemporary nutrition. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education.

[5] Mia, M. A. (2015). Nutrition of crop plants.

[6] Stirling, G. R., Hayden, H., Pattison, T., & Stirling, M. (2016).

Soil health, soil biology, soilborne diseases and sustainable agriculture: A guide. Clayton, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing.

[7] The Microbial World: The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/ microbes/nitrogen.htm [8] A Summary of the Hydrologic Cycle. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// ww2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/ guides/mtr/hyd/smry.rxml

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2.1 Human Nutrition 2.1.1 Our Body’s Nutritional Needs To survive, humans need nutrients.

These nutrients are classified into six categories: Carbohydrates, Lipids, Proteins, Vitamins, Minerals, and Water. They could also be classified by function: Energy providing Nutrients, Growth Promoting Nutrients, and Body Regulating Nutrients.

Energy Providing Nutrients: most carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.

Growth Promoting Nutrients: proteins, lipids, some vitamins, some minerals, and water.

Body Regulating Nutrients: proteins, some lipids, some vitamins, some minerals, and water.

Figure 6: Healthy Eating Pyramid. (2019, January 04). Retrieved from https:// www.hsph.harvard.edu/ nutritionsource/healthy-eatingpyramid/

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Carbohydrates, protein, and lipids are also called Macro Nutrients. They provide calories and are needed in grams (larger quantities). Vitamins and Minerals are called Micro Nutrients since they do not provide calories and are needed in micrograms (smaller quantities). [4]

Healthy Eating Pyramid

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2.1.2 Carbohydrates Plants produce carbohydrates during photosynthesis. We consume them by eating plants, and they provide us with the majority of calories in our diets. When we consume carbohydrates, they are converted into glucose (a type of sugar) which is the preferred source of energy for our blood, brain, and nervous system.

2.1.3 Protein Protein builds the structural components of muscles and bones, blood components, body cell structure, and factor into the immunity system of the body. They also have other functions such as maintaining and regulating body functions and providing the essential form of nitrogen that the body needs. Without protein our digestive functions are weakened, the immunity system is compromised, and the absorption of food is reduced.

2.1.4 Lipids

Also called fats, lipids are the primary form of energy storage in our body. Lipids provide most of the energy needed by the body working. They also have other functions such as being shock absorbers surrounding internal organs in the body. We also have fats under our skins that provide insulation from extreme temperatures.

Figure 7: Nirunas95. (n.d.).

WJEC Food Preparation and Nutrition Revision Infographic - Nutrients.

Retrieved from https://www. tes.com/teaching-resource/ wjec-food-preparation-andnutrition-revision-infographicnutrients-11774645

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2.1.5 Vitamins The function of vitamins is to enable chemical reactions in our bodies. Although they yield no energy, they are still essential organic substances that facilitate the chemical reactions that yield energy. [4]

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2.1.6 Minerals Like vitamins, they do not yield energy but have a significant role in the nervous system and structural systems. They form structural components of tissues, provide fluid balance, factor into chemical reactions, and air in releasing energy from macronutrients.

2.1.7 Water It has many functions such as being a solvent, lubricant, and it transports nutrients and wastes in our bodies. They are also the medium for temperature regulation and chemical processes. As it comprises about 60% of our bodies, therefore they are essential for survival. Death will occur if we do not consume water within 1-2 weeks.

2.1.8 Malnutrition

Figure 8: Morris, N. F., Stewart,

S., Riley, M. D., & Maguire, G. P. (2016). The Indigenous Australian Malnutrition Project: The burden and impact of malnutrition in Aboriginal Australian and Torres Strait Islander hospital inpatients, and validation of a malnutrition screening tool for use in hospitals—study rationale and protocol. SpringerPlus, 5(1). doi:10.1186/s40064-016-29435

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We have listed and described what nutrients are essential for survival, but it is also important to know that without a balance between these nutrients, we could suffer from malnutrition. Malnutrition occurs when there is a deficiency, excess, or imbalance of nutrients leading diseases such as anemia, and goiter.

Malnutrition also includes undernutrition (when the body is not getting enough food) and overnutrition (when the body is receiving an excess of food). Undernutrition results in declining body functions and overnutrition causes lethal damage to the body. To avoid malnutrition, we have to balance what we eat and include all nutrient categories in our daily intake.

2.1.9 Balance & Variety Balance in diet is vital to a healthy body. That is why we must provide a variety of food and nutrients to the future inhabitants of Mars. We need to ensure the next generation of humanity is living healthily so they can expand our race to Mars. [4]

Effects of Malnutrition

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2.2 Plant Nutrition The definition of plant nutrition is the physiological process of uptake and utilization of elements (both mineral and non-mineral) by the plants for the growth and development process (Mia 1). To provide the nutrients humans need to survive we need to understand what the plants need to grow.

2.2.1 Elements Out of the 118 elements present on Earth, nearly 60 elements are absorbed by plants. These include utilized, nonfunctional, and toxic elements to plants. Only 16 elements are essential to growing plants.

An element is classified as essential if it satisfies the following conditions (Mia 3): The plant cannot complete the life cycle without it.

The elements must be involved in the metabolic process of the plant.

Another element cannot replace one element.

Should satisfy the full range of plants, not a particular plant species or a particular environmental condition.

Figure 9: Mia, M. A. (2015).

Nutrition of crop plants.

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Plants absorb elements through various media. Non-mineral elements (3 of the essential elements are non-mineral) are obtained from water and air. Mineral elements (the remaining 13 essential elements) are obtained from the soil. [5]

Discovery of essential nutrient elements

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2.2.2 Nutrients There are many ways to classify the essential nutrients for plants, but the one we will focus on is classification based on the quantity required for plant growth. The elements are divided into three categories based on this classification: Basic Nutrients, Macro Nutrients, and Micro Nutrients.

Basic nutrients are abundant on Earth and constitute 96% of the dry matter of plants.

They are Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen.

Plants require macronutrients in more substantial amounts (they consist more than 0.01% of dry matter of plants). Their content on Earth is relatively higher than other elements. They are split into primary and secondary macronutrients.

Figure 10: Mia, M. A. (2015).

Nutrition of crop plants.

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Primary macronutrients: Nitrogen, Phosphorus, and Potassium.

Secondary macronutrients: Calcium, Magnesium, and Sulfur.

Micronutrients are also essential to plants but are required in smaller quantities (they consist less than 0.01% of dry matter of plants). They are Iron, Zinc, Boron, Copper, Manganese, Molybdenum, and Chlorine.

Other mineral elements like Sodium, Silicon, Aluminum, Cobalt, and Nickle are not essential but can be beneficial to plants and enhance their growth in certain conditions. [5]

Essential plant nutrient elements

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2.2.3 Absorption

Figure 11: Chapter 37: Plant

Nutrition - ppt video online download. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://slideplayer.com/ slide/9376921/

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Plants absorb nutrients using the roots as their primary source, but they could also absorb smaller quantities using aerial parts.

It is only useful to absorb micronutrients by aerial parts since they are only required in minimal quantities. The aerial method could be done through foliar sprays that supply the nutrients through misting. The foliar spray is effective in problem soil and under waterdeficient conditions like Martian soil and can increase crop yield up to 12-25%. This technique is used in aeroponics that we will be looking at later. Macronutrients are usually applied through fertilizers if not found in the soil. [5]

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2.3 Soil We now have a basic understanding of the nutrients humans and plants need, so we also need al to understand how Earth provides these nutrients to be able to terraform the Martian soil to agricultural soil.

An agricultural soil is a medium that allows crops to grow without impediment which produces the maximum yield possible for that environment. To create a healthy agricultural soil for plants on Mars we need to understand what a healthy soil provides.

2.3.1 Healthy Soil

Figure 12: Nauta, P. (2018, April 19). The Soil Food Web. Retrieved from https://www. smilinggardener.com/collection/ the-soil-food-web/

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Healthy soil has many functions: storage and release of nutrients, the capacity to absorb water, provide water access to roots, and suppress diseases. Such soil does not only benefit plants but also helps the ecosystem by maintaining the quality of water, minimizing greenhouse gas emissions, detoxification of harmful chemicals, preventing of nutrients loss to waterways, and maintaining biodiversity (the variety of plant life in a particular habitat). It is crucial for us that Martian soil ensures biodiversity and enhances the ecosystem as they are critical elements for our project to provide variety for our future Martian generation. [6]

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2.3.2 Components of Soil It is essential to understand what constitutes soil and what components contribute to it. The soil has four main components: Minerals, Air, Water, and Organic Matter. Each of these components plays a significant role in the life cycle of plants.

2.3.2.1 Minerals

Figure 13,14: Stirling, G. R.,

Hayden, H., Pattison, T., & Stirling, M. (2016). Soil health, soil biology, soilborne diseases and sustainable agriculture: A guide. Clayton, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing.

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Minerals are made up of the sand, silt, and clay particles existing within the soil.

These minerals are what gives the soil its physical characteristics and texture. Soils dominated by clay particles are called ‘heavy soils’ and soils dominated by sand are called ‘light-textured’ soils. Clay particles are the smallest in size out of the three. Not all clay particles are the same; some soils contain several types of clay minerals. The proportion of each type determines how well the soil will hold onto the nutrients and how resistant it is to compaction (Stirling 7). Sand particles are more massive than clay but have a smaller surface area to volume ratio; hence, they do not hold onto nutrients as well as clay soils.

Sand particles are the largest but they do not bind together, and they also have a low surface area to volume ratio. Due to these issues, sandy soils are susceptible to erosion do not protect organic matter (Stirling 8). [6]

Figure 13: Approximate proportions of soil components

Figure 14: Mineral components vary in sizes 39

2.3.2.2 Air Air is a variable component of the soil.

The amount of air within the soil is dependent on the structure, compaction, and moisture content of the soil. Aeration is the process of perforating the soil with small pores to allow air, water, and nutrients to reach the roots and it is vital to plant growth. Air within the soil is a lot more humid than the air in the atmosphere; it also has up to 10 times more carbon dioxide and has less oxygen. This means an exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen between the soil and the atmosphere is essential for soil to be healthy. Oxygen enters the soil and spreads through the soil pores; it is then absorbed by the roots and allowing the plants to respire. This respiration releases carbon dioxide to the atmosphere and the exchange continues.

2.3.2.3 Water

Figure 15: Stirling, G. R., Hayden, H., Pattison, T., & Stirling, M. (2016). Soil health, soil biology, soilborne diseases and sustainable agriculture: A guide. Clayton, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing.

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Water is absorbed by the roots to allow plants to grow and transpire (the process of water movement through the plant being released through evaporation via the plant’s aerial parts). The water is also the component that carries and delivers the nutrients to the plants. The amount of water present in the soil also affects aeration; an increase in water content decreases aeration. Water enters the soil through rain or irrigation filling the soil pores. The size of the soil pores is what affects the rate of movement of the water, and it also determines the water capacity of the soil. Larger pores hold more water, ensuring easy access for plants. [6]

Water fills the air space between the particles

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2.3.2.4 Organic Matter The organic matter component represents the smallest soil fraction, but it is imperative because it gives the soil the desired characteristics to become an agricultural soil. Organic matter contains both living and dead components but it mostly composed of carbon (58%). The living components refer to microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi, and dead components refer to new residue input from plants and animals that enter the soil. Carbon enters the soil as organic matter since carbon dioxide is extracted from the atmosphere through photosynthesis (after the plants die and decompose into the soil). Organic matter also contains the nutrients left over from the plants and releases these nutrients into the soil.

Figure 16,17: Stirling, G. R.,

Hayden, H., Pattison, T., & Stirling, M. (2016). Soil health, soil biology, soilborne diseases and sustainable agriculture: A guide. Clayton, Vic.: CSIRO Publishing.

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Organic matter continuously cycles through the soil. It is gained through plant or animal input and is lost as carbon dioxide or methane. As the residue enters the soil, it is degraded into components used by bacteria and fungi (microbes). These microbes multiply and draw the nutrients contained within the soil to form microbial biomass. This biomass is then consumed by soil predators such as centipedes, spiders, and ants and are released back into the soil. This forms what is known as the ‘soil food web.’ As this process continues, more complex organic compounds that are difficult to degrade are transformed into ‘humus.’ Humus is vital to a healthy soil because it retains moisture in the soil, it loosens the soil to allow for better aeration, and increases soil organisms which improve the nutrient cycle. With further degradation, a resistant organic matter fraction is formed that is relatively inert and remains stable for thousands of years (Stirling 12). Therefore, organic matter is crucial to developing a rich everlasting agricultural soil for us to grow plants. [6]

Figure 16: Pictorial view of some organisms found in soil

Figure 17: Proportional make-up of organic matter 43

2.4 Nitrogen Cycle

Figure 18: Nitrogen cycle: Steps

of Nitrogen cycle -. (2018, July 15). Retrieved from http:// www.onlinebiologynotes. com/nitrogen-cycle-steps-ofnitrogen-cycle/

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Nitrogen is one of the essential elements for plants. However, plants can only use reactive forms of nitrogen such as ammonia and nitrate. Over 90% of the nitrogen present on Earth is in the atmosphere as an inert gaseous form. Certain microorganisms can use photosynthesis to extract and convert nitrogen into a reactive form that can be used by plants. When animals or plants die, the nitrogen contained in their protein is decomposed by bacteria into amino acids which in turn are broken down into ammonium ions. The bacteria convert ammonium into nitrite, then either degrade this to nitrogen gas or oxidize it back to nitrate, where it is absorbed by plant roots, and the cycle begins again (Wagner). [7]

Nitrogen Cycle

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2.5 Hydrologic Cycle Water is another essential element for plants. On Mars, we will need to recycle all the water we have because of its scarcity.

To achieve maximum efficiency in recycling water on Mars we need to understand how the water is recycled naturally on Earth. All the water present on Earth is continuously recycled within what is called the hydrologic cycle.

Figure 19: The Water Cycle. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// pmm.nasa.gov/education/ water-cycle

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The cycle begins with solar energy evaporating water from the surface of the ocean. The water vapor then condenses and forms clouds which travel across the Earth until at some point it returns to the ground as precipitation. When the water reaches the ground, it either evaporates into the atmosphere or penetrates the surface and become groundwater. Groundwater either finds its way back into the oceans, rivers, or streams or is released into the atmosphere via transpiration. Surface runoff keeps the balance of water between the Earth’s surface and the oceans, rivers, and streams. [8]

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2.6 Chapter Recap and Deduction We have looked at the importance of each nutrient the human body needs and their functions. We understood that the human body needs these nutrients at different ratios with balance and variety. This will affect the quantities of plants grown for each category.

If the project consists of different facilities for each plant category, the size of each facility will differ.

Figure 20: Nutrient Cycling. (n.d.). Retrieved from http:// ib.bioninja.com.au/standardlevel/topic-4-ecology/41species-communities-and/ nutrient-cycling.html

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We also learned about plant nutrition and how the ecosystem works on Earth.

Soil components differ on Mars; the project will have to adapt and try to compensate for such changes. Organic matter is essential in terraforming the Martian terrain into a nutrientrich soil as it enables the nutrient cycle. The nitrogen cycle, and hydrologic cycle are also vital to a successful sustainable environment.

The nitrogen cycle will be conducted using bacteria (organic matter) and nitrogen fixers.

The hydrologic cycle will be maintained using all possible means of recycling. For the project to be successful, it needs to provide all of the above elements.

Nutrient Cycle

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RESEARCH

[9] Perchonok, M. H., Cooper, M. R., & Catauro, P. M. (2012).

Mission to Mars: Food Production and Processing for the Final Frontier. Annual Review of Food Science and Technology, 3(1), 311-330. doi:10.1146/annurevfood-022811-101222 [10] Tibbitts, T. W., & Henninger, D. L. (1997). Food Production in Space: Challenges and Perspectives. Plant Production in Closed Ecosystems, 189-203. doi:10.1007/978-94-015-88898_12 [11] Wamelink, G. W., Frissel, J. Y., Krijnen, W. H., Verwoert, M. R., & Goedhart, P. W. (2014). Can Plants Grow on Mars and the Moon: A Growth Experiment on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants. PLoS ONE, 9(8). doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0103138 [12] Schubert, D. (2017).

Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/ opag-2017-0010

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3.1 History of Space Food System Technology NASA’s food technology has evolved tremendously over the years. Project Mercury was the first program to put the first American astronauts in space. John Glenn was the first man to eat in space when he consumed apple pie sauce from an aluminum tube on the third Mercury mission in 1962.

Figure 21: Typical Gemini Meal.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// airandspace.si.edu/multimediagallery/5181hjpg?id=5181 Figure 22: Apollo Space Food Beef with Vegetables. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// airandspace.si.edu/multimediagallery/5197hjpg?id=5197

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“Tube foods” and “Cube foods” were the early forms of space developed by NASA in early space programs of Mercury (suborbital missions) and Gemini (lowearth orbit missions) which were operated collectively from 1961 to 1966. These food systems were characterized by caloric density and simplicity, but their acceptability quickly decreased when their consumption during space flights was found to be inadequate.

Their consumption was found to be a primary factor in affecting weight loss of astronauts in Mercury and Gemini missions. [9]

Figure 21: Typical Gemini Mission Meal

Figure 22: Apollo Space Mission Food (compressed and dehydrated) 53

By the time Apollo missions were conducted, the food system had evolved immensely. NASA transitioned from using tube and cube foods to new processing methods to provide safe and palatable foods to the crew (Perchonok 313). NASA used thermos-stabilized pouches and cans which resulted in higher quality products with less waste. Irradiated food was also first used in the Apollo missions. The food was rehydrated using a water dispenser in the spacecraft. The “spoon bowl” package was then opened from the top, and the food was consumed using utensils. This food system although much better than tube foods was still lacking in providing sufficient nutrients for the crew. The crew’s feedback was that food needed to be presented in a more familiar form.

Figure 23: Eating aboard

Skylab. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://airandspace. si.edu/multimediagallery/5187640jpg?id=5187 Figure 24: Skylab Space

Food Turkey and Gravy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// airandspace.si.edu/multimediagallery/5186hjpg?id=5186

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The Skylab food system was then introduced in 1973 which was characterized by increased palatability and a greater variety of its menu compared to the Apollo missions food system. Skylab program mission was launched two years before the crew missions, so it was packaged in aluminum cans with a minimum shelf life of two years. Skylab was the first food system to have refrigerators, freezers, and food warmers which led to items like ice cream, lobster, chilled beverages and desserts to be available in flight. The crew were provided with scissors to help with the opening of packages and together with a knife, fork, and spoon constitute the utensils kit that is still used in spaceflights today. [9]

Figure 23: Skylab Mission Space Station

Figure 24: Skylab Mission’s way of storing food

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3.2 Current Space Food System Technology The final mission of the American Space Shuttle Program (1981-2011) which was the STS-135 was launched in July 2011.

The STS-135 had a food system similar to the one we have today on the International Space Station (ISS). Refrigerators and freezers are not available anymore on the ISS since NASA has shifted from long-term storage of food to shelf-stable food (food that can be stored at room temperature in a sealed container). The new food system consists of processed foods, thermo-stabilized and irradiated foods, and intermediate moisture foods. Processed foods are freeze-dried and vacuum packed and are consumed after rehydrating or reheating the food. Rehydration is done by connecting to a water dispenser. The ISS can support such a system that uses water since the fuel cells used on the shuttles provide water as a byproduct of fuel consumption. Thermostabilized and irradiated foods are processed to commercial sterility; intermediated moisture foods are ready to eat and vacuum packed in individual servings (Perchonok 314).

Condiments have also been introduced as an essential part of today’s food system. They are provided in individual packaging in bulk supplies and dropper bottles in the cases of salt and pepper (in liquid form).

Figure 25: Dunbar, B. (n.d.).

Space Food Laboratory Gallery.

Retrieved from https://www. nasa.gov/audience/formedia/ presskits/spacefood/gallery_ jsc2003e63872.html

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Crew expeditions in the ISS last about 180 days. The ISS holds six crewmembers, three from the US, Europe, and Japan, and the remaining three from Russia. 50% of the food supplies are provided by the US, Europe, and Japan while the other 50% is provided by Russia giving the astronauts a variety of food.

Today the ISS food system includes over 180 different US food items that are stowed by category and crewmembers are allowed to customize their meals to their preferences.

Food items sent to the ISS have a shelf life of 18 months given the length of expeditions in the ISS. [9]

Food used in the International Space Station today

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3.3 Future of Space Food Technology 3.3.1 Transition

Figure 26: Granath, B. (2017,

April 21). Lunar, Martian Greenhouses Designed to Mimic Those on Earth.

Retrieved from https://www. nasa.gov/feature/lunar-martiangreenhouses-designed-tomimic-those-on-earth

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NASA’s current food system is based on prepackaged food items that are sent to the ISS on a regular basis. This system will not work for long-duration missions beyond the Earth’s low-orbit. “Based on the specifications of the current NASA shelfstable packaged food system, a Mars mission requires 9660 kg of packaged food to support a crew of six. Of that mass, approximately 15% (1440 kg) is contributed by packaging, which contributes directly to waste mass and volume in orbit” (Perchonok 315). NASA is currently working on making a bioregenerative food system (BRFS) possible on Mars. [9]

Food used in the International Space Station today

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3.3.2 Advantages of BRFS The difference between the prepackaged system and BRFS is that fresh crops will be grown on Mars. Growing crops means fewer quantities of stowed ‘food’ to be delivered to Mars thus allowing for smaller vehicles and less propellant.

Another advantage is that waste could now be recycled as fertilizers for the crops.

Growing and maintaining crops also provides horticultural benefits for the crew. NASA has always found difficulty in sufficiently providing the required nutrients for its previous space missions. Fresh crops have been reported to have higher nutritional value than processed foods. The crew members will also be more satisfied with the taste and appeal of freshly made dishes in comparison to processed and packaged food of the current system.

3.3.3 Disadvantages of BRFS The risk of food scarcity is always there since the crew will be depending only the BRFS, in case of any failure there will not be enough food to meet the crew’s nutrition needs. This is not an issue for the current prepackaged system since all the food is already processed before being sent and is ready to crew consumption immediately.

This also brings up the fact that the BRFS would require crew time not only to maintain the system but also to prepare the food harvested for consumption. This implies that the crew going on the Mars missions would have to undergo a lot more training to be able to perform such tasks. Furthermore, the infrastructure required to support such a system would need increased equipment mass and power usage than the current system.

Figure 27: Read “Recapturing a

Future for Space Exploration: Life and Physical Sciences Research for a New Era” at NAP.edu. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.nap.edu/ read/13048/chapter/6#68

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Although there are some disadvantages to the BRFS, they could all be managed and solved by intelligent design.

Overall the benefits of the system outweigh the problems and will allow us to build a habitat a human would enjoy living in on Mars.

[9]

Bioreactor (Microbes) Inedible Waste

Urine Feces

Oxygen

Greywater

Nutrients

Carbon Dioxide

Biomass Production (Plants)

Carbon Dioxide

Crew

Greywater

Oxygen Food Water

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3.4 Potential Farming Media Figure 28: Viewpoint: Organic

food fight over hydroponics about money-and that's how farming should be. (2018, January 12). Retrieved from https://geneticliteracyproject. org/2017/11/17/organicindustrys-conflict-hydroponicsmoney-thats-farming/ Figure 29: How Does Aeroponics Work? (2018, October 19). Retrieved from https://modernfarmer. com/2018/07/how-doesaeroponics-work/

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There are different methods to grow crops in a BRFS: farming in Martian soil, hydroponic farming, and aeroponic. These three methods are the most common among experiments and studies made today. An experiment/study for each method will be analyzed to determine which method should be used and if any perform considerably better than the rest.

Figure 28: Hydroponic Farming

Figure 29: Aeroponic Farming 63

3.4.1 Martian Soil Simulant Experiment The goal of this experiment is to investigate whether the selected crops will germinate (begin to grow from the seed) and develop in the Martian soil simulant. This experiment also simulated crop growth on Moon soil simulant, but we will be ignoring that for this case study. NASA manufactured the Martian regolith simulant. It is mimicked by using volcanic soils, as has been done

by NASA (Wamelink 2). The simulant is comparable to the Earth’s soil in its mineral composition. Since the experiment is done on Earth, it will be assumed that the plants will grow in a closed environment with conditions similar to Earth’s light exposure and atmosphere. For comparison, plants are also grown in coarse and very nutrient-poor Earth soil, which is not the best soil to grow on.

Figure 30: Wamelink, G. W., Frissel, J. Y., Krijnen, W. H., Verwoert, M. R., & Goedhart, P. W. (2014). Can Plants Grow on Mars and the Moon: A Growth Experiment on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants. PLoS ONE, 9(8). doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0103138

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The crops selected were grouped into three categories: 4 types of crops, four nitrogen fixers, and six wild plants that occur naturally in the Netherlands. Nitrogen fixers are plants that can draw nitrogen from the air and store it in their roots. Most plants cannot use nitrogen as a gas from the air, so nitrogen fixer plants are used because when they die they release the nitrogen stored in their roots into the soil. [11]

Species used in the experiment

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Figure 31,32: Wamelink, G. W.,

Frissel, J. Y., Krijnen, W. H., Verwoert, M. R., & Goedhart, P. W. (2014). Can Plants Grow on Mars and the Moon: A Growth Experiment on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants. PLoS ONE, 9(8). doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0103138

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Small pots were filled with the soil simulant, and demineralized water was added to each pot. For each plant species, 20 replica pots were used. Each pot was placed into a petri dish (a shallow cylindrical glass dish) to hold excess water and prevent the roots of each plant from growing into other pots.

Results showed that all species germinated on both soils. The crop species had the highest germination percentages on average, but the percentage of plants forming leaves are sometimes much lower than germination values indicating that some plants stop developing or die. [11]

Figure 31

Figure 32

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Overall most plant species performed much better in the Martian soil simulant than in Earth soil. The plants were able to grow at roughly the same rate, but the biomass increment was much higher on the Martian simulant. The Martian simulant also displayed better water holding capacity than the Earth soil of similar nutrient content.

Conclusion The results of this experiment show us that it is possible to grow plants in Martian soil provided certain conditions be met. We have to provide Earth-like conditions and develop a closed system environment for plants to survive on Martian soil. This could be a way to begin farming on Mars, but it limits us within a protected environment. It is undoubtedly a way to start until scientists develop ways to terraform the Martian atmosphere into one where humanity and plants could live in without protection. It could take up to a thousand years before that is achieved, but at least we would have a way to grow food that we would enjoy using the native resources of Mars.

Figure 33: Wamelink, G. W., Frissel, J. Y., Krijnen, W. H., Verwoert, M. R., & Goedhart, P. W. (2014). Can Plants Grow on Mars and the Moon: A Growth Experiment on Mars and Moon Soil Simulants. PLoS ONE, 9(8). doi:10.1371/journal. pone.0103138

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As mentioned before plants cannot use nitrogen as a gas, so nitrogen fixers could become one of the solutions that would allow us not just to terraform the atmosphere but also the soil. Life is a cycle which death is a part. The more we plant the more dying and decomposing of these plants will happen which will keep enriching our environment with minerals that would finally ‘fix’ the soil after a long time. The time in which we could go outside our protected environment. The time where we would not need a ‘controlled environment’ to be able to grow food. [11]

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3.4.2 Hydroponic Farming Study This study is designed to emphasize the challenges met for BRFS and focused on hydroponics as the growth medium. The research uses previous studies that say that a system using plant growth could provide life support for one person with an area of 25-40 m2. The study will showcase a system that is intended to provide the daily energy and protein requirements of one person, in addition to providing water, the oxygen needed, and consuming the carbon dioxide released by the one person. The system will ensure equal gas exchange between the plants and the humans by using the waste processor.

The crops selected were based on food requirements that are needed in large amount: 70% of them being carbohydrates, 20% being proteins, and 10% being fats.

Carbohydrates supply will have a significant effect on the space planning of the facilities as they are the most substantial amount required. The emphasis is on crops with the highest quantities of digestible food per unit area and time. Multiple growing units are established so that maintenance could be done to one of them while the others operate, and for redundancy in case of failure or disease problems.

Figure 34: Done by author

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The growing media used is hydroponics because it provides a few benefits. First, the system could potentially be of small mass and volume. Second, the system could maintain optimum plant productivity. Finally, the system used should be predictable and effectively automated (Tibbitts 6). [10]

Carbon Dioxide & Water

Solar Energy

Oxygen

Food

Inedible Wastes Nutrients Human

Physico Chemical Waste Processing

Wastes

Biological Waste Processing

Concept of Bioregenrative Life Support System

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Hydroponic systems are also limiting in some aspects. It is difficult to ensure sufficient fluid and oxygen are delivered to the roots. The system is also vulnerable to injury if liquid circulation is disrupted at any time.

Figure 35: Herridge, L. (2016,

February 17). NASA Plant Researchers Explore Question of Deep-Space Food Crops.

Retrieved from https://www. nasa.gov/feature/nasa-plantresearchers-explore-questionof-deep-space-food-crops/

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The main focus of this study as mentioned is to emphasize the challenges that a hydroponic system like the one described above would face. The waste processor has to effectively recycle at least 95% of the waste to be utilized for life support.

Portions not recycled need to be replaced with raw materials at the present location.

Air revitalization and liquid decontamination are issues to be considered. It is generally assumed that it is impossible to maintain a sterile environment in exterritorial facilities as long as there is human habitation.

Microorganisms capable of producing toxins will have to be controlled and reduced by using methods such as filtration, ultraviolet irradiation, gamma irradiation, and other procedures. This will add more mass, more maintenance time, and more material costs.

[10]

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Conclusion This study has highlighted not just the challenges of hydroponic farming but also general challenges to be met by any method of farming. Toxins produced by microorganisms are a concern for any space habitat including plants. The means to maintain any system developed will need to consider mass, time, and cost. The study also points out recycling as a vital aspect in the success of any system. In this study, the system is developed for one person. Plants produce the oxygen that person breathes.

The carbon dioxide the plant consumes is released by the person. The water that evaporates for plants provides the clean water required by the person. The greywater left over from human use is recycled to irrigate plants.

Figure 36: Harper, L. D., Neal, C. R., Poynter, J., Schalkwyk, J. D., & Wingo, D. R. (2016). Life Support for a Low-Cost Lunar Settlement: No Showstoppers.

New Space, 4(1), 40-49. doi:10.1089/space.2015.0029

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Hydroponics is one of the systems that could be used that does not require soil to grow plants. Such systems are more predictable and more easily controllable than using soil. This method provides a safer option but does not allow for future adaptation with the native resources of Mars. It would allow us to grow food but within protected and controlled environments, but it is one of the safest and viable ways to do so.

Example of a closed recycling loop in a life support system

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3.4.3 Aeroponics Farming Experiment A 400-day aeroponics system is tested in this experiment. The area used for growing the plants will be 11.9 m2 to supply ten crewmembers; 11 crops will be simulated.

The crops will be cultivated in trays, and the two approaches will be tested. In-Phase cultivation where all the trays start together and are harvested together meaning fixed harvest times, and Shifted cultivation where trays start in a sequence. This provides different biomass output patterns for each approach. Crew consumption, crop shelf life, crew working hours, and the risk of food spoiling are all analyzed in the results.

Figure 37,38: Schubert, D. (2017). Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/opag-2017-0010

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All of the plants are grown in a standardized size tray of 40cm x 60cm with a space of 5 cm in between tray. Each tray will hold one plant species. Different tray layouts are made depending on the optimum spacing for each species. The crops were chosen based on low harvest input to minimize work and short shelf life to minimize storage needs.

[12]

Tray layout

Figure 37: Tray lid standards

Figure 38: Plant distribution 77

Aeroponics, as mentioned, is the method used to cultivate the crops.

Aeroponics is growing plants by suspending them in the air and providing the nutrients they needed by misting devices. In this experiment, the nutrient delivery system consists of two-bulk solution tanks providing the nutrients needed for either vegetative or reproductive (fruiting) plants through aerosols.

The plants are cultivated in controlled environmental settings.

Figure 39,40,41: Schubert, D. (2017). Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/opag-2017-0010

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There are four different growth stages in the production life cycle: Germination, Juvenile Vegetative, Adult Vegetative, and then Generative. Germination is the process of plants growing out of seeds. Juvenile Vegetative is when the plant cannot yet develop flowers. Adult Vegetative is when plants are fully developed. Generative is when plants can be harvested. [12]

Figure 39: Overview of adjusted crop list

Figure 40: Overview of production phases

Figure 41: Visualization of different production lifecycles

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Figure 42,43: Schubert, D. (2017). Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/opag-2017-0010

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The greenhouse’s design was split into three main areas: nursery for the first two growth stages, main cultivation area, and pre- and post-processing area. Eight work procedures are needed for the cultivated process: Germination, Thinning and Selection, Transplant into Grow-out Trays, Single and Selective Harvest Events, Pruning and Training, Pollination, Quality Check-out and Harvest Procedures, and finally Tray and Chamber Cleaning. [12]

Figure 42

Figure 43: Overall work algorithm

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In-Phase Cultivation (IPC) and Shifted Cultivation (SC) are analyzed and compared to determine the most effective cultivation method. Different demand values per day were used for the comparison. Many aspects are analyzed including storage needs, crew work hours, biomass results, biomass consumption rates, and biomass productivity.

From the results, we can see that biomass output was increased due to the inclusion of a nursery instead of growing the plants in the same spot from the beginning.

The IPC approach provided high working hours for the crew at one point and none until cultivation while the SC approach provided consistent working hours of 3.5 hours per day for one crew member meaning only 5% of the crew had to work on the food system.

Figure 44,45: Schubert, D. (2017). Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/opag-2017-0010

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The SC approach outperformed the IPC as it provided fewer storage times (to avoid spoilage) and more days of full and partial (days where consumption is between 0 and 100% of the demand value) consumption days for higher demand values than the IPC approach. The experiment recommends 2100g/d for crew consumption to be the most appropriate. It was reported that a combined value for plant related operations for this kind of system is 6.19min/m2 d. This experiment confirms the consistency of the claim as it had similar results. [12]

Figure 44

Figure 45

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Figure 46: Different habitat biomass consumption for IPC 84

Figure 47: Different habitat biomass consumption for SC 85

Conclusion

Figure 46,47,48,49,50: Schubert,

D. (2017). Greenhouse production analysis of early mission scenarios for Moon and Mars habitats. Open Agriculture, 2(1). doi:10.1515/ opag-2017-0010

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This experiment confirms aeroponics as another viable food production method for Mars. The comparison between IPC and SC approaches shows us that SC is a more effective cultivation method, this will impact the design of the BRFS as facilities could be made for different crops each operating at their optimum performance. This experiment has also shown us the importance of considering crew work hours and allocation which we could use while designing the habitat. It also gives us numbers regarding space planning which will identify ratios of areas for the program in designing more clearly. Moreover, it gives us information about the program of the facilities needed to grow the plants.

Figure 48: Overview of days with no-, partial-, and full habitat consumption

Figure 49: Average daily storage situation

Figure 50: Overview of days with specific accumulated work durations 87

3.5 Chapter Recap and Deduction As we have seen, a bioregenerative food system is the future of producing food on Mars. Martian soil may be the hardest to start with regarding growing media, but it should be the end goal as we want to use as many native resources as we can to indeed become Martians. We, humans and plants, need to be able to live outside controlled environments to have the different but equal freedom to the one we have on Earth. Some solutions have been provided to terraform the Martian soil by using nitrogen fixers as an example.

Hydroponics or aeroponics are easier options to start growing food on Mars since they require controlled environments that humanity is close to perfecting. Aeroponics seem to be the more efficient method in comparison with hydroponics. Aeroponics uses a lot less water which is a valuable resource on Mars, and the limitations of hydroponics previously mentioned could be avoided in aeroponics.

Figure 51: Asgardia Newsroom. (2018, July 24). Could Bioregenerative Life Support Systems be the Answer to Colonizing Mars? Retrieved from https:// asgardiaspacenews.com/ bioregenerative-life-systems/

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It was essential to look at not just the different farming methods, but also different cultivation approaches. We learned that the SC approach is much more effective than the IPC approach since it provides more consistency in biomass production and working hours for the crew. This combined with what we learned in the other experiment about using multiple cultivation units would influence the design immensely. Instead of thinking of the project as one entity, it could be an interconnected community providing specialized facilities in higher numbers to avoid risk if a failure occurs.

The areas required for cultivation spaces were also explored as well as the functions of the spaces in these experiments; this will significantly influence space planning and the program of the project.

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ALGAE

[13] Uses of Algae - Fertilizer, Energy source, Pollution control - Oilgae - Oil from Algae. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.oilgae.com/ algae/use/use.html [14] Qiu, F. (2013, July 09). Algae Architecture.

Retrieved from https://repository.tudelft.nl/ islandora/object/uuid:b0b6e05d-49d8-4cc09e28-f510b0a8b215?collection=research [15] Earth’s toughest life could survive on Mars. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www. planetary.org/blogs/guest-blogs/20120515earth-life-survive-mars.html [16] NASA Hopes to Rely on Algae and Bacteria for Oxygen Production on Mars.

(2015, May 16). Retrieved from http://www. sciencetimes.com/articles/6407/20150516/ nasa-hopes-to-rely-on-algae-and-bacteria-foroxygen-production-on-mars.htm [17] Stone, M. (2015, September 24). The Key to Colonizing Mars Could Be These Tiny Green Microbes. Retrieved from https:// gizmodo.com/the-key-to-colonizing-marscould-be-these-tiny-green-mi-1731268670 [18] Cyanobacteria: Life History and Ecology. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.ucmp. berkeley.edu/bacteria/cyanolh.html [19] GreenWater Laboratories. (n.d.). Algae & Cyanobacteria. Retrieved from http:// greenwaterlab.com/algae-cyanobacteria.html [20] Van der Hulst, C. (2012). Microalgae cultivation systems: Analysis of microalgae cultivation systems and LCA for biodiesel production. Utrecht University. Retrieved from https://dspace.library.uu.nl/bitstream/ handle/1874/280630/Masterthesis Corina van der Hulst.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y.

[21] Rathi, A. (2017, February 14). An algae that survived two years in outer space may hold the secret to growing food on Mars.

Retrieved from https://qz.com/909040/ algae-and-cyanobacteria-survived-two-yearsexposed-to-outer-space-on-the-internationalspace-station/

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4.1 Introduction to Algae Algae has been receiving much attention in the past few years as a form of energy generation, oxygen production, and potentially a food source. It might be worth investigating its uses and how well it could perform on Mars.

Figure 52: Laux, S. (2018, May 10). How to prevent algal blooms at your lake. Retrieved from https://cottagelife.com/ general/how-to-prevent-algalblooms-at-your-lake/

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The term algae is very broad and is used to refer to almost all aquatic, photosynthetic organisms on Earth. We will also be discussing the species known as cyanobacteria. Cyanobacteria were previously known as blue-green algae, but biologists have discovered that they are a type of bacteria but are still sometimes categorized with other algae since they are also aquatic and photosynthetic (they produce their food through photosynthesis). [19]

Algae

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4.2 Uses of Algae Algae has many uses including energy generation, oxygen production, fertilization, pollution control, and being a food source.

Algae can be used to make biodiesel by chemically transforming the oil obtained from it. Biodiesel is an ideal source of renewable energy. Hydrogen, Methane, Ethanol, and Refined Transportation Fuels can also be produced using algae. Algae offer several forms of fuel production which makes them an attractive and renewable source of energy.

Algae absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and nutrients from water to produce oxygen. Algae generate about 75% of the oxygen that is present in the Earth’s atmosphere. Algae are can also be used as biofertilizers and soil conditioners because they are rich in nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, and most importantly nitrogen.

Figure 53: Casey, T. (2015, August 05). Energy Department Foresees Algae Biofuel in your Future. Retrieved from https:// www.triplepundit.com/2015/08/ energy-dept-foresees-algaebiofuel-in-your-future/

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Algae thrive on polluted water and can be used in wastewater treatment. They turn agricultural waste water into usable byproducts like biomass that is used for conversion to energy. They also extract and accumulate heavy metals from water for removal or recycling. Finally, algae are used as a food supplement by many cultures.

People eat seaweed in salads and sushi and take supplements made from spirulina (a type of microalgae). Algae contain protein, amino acids, fatty acids, and vitamins which is very beneficial to humans. [13]

Algae Biofuel

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4.3 Cyanobacteria

Figure 54: Nissen, J. (2018,

September 27). New blue green algae blooms in Lake Superior. Retrieved from https://www.greatlakesnow. org/2018/09/new-blue-greenalgae-blooms-in-lake-superior/

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This bacteria is 3.5 billion years old and were largely responsible for creating the breathable atmosphere on Earth that we live in today. They are the most ancient organism on Earth and through photosynthesis have converted the early atmosphere of the Earth which consisted of methane, ammonia, and other gases into the composition that exists today. Research suggests that cyanobacteria are one the most effective ways to terraform an atmosphere which is why it could be one of the solutions to terraforming Mars. [18]

Cyanobacteria

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4.4 Growing Algae When growing algae, there are several variables to consider. Light input, culture density, carbon dioxide input, nutrients, and mixing.

4.4.1 Light Light input is the most crucial variable when growing algae. There are two distinct light intensity levels that each algae culture has. First is at zero light intensity (at night) where algae do not grow. Second is the point of maximum light absorption, called the saturation point, in which algae become saturated and cannot absorb more light; if this point is exceeded, it will negatively affect the algae growth. The excess light collected will also be dissipated as heat, considered waste energy, but this could be used to heat spaces.

The algae flow diagram shows that biomass collection and dewatering pipes are used in the structure, this could indicate that the project is also making biofuel using the algae biomass since dewatering is part of the conversion process (converting algae biomass into biofuel).

4.4.2 Temperature

Figure 55: Kumar, Kulshreshtha, Jyoti,

Singh, & Pal, G. (n.d.). Growth and biopigment accumulation of cyanobacterium Spirulina platensis at different light intensities and temperature. Retrieved from http://www. scielo.br/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S1517-83822011000300034 Figure 56: Growth rate and temperature. (2014, April 25).

Retrieved from https://apmetropolia. wordpress.com/growth-rate/

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Generally, increases in temperature results in exponential increases of algae growth until the ‘optimum growth temperature.’ Similarly to light intensity, increasing the temperature beyond the optimal value negatively affects algae growth. For most algae species the optimal temperature between 20oC and 30otC, but could still grow within the range of 5oC to 35oC. Ice algae and similar species are an exception since they can survive at below freezing temperatures. Ice algae are found at the Arctic Region where temperatures can range from -50oC to 10oC. Light and temperature control need to be in sync in outdoor cultivation conditions. [20]

Figure 55: Effect of different light intensities on algae growth

Figure 56: Effect of different temperatures on algae growth

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4.4.3 Culture Density Culture density affects algae growth as higher concentrations of algae might block incoming radiation to other algae. Specific cultivation methods like the thin plate or tubular reactors (discussed later) should be used to cultivate high concentrations of algae.

4.4.4 Mixing Well-mixed algae culture provides optimum conditions ensuring sufficient CO2 and nutrients supply and distribution, and proper extraction of produced oxygen.

Mechanical components could be used to ensure consistency or carbon dioxide flow rate can be maintained to in tubular or flat plate systems.

4.4.5 Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is the primary element needed to grow algae. Algae consume carbon dioxide to produce oxygen during their growth process. Sufficient CO2 supply is critical to maintaining optimal algae growth.

Waste gasses such as ammonia or cement production waste could be as CO2 input.

4.4.6 Nutrients

Figure 57: Moving algae the key

to renewable oil production? (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.news.uct.ac.za/article/2014-09-05-moving-algaethe-key-to-renewable-oilproductiona

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The primary nutrient that algae need is water which is also the medium of growth. Other nutrients are required for algae cultivation, most importantly nitrogen and phosphorus. Wastewater is an excellent way to provide these nutrients. This way would provide multiple benefits since the water is purified in the process of supply the nutrients to the algae. [14]

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4.5 Cultivation Methods Algae can be cultivated in a variety of methods based on location, water, and space availability, cost, and desired end products.

4.5.1 Open Raceway Pond Figure 58: Nordrum, A. (2018, May 30). New Tech Could Turn Algae Into the Climate's Slimy Savior. Retrieved from https:// spectrum.ieee.org/energy/ environment/new-tech-couldturn-algae-into-the-climatesslimy-savior

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This system is the oldest and most common algae cultivation system. RWP systems are widely used because they are easier to maintain, scale, and cost less than closed systems. Technology is shifting towards closed system because these open systems are susceptible to contamination, have bad temperature control, and require a lot of ground space. [14]

Open Raceway Pond

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4.5.2 Tubular Photobioreactor This was the first closed system developed, and it consists of long horizontal tubes connected to form various shapes like walls, helices, and inclined panels. This system has excellent temperature control, high photosynthetic efficiency, allows for high algae culture concentrations, and are easily scalable. The materials used for the tubes are transparent, and the choice of material directly impact the lifetime of the system.

4.5.3 Column Photobioreactor Figure 59: Design of Closed Photobioreactors for Algal Cultivation - Springer | Traveller | Pinterest | Technology, Green technology and Renewable energy. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.pinterest.com/ pin/247768416980056453/?lp=true Figure 60: ALGATEC II: Wash water recycling in the production of olive oil. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www. bioazul.com/en/portfolio/algatec-ii/

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This was the first closed system developed, and it consists of long horizontal tubes connected to form various shapes like walls, helices, and inclined panels. This system has excellent temperature control, high photosynthetic efficiency, allows for high algae culture concentrations, and are easily scalable. The materials used for the tubes are transparent, and the choice of material directly impact the lifetime of the system. [14]

Figure 59: Tubular Photobioreactor

Figure 60: Column Photobioreactor 105

4.5.4 Flat Panel Photobioreactor

Figure 61: Marineecologyblog.

(2014, July 11). Microalgae oil factories. Retrieved from https://marineecologyblog. wordpress.com/2014/04/03/ microalgae-oil-factories/

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This system consists of flat transparent containers in which the algae culture is grown in the space between the plates. These plates are tilted to face the sun to ensure maximal exposure to solar radiation. This system has great potential since the plates can be set at variable orientations always achieve optimal radiation exposure. Another variation of this system exists which is called Plastic Film Photobioreactor. This system follows the same principle but can be shaped into organic forms. [14]

Flat Panel Photobioreactor

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4.6 Algae on Mars Algae and Cyanobacteria provide solutions to some of the many challenges of inhabiting Mars. It was previously mentioned that nitrogen is one of the essential elements in growing plants and can only be used by plants in a reactive form. However, plants can only use reactive forms of nitrogen such as ammonia and nitrate. The nitrogen present in the Earth’s atmosphere is in an inert gaseous form. This problem also exists on Mars as nitrogen present in the Martian atmosphere is also in an inert gaseous form. Luckily, Cyanobacteria also acts as a nitrogen fixer. It pulls Nitrogen gas from the air and converts it to ammonia (a reactive form of nitrogen).

Figure 62: Stone, M. (2015, September 24). The Key to Colonizing Mars Could Be These Tiny Green Microbes.

Retrieved from https://gizmodo. com/the-key-to-colonizingmars-could-be-these-tinygreen-mi-1731268670

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Algae and Cyanobacteria can be used to enhance the quality of the currently nutrient poor Martian soil. Nutrient supplements may be needed to boost the daily nutrient intake of future Martian inhabitants, some algae species like spirulina are edible and are very nutrient rich as previously mentioned. Energy generation is also a considerable challenge with sustaining life on Mars. Systems using algae could be used to generate renewable energy for the life support systems on the Martian surface. [17]

Example of algae implemented into a life support system on Mars

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An experiment was conducted on the International Space Station to test how well the algae perform in space and to what extent it would survive. The results showed positive outcomes where some algae species that are found in Antarctica have survived as they can withstand extreme cold. These species produce and energy when they can and store it for future use when it is dark or in extremely cold conditions.

Figure 63: Rathi, A. (2017,

February 14). An algae that survived two years in outer space may hold the secret to growing food on Mars. Retrieved from https://qz.com/909040/ algae-and-cyanobacteriasurvived-two-years-exposedto-outer-space-on-theinternational-space-station/

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Another experiment was conducted on Earth in a controlled environment mimicking conditions on the Martian surface. The survival of cyanobacteria found on rocks that come from the Polar Regions was tested. Results showed that cyanobacteria did not just survive but were also active and functioning. These species of algae with the right conditions could survive on Mars and benefit future Martian colonies. [15,16,21]

BIOMEX lab on the ISS

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4.7 Chapter Recap and Deduction

Figure 64: Matchar, E. (2015,

May 26). Will Buildings of the Future Be Cloaked In Algae? Retrieved from https:// www.smithsonianmag.com/ innovation/will-buildings-futurebe-cloaked-algae-180955396/

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Algae can be used for energy generation, oxygen production, wastewater purification, and soil fertilization. All of the above are essential for our project on Mars. Water, carbon dioxide, light, temperate climate, and nutrients (nitrates and phosphates) are the essential elements to successfully growing algae on Mars. The project must seek to satisfy these conditions.

A closed photobioreactor system is much more efficient as we have seen previously.

The variety of cultivation methods make it suitable to grow algae anywhere in the project. The algae can be grown indoors using tubular or column bioreactors. They can also be grown within the structure using tubular or plastic film bioreactor. Today’s technology allows us to integrate the algae into our project fully.

Example of algae integration in a building

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CASE STUDIES

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5.1 Introduction to Projects

Figure 65: Done by author

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The following fourteen projects will be analyzed and placed in seven categories. The elements from the projects that correspond to one or more of the categories will be analyzed together.

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5.2 Algae Algae systems are being developed and tested today. This may have a significant impact on the form of the structures built on Mars. We will be examining a few architectural examples to demonstrate different approaches to algae architecture and how each project benefits from algae.

5.2.1 Dust to Dawn This project uses algae to recycle water as they are effective in treating wastewater. Algae consume nitrates and phosphates in addition to reducing the bacteria in the water. In this process, there are many beneficial byproducts of using algae. The algae are continuously producing oxygen which the project uses to supply the residents as we can see in the cross-section.

The algae flow diagram shows that biomass collection and dewatering pipes are used in the structure, this could indicate that the project is also making biofuel using the algae biomass since dewatering is part of the conversion process (converting algae biomass into biofuel).

Figure 66,67,68: Dust to Dawn.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dust-to-dawn

The exploded diagram shows that the algae flow pipes are well integrated into the skin. The algae are used in a pipe system which is compact and allows for the organic design of the structures.

The disadvantages of this system are that it costs more and it requires energy to pump the algae.

Figure 66: Algae Flow Diagram 146

Figure 67: Exploded Diagram

Figure 68: Cross-Section 147

5.2.2 Out of Sand Algae is used to produce oxygen, act as biofertilizers and soil stabilizers, and serve as food. The algae are grown in a vertical column where the algae use the artificial lights placed within the column to perform photosynthesis. The algae are fed CO2, nitrogen, and phosphorus to produce the oxygen.

The use of algae in this project is agriculture-oriented. The project utilizes the nutritional benefits of algae by using them as biofertilizers as they are readily available for that use and do not require a manufacturing process like synthetic fertilizers (man-made inorganic fertilizers).

Figure 69,70: Out of Sand. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=out-of-sand

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Humans also utilize the nutritional benefits and not just the plants as the algae are used as a food source. This indicates that the type of algae grown is of the edible algae category such as spirulina, AFA, chlorella, etc.‌

Figure 69: Algae Lamp Detail

Figure 70: Plant Cultivation Detail

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5.2.3 When in Mars, Do as Martians Do The entire project revolves around the use of algae, specifically cyanobacteria. The cyanobacteria are used to produce oxygen for the crew and act as a shield from solar radiation in space. The cyanobacteria are placed in an inflatable membrane layer which is between a nanofiber layer and reinforced glass. The nanofiber allows for Oxygen exchange, and the reinforced glass provides protection and allows sunlight to pass through.

The configuration of the cyanobacteria resembles plastic film panels which allow for the plates to be shaped in any desired form such as the organic form of this project. The membrane layer is also used to shape the interior of the habitat; hard surfaces are not required as the habitat is orbiting Mars at an altitude of 300 km where there is no gravity.

Figure 71,72,73,74: When in

Mars, Do As Martians Do. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=when-in-marsdo-as-martians-do

The Water, Oxygen, and Food supply system is based on the ISS systems but in combination with cyanobacteria to provide Oxygen. The ISS uses electrolysis of water (splitting water into oxygen and hydrogen) to supply oxygen to the crew. Combining cyanobacteria with this system increases its efficiency.

Figure 71: Wall Layers 150

Figure 72: Cross Secion

Figure 73: Exploded Isometric

Figure 74: Diagram of the Water, Oxygen, and Food Supply System 151

5.2.4 Dandelion Shelter

Figure 75: Dandelion Shelter. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dandelionshelter

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This project uses two processes to produce oxygen. One process is electrolysis which is splitting water in oxygen and hydrogen; this method is used in the ISS. The other process is using algae to consume CO2 and produce Oxygen. As we can see from the diagram, algae are placed in the inner layer of the structure acting as an additional layer of protection from radiation. It seems unclear whether the materials used to make the valves and outer membrane are transparent; hence, it might be difficult for sunlight to reach the algae layer.

Wall Detail

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5.2.5 Recap and Deduction

Figure 77: Done by author

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As we have seen, algae can be used to generate energy, purify wastewater, protect against radiation, fertilize the soil, but most importantly produce oxygen. Integrating algae into any system increases its efficiency.

Terraforming the Martian atmosphere and surface are essential to achieving our goal.

Algae and Cyanobacteria will help us turn the carbon dioxide filled atmosphere into a livable oxygen-rich atmosphere. It will also aid in fertilizing and stabilizing the Martian soil and gradually turning it into a healthy nutrientrich soil. Algae might not directly affect the form of the structures of our project, but it will definitely affect the materials.

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5.3 Site Site properties are essential to some of the projects and influence many aspects of the project like form, scale, and material. We will be analyzing different strategies on site selection. We will also be looking at examples of criteria and concepts developed by each project, and how the site aided in achieving the projects’ goals.

5.3.1 City-Crater This is a large scale project that creates cities in craters within the site of Utopia Planitia. The site contains many craters with sizes that can reach several kilometers. The craters contain ice water under the surface. Water is essential to building any city, but many sites on Mars contain water. The topography, scale, and soil content of the craters are what justified the project’s site selection.

Figure 78,79: City-Crater. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=city-crater

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The curvature of the craters serve as protection but create boundaries to the city. The project’s goal is to create multiple cities across many craters in the site. The quantity of craters make this a long-term project, but the distances between the craters and boundaries within the craters create a disconnected community. The expansion of this project would not be continuous nor organic.

Figure 78: Site Plan

Figure 79: Site Location

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5.3.2 Below Freezing The project aims to build ice structures to seal off subterrestrial lava tubes. The project is located in Tractus Catena which is a set of pits located near the Alba Mons site in the northern Martian hemisphere.

In-situ resources are part of the project’s tools to achieve its goals. The ice water and gypsum-rich regolith are the primary resources in building the structures.

These two elements are found in the lava tubes of this location.

The benefits of using lava tubes as a site are that it reduces development costs since the tubes are hollow. Lava tubes being underground also provide higher atmospheric pressure than the surface and a sustainable source of energy (geothermal energy). Being underground also protects from radiation and dust storms on the surface.

Figure 80,81,82,83: Below Freezing. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=below-freezing

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Although it has many benefits to be subterrestrial, the project would have difficulties using the potential of solar energy.

The project intends to grow vegetation below the surface so it would have to develop the means to redirect sunlight to reach the underground. The structure is made of ice allows for sunlight to illuminate the space but the intensity of this light may not be sufficient for vegetation growth.

Figure 80: Above Ground

Figure 81: Underground

Figure 82:Section

Figure 83: Site 159

5.3.3 BACK TO LIFE The project creates a psychologically pleasing environment using water bodies and vegetation. To achieve this, it is located in the Shalbatana Vallis which is an ancient river site. The site contains a water-bearing layer underground which the project uses for water extraction.

The topography of the site shapes the form and of the city. The slopes of the valleys are terraced and made functional. The lowest point of the valley is planted with a skyscraper that holds the protective dome and goes deep underground to extract water.

Figure 84,85: BACK TO LIFE.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=back-to-life

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Site selection constituted the forms of the structures as it allowed for a combination between low-rise and high-rise structures.

The concept of a river flowing in the center is vital to the goal of the project, and the site successfully aided the project in achieving its goal.

Figure 84: Shalbatana Valley

Figure 85: Section

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5.3.4 Recap and Deduction Without water, no life can exist. The majority of projects use water found under the Martian surface to sustain life. Many sites contain water on Mars, so we have to meet other criteria to select the best site for our project. As we saw, site selection based on topography and site properties significantly impacted many aspects of the projects including form, scale, and material.

Our project needs to sustain plant life to feed future Martians.

Figure 86: Done by author

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We need to find the appropriate site that will aid us in providing the stated conditions as efficient as possible. This will be further developed in the site analysis chapter.

Figure 86: Required elements for site selection Bigger = More Scarce

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5.4 Martian Resources & Terraforming Site properties are essential to some of the projects and influence many aspects of the project like form, scale, and material. We will be analyzing different strategies on site selection. We will also be looking at examples of criteria and concepts developed by each project, and how the site aided in achieving the projects’ goals.

5.4.1 Mars H2.0 Most of the projects we are discussing are extracting and using water found under the Martian surface, but none specifically show the systems used to do so. This project serves as an example of such systems.

When the project is deployed, it sends extension pipes that attach to the regolith.

These pipes heat the ice found under the surface and capture the moisture from the water vapor released.

Figure 87: Mars H2.0. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=marsh2-0

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The structure is composed of storage capsules, waterways, multiple supporting structures, and water siphons and distribution systems. The siphons extract the subterranean water which goes through the waterways to be distributed and stored in the capsules.

The project shows us some of the elements required to design a water extraction system and provides a strategy example.

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5.4.2 Reflect & TerraForMars Both of these projects aim at terraforming the Martian surface to a livable environment. They both create an artificial protective environment to achieve their goal.

TerraForMars uses an artificial magnetic field, while Reflect uses an artificial “climatological environment� in the form of an ice bubble encompassing the project. Both the ice bubble and magnetic field protect against solar radiation.

The ice bubble will continuously melt due to the heat generated by human activities and will provide water to the inhabitants through precipitation. The design uses a cycle to keep the ice bubble surviving infinitely. The water received as precipitation will evaporate at one point and return to the ice bubble.

Efficient water recycling is a crucial element to the success of this project.

Figure 88: REFLECT. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=reflect

Figure 89: TERRAFORMARS.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=terraformarsmagnetic-shield-4d-printingnew-martian-era

The magnetic field allows heat and sunlight to penetrate which warms the soil.

It also allows for the greenhouse effect to take place as it traps the heat generated by human activities. The project accelerates the terraforming process and eventually provides a biosphere that can host agricultural activities.

Both projects use well-designed strategies but Reflect has an advantage as it uses in-situ resources.

Figure 88: Environmental Scheme

Figure 89: Section

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5.4.3 Dandelion Shelter Dandelion Shelter utilizes the Dust Storms on Mars instead of only protecting against it. The dust particles are much smaller on Mars and collide more often. The cold, dry conditions on Mars combined with the low atmospheric pressure and highly insulating regolith allow for the build-up of massive amounts of electro-static electricity.

Figure 90: Dandelion Shelter.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dandelionshelter

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The project includes an electrostatic harvester that absorbs the electron charges colliding with the spiky exterior of the project.

These charges are then sent to a high voltage converter and later stored in batteries. The only issue with this method is that Mars has no conductive ground like Earth. The project solves this issue by bleeding off the charge back into the atmosphere using “corona dischargers.�

The project does not actively terraform Mars, but it utilizes one of the unique features that Mars provides.

Energy Generation System

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5.4.4 TO MARS This project serves to purify the Earth’s atmosphere. The structure is composed of bronchi-like branches that act as lungs. The bronchi absorb the carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and release back oxygen. The harmful waste gases are stored in a capsule and are sent to Mars. These gases are released into Mars to activate the greenhouse effect and increase the temperature on the Martian surface.

Figure 91,92 : TO MARS. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=to-mars

Through our analysis, we can see that the first stage on the project can also take place on Mars terraforming its atmosphere.

So we can benefit from the two different applications that result in terraforming the atmosphere in different ways. This project can also be done in phases. Phase I increases the temperature and thickens the atmosphere then Phase II turns the carbon dioxide filled atmosphere into an oxygen-rich atmosphere.

Figure 91: Greenhouse Effect

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Figure 92: Gas Filtration 171

5.4.5 Recap and Deduction

Figure 93,94: Done by author

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We have seen different methods and results in terraforming Mars and also analyzed how unique features present on Mars can be utilized. One of our project’s goals is to terraform the Martian regolith and atmosphere to achieve freedom and enjoyable living conditions. Dust storms are a critical challenge that we face since it blocks sunlight from reaching the project. We need this sunlight to allow for algae and plants’ photosynthesis. We might use a similar strategy to harness the electrostatic charges to power artificial light when dust storms are occurring. Ice extraction and usability have to be examined as they have a high potential in providing protection and bringing more life into the environment. We have also seen how a water cycle results in efficient recycling.

Creating cycles in the project is a crucial element to achieving sustainability which is crucial in situations where resources are scarce.

Figure 93: Utilization of Martian Resources

Figure 94: Terraforming Mars 173

5.5 Fabrication These projects will be analyzed based on the fabrication method used. Some projects are fabricated on earth with complete automation to allow for self-assembly once it reaches Mars. Other projects are fabricated using 3D printing technology using in-situ resources by machines transported to Mars.

5.5.1 BEEMARS This project uses a similar but more indepth strategy as Dust to Dawn. The project deploys an artificial beehive consisting of a robotic queen bee, worker bees, and heater drones. The queen bee is equipped with a 3D printer, photovoltaic panels, and storage space. It prints the first generation of heater drone bees which heat the frozen water underground. Worker bees collect materials and 3D print residential units in the form of honeycombs.

Figure 95,96,97: BEEMARS. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=beemars

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The project revolves around how a beehive works and successfully integrates technology with nature. The bee system is also consistent with the project’s concept making it harmonious and well designed.

Figure 95: Honeycomb City Formation

Figure 96: Beehive Formation

Figure 97: Bee Anatomy 175

5.5.2 Dust to Dawn Machines along with packaged supplies are sent to Mars to build the structures of this project. The machines start by site surveying to find the best location for the settlement. The machines perform the required excavation and assembling the 3D printing central nucleus structure. The machines then proceed to 3D print opaque components that make up the base (in-situ materials are used). These elements are later covered by sand accumulated by dust storms over time. This provides the base with an insulation layer. The machines then continue building the secondary and independent structures that expand the habitat.

Figure 98: Dust to Dawn. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dust-to-dawn

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The project utilizes in-situ resources and 3D printing technology to build its structures. This saves in the cost of transportation but takes a much more extended period to complete the main structure. Another benefit of using this method is that construction and expansion are entirely independent of supplies from Earth.

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5.5.3 Mars H2.0 This project is prefabricated on earth and sent to Mars. The project is designed in a honeycomb form that is highly automated and unfolds itself when it reaches Mars. The project expands vertically and twists as it ascends. A locking mechanism is activated which holds the honeycomb shell in place and makes it the main loadbearing element. The soft skin of the structure then “pneumatically expands.�

Figure 99: Mars H2.0. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=marsh2-0

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The advantages of such a system are that it saves time and is less likely to fail since it does not rely on any building resources from Mars. The problem is that it has tremendous transportation costs compared to 3D printing strategies. Expansion of the structure is also limited by design.

Initial Expansion Diagram 179

5.5.4 Recap and Deduction

Figure 100: Done by author

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There are benefits and issues with both fabrication strategies as we have seen.

The 3D printing strategy allows for expansion capabilities and utilization of in-situ resources.

The Prefabrication method is safer and less time-consuming. Prefabrication seems the way to go for a short-term project where time is limited. Our project, on the other hand, has many long-term goals that can only be achieved after many years, but it also needs to sustain life for the first Martians. A combination of both systems would be ideal.

Drones provide mobility and 3D printing capabilities, while prefabricated systems ensure the safety and success of the first crew. A situation where our project would deploy before the first colonizers would lean more towards a 3D printing system, but a project being established and maintained with the existence of a crew would need more prefabricated elements.

Combination of Prefabrication and 3D Printing for short-term and long-term expansion 181

5.6 Development The following projects will be analyzed based on their initial and future development.

The projects will be grouped based on a few ‘invented’ categories: linear expansion, coverage expansion, stand-alone, and networking. Linear expansion refers to the structural expansion of the project over time.

Coverage expansion refers to the framework expansion of the project over time. Networking which refers to several structures forming a network and serving each other. Stand-alone projects which could be independent or have limited expansion capabilities.

5.6.1 Dandelion Shelter

Figure 101: Dandelion Shelter.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dandelionshelter

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This project classifies as a networking project. Dandelion Shelter units are designed to be a beacon for explorers. The project revolves around the Martian dust storms.

After the project harnesses the electrostatic energy and fully charges, it glows in the dark.

This provides visual assistance to explorers wondering in the massive dust storms. The units act as temporary shelters for explorers.

The explorers could reside in any of the Dandelion Shelters.

Shelters are scattered to enable global exploration and emergency ground radtio network

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5.6.2 Mars H2.0 This is a standalone project; it does not depend on any other structure to operate.

The project arrives at Mars and assembles itself. Expansion of the project only occurs at the initial stages until the project reaches its functional form. The project serves its purpose but does not have a backup strategy.

Figure 102: Mars H2.0. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=marsh2-0

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The benefits of this strategy are that the project is fully functional within a short period. It is unclear how this project sustains its energy consumption. The problem of this strategy is that any failure of core elements will render this project useless until external maintenance is provided.

Spacecraft Design 185

5.6.3 Dust to Dawn This project is categorized with linear expansion. A central nucleus is constructed first then the project expands in a spiral form indefinitely. This allows for transitional spaces that enable “sheltered contact� with the Martian landscape.

Figure 103: Dust to Dawn. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dust-to-dawn

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The project does not only expand from the nucleus, but decentralized resource units are built as well. Decentralization ensures that the primary resources needed for survival are always available even if a few units fail. This strategy teaches us that we should not rely on just one structure for survival. In such extreme conditions, there is always a chance of failure.

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5.6.4 BACK TO LIFE & TerraForMars Both projects fall under the coverage expansion category. TerraForMars develop one prototype structure that is repeated indefinitely to form a protective layer above the surface. The repeated structure is designed as open-ended pieces that are held by support nodes. Here, connectivity is key to successful continuity.

Figure 104: BACK TO LIFE. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=back-to-life Figure 105: TERRAFORMARS.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=terraformarsmagnetic-shield-4d-printingnew-martian-era

Back to life uses a similar but more flexible strategy. The forms of the supporting and enveloping structure are organic and adapt to the topography of the site. Support towers hold the protective bubble. The advantage this design has is that it keeps a closed circuit always protecting its inhabitants.

TerraForMars closes its circuit via the ground as shown in the section but it does not communicate how flexible is the material of the bubble and if it could be modified to connect to other nodes if removed from the ground.

Figure 104: Expansion Stages - BACK TO LIFE

Figure 105: Section - TerraForMars 189

5.6.5 Recap and Deduction

Figure 106: Done by author

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We have seen the importance of considering the initial and future development of the projects as it significantly impacts the design. Since the project has shortterm and long-term goals, it is crucial that it expands as time passes. Linear expansion and/or networking might be helpful as our project will probably consist of many different facilities including agricultural and residential units. Coverage expansion could also be used if our end product intensely focuses on terraforming. The project might use one or more of these strategies, but this will be decided based on the proposed program.

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5.7 Program We will be looking at examples of programs from different building typologies and the hierarchical structure of these programs.

5.7.1 Out of Sand

Figure 107.108: Out of Sand. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=out-of-sand

This project is mainly constructed undergrounds. The program is structured vertically according to the required adjacency to certain elements. For example, the agricultural zone is at the bottom to be nearest to the water source. The energy zone is located at the top and is constructed above ground since it needs direct contact with sunlight. The research zone is closer to the energy zone to allow easy access for researchers. Finally, the residents are placed close to the food source.

Figure 107 192

Figure 108

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5.7.2 Particle Regeneration This project is a high-rise structure that focuses on scientific research on the Martian atmosphere, land preservation, and supervision of the surrounding Martian landscape. The project has functions that host residents, supplies resources, and provides workspaces.

Figure 109: Particle Regeneration. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=particleregeneration

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The programs are layered according to their needs. For example, energy harvesting and communication require high altitudes, so they are placed at the top of the tower. The farming areas are placed on the outfacing parts of the structure to allow for sunlight.

The problems with this program layout are that other than what is mentioned above the rest of the program seems to be placed at random or to fill spots in the building.

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5.7.3 S.E.E.Ds of Mars This project is a mixture between a high-rise and an underground building. The structure is designed to expand over time, and so do the functions. It starts by being a shelter to the first Martians only hosting necessary functions. The project expands vertically upwards and downwards to host more people and to create a complete community within itself.

Figure 110: S.E.E.Ds of Mars.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=s-e-e-ds-mars

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Something to be pointed out is that when the project starts the housing functions are above ground but as the building expands the housing units shift underground as it provides more protection. Mechanical and energy storage spaces are considered the most important since any damage would be fatal to the survivability of the residents.

Hence, they are placed at the deepest parts of the building.

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5.7.4 Dust to Dawn This project is composed of low-rise structures. The program is mainly mixed-use living spaces. The distribution of the functions in spiral only makes sense in the center where there is a public space for all residents to gather.

There seems to be a pattern with the meeting and viewing areas being adjacent in some situations, but it is not consistent.

The layout of the rest of the functions seems random.

Figure 111: Dust to Dawn. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=dust-to-dawn

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The most important programs, which are the resources units, are decentralized and provided in higher numbers to ensure the functionality of the project as a whole in case of failures.

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5.7.5 City-Crater This is a large-scale project aimed at constructing a city. The city is bound by the crater which defines the boundaries of the program.

Residential units and public spaces are constructed at the inner-facing side of the crater since it provides protection and allows for the creation of a community within the crater. The outer-facing side will be used to construct labs and research facilities as it will provide a great view and easy access to researchers. The crater ring will be constructed into an aqueduct acting as water towers to the residential units.

Figure 112: City-Crater. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=city-crater

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The program is developed based on the topography of the site and is suitable for a large scale project.

Plan

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5.7.6 Recap and Deduction

Figure 112: Done by author

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We can see that the success of the program depends on several factors such as adjacencies, influences, dependency, hierarchy, site specifics, and project scale & goals. The functions should not be placed at random nor fill empty areas in the project.

Appropriate proximity and adjacency for each function should be planned. The program should reflect the project’s goal and be well-integrated into the chosen site. Every aspect of the project should impact the program in some way as this will result in a homogeneous and consistent project.

Water Source

Agricultural Units

Health Center

Residential Units

Power Source

F&B / Meeting Areas Public Space

Work Spaces

Activites

Example of Program based on Hierarchy, Adjacencies, Influences and Dependencies

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5.8 Typology The typology used in each project will be analyzed and assessed whether it was necessary to the concept and project goals.

5.8.1 BEEMARS This project uses modularity in its design. The entire project revolves around beehives, and the modular nature of a honeycomb is consistent with the project’s theme.

The units are constructed in a honeycomb formation that is assembled in many different ways. The hexagonal form makes it possible for the units to be arranged in any desired pattern. This allows for ease of expansion which is crucial for the formation of a city.

Figure 113: BEEMARS.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=beemars

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The problem with this project’s modular design is lack of complexity of the individual modules. The design is weak, but the potential of the strategy is immense.

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5.8.2 Particle Regeneration The project is a tower that utilizes its vertical approach to achieve its goals. The verticality maximizes the project’s capability to capture the dust particles. The height also maximizes solar panels gain since the dust storms clog the panels at lower elevations; this also attracts lightning which is used to generate electricity to heat the frozen water underground.

Figure 114: Particle Regeneration. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=particleregeneration

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One of the functions of the project is to research the Martian atmosphere; the verticality allows for the expansion and more access to different parts of the atmosphere.

The tower structure also minimizes the footprint of the building thus preserving the surrounding land for further exploration and research. It also provides visual connections to be able to supervise the surrounding landscape.

The vertical approach helps this project achieve its goals and maximizes the efficiency of its functions. A low-rise building would not have been suitable for this project.

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5.8.3 S.E.E.Ds of Mars This project is a combination of lowrise and high-rise buildings. The project consists of a tower with a low-rise base that expands to the underground. The mixture of these elements is essential to the project as it allows for expansion using the low-rise base. The base hosts residents underground as it provides more protection against the radiation.

The tower part is essential as it provides views for researchers to study the landscape. It hosts the farming areas since sunlight is needed to grow the plants. It also utilizes the tower to generate energy using solar panels as the dust storms clog the panels at the lower elevations.

Figure 115: S.E.E.Ds of Mars.

(n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.eleven-magazine. com/?entrants=s-e-e-ds-mars

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Overall the project uses all the benefits provided by the tower and base to achieve its goals without compromising. The combination creates a community within itself as these different elements host different functions that complete each other.

Section

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5.8.4 Recap and Deduction

Figure 116: Done by author

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The typology used in our project should enable us to achieve our goals. As we have seen, different typologies could be mixed to maximize efficiency and make no compromises. Verticality might be used as sunlight intensity is critical to our project.

Expansion to the underground also protects residents and will also allow us to protect the most important functions in our project. The program will significantly impact the typology of the project.

Verticality - Energy Harvesting Underground - Protection 211

Figure 117: Done by author 212

Typology

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SITE

[22] Sharp, T. (2017, September 12). Mars’ Atmosphere: Composition, Climate & Weather.

Retrieved from https://www.space. com/16903-mars-atmosphereclimate-weather.html

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6.1 Project Phases The project will be assumed to occur at three phases.

Phase I: Colonization.

Phase II: Expansion.

Phase III: Inhabitation.

Phase I will start with the first Martians starting the colonization process. Phase II will start when survival is no longer the goal and expansion is occurring. Phase III is the achieved transformation of the planet into an enjoyable complete habitat.

6.2 Site Elements

Figure 118: Done by author Figure 119: Jordan, G. (2015, October 05). Can Plants Grow with Mars Soil? Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/feature/ can-plants-grow-with-mars-soil

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It was mentioned in previous chapters that plants need sixteen elements to grow.

NASA has detected all of these elements on Mars, so it is theoretically possible to grow plants on the Red Planet. To choose the sites for our project we need to look at more specifics. We concluded from the case studies that the site of the project needs five elements: Nutrients, Water, Light, Temperate Climate, and Carbon Dioxide. Carbon dioxide is abundant as it makes up about 95% of the Martian atmosphere. So the site location does not matter for this element as long as the project provides a way to absorb the carbon dioxide from the air. [22]

Figure 118

Figure 119 217

Figure 120: (n.d.). Retrieved

from https://mars.jpl.nasa. gov/odyssey/newsroom/ pressreleases/20030724a.html Figure 121: (n.d.). Retrieved

from http://www.mars.asu. edu/~ruff/DCI/dci.html

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Water is another element that is found all over Mars under its surface. It is available at different concentrations in different locations as we can see from the diagram.

NASA’s Mars Observer has gathered information about dust levels on the surface.

From the diagram, we can see which areas are dust-full and which are dust-free.

Figure 120

Figure 121

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Figure 122: Filiberto, J. (2015,

April 01). Volatiles in Mars: Constraints, Questions, and Future Directions. Retrieved from https://eos.org/meetingreports/volatiles-in-marsconstraints-questions-andfuture-directions

Figure 123: Map of Martian Potassium at Mid-Latitudes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/ details.php?id=PIA04255 Figure 124: Map of Martian Silicon at Mid-Latitudes. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https://www.jpl. nasa.gov/spaceimages/details. php?id=PIA04256 Figure 125: Map of Martian

Thorium at Mid-Latitudes. (n.d.). Retrieved from https:// www.jpl.nasa.gov/spaceimages/ details.php?id=PIA04257

NASA’s Mars Odyssey mission has collected information about a few elements present on Mars: Chlorine, Potassium, Silicon,Thorium, and Iron. Thorium is a radioactive element that can be used as a fuel for nuclear chain reactions. This makes it a valuable resource that can power the project.

The other mentioned elements can be useful for plant growth.

Figure 122 220

Figure 123

Figure 124

Figure 125 221

Figure 126

Figure 126: Map of Martian

Iron at Mid-Latitudes. (n.d.).

Retrieved from https://www.jpl. nasa.gov/spaceimages/details. php?id=PIA04253 Figure: 127,128: Thermal emission spectrometer. (n.d.).

Retrieved from http://tes.asu. edu/

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NASA’s Mars Global Surveyor Orbiter has gathered information about daytime and nighttime temperatures on the surface. This data does not give an accurate representation of the temperature all year but shows us enough to use as a reference for where it is warmest on Mars. We can see that the areas around the equator are the warmest with some areas still being extremely cold during the night.

Figure 127

Figure 128 223

6.3 Site Selection

Figure 129,130: Done by author

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We can examine the given information to select the best sites for each phase of the project. Phase I will mostly consist of early settlements with limited resources. The highest concern would be extracting water.

The best location for this phase would be where water concentrations are highest. The diagram illustrates the possible locations being Terra Sabaea, Terra Cimmeria, and Memnonia Fossae.

Figure 129: Highest concentrations of Water, Chlorine, and Low Dust

Terra Sabaea Terra Cimmeria

Memnonia Fossae

Figure 130: Selected Sites

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Figure 131,132: Done by author

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Phase II will expand the project, and the best sites will need to consider energy generation to help power the process. The sites with high concentrations of thorium, low dust levels (solar energy harvesting), or high dust levels (electrostatic charge harvesting) would be most suitable. These criteria seem to conflict in this situation. Thorium is most available at Acidalia Planitia where there are low dust levels as well, but the highest dust levels occur at Terra Sabaea. Both locations would be suitable in this situation since the goal of this phase is expansion.

Figure 131: Best locations for Day Temp, Night Temp, Highest Dust, Lowest Dust, Silicon, Potassium, Thorium, Iron, and Chlorine

Acidalia Planitia

Terra Sabaea

Figure 132:Selected Sites

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Figure 133,134: Done by author

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Phase III is a long-term goal that needs to consider the availability of nutrients, temperate climate, and light intensity. Water is already available everywhere on Mars and extraction would have already started a long time before Phase III, hence water is not a crucial criterion in selecting the site for this phase. The above criteria being met is demonstrated in the diagram. The best location for this phase is Acidalia Planitia.

Figure 133: Best locations for Day Temp, Night Temp, Lowest Dust, Silicon, Potassium, Iron, and Thorium

Acidalia Planitia

Figure 134: Selected Sites

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6.4 Chapter Recap and Deduction

Figure135,136,137: Done by

author

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The project is split into three phases: colonization, expansion, and inhabitation.

Each phase has a different goal and requires different criteria. We have selected the sites initially based on the analyzed data. From the comparative graph, we can see that Memnonia Fossae and Terra Cimmeria do not perform as well as the other two sites overall but with only a slight difference. Hence, we can now select the best sites based on the suitability for each phase. The best site for Phase I (the start of colonization) is Terra Sabaea. Phase II is the expansion of the project to one or more locations. The other two sites being suitable for Phase I makes all four sites suitable for Phase II with the best being Acidalia Planitia. Finally, the best site for Phase III is Acidalia Planitia as it has the most potential for being a complete habitat.

Figure 135: Initial site selection based on analyzed data

0 = does not satisfy

Total Score:

21/30

21/30

1 = low

2 = medium

3 = high

18/30

19/30

Figure 136: Graph of how well each site satisfies the criteria

Figure 137: Final site selection based on suitability for each phase

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6.5 Site Map

Figure 138

Figure 139

Figure 138,139: Explore Mars

Trek. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://mars.nasa.gov/maps/ explore-mars-map/fullscreen/ 232

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6.6 Site Pictures

Figure 140: NASA

Image and Video Library. (n.d.).

Retrieved from images-assets.nasa. gov/image/PIA19796/ PIA19796~orig.jpg Acidalia Planitia 234

Figure 141: NASA

Image and Video Library. (n.d.).

Retrieved from images-assets.nasa. gov/image/PIA10868/ PIA10868~orig.jpg Terra Sabaea 235

Figure 142: NASA

Image and Video Library. (n.d.).

Retrieved from images-assets.nasa. gov/image/PIA18768/ PIA18768~orig.jpg Memnonia Fossae 236

Figure 143: NASA

Image and Video Library. (n.d.).

Retrieved from images-assets.nasa. gov/image/PIA07286/ PIA07286~orig.jpg Terra Cimmeria

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PROGRAM

7

7.1 The Future Unlike Earth, Mars is a hostile environment to humanity. Our bodies cannot handle the conditions of extraterrestrial planets. The program is coming from my theories and expectations of humanity’s actions in the future. Our home planet does not encourage us to give priority in developing protective gear as opposed to other more useful technologies. I expect that this will all change when humans finally colonize the Red Planet.

Figure144,145: Done by author

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The program of the project is unique to Mars and will incorporate the expected future priorities in technology. The program focuses on Phases I & II of the project and is mainly focused on building an interconnected community. Phase I starts with the essential functions needed to survive such as residential, research, and food planting facilities. Phase II focuses more on cybernetics research and the development of human protection technology. Also providing functions that build the enjoyable community the project aims to achieve by expanding in the planting facilities and creating recreational spaces. All of this cannot be achieved if not for the services and infrastructural programs that are also provided.

Figure 144 241

Figure 145:Relationship between functions 242

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CONCEPTS

8

8.1 Design Strategy The design strategy comes from the arrangement of the program. The functions can be placed in three ways aboveground, underground, or in both. After analyzing the relationship between the functions, we can deduce the best arrangement for the functions as shown in the diagram. The proposals will feature the corresponding placement and program.

Figure146: Done by author

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Two scenarios can happen for Phase I. Scenario one is that robotic equipment is sent to Mars to construct and prepare the habitat for the first crew. Scenario two is that a crewed mission occurs where a crew is also sent to monitor and speed up the building and exploring the process. Phase II depends on which scenario happens. The proposals will be of Phase II with the assumption of one of the scenarios taking place.

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8.2 Design Proposal 1

Figure147: Done by author

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This proposal follows scenario one and features an underground habitat. This is the safer scenario as the first crew, and the following generations will be operating mostly underground. This protects them from the dust storms, cold weather, and harmful radiations.

The disadvantages of the underground are that more effort will be needed to grow the plants. It will require more energy and careful planning to grow plants underground.

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8.3 Design Proposal 2

Figure148: Done by author

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This proposal follows scenario one and features an above ground settlement.

This proposal consists of a large expandable core that grows over time. The core starts as a small module that is transported from Earth.

The proposal utilizes additive construction and modularity; the structure expands orthogonally creating interconnected spaces while thickening the core. This proposal allows for easier energy harvesting and planting. The problems are that Martians living above ground will require more effort put into protection from radiation. The dust storms will also impact the inhabitants requiring an intelligent design that considers them.

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8.4 Design Proposal 3

Figure149: Done by author

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This proposal is a combination of both scenarios and previous proposals. It features a habitat that expands both above ground and underground. The expansion could be either organically or modularly. This proposal takes both the benefits and problems of both scenarios but will create a complete habitat featuring all the unique aspects of Mars.

The space between the structures could also be used to construct a protective barrier to counteract the problems of being above ground. This will allow the future Martians to explore and utilize all that Mars has to offer.

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