Jewish Life Fall-Winter 1977-78

m Comments i The Proposal for a "Neutral" Beis Din I Where Are We At? ^Israel's New Government V Or­ thodoxy: An Alternate Life Style. hunder on the Left, Lightning on the Right / An analysis of the response of American Jewry to the Begin government.

Crisis in Orthodoxy: The Ethical Paradox / a hard — and sometimes harsh evaluation of ethical standards in Orthodox life. se ss

Logotherapy — A Step Beyond Freud: Its Relevance for Jewish Thought / "...Ever more patients are suffering from a lack of life content, rather than clinical symptomology..." — So says psychiatrist Viktor Frankl.

Satmar and Lubavitch: The Dynamics of Disagreement Are these Chassidic groups engaged in organizational or ideological rivalry? — a close examination of their origins. „ The Orthodox Synagogue: Challenges of the Inner City and Suburbia / An assessment of the changes wrought by the search for the better life' A publication of the Union of Orthodox Congregations of America

Volume II Number 2-3 SHE VAT 5738 F ALL/WINTER 1977-78 Editor: V a lk o v .Ja c o b s «

A ssociate Editor: Y a a k o v K o r n r e ic h

Editor Em eritus: i Saul B e r n s te in /

Editorial Board , D a v id C o h e n S a m u e l, C o h e n j. D av id Bleich Ju d ith B leich ; L a w r e n c e A . K o b rin D a v id K ia n /l.e i b h r n o n W in c e lb e r g §

C hairm an, Jewish Life Committee Ja ck S im ch a

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|Published by U N IO N O F O R T H O D O X / JE W IS H C O N G R E G A T IO N S O F A M E R IC A . Preside«!

HAROLD M. JACOBS ’ Chnirni;-.« oi the Board; JOSEPH KARASICK

•Horvor'ary Chairhiah |)f the Board: SAMUEL C FEUERSTEIN

Honorary'W^^deritsi' § . MOSES I. FEUERSTEIN MAX E ETRA DR. SAMUEL NIRENSTEIN ':•< :u o i ■ :•> i' l ■ !o n i -

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SAMUEL L. BRENNGLÄSS REUBEN El GROSS BERNARD W. LEVMÖRE Vice Pu^u-Unts NATHANJK. GROSS JUUUSBERMAN MARVIN HERSKOWITZ SHELDON RUDOFF FRED EHJRMAN SOLOMON T. SCHARF ' 1 M'JEurjPi ’

GEORGES. FALK

Honorary Treasurer MARVIN HOCHBAUM \

.Secretary:

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MIGHÄEL C WIMPFHElMfeR

Fma«Ciai'SeCretary; *•:

M rs. Linpre Ward . and F a m i y . have established the JeSs Ward M em orial Jeuhsh Life Fund to Assure the continued publication o f Je w is h Life in its expanded form at and to continue'the dissemination o f Torah ideology to English-speaking Jew ry throughout the xoorld.

The Fund is a tribute to the sacred memory o f Jess Ward w ho in His lifetime g a v e o f - „ his talents and h is means to his fellow Jeips:,; We pray that these pages; f

I I sh allJoe a w orthy memorial to hi$ comm itted life,

DAVID FUND

National Associate: Vite President^: NORMAN L BRODY HERMAN HERSKOVtC ALH THOMAS EMANUEL REICH EARL KORCHAK

; Vice PresM^nts-'|ör Regions: GILBERT CUMMINS Atlantic Seäbord HY BERGEL

(VojticiK anadd DONALD BUTLER

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MAX RICHLER Eastern Canada DAVID LUCHINS Metropolitan \ pu York JOSEPH MACY •England JOSEPH M. RUSSAK Northeast - .“ SANFORD DEUTCH

Pacific Coast JOSEPH NELKIN

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MARCUS ROSENBERG Southeast 1 RABBI PINCHAS STOLPER

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Volunte II Numbers 2-3 Expanded Issue

Contents 2 Comments: Where Are We At?/Israel's New Government/Orthodoxy:An Alternative Life Style 6 Comments: The Proposal for a "Neutral Beis Din"/J. David Bleich 13 Thunder on the Left, Lightning on the Right — The Response to Israel's New Government/ Ralph Pelcovitz 23 Crisis in Orthodoxy: The Ethical Paradox/Irving N. Levitz 29 Henry Pereira Mendes: Architect of the Union of Orthodox Congrega­ tions of America (Part Two)/Eugene Markowitz 41 Reb Naftali Amsterdam: A Mussar Disciple/Aaron Rakeffet-Rothkoff 47 Logotherapy — A Step Beyond Freud: Its Relevance for Jewish Thought / Reuven P. Bulka 55 Satmar and Lubavitch: The Dynamics of Disagreement / Bernard Weinberger 67 The Orthodox Synagogue: Challenge of the Inner City and Suburbia/ Jack Simcha Cohen Note to subscribers and librarians This issue follows the issue of Summer 1977. We are now numbering bur issues as follows.

Each cycle of four issues is designated as a Volume and numbered One through Four. Issues dated Tishrei 5736, Adar 5736, Spring 1976, and Fall 1976, are retroactively designated Vol­ ume One (new series) Numbers One through Four. Our issue dated Summer 1977 is retro­ actively dated Volume Two (new series) Number One. We apologize for the confusion and hope that this clears it up.

Because of the small staff producing Jewish Life, contributors are asked to send an inquiry before submitting manuscripts, and to be patient in waiting for a response. We regret any inconvenience we may have caused in this regard, and we trust we will be able to increase our efficiency in the future. ©Copyright 1978 by the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America. Material from JEWISH LIFE, including illustrations, may not be reproduced except by written per­ mission from this magazine following written request. JEWISH LIFE is published quar­ terly. Subscription: 1 year — $10.00, 2 years — $18.00, 3 years — $25.00. Foreign: Add $.50 per year. Single copy $2.50, Editorial & Publication Office: 116 E. 27th St., New York, N.Y. 11016. Second Class Postage Paid New York, N.Y., and at additional mailing offices.

"Stop the Press" Never having worked on a daily newspaper, the cry "Stop the press" is only something I have read about in books. The closest I came to it in my own experience was one morning on the Staten Island Ferry on my way to initial the final page-proofs for Viewpoint which was then appearing twice each month. I had a front-page background story on the "Brother Daniel" case which was then before the Supreme Court in Israel. I was enjoying the ocean breezes until my eye caught a front-page story in The New York Times. A decision had been rendered and Viewpoint was scheduled to go into the mail that day — already obsolete. Much to the chagrin of the print-shop foreman — who had no flair for the dramatic ^ we stopped the press and re-did the front page. But -# the nature of production of a quarterly magazine does not permit the luxury of always being timely, and so as we prepare for the pr£ss on the eve of the Begin-Sadat meeting in Cairo, and having prepared all of our copy before the Jerusalem meeting, our Comments may now read like past history rather than current comment. But — perhaps therein lies the lesson. So much of the furor, and the reams of paper comment, on —•for example — the American-Soviet position paper on the Middle East, became obsolete — as so much "instant com­ mentary" becomes obsolete — in minutes when Egypt's president decided to visit Yerushalayim. It may very well be that as you read these "up-dated" remarks, the Israeli who advertised a house for rent "suitable for use as Egyptian Embassy," may already have found his tenant. But there are basic truths that do not become obsolete, and we trust you will find some in these pages. There are some negative prospects to be contemplated when peace does come, like the Israelis who have booked places on a tour to Egypt for Pesach. Imagine: going back to Egypt to celebrate the Exodus. And we shudder to think of some of our American and Israeli brothers planning the "ultimate Bar Mitzvah party" in the strange shadows cast by the Egyptian Pyramids. But with all that it will still likely be timely to be praying for peace. As one Jew said to another during the siege of Yerushalayim in 1948: "M'ken zich nitfarlozen ofnisim - m'darf zogen Tilim, " ("W e can't depend on 'miracles,' we better say Tehilim.")

Where Are We At? Current vernacular (slang?) sometimes broadens our realm of ex­ pression and understanding. Like: knowing "where you are at." It's good to know where you are at, if you're a person, a movement, one of the "three major religions," or as some—not I—would have it, a branch thereof...

When I became editor of this journal, one of the people I con­ vinced to serve as a member of the editorial board half seriously 2

made me promise I would not be guilty of the Orthodox-is-betterwiser-and-right-all-the-time- heresy. I have tried to live up to this pledge—half seriously. Yet it is proper that at times we should look about us to determine where Orthodoxy is at, and if we're looking good for a change dare we not say so? All the more so, if the evalua­ tion is made by an objective, scientific scholar of American Judaism.

Marshall Sklare is Professor of American Jewish Studies at Bran­ déis University. He made his name in scholarship when he pub­ lished his doctoral thesis, Conservative Judaism. It was recently up­ dated and re-published and it is a classic work in the field. On the eve of America's two-hundreth anniversary he published an article, "Jewish Religion and Ethnicity at the Bicentennial" (Midstream November 1975) which has been little noticed or commented upon in the popular Jewish press. Academician that he is, he goes into some pilpul on the proper term that ought to be used to designate Orthodoxy, Conservatism, and Reform—"denomination," "sects," or "movements." But he concludes that whatever we call them, they have this in common: "a complete aversion to conversion." Now if this is the common goal, he asks, "What movement (that's the word he ends up with) was best qualified to lead American Jewry away from the threat of assimilation, of intermarriage, and of conversion to Christianity, and thus able to insure the viability of American Jewish life?" In the 19th century, Sklare argues, it had to be Reform.

Orthodoxy, such as it was, was so weak that even its own leaders were skeptical of its chances of survival. Reform, having appealed to the masses, seemed best equipped to assure the survival of Jews—as Jews. Following World War 1, the reaction against Reform's ex­ tremes brought Conservatism into ascendency and they seemed to offer the best hope for keeping the Jewish People alive in America by preserving them from assimilation, intermarriage, and conversion.

Where are we at today?

Orthodoxy's death had long been predicted.... In the era since World War II, however, Orthodoxy has decided to live rather than to die; it has accordingly reasserted its claim to being the true conservator and guardian of Jewish tradition.

Orthodoxy has, in fact gone further and asserted that while it would live, Reform and Conservatism would die, for only those who held to an authentic interpretation of Jewish trad­ ition would have the qualities required for survival in the open society. In short, the post World War II era has seen the emergence of a new triumphalism: Orthodox trium­ phalism.

Sklare points out that when the American Jewish Yearbook published Charles Liebman's article, "Orthodoxy in American Jewish Life" in 1965 (Volume 66), the editors introduced the article by characterizing the scholarly investigation of Orthodoxy as a "vital but hitherto neglected area of American Jewish life." It was their way of saying that given Orthodoxy's new thrust and assertiveness, it was no longer possible to under­ stand the dynamics of the contemporary religious scene by

limiting oneself (as scholars had hitherto done-YJ) to know­ ledge about Reform and Conservative Judaism. It is appa­ rent that if Orthodoxy's renewal suprised the editors or the American Jewish Yearbook, its rise jolted the leaders of Reform and Conservative Judaism. Orthodox triumphalism has in fact served to bring Reform and Conservatism in a closer unity than ever before.

If Sklare's analysis is correct—and we certainly believe it to be so—it should be greeted not with a smile of glee but with a shudder.

For it means that if Orthodoxy fails to meet this historic challenge we take all Jews down with us. It means we are no longer fighting a rear-guard action. It means that our brothers in Reform and Conser­ vative congregations, in their Bnai Brith lodges, in their secular Zionist groups/ even in the non-Orthodox seminaries (where the Orthodox renaissance has made a strong impact), are depending upon us to keep them alive. It is not a small matter whether or not they realize this, but whether they do or do not it is a fact which must weigh heavily upon us.

Orthodox triumphalism—tempered by our continued loss of countless souls to assimilation, intermarriage, and conversion— means that we are now charged with the ultimate responsibility for the souls of all our brothers. This thought must permeate all of our efforts and all of our future deliberations. It must project us forward to the ultimate Jewish triumphalism of the coming of Moshiach in our day.

Israel's New Government The election of Menachem Begin as Prime Minister of Israel came as we were going to press with our last issue. We missed the opportun­ ity of joining the hurrahs which greeted Orthodoxy triumphant in Israel. Retroactively we join in the expressions of joy. But once and for all, let us distinguish between journalism and partisanship— even our own partisanship. What American and Israel Jewry despe­ rately need is a journalism willing to dissent—as Menachem Begin dissented for twenty nine long years. For let this be said: the new government of the State of Israel was born of dissent, not from waving the flag and declaring that the State is the best of all possible states. And let not dissent disappear in a wave of delirium, because the Almighty's Torah triumphed by a vote of 62-58—or whatever the final vote was.

Having said this, we welcome the government of Menachem Begin as a positive step forward in the realization of our dream for the restoration of Eretz Yisrael—-a term Begin himself insists on using—as the Homeland of the Torah and the Jewish People. To the political scientist who deals with vote counts, trends, and statistics, this temporal triumph for Torah is a political quirk: a result of the political parties skillfully using their positions to influence the major­ ity. To the believing Jew it is one more visible manifestation of the 4

power of Torah to prevail,, even when supported by political parties and even when upheld by coalition machinations.

No clear picture emerges of Menachem Begin's religiosity. It does neither him nor us any good to picture him as a pious believing Jew. But we can only be gratified that he has articulated in word and deed—both quite important—the religious yearnings of our People, the ultimate pain of the Holocaust, and our determination to survive on our Land. Cliches are manufactured quickly in modern life, but they are no less true: Israel now has a "Jewish" Prime Minister, who speaks our language in the councils of the world, who yearns for what we yearn, who feels our feelings.

During Begin's exciting visit to the United States he stimulated all Americans, and he brought joy to Jews. When he reported on his visit to Jimmy Carter before a packed house at one of New-York City's large hotels, I stood in the press gallery surrounded by tv cameras and America's press elite. I took joy—better nachas— listening to the Prime Minister and watching and hearing the reac­ tions of the press corps to his masterful presentation. The following Sunday Begin appeared on NBC's "Meet the Press." The reporters, no respectors of ministerial rank, were about to pounce on him, and the first question concerned withdrawal from the West Bank. Mr. Begin's remarks—as recorded in the NBC transcript-demonstrated « what separates him from his predeccessors.

PRIME MINISTER BEGIN: Mr. Monroe, with your permis­ sion, before I answer this very important question, I would like to say a few words about the day we now meet, because of its universal importance. Today, in accordance with our calendar, ... is the Ninth of the month of Av. It is the day when 1,907 years ago the Roman Legions, the Fifth and the Twelfth, launched their ultimate onslaught on the Table Mountain, set [the] Temple ablaze, and destroyed Jerusalem, subjugated our people and conquered our land.

Historically this is the beginning of all the sufferings of our people, dispersed, humiliated and ultimately now a genera­ tion physically destroyed. We remember that day and now have the responsibility to make sure that never again will our independence be destroyed and never again the Jew become homeless or defenseless. Actually this is the crux of the problems facing us in the future.

And now to your question....

This was a Jew speaking to the nations. He went on to answer the difficult questions put to him, but he had already stated with humil­ ity and clarity "the crux of the problems facing us in the future."

Orthodoxy: An Alternate Life Style Rolling Stone is a weekly magazine which emerged from the rockacid culture of the sixties and has now branched out to offer some of 5

the best writing and journalism around in a time when they are both in short supply. It is not quite a "family newspaper,"and when they recently published an article on an aspect of Israel's'"Teshuva Yeshivos," I had to expurgate the copy I brought home—puritan that I am.

The article, "Next Year in Jerusalem," was written by a staff wri­ ter, Ellen Willis who also writes for The New Yorker. Her younger brother Michael had stopped in Israel for a few weeks after his third trip through Asia. He wrote home to his sister saying that he was staying at a yeshiva in Jerusalem, having been waylaid at the Kosel, and that he had found that "the arguments for the existence of G-d [his spelling]...and the Jewish version of it at that—are very plausi­ ble and intellectually if not emotionally convincing." Miss Willis frantically called her parents. In response to her suggestion that she was being alarmist, she countered, "He's spelling...G-d 'G-d.' " (The first dash is ours, the second is hers.)

Miss Willis goes on to tell of her trip to Yerushalayim to be with her brother and to find out what was happening to him. She spent some time with him at Aish Hatorah, where he was already a full­ time talmid, and she herself had a flirtation with Yiddishkeit. The article is beautifully written and loses everything in re-telling or editing it. We recommend reading it in its entirety. (Reprints are available from the UOJC, publishers of this journal, at $1.00 per copy.)

"Next Year in Jerusalem" runs about ten pages, tabloid-size with some striking illustrations. What makes it especially significant is that it appeared in a publication that would hardly be expected to take notice of Orthodox Judaism, no less being ready to accept it as "an alternate life-style." The editors report that the volume of letters commenting on "Next Year in Jerusalem" was greater than they had ever received in response to an article. Many letter writers praised the article, others condemned it, including a self-styled "free-lance lesbian /celibate mystic" disturbed by "the special oppressiveness of the Orthodox tradition to women who choose nonhetero-sexual lifestyles."

In their issue of October, 1977, Rolling Stone did it again with an excellent interview of Menachem Begin. We're not quite ready to suggest that you rush to your newsstand each week to buy a copy, but Rolling Stone is to be commended for its high level of reportage.

It makes your wonder too: where are the members of the Jewish Fourth Estate?

(In this context, we are hoping to make a trip to Israel to visit the 'Teshuva Yeshivos' soon and to prepare a special issue on what they are all about and what they are doing.)

The Proposal for a "Neutral" Beis Din The high incidence of intermarriage which has reached epidemic proportions is deplored by all concerned Jews. Many, particularly among the non-Orthodox, actively encourage conversion of the 6

non-Jewish partner as a means of preserving the Jewish identity of the family. In Israel, the reluctance of the rabbinate to recognize many conversions performed abroad has generated much ill-will.

The insistence of the religious parties upon an amendment to the Law of Return to provide for recognition only of those conversions which are carried out "in accordance with Halachah" carries with it the threat of a political crisis. This ongoing controversy is frequently shrouded in a lack of understanding, and, at times, magnified by a deliberate distortion of the motives and concerns of Orthodox Jewry.

Halachah does not in any way view conversion of a non-Jewish marriage partner as a palliative for the problem of intermarriage.

Quite to the contrary, the performance of an inefficacious conver­ sion ceremony results in erroneous acceptance of the non-Jew as a bona fide convert by the uninformed. The result is both personal anguish and a diminution of the kedushah of the Community of Israel.

Conversion can never be sanctioned in the absence either of ideological sincerity or of unreserved acceptance of the "yoke of the commandments." Thus no candidate may be accepted for conver­ sion in the absence of a firm commitment to shmiras ha-mitzvos.

Sincerity of purpose in face of obvious ulterior motivation can be determined only by a competent Beis Din on a case-by-case basis.

Moreover, Halachah recognizes the validity of a conversion only if performed in the presence of a qualified Beis Din. The qualifications for serving on a Beis Din are carefully spelled out by Halachah.

Conversion, even when accompanied by circumcision, immersion in a mikveh as well as acceptance of the "yoke of the commandments," is null and void unless performed in the presence of a qualified Beis Din. The current controversy with regard to Israel's Law of Return and the call for amending this statute in a manner that would recognize as Jews only those converts who have converted "according to Halachah" have given rise to a particularly vexing problem. A number of proposals have been advanced in an attempt to satisfy the desires and aspirations of the Conservative and Reform move­ ments without doing violence to the principles of the Orthodox. The crux of these proposals is that all conversions be recognized as valid, regardless of the auspices under which performed, provided that halachic requirements of immersion and circumcision are properly carried out. Conservative and Reform groups would undertake scrupulously to adhere to these halachic requirements.

Alas, such proposals, well-meaning as they may be, are unaccept­ able because they ignore one crucial factor: conversion to Judaism is valid only if performed in the presence of a qualified Beis Din. There is, to be sure, a definite danger that a forthright delineation of why it is that conversions performed under non-Orthodox auspices cannot be recognized may be misunderstood. But, on the other hand, stony silence gives credence to those who insist that our failure to wel­ come an accommodation in this area is prompted by unworthy in­ terests. Of such dilemmas one can but agonize, "Woe unto me if I

This ongoing controversy is frequently shrouded in a lack of understanding, and, at times, magnified by a deliberate distortion of the motives and concerns o f Orthodox Jewry.

Alas, such proposals, well-meaning as they may be, are unacceptable because they ignore one crucial factor: conversion to Judaism is valid only if performed in the presence o f a qualified Beis Din.

7

speak; woe unto me if I do not speak." Brotherhood and harmony are very much part of the American tradition. No one wishes to exacerbate the rift which exists between Orthodox Jews and our "separated brethren." No one wishes to create a schism even greater than that which already exists. Most assuredly, refusal to recognize conversions performed by non-Orthodox clergymen is not born of selfish desire to protect vested interests. It is not even rooted in a quarrel over who has the power to interpret Halachah,. as some Conservative spokesmen have charged.

In our country —- as in most — a judge cannot sit on the bench without first being sworn to uphold the laws of the land. In the absence of such a commitment his judicial decisions are legally meaningless — regardless of whether or not they reflect the law correctly. Jewish law does not require an oath — other than the one sworn by each of us at Mount Sinai — but it does state clear re­ quirements for holding judicial office. One need not necesssarily be an ordained rabbi in order to serve on a Beis Din* tor purposes of accepting a convert, but one must be committed to the acceptance of Torah — both the Written and Oral Law 4wra its entirety. One who refuses to accept the divinity and binding authority of even the most minor detail of Halachah is, ipso facto, disqualified. Long before the Law of Return became a controversial issue, it was the stated opin­ ion of halachic authorities that ideological adherents of Reform and Conservatism fall into this category. One of the foremost rabbinic scholars of our generation, R. Moshe Feinstein, has written in at least four different responsa which appear in his Iggros Mosheh that all who identify themselves as non-Orthodox clergy must be consi­ dered to be in this category.

There is nothing in this position which should be a cause for animus directed against the Orthodox rabbinate. The Orthodox posture on this matter is based upon objective criteria of Jewish law and in no way reflects political, partisan, or personal considerations.

Those who differ ideologically may disagree, and even deplore, this position; but intellectual honesty should compel them to recognize that it is a sincerely held view which is the product of a firm com­ mitment to Halachah in all its guises. Nor should this position on the part of the Orthodox preclude cooperative activities in areas which do not involve ideological conflict.

The desire for harmonious relationships and the love of one's fellow Jews are not the exclusive prerogative of the non-Orthodox.

Yet, no amount of love and good feeling can justify the compromise of Halachah. This is a matter over which we have no authority.

Difficult problems do not always admit of facile solutions; com­ promise is not always a viable option. Halachah is simply not amen­ able to quid pro quo accommodations. The result may perhaps be painful at times, but is, alas, unavoidable.

It is most unfortunate that this position must be enunciated at a time of growing rapprochment, at a time when significant sectors within the Reform movement are showing an ever increasing awareness of the vital role of law and ritual in Jewish life. It would be most distressing if misunderstandings with regard to the issue of

The Orthodox posture on this matter is based upon objective criteria of Jewish law and in no way reflects political, partisan, or personal considerations.

Halachah is simply not amenable to quid pro quo accommodations.

The result may perhaps be painful at times, but is, alas, unavoidable.

8

conversion were to become a factor in slowing this trend. The stir­ rings of change within the Reform movement are sincerely wel­ comed. We pray for the day when the return will be complete both in practice and belief, for the day when the schism which divides us will be breached and we shall all be united in the service of G-d.

Then, shall we be enabled to sit together on a common Din in true unity.

J. David Bleich

In This Issue It was both disturbing and fascinating to observe the hysterical re­ sponse to the ascendency of Menachem Begin to the prime ministry of the State of Israel. In its wake, the fear that Torah law and values might play a greater role in Israeli society, lead to the proposal for a "neutral Beis Din," as if Halacha and non-Halacha could be recon­ ciled by verbal trickery. In his Thunder on the Left, Lightning on the Right, Rabbi Ralph Pelcovitz examines the response to Israel's new government, and in a signed comment Rabbi J. David Bleich explores The Proposal for a “Neutral"Beis Din. The great gap which often separates ethical behavior from religi­ ous commitment is a given of human existence. It is surely not peculiar to our time. Yet it is an axiom of Torah that this gap can be narrowed, if not entirely eliminated, and a Torah imperative enjoins us to bring commitment and behavior ever closer. I have been ad­ vised by dear and trusted associates not to publish Crisis in Or­ thodoxy: The Ethical Paradox, written by Dr. Irving Levitz. It was with a heavy heart that 1 exercised my editorial prerogative to publish the article. It is a harsh statement. I hardly agree with all that Dr. Levitz says, but I believe it is an area that must be opened to public discus­ sion, like a sore that festers on a body, lest it be said that we are indifferent to the problem. Because Orthodoxy has grown strong, and because we believe that the vast majority of Jews exposed to and committed to Torah are better men and women than they might be without Torah, we believe that we can withstand criticism leveled against us better if we confront it, rather than looking only at "the positive side." If this journal has any purpose it is to start the pro­ cess of solving problems by stating them. It is in that sense that I am pleased that Dr. Levitz has chosen to do so and I stand with him....

In a sense, the painful disagreem ent between Satmar and Lubavitcher Chassidim which has emerged into the public arena, might also be hidden behind a rock. But here too, I am grateful that we number among our contributors as keen and as sensitive an observer as Rabbi Bernard Weinberger, whose Satmar and Lubavitch: The Dynamics of Disagreement appears in this issue. It too is a painful subject; perhaps most so for those of us who have high regard for the achievements of both groups while standing ideologically out­ side them. The ideological differences which divide Orthodox Jews may serve some Divine plan which makes room for all of us to find our places within the confines of a common belief in the Divine 9

origin of Torah. It is the manner in which these disagreements are mounted which serves to discredit us. It should here be noted that the Gedolim who head our various ideological components gener­ ally manifest greater regard for each other than their troops. This is a lesson we might all learn from them... Rabbi Aaron RakeffetRothkoff who periodically provides us with portraits of Gedolim, offers in this issue Reb Naftali Amsterdam: A Mussar Disciple. Rabbi Rakeffet, associated with the Michlala (College for Women) in Yerushalayim, has emerged as a revered teacher of new generations of Torah youth... Sigmund Freud is said to have declared in his latter years, "I am no longer a Freudian." Dr. Viktor Frankl, founder of the psychiatric school of Logo therapy, has been the subject of intense study by Rabbi Reuven Bulka, who shares some of his find­ ings in Logotherapy - A Step Beyond Freud: Its Relevance for Jewish Thought... Rabbi Jack Simcha Cohen, one of the few serious students of Jewish urban affairs, examines in this issue: The Orthodox Synagogue: Challenge of the Inner City and Suburbia.

Typographic Errors "on page 61" No letters to the editor appear in this issue because we received none going to the heart of the concerns discussed in our last issue.

One astute reader did call to our attention an unfortunate typo­ graphical error which appeared — where else? ^ in a letter to the editor in our Summer 1977 issue on Freud's Pleasure Principle, on page 61. Modesty prevents our taking closer note of the error, which we regret. However, we Jake some consolation from a letter we recently read which Franz Kafka wrote to his publisher. The letter, which appears in the newly published translation of Briefef Letters to Friends,Family,and Editors (Schocken Books 1977) reads as follows.

To Kurt Wolff Verlag Dear Herr Wolff: I am sending the proofs for Arcadia by return mail. I am grateful to you for having sent me the page proofs since there was a ghastly printer's error on page 61 — "bride" instead of "breast."

—With thanks, yours sincerely, Dr. F. Kafka Kafka was a Czech Jew who wrote in German. He has been claimed by the Germans, and more recently by the Czechs, though all of his books were burned by the Nazis, and it is impossible to find a copy of any of his books in Czeckoslovakia. In his last years — he died in 1924 at the age of forty one — he became deeply interested in Yiddishkeit. He would often leave his sick-bed to study with his Gemmorah rebbe. I hope soon to share with you some of the results of my research on his life. (The second part of my review of current Jewish books will appear, I hope, in our next issue.)

10

In forthcoming issues The Orthodox American Family—A Sociological Study Sadat's Visit to Yad Vashem: An Eyewitness Report Jews in Shanghai: A Review Article Some More Books of Jewish Interest Coming to Grips With Disbelief Franz Kafka as Baal Teshuva The Jewish Physician and Public Offical: Some Questions and Answers Coming soon: A special issue of Jewish Life dedicated to the Teshuva Movement with first-hand reports of the Teshuva Yeshivos in Eretz Yisrael.

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Ralph Pelcovitz

Thunder on the Left, Lightning on the Right— The Response to Israel's New Government The victory of Menachem Begin and his Likud Party in the May Israeli elections caused consternation in Washington and ominous rumblings in Arab capitals. But the subsequent internal political negotiations which established the present coalition Government dominated by the Likud and the Religious Parties has created a furor and evoked wounded cries of outrage from various segments of the Jewish community which surpass those of Cairo, Damascus and the Western capitals. Mr. Begin's meetings with Mr. Carter have appa­ rently allayed many of Washington's fears, but this process of pacifi­ cation has not been as successful within the Jewish community.

Why this emotional reaction, in Israel from Shimon Peres in his maiden speech as leader of the Opposition in the Knesset and the impassioned editorials in the Jerusalem Post; in America the bitter complaints and thinly-veiled threats voiced by the Chancellor of the Jewish Theological Seminary and the President of the Central Con­ ference of American Rabbis (Reform) in this country? It is important for all who revere Torah, cherish the unity of Klal Yisrael and recog­ nize the centrality of Eretz Yisrael to fully understand the significance of these public pronouncements and the importance of this attack upon the agreement between Mr. Begin and the religious parties.

The areas of agreement which have aroused the ire of secularists and religious heterodox leaders alike are extremely vital and sensi­ tive ones. They include stronger restrictions on abortions and au­ topsies: tightening of laws regulating Shabbos work, and the nam­ ing of a member of a religious party to head the Ministry of Educa­ tion; greater leniency in granting exemptions from military service for religious girls; and—above all— a commitment to amend the law regarding conversions to Judaism. The latter change, for which the Orthodox community has battled the past number of years, the amendment of the Law of Return to require "Giyur K'Halacha" (con­ version in accordance with strict Jewish law), has caused the greatest consternation among the Conservative and Reform leader­ ship in this cdimtry, strongly supported by the opposition parties in Israel and much of the Israeli and American Jewish press. Since this amendment, if passed, will probably invalidate most all Reform and many Conservative conversions, it has understandably alarmed the non-Orthodox Rabbinate and angered many of the avowed sec­ ularists who champion the separation of religion and state in Israel.

Transcending these specific issues is the fear that the Orthodox religious leadership in Israel, especially the Moetzet Gedolai Ha'To-

Mr. Begin's meetings with Mr. Carter have apparently allayed many of Washington's fears, but this process of pacification has no* been as successful within the Jewish community.

Since this amendment, if passed, will probably invalidate most all Reform and many Conservative conversions, it has understandably alarmed the non-Orthodox Rabbinate and angered many of the avowed secularists who champion the separation o f religion and state in Israel.

Rabbi Ralph Pelcovitz has served the Congregation Kneseth Israel (Far Rockaway's famed "White Shul") for over twenty five years.

He recently published a collection o f his writings, Danger and Opportunity, (Shengold Publishers INew Yorkl$6.95), some o f which originally appeared in Jewish Life.

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rah, the Council of Sages, will exert an undue influence upon the government. This conjures up the specter of a powerful, strange, almost mysterious force, manipulating the Agudah deputies who hold the balance of power in the new Government and a religious establishment which will be able to bring great pressure to bear on the Government in general and Prime Minister Menachem Begin in particular. Abba Eba, in an article published in the Jerusalem Post, articulates this apprehension stating: "All honor and affection to the venerability and learning of these Sages, but their participation in coalition-making should send a tremor into many Jewish hearts." It It is clear therefore that a large number o f Jews in Israel and the is clear therefore that a large number of Jews in Israel and the United United States are disturbed by States are disturbed by many of the promises and pledges made to many of the promises and pledges the religious parties in the coalition agreement and it is important for made to the religious parties in the us not to ignore these fears but to attempt to clarify the issues in the coalition agreement and it is important for us not to ignore these hope of allaying them. fears but to attempt to clarify the Let us examine the areas of concern so as to properly assess the issues in the hope of allaying them. validity—if any—of the vigorous criticism leveled against the coali­ tion agreement; evaluate the arguments set forth by the opposition; and consider how they can be effectively and reasonably refuted. It is important to do so since public opinion is being aroused against the Torah community which is characterized as a "minority of ex­ tremists." It is incumbent, therefore, upon the Torah community to dispel doubts and alleviate apprehensions by bringing a degree of clarity to bear and hopefully to calm an aroused and concerned community.

The question of non-Orthodox The question of non-Orthodox conversions is one that joins two conversions is one that joins two major chronic problems. Since the founding of the State of Israel, major chronic problems. Since the there has been a system of rabbinic courts, religious councils and a founding o f the State of Israel, there has been a system of rabbinic Chief Rabbinate whose authority in family matters, i.e. marriage courts, religious councils and a and divorce is recognized by law of the State. Until recently, the Chief Rabbinate whose authority in Reform and Conservative movements were not active in Israel and family matters, i.e. marriage and its leadership abroad accepted the exclusive authority of the Or­ divorce is recognized by law of the thodox religious establishment. During the past decade, however, a State. Until recently, the Reform and Conservative movements were number of Conservative and Reform Temples have been organized not active in Israel and its in Israel and with the arrival of more Western olim together with leadership abroad accepted the Seminary students and members of youth groups who visit from exclusive authority o f the time to time, these movements have grown. The non-Orthodox Orthodox religious establishment. have indeed established a presence in Israel, although their political clout is still minimal. Neither movement felt constrained to chal­ lenge their non-acceptance as religious authorities or their lack of Since such conversions have legitimacy as rabbis till now, since it did not affect their status where increased appreciably in recent years, their invalidation is a source it counted, namely in their own synagogues, temples and com­ o f embarrassment to the munities back home. What has triggered the present controversy non-Orthodox Rabbinate. What is and aroused their anger and concern is the refusal of Israeli religious far graver is the challenge to their courts to accept their conversions. Since such conversions have in­ authority on their own home creased appreciably in recent years, their invalidation is a source of territory, for when their legitimacy, as spiritual leaders in embarrassment to the non-Orthodox Rabbinate. What is far graver the eyes of the Israeli authorities is is the challenge to their authority on their own home territory, for questioned, it weakens their when their legitimacy as spiritual leaders in the eyes of the Israeli position, power, prestige, and authorities is questioned, it weakens their position, power, prestige, influence in the United States as well. and influence in the United States as well.

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The Law of the Return This explosive issue is interwoven with a second sensitive one that has troubled the State of Israel for decades. The Law of Return passed by the Knesset as one of its first legislative acts, de­ monstrated the determination of the new State to provide a National Home for a people displaced and dispersed for close to 2,000 years.

The purpose was noble, the objective most admirable, but it also created a major ongoing problem. When David Ben-Gurion served as Israel's first Prime Minister, the "Who Is A Jew?" question be­ came a burning issue on the agenda of Israeli and world Jewry. Ben Gurion, sensitive to the historic implications and realizing the pro­ found importance of Jewish identity, consulted with Torah luminaries as well as legal authorities and Jewish scholars through­ out the world. The matter was resolved by legislative act which basically followed ¿traditional Jewish law: only the child of a Jewish mother or one converted to the Jewish faith was recognized as a Jew. The issue was quiescent for a number of years erupting once again during Golda Meir's administration. The question had then taken on a new dimension and sense of urgency due to the Russian Jewish Aliyah which included many families with one non-Jewish partner.

The question of "Who Is A Jew?" reappeared on the national agenda and was resolved by reaffirming the status quo—but with a vital phrase omitted. "Giyur" (conversion,) was explicitly mentioned but "k'Halacha" - according to Jewish religious law—was not, which satisfied the secularists and non-Orthodox community but has been under a barrage of criticism ever since by the Torah community.

The Agudath Israel in their negotiations with Menachem Begin, supported in this instance by the National Religious Party (Mizrachi), made the addition of this vital phrase, "k'Halacha" a prime condition for supporting the Likud government and received assur­ ances that the majority party would use its influence to so change the law. This then has triggered the highly charged emotional reac­ tion of Reform and Conservative spokesmen who claim that since the Orthodox establishment will be empowered to interpret this phrase, it will inevitably invalidate their conversions.

Again: the matter goes beyond the immediate question of conver­ sion for it challenges the rabbinical authority and even the legiti­ macy of non-Orthodox rabbis, an understandable source of irrita­ tion, embarrassment and anguish to them. Hence, their vigorous and vociferous reaction. So we have the unfortunate coming to­ gether of two troublesome and potentially explosive problems which have been constantly with us since 1948, ever present though partially submerged, which now surfaces—the "Who Is A Jew?" issue coupled with a religious problem endemic to our modern times, that of religious pluralism, denominational Judaism, and var­ iant "forms of religious expression", the terms most often used by our heterodox brothers.

It is intriguing to note that this issue of non-recognition in Israel has brought the Conservative and Reform rabbinates closer to­ gether. They are obviously united by their anger and animosity

When David Ben-Gurion served as Israel's first Prime Minister, the "Who Is A Jew?" question became a burning issue on the agenda of Israeli and world Jewry. Ben Gurion, sensitive to the historic implications and realizing the profound importance of Jewish identity, consulted with Torah luminaries as well as legal authorities and Jewish scholars throughout the world.

So we have the unfortunate coming together o f two troublesome and potentially explosive problems which have been constantly with us since 1948, ever present though partially submerged, which now surfaces - the "Who Is A Jew?" issue coupled with a religious problem endemic to our modern times, that of religious pluralism, denominational Judaism, and variant "forms of religious expression", the terms most often used by our heterodox brothers.

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toward the "extremists of the Right" and have joined in cautioning Mr. Begin not to permit "an Orthodox religious minority to suppress other forms of religious expression" in Israel. They are determined to stand together "in defense of Jewish pluralism". This is indeed a This is indeed a strange alliance when one considers that most strange alliance when one considers that most Conservative Rabbis Conservative Rabbis in this in this country refuse to recognize a Reform conversion, while the country refuse to recognize a Halachic discipline which is paid at least lip service and respect by Reform conversion, while the Halachic discipline which is paid at the Conservative Movement is rejected or at best ignored by the least lip service and respect by the Reform. To unite on a law whose purpose it is to define conversion, Conservative Movement is rejected and area where their differences heretofore have been so marked, or at best ignored by the Reform. and to agree on the deletion of the phrase 'k'Halacha", a term ac­ cepted by one and rejected by the other, demonstrates lamentably how bruised egos as well as religious politics can make for strange bedfellows.

The plaintive cry of the newly elected President of the C.C.A.R., "Why can't a marriage we recognize be recognized in Israel? Why can't a rabbi be recognized as a rabbi?" will probably not prove to be overly effective among knowledgeable Jews especially in Israel.

Those who are even marginally conversant with Judaism's princi­ ples and fundamental Jewish law are painfully aware of the wrec­ kage wrought in Jewish family life by Reform spiritual leaders who have tragically fostered adultery and illegitimacy among innocent Jews by rejecting Gittin (Jewish divorce). The same is also true of their conversions which are meaningless ceremonies sanctioning in­ termarriage among many unsuspecting Jewish families who are ig­ norant of authentic Jewish law and practice. Hence, it would seem that most Jews will not be impressed by these rhetorical questions.

What will bother many American and Israeli Jews is the call for "Jewish religious pluralism." It is a phrase that has a good, whole­ some, democratic ring and evokes a favorable reflexive response. It is therefore important for us to replace reflex with reflection and substitute reasoned refutation for knee-jerk reaction.

The dictionary defines pluralism as "a state of society in which The dictionary defines pluralism as |'a state of society in which members of diverse ethnic, racial, religious or social groups main­ members of diverse ethnic, racial, tain an autonomous development of their traditional culture within religious or social groups maintain the confines of a common civilization." Understandably, Jews have an au tonomous developmen t of championed this concept of pluralism in the Golah for it represents their traditional culture within the confines of a common civilization". their guarantee of religious freedom in a non-Jewish society and an opportunity to maintain their identity while developing their "tradi­ Judaism has its eternal verities and tional culture" as equal members of a society in which they are th e Mi tzvos of Torah are cons tan ts. marked minority. To carry over this credo, however, from the Galut The wholeness, the integrity of Torah law (Halacha) is not part of a to the Land of Israel, intact and unchanged, is illogical and even social or political contract but of a intellectually dishonest. Judaism has its eternal verities and the Covenant between the Jewish Mitzvos of Torah are constants. The wholeness, the integrity of people and the Almighty which by Torah law (Halacha) is not part of a social or political contract but of its very nature is eternal. As such, a Covenant between the Jewish people and the Almighty which by we are not dealing with its very nature is eternal. As such, we are not dealing with 'democ­ 'democracy' or the 'will of the people' or with a political process racy' or the 'will of the people' or with a political process but with but with fundamental basic fundamental basic disciplines and enduring values which are not disciplines and enduring values subject to change or "forms of religious expressions'. We are not which are not subject to change or dealing with "traditional culture" but with a Divine constitution "forms of religious expressions".

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which cannot be amended to fit changing mores or for the sake of convenience. The Halacha stands firmly on the foundation of this Covenant between Israel and G-d, therefore it is as immutable as G-d Himself.

To the Torah-true Jew, the phrase "Israel, Torah and G-d are one" is taken most seriously. Hence the concept of "religious pluralism" within Judaism is unacceptable for it not only threatens the oneness of Klal Yisroel and the integrity of Torah but impinges upon the oneness of the Almighty. The Torah community is also convinced We believe that the overwhelming that the majority of Israelis, regardless of their political affiliation, majority would choose to protect subscribe to these sentiments even if they do not articulate them. the unity and identity of Klal We believe that the overwhelming majority would choose to protect Yisroel by accepting into their the unity and identity of Klal Yisroel by accepting into their midst midst only those whose 'gairus' is beyond question, converts who are only those whose gairusis beyond question, converts who areaccepted un­ by religious unequivocally equivocally accepted by religious courts that are steadfast in their courts that are steadfast in their loyalty to the historic Torah law, for only in this fashion can the loyalty to the historic Torah law, for only in this fashion can the destiny and integrity of Israel be insured. destiny and integrity of Israel be We appreciate that this thesis is not one accepted by many Jews in insured. this country since American Jewry has long recognized the existence of denominations within Judaism, an unfortunate legacy of the Diaspora and a reflection of non-Jewish religious ideologies which dominate and engulf us. This concept is now unfortunately being This concept is now unfortunately transported to Israel, an event foreseen by those who cautioned that being transported to Israel, an event foreseen by those who Orthodox participation in mixed rabbinic and synagogue boards and cautioned that Orthodox councils creates an image of equality among all "rabbis" regardless participation in mixed Rabbinic and synagogue boards and councils of their knowledge, piety and commitment to Jewish law.

This argument was buttressed by the Chancellor of the Jewish creates an image of equality among all "rabbis" regardless of their Theological Seminary who chose to deliver his intemperate views knowledge, piety and commitment regarding "the Orthodox religious minority's suppression of other to Jewish law. forms of religious expression" in Israel at a Synagogue Council of America Dinner, in the presence of many Orthodox Rabbis and laymen. So much for Orthodox membership in the Synagogue Council serving as a moderating force to soften the anti-Torah posi­ tion of the non-Orthodox leadership! Dr. Cohen's choice of platform Dr. Cohen's choice of platform was a wise one, since it underscored the was a wise one, since it underscored the fact that here in democratic fact that here in democratic America, all Jewish religious expressions are accepted and America, all Jewish religious respected—-why then should the State of Israel be different? We expressions are accepted and hasten to point out that there is factual error in stating "suppression respected - why then should the State of Israel be different? of other forms of religious expression" in Israel, since the establish­ ment of Reform temples and Conservative synagogues are freely permitted and many of them presently function. Only official status is denied and this, of course, is the crux of the problem to which the Conservative and Reform leadership address themselves, especially as manifested in the area of conversions.

It must be noted that even those It must be noted that even those Orthodox rabbis and laymen who Orthodox rabbis and laymen who are in favor of umbrella organizations such as the New York Board are in favor of umbrella of Rabbis and the Synagogue Council, are unalteralby opposed to organizations such as the New granting full rabbinic recognition to their heterodox colleagues—in York Board of Rabbis and the Synagogue Council, are Israel. This is not to be misconstrued as an inconsistency on their unalterably opposed to granting part, either by their Conservative and Reform colleagues of by those full rabbinic recognition to their in the Orthodox camp who deplore their insistence upon retaining heterodox colleagues - in Israel.

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The Israeli press has accused the new Government of compromising principle for political expediency by agreeing to this stipulation , conveniently forgetting that Menachem Begin has always been in favor o f "Giyur k"Halacha".

membership in these mixed groups. There is a vast difference bet­ ween the United States and Israel in the field of marriage, divorce and conversion. Since there is no central religious authority or Jewish registry in this country, every Orthodox, and many a Con­ servative rabbi, is on guard against misrepresentation, carefully examining every conversion and divorce which may come to his attention realizing that he must authenticate them before accep­ tance. Not so in Israel, where the validation of every conversion, divorce or marriage from abroad, regardless of origin, would grant automatic authentication and legitimacy as part of religious and governmental records, thereby destroying the credibility of regis­ tries in the most vital arid fundamental area of society, namely that of Jewish family life and Jewish identity. The social fabric in Israel would be rent and the unity which now prevails in this area would be radically disrupted.

The Israeli press has accused the new Government of compromis­ ing principle for political expediency by agreeing to this stipulation, conveniently forgetting that Menachem Begin has always been in favor of "Giyur k'Halacha". Mr. Begin has shown himself not to be given to retreating from positions he adhered to while in the opposi­ tion, now that he is in power. Consistency may be an unfamiliar virtue in Israel's political circles but it should be recognized by jour­ nalists when it makes a rare appearance. Above all, what must be impressed upon the Jewish public is that the establishment of the State carries with it a historic responsibility of insuring the authentic identity and integrity of the Jewish people. Even if we err in amend­ ing the law it is wiser to do so on the side of the maximalists, which will include all shades of Jewish commitment, be it Nationalist or Conservative, Reform or secularists, rather than to create a situation which will establish a marriage barrier between segments of the Jewish population. It is not an unreasonable price for rabbis to pay for Jewish unity considering the high cost which will be incurred by continued internal combat. The scars left by such an internecine battle will be far more lasting than the wounds of injured pride inflicted by denying full legitimacy to all rabbis in Israel.

The other areas of agreement between the Likud and the Religious Parties have not received the same amount of press coverage given to the conversion issue, nor will we elaborate upon them as much here, but they are of equal importance to the future of the State and the collective character of Klal Yisroel. The question of abortion, autopsies, forced military service for women, Shabbos work per­ mits, and Israel's educational system, are all vital issues. Since they were included in the coalition agreement, they will perforce appear on Israel's agenda for the foreseeable future and we will now ad­ dress these problems.

Judaism teaches the affirmation and sanctity of human life as well as profound respect for the human body. As such, Torah law pro­ hibits both the destruction of new life and the dissection of a corpse after death—which is a desecretion—except under extraordinary cir­ cumstances. For a Jewish State tp enact legislation permitting abor­ tions with little restrictions, as was the case in Israel over a year ago,

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and the performance of autopsies even against the wishes of the family with the written permission of three doctors, is disturbing, and damaging to the Jewish spirit. In the case of abortions, it is an unconscionable threat to the physical growth and security of the land. Ismael Fahmy, the Foreign Minister of Egypt, recently suggested that the Jews of Israel go back to the countries from whence they came. This emigration he claims would solve the Mid­ dle East problem. A number of years ago, this ingenious gentleman suggested that Israel stop immigration for fifty years to help ease the tense political situation between Israel and her Arab neighbors. Both of these outrageous suggestions were met with the contempt they richly deserved. What then should be our reaction when the Knesset approves a bill liberalizing abortions of future Jewish citizens of the State thereby snuffing out internal immigration and denying Israel its most precious resource—a new generation? Is Menachem Begin playing a political game when he pledges to tighten the abortion law or is he demonstrating true Jewish responsibility? And as a sensi­ tive, traditional individual, is he being hypocritical when he prom­ ises to respect the wishes of Jewish families when death occurs, or is he being loyal to the tradition of "chesed shel ernes".

Abba Eban was most eloquent recently in presenting his thoughts on the character of a Jewish State which he correctly says must consist of common memories, possess "soul," and bring a uniquely Jewish spirit to the body politic. How strange, therefore that in the same Jerusalem Post article, he proceeds to fulminate against the religious parties who are attempting to strengthen t'znius in Israeli society by granting exemptions to girls who choose not to serve in the armed forces due to religious conviction. He is also disturbed by the pressure brought on the new Government to refrain from grant­ ing special permits for work on the Shabbat. Certainly these two areas, the sanctity of the Shabbos and the moral character of young women, are among the most important ingredients in insuring the Jewish character of the State. Is it unreasonable to claim that the new Government may be reading the mood of the country correctly?

There are countless parents of young girls who are not identified with the religious community, who would welcome the abolishment of the women's army draft, fearful as they are for their daughter's moral development in military atmosphere. And are there not countless Israeli citizens who are perhaps non-religious, but yet traditional-minded, who are appalled at the desecration of the Shabbat perpetrated needlessly with government sanction as a re­ sult of spurious questionable "special permits"? The assurance given that this government will cooperate in granting an army exemption ipore readily to young women who request it, and be more strict in issuing Shabbos work permits is one that strikes a welcome responsive chord in the hearts of many Jews far beyond the ranks of the NRP and Agudah. History may well one day record that these were among the first steps taken in bringing a new light to Zion.

In a lengthy editorial, the Jerusalem Post analyzes the coalition agreement, reviewing with dismay and even outrage many of the

What then should be our reaction when the Knesset approves a bill liberalizing abortions of future Jewish citizens of the State thereby snuffing out internal immigration and denying Israel its most precious resource-a new generation? Is Menachem Begin playing a political game when he pledges to tighten the abortion law or is he demonstrating true Jewish responsibility?

Certainly these two areas, the sanctity o f the Shabbos and the moral character o f young women, are among the most important ingredients in insuring the Jewish character o f the State. Is it unreasonable to claim that the new Government may be reading the mood of the country correctly?

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promises made by Begin to his religious party coalition partners.

Among its targets is the agreement to grant benefits (meaning funds) to Chinuch Atzmai— the independent religious school system—equal to those of State schools. Even more alarming in their view is the fact that the Ministry of Education portfolio will be in the hands of a religious minister, who will be supervising the general school system. The Post is apparently concerned lest too much Jewish content be introduced into the Israeli secular school cur­ riculum.

Those who have watched Israel's general school system are appal­ Those who have watched Israel's general school system are appalled led at its failure to provide its students with a proper understanding at its failure to provide its students of Jewish traditions, ceremonies, rituals and customs, or a proper with a proper understanding of sensitivity for Jewish history and a sense of kinship with K'lal Yis­ Jewish traditions, ceremonies, rituals and customs, or a proper roel. In the early years of the State an attempt was made to correct sensitivity for Jewish history and a these flaws by introducing a program called "Toda'ah Yehudit"—a sense o f kinship with K'lal Yisroel. kind of Jewish consciousness-raising course—which utterly failed!

How many visitors to Israel who are only marginally observant are dismayed to find many Israelis so "un-Jewish" and, above all, so ignorant of Yiddishkeit. And this shocked reaction is also experi­ enced by countless of Jewish communities when young Israelis visit abroad.

Not only are many young Israelis devoid of Jewish knowledge, and strangers to Jewish practice and customs, but their general at­ titude toward the Jewish people and their own sense of identity is Recently a poll of Israeli teenagers tragically weak and disoriented. Recently a poll of Israeli teenagers revealed that 65% o f secular young revealed that 65% of secular young Israelis felt they would rather have Israelis felt they would rather have been born non-Jewish, if born abroad! Professor Klausner many years ago been bom non-Jewish, if born predicted that unless the educational system was overhauled, Israel would abroad! Professor Klausner many years ago predicted that unless the raise a generation of "Goyim m'dabrai Ivrit"—Hebrew speaking goyim. educational system was These may be exaggerated criticisms of the Israeli school system overhauled, Israel would raise a and an example of what has humorously been labeled "gevaltism," generation of "Goyim m'dabrai but nonetheless, most educators and serious-minded public leaders Ivrit" - Hebrew-speaking goyim. are deeply concerned. The appointment of a shomer Torah u'mitzvot education minister should be welcomed by all who care about the future collective Jewish character of Israel. Zevulun Hammer may not be able to radically alter the curriculum of the general schools and there is little fear that he will infiltrate pious, G-d fearing teachers into the secular school system, but we can hope that an attempt will be made to introduce more Yiddishkeit into the cur­ riculum, thereby producing a new generation that will fully recog­ nize they are Jews as well as Israelis, and identify fully with the Jewish past and the future destiny of K'lal Yisroel.

Mr. Eban in his article, mentioned above, makes a startling and disquieting statement. "The coalition contract on religious issues," he says, "was made without the participation of Diaspora Jewry which is therefore not committed to its endorsement," The "religi­ ous issues" he refers to include all those we have discussed in this essay. The integrity of the Jewish people, their affirmation of life, their sense of human dignity, the sanctity of the Shabbos, the moral fibre of Israel, and the chinuch, the proper Jewish education of each new generation. These are not part of a contract entered into by 20

political negotiators. They are most important aspects of a convenant entered into by all Israel centuries ago, and Jews everywhere are bound by this eternal covenant, be they in Israel or the Diaspora.

This is our thesis, and we are confident that majority of the Jewish People subscribe to it, just as they endorse the statement made by Mr. Begin when 1 accepted the post of Prime Minister. "I wish to declare," said M tachem Begin, "that the Government of Israel will not ask any nation...to recognize our right to exist. We were granted our right to exist by the G-d of our fathers at the glimmer of the dawn of human civilization nearly four thousand years ago." With­ out the Jewish texture in the fabric of the State, however, this eloquent, ringing statement will have neither substance nor mean­ ing. Only if we are faithful and loyal to the G-d of our Fathers will we continue not only to exist but to endure and prevail.

"I wish to declare," said Menachem Begin, "that the Government of Israel will not ask any nation...to recognize our right to exist. We were granted our right to exist by the G-d of our Fathers at the glimmer o f the dawn of human civilization nearly four thousand years ago."

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Irving N. Levitz

Crisis in Orthodoxy: The Ethical Paradox At the turn of the century American Orthodox Judaism was no more than a pale reminder of an historical past with little hope of survival.

There were few and poorly endowed educational institutions, a dearth of ritual facilities, little kashrus, and a community consisting mainly of residual Jews who remained adherents to tradition more as a function of their resistance to and fear of the American way of life than out of conviction.

The prophets of doom confidently forecast the demise of the Or­ thodox Jewish community and assured—though sadly at times— that within a generation it would pass into history. They were wrong. Despite the many scholarly eulogies and frequent pro­ nouncements that Orthodoxy was dead, a victim of Americaniza­ tion, enlightenment, wealth and acculturation — the corpse simply refused to lie down.

Today there are more committed, openly identified Orthodox Jews than ever before in American history. This is most dramatically reflected by the visible entry of committed young Orthodox men and women into the secular would with no compromise to either their profession or their religious identity. Sometimes referred to as the "Kippah Culture," they are doctors, lawyers, engineers, social scientists, theoreticians, and practitioners, who are openly iden­ tified as Orthodox Jews. Indeed, Orthodoxy has become one of the most attractive, vibrant and dynamic movements on the college campus today. In many respects Orthodoxy has arrived.

Yet, a closer examination of Orthodox life leaves many of its adhe­ rents feeling a sense of distress and uneasiness. There are disquiet­ ing problems and serious concerns great enough to disrupt and perhaps even destroy the very megastructure that has so painstak­ ingly been built over the past century.

With all its signs of life there are indications of communal and institutional decay tha t has begun to manifest itself on many fronts.

One of the most visible among these symptoms has been the emergence of a problem related to ethics among Orthodox Jews.

Despite the revelations of the Watergate era, or perhaps because of them, we have come to expect of a religiously committed indi­ vidual a higher sense of consciousness in the realm of moral and ethical behavior. Indeed where a religious way of life is not reflected in higher standards and values than the community at large it creates in us a sense of dissonance. We have come to see it as grossly inconsistent for a man of avowed religious conviction to violate ac­ cepted ethical and moral standards.

When such a person proves to be a thief, an exploiter, an embez­ zler or simply untrustworthy, it is even more disturbing than were the deceptions executed by a non-religious individual.

Today there are more committed, openly identified Orthodox Jews then ever before in American history. This is most dramatically reflected by the visible entry of committed young Orthodox men and women into the secular world with no compromise to either their profession or their religious identity.

Yet, a closer examination of Orthodox life leaves many o f its adherents feeling a sense of distress and uneasiness. There are disquieting problems and serious concerns great enough to disrupt and perhaps even destroy the very mega-structure that has so painstakingly been built over the past century.

Dr. Levitz is an Associate Professor at thè Wurzweiller Graduate School of Social Work o f Yeshiva University.

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This is precisely the problem facing the Orthodox Jewish com­ munity.

What is emerging with embarrassing frequency from among Or­ thodox Jews is the involvement of a disturbing number of its adhe­ rents in a myriad of corrupt activities. Organizational irregularities reflecting a dearth of ethical leadership, corrupt and criminal prac­ tices in the kashrus industry, unethical practices in yeshiva ad­ ministrations, a cynical attitude toward secular law, dishonest busi­ ness practices, and neglect of the aged—these are but a sampling of some of the many scandals that have become public.

It should not seem from my having It should not seem from my having cited these many ethical and cited these many ethical and moral moral transgressions that Orthodox Jews have a monopoly on cor­ transgressions that Orthodox jews ruption. This simply is not so! There are no empirical data nor is have a monopoly on corruption. there any responsible social scientist that could indicate that Or­ This simply is not so! thodoxy, as a way of life, fosters or encourages corruption. But here is the rub: neither is there evidence that Orthodoxy, as it is practiced today, either discourages, controls, reduces or in fact has any effect on moral behavior at all.

Many Orthodox Jews dismiss the mounting evidence of moral decay as the corrupt work of individuals who are neither the pro­ ducts of Orthodoxy nor a reflection of its ethical permissiveness. Yet the Orthodox milieu tends to foster a sense of self-righteousness bordering on arrogance when it cofnes to the issues pertaining to moral and ethical standards às they manifest themselves in daily life.

This resistance to introspection has resulted in the Orthodox communtiy manifesting no enforceable code of ethics, no accounta­ bility and in essence, an air of moral permissiveness. Examples are legion and can be drawn from a multitude of settings and a variety of life situations.

The Orthodox community by way of its official organs of com­ munication does not take these matters lightly. Condemnation for such unethical conduct is clear and rebuke at times is sharp. Chilul Hashem, the desecration of the Divine Name, is considered among the most serious transgressions. "All sins are forgiven by G-d, but Chilul Hashem H e punishes immediately (Sifri, Haazinu)." In another instance the Sages warned "He who desecrates the name of Heaven in secrecy is punished in public" (Avos 4). These biblical and talmudic admonitions are readily evoked by the Orthodox community to condemn acts of corruption. The response, however, falls short of introspection. On the contrary, perpetrators of unethical behavior are seen as defectors rather than by-products, albeit undesirable by-products of the Orthodox communal body. Thus, despite the condemnation and despite the unfaltering official position of the Orthodox community on the side of the Right and the Good, this defensive response precludes self-analysis and introspection.

There is in fact a sense of smugness, a cloak of self-righteousness that clothes the community psyche and lulls it into believing that it is a community with higher moral standards and ethical behavior than the general community at large.

There is, however, little to support such a notion. The scant re24

search that does exist does pot appear to find very much difference between Orthodox and non-Orthodox Jews, Conducting a study in response to Milton Rokeach's contention that religion leads to more constricted system of moral values, E>r.

Fred Krause, a clinical psychologist at Brooklyn's Maimonides Hos­ pital, compared the value systems of Orthodox and non-Orthodox Jews. He found no significant differences between the two groups.

Orthodox Jews did not reflect a higher system of values.

In his doctoral dissertation comparing the level of moral judg­ ments of Orthodox, Conservative and Reform teenagers, Seymour Hirschman of Yeshiva University's Ferkauf Graduate School found ho significant differences among the three groups. In other words, Orthodox youngsters, despite their yeshiva education, ritually oriented homes, and religious socio-cultural milieu, did not reflect any superior trend in the realm of moral judgment.

This enigma of Orthodox Jews engaging in dubious activities pre­ sents no problem to the religious antagonist. For him religion at best simply doesn't work; at worst, it is the very cause of moral decay.

However, were the antagonist to peruse even peripherally the tomes of religious teachings dedicated to moral and ethical behavior and to the development of sensitivity for other human beings he too would be perplexed and hard put to explain the chasm that exists between the teachings and practice of Judaism's code of ethics.

On the surface the argument that religion has no positive effect on moral behavior appears justified. Orthodox Jews, on the whole, do not appear to have higher ethical standards nor in a more general sense do they seem to be endowed with a more generous portion of sensitivity in their relationships Bain Adam L'chavero, between man and man.

The now infamous nursing home scandal in New York resulted in the indictment of a number of Orthodox Jews, several of whom were ordained rabbis. But, it is not the nursing home industry alone that is fraught with unscrupulous practice. The very same unethical practices that plague secular establishments seem just as evident in Orthodox institutions as well. There is surely no reason to believe that there is any greater degree of cheating being done in yeshiva day schools than in the public schols. There is a sense of uneasiness, however, simply from the fact that it does exist and to a disturbing degree.

When this same pattern is carried outside of the yeshiva walls, it is even more distressing, for in the secular would the difference that religion represents leads one to expect a higher ethical standard than the norm. When ethics are violated, deception is far greated than in the religiously homogeneous milieu of the yeshiva.

Recently, during a final examination at Brooklyn College, a group of Orthodox students requested permission from the proctor to con­ duct "afternoon prayer services." The proctor respectfully and un­ hesitatingly granted permission for the Mincha service to be held, not suspecting that answers to examination questions would be communicated in Hebrew under the guise of the "religious service."

When the issue came to light the revulsion was not so much directed

This enigma of Orthodox Jews engaging in dubious activities presents no problem to the religious antagonist For him religion at best simply doesn't work; at worst, it is the very cause of moral decay.

Recently, during a final examination at Brooklyn College, a group o f Orthodox students requested permission from the proctor to conduct "afternoon prayer services."

25

at the act of cheating, as at the outrageous deception perpetrated from behind the facade of religious piety.

The paradox has no simple solution. It is true that there are wide gaps in the transmission of Torah ethics within the Orthodox educa­ tional system. There is, for example, little in the way of formalized educational programs in ethics within Orthodox Day Schools. Yet there has always existed an informal program. Within the context of bible study, biblical exegesis and talmudic discourses, ethical con­ cepts are abundantly espoused. One of the most popular talmudic tractates, Pirkai Avos, dealing with ethical conduct, is not only part of the formalized course of yeshiva studies but has been made obligat­ ory as a weekly study for every Jew throughout the Spring and Summer months, and indeed is highly revered.

Group Self-Deception It would be difficult to dismiss the impact that the Torah's ethical teachings have on many of its devotees. Significant numbers of Orthodox Jews are influenced by Torah ethics and their daily behavior reflects that influence.

Unfortunately, this is not the only form of self-deception. There exists among Orthodox American Jews a sense of self-righteousness bordering on arrogance with regard to its image as an ethical and moral community.

It would be difficult to dismiss the impact that the Torah's ethical teachings have on many of its devotees. Significant numbers of Orthodox Jews are influenced by Torah ethics and their daily be­ havior reflects that influence. For those, however, whose Torah scholarship is not reflected in higher standards of ethical behavior, one is often struck by another disturbing phenomenon. There is a tendency among many Orthodox Jews who engage in corrupt be­ havior to rationalize their behavior as perfectly consistent with Torah standards. The process involves the citing of biblical and tal­ mudic passages whose meaning out of context is subject to gross misinterpretation and then distorting both the intent and applica­ tion of the original text for their own purposes. The Torah itself thus becomes for them a rational support for all sorts of dubious be­ havior. In this way one could arrive at a myriad of erroneous conclu­ sions while still considering oneself a Torah Jew. With astute sophis­ try, cheating on taxes, submitting false insurance claims, personal deception, and dishonest manipulation all become sanctioned and even praiseworthy endeavors. Nothing could be more distorted— though it is a common psychological mechanism for rationalizing one's behavior when it flies in the face of all one claims to believe in.

Unfortunately, this is not the only form of self-deception. There exists among Orthodox American Jews a sense of self-righteousness bordering on arrogance with regard to its image as an ethical and moral community. Indeed in particular areas such as sex morality a high level of community standards are visibly reflected in the be­ havior of its adherents. On the whole, Orthodox Jews clearly do not tend to be consumers of pornography, participants in suburban key clubs, or major supporters of the sex industry. The community proudly points to this fact as proof of its higher level of morality, but then goes on to generalize to encompass all aspects of moral be­ havior. It is not that Orthodox Jews are unaware of corrupt practices in their midst, it is that those practices do not tend to tarnish the stalwart assumptions believed to be true of the "Torah Commun­ ity." It is difficult to change a mental set. The community thus remains smug in its assumption that its way of life produces higher

26

standards of moral behavior. So long as this form of self-deception continues, there is no recognition of an existing problem.

The Role of the Rabbinate Nor is the American Orthodox rabbinate blameless in the perpetua­ tion of this problem of ethics and morality. A content analysis of sermons delivered by Orthodox rabbis and published in homoletic journals over the past several years reflects an appalling dearth of sermons devoted to issues of ethical practice. Rabbis tend to focus their sermons on topics of little controversy. There is an abundance of homoletic literature devoted to the observance of ritual, interpre­ tation of difficult texts and exhortations reflecting community is­ sues. These, however, tend to leave a minimal impact, create little sense of personal crisis, and consequently — no behavioral change.

Placing sole responsibility on the Orthodox rabbinate, however, would be not only unfair but simplistic. Reminiscent of the psychoanalytic school we must view the presenting complaint as merely a symptom of the disease, and not the disease itself. Thus, the paradox of ethical practice among Orthodox Jews cannot be understood by focusing on the symptomatology alone. One must look at the total spectrum of Orthodox experience in order to gauge and comprehend the width of the chasm existing between the To­ rah's ethical code and its practice in daily life.

For religion to have impact, its many components must be operat­ ing in concert. Thus, ritual practiced as a rote exercise loses the meaning of its symbolism. When this occurs the ritual becomes im­ potent in being able to evoke any form of religious experience. The rituals and the prayers become an end in themselves rather than leading to a higher end, and lead instead to smugness and a feeling that observance of ritual is the sina qua non of religious commitment.

Not only is religious ritual pervasively practiced by rote and re­ ligious experience devitalized (perhaps in this realm the rabbinate could be more effective), but the religious educational system suffers serious deficiencies as well.

It is true that there are more day schools and yeshivas today than ever before in American history, and their students constitute fully 15% of the total Jewish school enrollment in the United States. Day school education on the whole, however, has failed to meet the challenge of relevance to modern realities. Learning in a milieu whose realities are remote from the contemporary scene tends to create in the mind of the yeshiva student a false sense of separate­ ness between a sacred parochial world of religion and a mundane world of everyday economic realities. These worlds often remain mutually exclusive and unnegotiated. The lofty principles and ethi­ cal values of Torah are thus rendered meaningless and irrelevant in a general society whose code is all's fair in love and war.

This lack of relevance and meaning appears to be one of the major factors contributing to the steady stream of yeshiva graduates being "turned off" and leaving the fold. Many who are caught in a vise of community pressure remain nominally Orthodox, but feel trapped,

It is true that there are more day schools and yeshivos today than ever before in American history; and their students constitute fully 15 % of the total Jewish school enrollment in the United States.

Day school education on the whole, however, has failed to meet the challenge of relevance to modern realities.

27

angry and uninspired, (I have often wondered if the unruly be­ havior found in some Orthodox synagogues is not at times an inar­ ticulate expression of this anger.)

Jewish educators, however, particularly of the more modern day schools, are seriously concerned with these issues. There is a clear recognition among them that if the day schools continue to insularize themselves from the realities of the general community, their impact could further decline or at best continue to be negligi­ ble.

It is reasonable to hope that the Orthodox community can best effect a transition from learning about morality to moral living by way of its educational system. If Yeshiva Day Schools could present role models other than lofty replicas of the "Shtetel," students could learn that one can indeed blend worldliness with G-dliness in mod­ ern society. If ideology could be taught more concretely, encompas­ sing examples from contemporary day to day living,, students could explore ways of applying the Torah to the world of business and human relationships. If ritual can be taught not only to demonstrate its proper observance but also for its symbolic intent, then too we could expect more meaningful practice to effect more ethical living.

The crisis in Orthodoxy today is that it is not true to its own commitments. It might very well be said then that it is not Or­ thodoxy but the lack of it that can best explain the paradox of Or­ thodoxy and unethical practice.

28

Part II

Eugene Markowitz

This is the second and concluding part. The first part apears in our issue

Henry Pereira Mendes: Architect of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America

o f Summer 1977.

Concurrently with this plan of organizing the rabbinate, an ettort was made to organize the Orthodox congregations. At a meeting held on March 17, 1896, at Adath Jeshurun Synagogue, a constitu­ tional committee was formed and plans were discussed for an as­ sembly of delegates and a board of directors, as well as the above mentioned council of rabbis.33 The initiators of this plan knew the problems involved, and to insure themsleves against certain failure they promised that this projected organization does not affect the autonomy of the congregations at all, but leaves them free and independent in internal matters — being only intended for matters of public and general action and their will be no expense to individual congregations.34 The founders knew very well that the strictly independent congre­ gations dotting the East Side would not join unless their autonomy was assured. It was equally important that this scheme should not involve some of the literally pauperized congregations in any ex­ pense. It was two years later that the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America was launched on its career, with Dr. Mendes as one of its founders and its first President.

The constitution of the Union states that its function is to advance the interest of positive Biblical, rabbinical, tradi­ tional and historical Judaism, and we affirm our adherence to the authoritative interpretation of our rabbis as contained in the Talmud and the Codes.35 The Union, under the leadership of Dr. Mendes, embarked upon a series of activities designed to protect the Orthodox Jew in his right to observe his tenets. It also endeavored to protect Orthodoxy against doctrinal attacks from various quarters, and, assumed lead­ ership on behalf of Orthodoxy in areas where there was a minimum of differences in its own ranks. In describing some of these activities, its pioneering value to Orthodoxy is apparent, as also its weaknes­ ses.

33Letter addressed to Orthodox Jewish Congregations, Feb., 1896 (PM Collection.)

“Ibid

Dr. Markowitz is Adjunct Professor of American Histroy at Seton Hall University in Newark, New Jersey. This paper appeared in Volume LV, Number 3 (March, 1966) of the American Jewish Historical Quarterly. It appears here by arrangement with the American Jewish Historical Society. In keeping with the objectivity and scholarship of this paper, we have retained all foot-notes and the spelling and editorial style of the Quarterly.

35Constitution of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations o f America, Proceedings of the Sixth Convention - Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of * America, New York, June 29th 1913, p. 34.

29

One of the first recorded actions involved the Jewish service men in the Spanish American War. Dr. Mendes asked the military au­ thorities in 1898 to give official recognition to the Jewish holidays by granting furloughs to enlisted men and officers on those days. Actu­ ally, the first recognition given to Jewish service men and their re­ ligious needs occurred during the Civil War when Abraham Lincoln appointed the first official military Jewish Chaplain — after the Con­ gress amended the law, a provision of which required an "ordained minister of some Christian denomination" and had excluded Jews.36 The United States Armed Forces were greatly reduced in number between the Civil War and the Spanish American War. This war, however, brought large numbers into the service, including a con­ siderable number of Jews. To the surprise of all, the Army ac­ quiesced in the demand of the Union.37 Six years later, in response to a letter by Dr. Mendes, President Theodore Roosevelt himself instructed the War Department on September 8, 1904, that commanding officers be authorized to permit Jewish soldiers to be absent for attendance at services on the Jewish holy days.38 The War Department formally decreed that such enlisted men of the army of the Jewish faith as may desire to avail themselves of the privilege to be absent from their duties for such length of time as may be deemed necessary to enable them to attend Divine Services.39 should be given that permission.

We gain a close understanding of the functions, purposes and scope of activities of the Union from the presidential report given by Dr. Mendes at the annual convention of 1901. One must, of course, realize that such convention reports are intended, in addition to giving facts, also to enhance the role of the organization and its officers in the mind of the public. Seasoned participants and dele­ gates to conventions will take such facts into consideration and make due allowances when they evaluate the work of an organiza­ tion. Nevertheless, this report by Dr. Mendes and the other officers is an indication of the manifold activities and the ambitious program they envisaged for the Union. Dr. Mendes, in reviewing the first years of existence, stated that The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America was formed two and a half years ago to protest against declarations of reform rabbis not in accord with the teachings of our Torah,

36Bertram W. Korn, American Jewry and the Civil War (paper back) (New York,

38lbid

1961).

39M *

37David and Tamar de Sola Pool, An Old Faith in the New World, p. 335.

30

Neviim and the accepted rulings of recognized sages of Israel.

It stands for loyalty to Jewish law and custom. It stands for the establishment of a synod of certified rabbis, elders in official position — men of wisdom and understanding and known able men, God fearing men — men of truth, hating all self­ advantage.40 Apparently, he had not given up his favorite project of a higher religious authority, the rulings of which would be accepted by most Jews, and hoped that the Union would become the instrument in creating this body.

The projection of his thinking on behalf of the Union indicates how the Union came to reflect his own point of view on this and other questions. He reported, for example, on Zionism in a manner reflecting his own private opinion.

I consider that the spiritual side of Zionism does not mean only the possession of a legalized home in the land of our Fathers. It means that, and much more. Our possession is already legalized by Him who gave it to us forever and who gives all lands to whom He pleases.41 He also emphasized views on a Torah-centered Zionism.41 Among other areas of Jewish life where he reported activities by the Union are these: kashrut, transferring bar examination from the Sabbath, help for victims of the Galveston Flood, and the promotion in Albany of a Sabbath law. A most interesting and little known incident is related by him in his report in regard to the then newly adopted Red Cross emblem. The Union demanded of the President of the United States the substitution of some other emblem than the Red Cross for Jewish physicians, nurses, and surgeons who had conscienti­ ous scruples against wearing what is an emblem associated with a religion whose doctrines are antagonistic to their own.42 40American H ebrew, Jan. 4, 1901.

41Ibid. The Zionist views of Dr. Mendes were close to those of the subsequently organized Mizrachi, that of combining Torah (Jewish law) with A vodah (pioneer labor) to build the land. He attended many of the world Zionist Congresses and served on many of their important committees.

41a'7Open Letter to Zionists/' attending the Seventh Zionist Congress, by Dr. Mendes, which is attached to the copy of the Proceeding o f the Seventh Zionist Congress, held at Basel, July 27-A ugust 2, 1905 (copy of these Proceedings at the Library o f the Jew ish Theological Seminary o f Am erica). In this "Open Letter," to the

Zionists attending that Congress, Dr. M endes appealed fo r a Zionism that would not lim it its goal solely to a "legally assured hom e in Palestine but will initiate a spiritual m ovem ent to turn H ebrew s from transgressions" o f the D ivine Law. Zionism must strengthen the spiritual life o f the Jew s, h e stated, both in Palestine and elsew here. In 1936, one year before his death, in a letter to Dr. Pinkhos Churgin, an Am erican M izrachi leader, Dr. M endes w rote that "I am a M izrachi with all my h eart," and restated his credo in religious Zionism w hich he preached during his entire m inistry. See the M izrachi Jubilee Publications, edited by Pinkhos

Churgin and Leon Gellman (New York, 1936), p. 25.

42American H ebrew, Jan. 4, 1901.

31

m Of course he soon learned that many of the religious advantages he sought to gain for Jewish groups were actually spurned by them.

Indeed, he complains of this fact in a letter to a newspaper in which he relates of his organization's success in obtaining Sabbath privileges for Jewish students at City College. He puts a challenge to them, "Will the Jewish students be sufficiently self-respecting to ask for rights which can be had for the asking?"43 Two years later at the Convention of 1903, Dr. Mendes was able to add many new areas in which the Union took an interest. The year before the suggestion of transferring the Sabbath to Sunday, which was seriously discussed by Reform rabbis, became a cause celebre which agitated the minds of Orthodox leadership. The Union at­ tacked the very notion of even giving it any thought. He asserted: We contend that a Jewish conference should rule out of order any notion or suggestion to consider Sunday Sabbath, except to condemn it.44 He was also proud that the Union received leaves of absence for municipal employees on Jewish holidays. Among other activities he reported that We communicated with the city authorities in regard to the unseemly riots at the funeral of the late Rabbi Jacob Joseph. We communicated with Washington concerning the proposed immigration bill and its supposed exclusion of Hebrews able to speak only Yiddish, on the theory that Yiddish was not a rec­ ognized language.45 They also were active in making representation on behalf of the Kishineff Pogrom sufferers.

It is noteworthy that in spite of its varied interests and activities, the Union did not concern itself with some of the perennial issues plaguing Orthodoxy in the city. Such subjects as Jewish education, kashrut, unity in Orthodox ranks, and the authority of the Orthodox rabbinate seem to have been ignored because of the wide gulf separating the various Orthodox elements on those problems. This was a clear indication that actually the original purpose of organiz­ ing the Union was not fully achieved, and at most it could act effec­ tively only in matters which would evoke no dissension in Orthodox ranks. As a matter of fact, the hundreds of small shtiblech and even many of the larger East Side congregations remained outside the Union. Prior to the 1903 Convention, the American Hebrew46 in an editorial placed the problem in its proper prospective when it stated: The Orthodox congregations in this country, it must be said,

43m , May 17, 1901 “ Ibid., June 27, 1903.

32

lack entirely the sense of unity for which the Union of Or­ thodox Jewish Congregations of America has been striv­ ing. They are content to exist as isolated congregations unwil­ ling to meet in common sessions and it requires the greatest genius to point out to them the immense value of a united effort. . In the labors of its alert president and his secretaries it has used its influence to strengthen the traditional view of Judaism where it could.47 The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America has stood as a spokesman, the editorial continues, for the view that difficult as it is the traditional view of Jewish life is viable in the United States. It categorically states that the foreign-born rabbis are opposed to any and all forms of united effort.

Benjamin Koenigsberg, a well-known leader of the Union, re­ miniscing on the later period of Dr. Mendes' presidency of the Union and who served the organization in various capacities during that period, claims that actually the Union had aimed at functioning through lay leadership. As a leader on the East Side and as a promi­ nent attorney, Mr. Koenigsberg was invited to join the Union in 1910.48 The choice of Dr. Mendes, a rabbi, to serve as head of what was supposed to be a laymen group, was due to the fact that “he had the time and the ability" which few lay people could contri­ bute. Mr. Koenigsberg asserted that the Union did not attract the synagogues and of the East Side because those were mainly dsmand their interests lan were centered around their ma nd the narrow personal, social and economic problems they found.49 He, furthemore, asserted that the Union leadership was fully aware of the lack of interest on its part and did not really make any strong effort to solicit their membership. He cited as evidence the fact that from the very outset the minutes of the Union were recorded in English and its business not transacted in the Yiddish language.50 Those Orthodox Jewish congregations and laymen from the East Side who were active in the Union were apparently Americanized by then.

47Ibid

4interview with Mr. Benjamin Koenigsberg, March 29, 1961.

49Ibid

50Ibid. At its first convention, June 8,

1898, the Union elected secretaries for English as well as for Hebrew, but none for Yiddish. Am erican Jew ish Yearbook , vol. I (1899-1900), p. 99. At this first Convention the following officers were elected:

President: Dr. Henry Pereira Mendes, New York City; First Vice-President: Lewis N. Dembitz, Esquire, Louisville, Ky.; Second Vice-President: Solomon Solis-Cohen, M.D., Philadelphia, Pa.; Third Vice-President: Aaron Friedenwald, M.D., Baltimore, Md.; Fourth Vice-President: Kasriel H. Sarasohn, New York City; Treasurer: Jacob Hecht, New York City; and Secretaries: Rev. Dr. Bernard Drachman and Max Cohen, New York City.

33

As a clear indication of the lack of co-operation on the part of the Orthodox rabbinate and of their attitude of indifference, and at times antagonism, one might cite the following exchange of letters between Dr. Mendes and the Agudat Harabbanim « the Union of Orthodox Rabbis of America. At the third convention of that rabbin­ ical organization, its members received an urgent communication from Dr. Mendes enlisting their co-operation for some of the pro­ jects of the Union and bringing to their attention problems facing the Orthodox community.51 A special committee was appointed by the rabbinical organization for the purpose of drafting a reply. The tone and the content of the reply clearly indicated that it did not consider the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations as truly representative of their conception of real Orthodoxy. Instead of promising to co­ operate with the Union and possibly joining forces with the rabbis, they declared that our principal aim has always been directed to form and build up a Union of real Orthodox Congregations.52

51Am erican H ebrew , July 8,1904, p. 204. In his letter, Dr. Mendes states among other things:

First, I am requested by Judge Newburger of the Court of General Sessions to bring to the notice of the rabbis the fact that certain marriages legal in Jewish law are illegal according to the laws of the State, for example, between an uncle and his niece.

Second, the practice of Milah needs regulation. Cases are on record which point to fatal results due to the Mohelim not paying sufficient regard to surgical cleanliness. The State may pass a law forbidding all Mohelim who are not graduates in surgery to practice.

Third, I hear that you are opposed to the seminary. The seminary was established to be a bulwark against reform Judaism as taught by the Cincinnati College.

In reporting this letter of Dr. Mendes which was read at the Third Convention of the Union of Orthodox Rabbis which took place at the Yeshivat Rabbi Isaac Elchanan, 156 Henry Street, New York City, the Am erican H ebrew stated: He (Dr. Mendes) appealed to the rabbis to participate in the work of carrying on religious work among the young men and took them to task for the lack of public spirit.

34

52The full text of the reply of the Union of Orthodox Rabbis to Dr. Mendes' letter appeared in the Am erican H ebrew , July 30, 1904, p. 282, and reads as follows: ?

Dear, Sir: Your communication of 18 Tammuz to hand. In reply we desire to Say as follows: First, regarding the request to you by Judge Newberger to bring to our notice the laws of the State that conflict with the Jewish law. You may assure the judge that as American citizens we are loyal to the laws of the State, and it is hardly necessary to remind us of our duty.

Second, regarding the Mohelim, the Jewish law amply provides for the surgical cleanliness and carefulness, so much so that fatal results are very rare indeed. Nevertheless, we have taken measures to instruct the Mohelim to exercise extra caution at the operations.

Third, regarding the seminary. It was never our intention to proclaim a Cherem, but we do protest against the seminary calling itself orthodox since the professors of the seminary believe in the Higher Criticism. Besides, the professors, in our judgment, are not qualified as teachers in the Talmud and the Codes. We protest also against the students who graduate from the

In general they belittled the efforts of the Union in all the areas of its activity indicating that the Agudat Harabbanim worked more effec­ tively in these areas.

Mr. Koenigsberg assigns much of the credit for the successful projects during the early days of the Union to Dr. Mendes person­ ally. He was respected and beloved by all elements of Orthodoxy.

He attributed his influence to such factors as being the minister of the oldest congregation in this country, his mastery of the English language, his friendly and thoughtful attitude to all people, and a soft-spoken and sincere manner. "I cannot picture him ever being angry," explained Mr. Koenigsberg.53 This failure to become the fully recognized spokesman for the Orthodox Jewish masses of the city did not discourage Dr. Mendes from maintaining unity as the true goal of the organization. At the sixth convention of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, he disclosed the special sphere of duty and usefulness of the Union is to attempt to guide the hundreds of Orthodox congregations, chebras and societies throughout the country toward cultural Orthodox ideals, so that they can flourish in their American environment.54 seminary as rabbis, inasmuch as they are not fit for the position of rabbi on account of lack of proper and sufficient learning. We are convinced that none of the graduates can pass an examination before a competent Jewish authority even for a Hatarath Horaah, much less a regular Semicha.

Fourth, regarding the Union of Orthodox Congregations of America, our principal aim has always been directed to form and build up a union of real orthodox congregations.

You say that you have been to Albany to fight for the Sabbath. This, we assure you, is highly appreciated by us. But you should have known the fact that almost every one of our rabbis in the State, directly or indirectly, worked in this matter, though, to our regret, without success.

With reference to the Jewish immigration and Kishineff, our efforts in the former and practical assistance in the latter are a matter of record though most of our work is done quietly without publicity .

Thanking you for your good wishes...

It should be pointed out that Dr. Mendes

was not entirely discouraged by this rebuff for he persisted in working toward some meeting of minds with the Agudat Harabbanim. Many years later, on June 15,1914, a joint committee of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America and the aforementioned rabbinical group adopted a resolution which indicated a spirit of harmony, albeit with reserve, that prevailed between them. It reads as follows: RESOLVED: That it is the sense of this meeting that the religious principles and objects of the Union of Orthodox Rabbis and of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, are identical and that in order to strengthen Orthodox Judaism in America, it is advisable to form a standing joint committee representing the two bodies. (Report o f the Seventh Convention o f the Union o f O rthodox Jew ish Congregations o f Am erica, Arverne, Long Island, Ju n e 20-21, 1914, p.

19.)

53Statem en t o f M r. Benjamin Koenigsberg, M arch 29, 1961.

54Proceedings o f the Sixth Convention o f the Union o f O rthodox Jew ish Congregations o f Am erica, July 29th, 1913, N ew York City, p.

24.

35

He readily conceded that “some leaders of Orthodoxy are not and can never be in harmony with u s."55 In a sense one could hardly expect the older Orthodox rabbis to engage personally in some of the worldly and practical projects of the Union. The problem of working in harmony with nontraditional groups seemed no insurmountable problem to Dr. Mendes. As a founder and former President of the New York Board of Ministers, Dr. Mendes worked in close co-operation even with those ministers whose ideas he excoriated. At this particular con­ vention he boasted of the fact that we organized a deputation to appear in Washington before the Foreign Relations Committee. It was participated in by the Honorable Simon Wolf representing the Union of American Hebrew Congregations.56 Its purpose was to get help to the Jewish victims of persecution in Russia and other countries.

One must credit the Union and Dr. Mendes, its perennial Presi­ dent in the early years of its existence, with many solid achieve­ ments in areas which still present a problem to Orthodoxy. He was able to report, for example, that The Union organized a Sabbath Committee some years ago with Dr. Drachman as Chairman. Its bureau of employment has found places for fifteen hundred Sabbath observers out of three thousand applicants.57 Of similar nature was the Union's alertness in the area of AntiShehitah legislation, a problem still very much with us. "I regret," he reports, "that the Massachusetts Society for Cruelty to Animals ac­ cording to a pamphlet by its president proposed state legislation to secure stunning animals before Shehita. We shall watch this."

Among the recurring problems in relation to the public schools which the Union attempted to solve, but without lasting success was the problem of Christmas in public schools. The Yiddish newspap­ ers of the time describe the vigorous intervention of Dr. Mendes, Dr. Drachman and Mr. Albert Lucas, Secretary of the Union, with the New York City Board of Education. Jewish children, it seems, were coerced into participating in Christmas pageants and singing of carols and in general were subjected to a not too subtle course of indoctrination of Christmas and its observance. The complaint was that the principals in many public schools feign ignorance of United States laws regarding separation of church and state and introduce Christmas ceremonials into the school. The Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America started a struggle in the United States and Canada against this Shemad, conversion campaign, in public schools.58 ssIbid., p. 25.

S6Ibid., p. 10.

57Ibid.

58 Das Jiidisches Tageblatt, Dec. 6, 1906

So closely was the Union identified with Dr. Mendes, and its ideals considered synonymous with his, that the organization re­ fused to consider anyone else for leadership. At its seventh conven­ tion in 1915, he pleaded with the delegates to relieve him of office.

I asked you last year and three years ago, in my illness, to accept my resignation. I have no longer the strength for leader­ ship. I have always said that many years of preparatory work would be needed before the organization of American Or­ thodox Jewry would be possible. 59 At last his resignation was accepted.

A tribute paid him by his contemporary and co-worker in the Union, Dr. Bernard Drachman, who also served as its head, indi­ cates the unique role of Dr. Mendes in the history of the Union. He declared: His saintly character, his broad and spiritual concept o f Judaism combined with scrupulous conscientiousness in the fulfillment of ritual precepts, his absolute freedom, although a Sephardi, of purest lineage, from anything approaching nar­ rowness of sectarian bias within the Jewish community, and his delicate responsiveness to the demands of the American environment, made him an ideal representative of Orthodox Judaism.60 59Report of the Seventh Convention of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America, Averne, Long Island, June 20-21, 1914, p.20. In a similar vein, Dr. Mendes

expressed the same reservation about his long tenure of office in an interview with Young Israel (no date), a volume containing biographical sketches of contemporary Jewish leaders, Dr. Mendes is quoted as saying: In my opinion the prospects of success (of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations) would be assured if they had another president than myself, because I am an Englishman by birth and education and therefore perhaps not sufficiently in touch with the wants of the Russian section. I strongly objected to having this honor thrust upon me, but as the Convention would hear of no refusal, I had to

consent to it (clipping, PM Collection* p. 25) 60 Bernard Drachman "Forty Years of Loyal Service," Orthodox Union, vol. VII, no. 67 qune 9, 1940).

The author regrets that he was unable to locate the Proceedings of the earlier conventions and conferences of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America prior to its Sixth Convention of June 29, 1913. (The American Jewish Historical Society is interested in locating any published or unpublished materials relating to the formative years of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America and its various conventions, prior to the Sixth Convention of June 29, 1913 - I.S.M.)

Aaron Rakeffet-Rothkoff

Reb Naftali Amsterdam: A Mussar Disciple

A nother in the series o f biographical sketches o f G edolei Yisrael by Rabbi Aaron Rakeffet-Rothkoff. H is "Reb Yitzchak Blaser: A M ussar G iant," appeared in the Spring, 1976 issue o f Jew ish Life.

Reb Naftali Amsterdam was among the three leading disciples of Reb Yisrael Salanter, the founder of the Lithuanian Mussar move­ ment. His master aptly described him as "derc hassid" since his pro­ found piety was the most dominant aspect of his personality.

Reb Naftali was born in 1832 in the Lithuanian town of Salant where he early gained recognition for his diligence in study. He was known as "Naftali Masmid" and studied under Reb Yisrael in the latter's yeshivah in Zarechye, a suburb of Vilna. When Reb Yisrael moved to Kovno in 1848 Reb Naftali went with him and continued to study at his mentor's new yeshivah in the Beis Ha'Medrash of Hirsch Naviazsky where he was acknowledged as one of the best students.

Together with his colleagues Reb Yitzchak Blaser and Reb Simcha Zissel Ziev he was part of the select group that constantly enjoyed the close attention of Reb Yisrael.

"A Spade to Dig With" After his marriage Reb Naftali did not wish to earn his livlihood from the rabbinate in accordance with the dictum of the Sages against making the Torah "a spade to dig with." He remained in Kovno and opened a bakery which provided his family with a meager income. The main responsibilities in the bakery fell upon his wife while Reb Naftali continued his studies. He Was nevertheless troubled that his wife had to engage in hard work at the bakery and wanted to join her in the business, but Reb Yisrael encouraged him to enter the rabbinate instead of becoming a baker.

In 1867 Reb Naftali Amsterdam became the rabbi of Helsingfors (Helsinki) in Finland. This outlying Jewish community was the largest in Finland and Reb Yisrael was determined to provide proper spiritual guidance for its people. In 1872 Reb Naftali described his activities in a letter to his teacher: I am grateful to the Almighty who has granted me the ability to express myself clearly: I speak to my congregants at the close of each Shabbos before Ma'ariv. (While this is contrary to the normal practice as indicated in the Shulchan, I have permitted myself to do this because of special need, and I have found support for my position [from another halachic authority])- •• So far my words of rebuke have entered their hearts to the extent that people who "did not know their right from their left" now diligently come to the Beis Medrash where they have engaged tutors to teach them. Thank G-d that it has come to this...

What is even more astounding is that the young men come to their Rebbe's home where there are four melamdid [brought in] from other communities who diligently teach them. Their behavior and manner of learning is as in

A fter his m arriage Reb N aftali did not wish to earn his livelihood from the rabbinate in accordance with the dictum o f the Sages against m aking the Torah "a spade to dig w ith ." H e remained in Kovno and opened a bakery w hich provided his fam ily with a m eager income. The main responsibilities in the bakery fell upon his wife w hile Reb N aftali continued his studies. H e was nevertheless troubled that his w ife had to engage in hard work at the bakery and wanted to join her in the business; but Reb Yisrael encouraged him to enter the rabbinate instead o f becom ing a baker.

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In 1875 Reb N aftali left his position in H elsingfors and returned to Kovno, then the focal point o f the M ussar m ovement.

H e was anxious to once again subm erge him self in learning and to perfect h im self in accordance with the M ussar teachings.

H ow ever h e was soon to be caught up once again with the financial problem s engendered by his now large fam ily. In a letter to R eb Yitzchak Blaser, he declared "I thought I could be alone in a place that would benefit my soul. H ow ever 1 fear to separate m yself when I see the situation in m y h o m e."

the days of old, since the country has different laws - unlike those in our Russian homeland —and there are no obstacles to the study of Torah...

(Quoted in: Dov Katz, Tenuas Ha'Mussar, Volume 2, p. 278.)

Whenever Reb Naftali entered his synagogue he carred a sefer under his arm. He felt he was not worthy of the congregation's reverential regard and therefore attributed their rising for him to his holding a sefer. In 1875 Reb Naftali left his position in Helsingfors and returned to Kovno, then the focal point of the Mussar move­ ment. He was anxious to once again submerge himself in learning and to perfect himself in accordance with the Mussar teachings.

However he was soon to be caught up once again with the financial problems engendered by his now large family. In a letter to Reb Yitzchak Blaser, he declared "I thought I could be alone in a place that would benefit my soul. However I fear to separate myself when I see the situation in my home." In 1876 Reb Naftali joined Reb Yitzchak Blaser in Saint Petersburg where the latter served as the community's spiritual leader. Reb Naftali became the Dayan and aided his colleague in deciding the difficult questions of halacha which constantly arose in the capital city of Czarist Russia. He left when Reb Yitzchak resigned from this position to return to Kovno in 1878. Reb Naftali then became the rabbi of Yaswein, a small Lithua­ nian community. He later served as the spiritual leader of Lower Alakset, near Kovno, and lastly was the rabbi of Alakset.

Reb Naftali Returns to Kovno

H e now becam e a central fig u re in the dissem ination o f the M ussar ideals o f self-perfection am ong the city's yeshivah youth. Reb N aftali regularly delivered M ussar discourses at the Klaus and was also constantly invited to lecture at the Slobodka Yeshivah.

This advanced school had been organized in 1882 in the Slobodka suburb o f K ovno by another devotee o f the M ussar m ovem ent, Reb N oson Tzvi Finkel. The new yeshivah soon attracted m any com petent students and was particularly strengthened after the pre-em inent Volozhiner Yeshivah closed in 1892.

Reb Naftali finally achieved his long standing dream of returning to Kovno when his children became self-sufficient. He left the rab­ binate and once again became a full-time student and a daily visitor to the Kovno Mussar Klaus. He now became a central figure in the dissemination of the Mussar ideals of self-perfection among the ci­ ty's yeshivah youth. Reb Naftali regularly delivered Mussar dis­ courses at the Klaus and was also constantly invited to lecture at the Slobodka Yeshivah. This advanced school has been organized in 1882 in the Slobodka suburb of Kovno by another devotee of the Mussar movement, Reb Noson Tzvi Finkel. The new yeshivah soon attracted many com petent students and was particularly strengthened after the pre-eminent Volozhiner Yeshivah closed in 1892 Many of the outstanding students also became disciples of their fellow townsman Reb Naftali.

Reb Yechiel Yaakov Weinberg, later to become Rector of the Berlin Hildesheimer Rabbinical Seminary, was then a student in the Slobodka Yeshivah. He later related his experiences with Reb Naftali during his period. Rabbi Amsterdam continued the tradition of his teacher Reb Yisrael of studying the K'tzos Ha'Choshen every Shabbos night. To be able to study this work in depth he always asked the Slobodka Rosh Ha'yeshivah to select one of his students to study with him. As Reb Weinberg later recalled: To my great joy the Yeshivah chose me although I was still quite young. I was beside myself, however, when I beheld that the great sage, Reb Naftali treated me as a disciple treats his master. Under no circumstances would he 40

allow me to serve him in any way. When we needed books to clarify a point, he would climb up the ladder reaching to the upper bookshelves and hand me the required book himself. After our study period was over he would deeply thank me for the scholastic assistance I had rendered to him and would accompany me to the door as I left his home. ("Lithuanian Mussar" in Men of the Spirit, ed. Leo Jung, pp. 257-8).

All year Reb Naftali followed a vigorous study schedule and he refused to engage in secular conversation while learning. The only time that students could seek his counsel was during his daily walk from his home to the Mussar Klaus. One day a year, on Purim, Reb Naftali varied his routine. On this day, the yeshivah students were permitted to spend as much time as they wished in his company.

Reb Naftali spent the day telling stories to his students about his teacher and his famed colleagues.

"Purim Torah" On Purim he spoke at length of Reb Yisrael's great students and repeated the master's description of them. "Reb Blaser was the Lamd a n while Reb Simcha Zissel Ziev was the Chacham." He did not mention what his teacher said about him. Once the young Reb Weinberg, in high spirits due to the day's festivities, asked his men­ tor "What did your teacher say about you?" Reb Naftali looked at him in astonishment and said: Do you think it is permissible to mock an old man even on Purim? I am embarrassed to think that thèse great disciples considered me one of their rank merely because I stood near them when our noble teacher lectured. It is true that they looked upon me favorably but nobody knows better than I that this was really a form of pity for an insignificant man who did not even reach their ankles.

Reb Weinberg continued in a somewhat daring Purim mood and interposed the point that being close to great people had been of value to Reb Naftali. "Your name became known throughout the city and people are eager to see you." Reb Naftali persisted in his modesty: This is all due to the respect they had for my teacher and their mistaken belief that I am his disciple. The renown that I have won I owe to my wife who bakes wonderful Shabbos challos. The women praise her for her un­ usual culinary gifts and then begin to speak of her other qualities. She, in turn, lauds me to the other women although I am entirely unworthy of honor or fame.

With the end of Purim and the appearance of the first stars, Reb Naftali would rise from his chair and become a different person.

"Gentlemen," he would say, "Purim is over, the time has come to return to our work. We must regain our sobriety and join in the evening prayer with awe and trepidation. We must be even more diligent in our study of Torah to make up the time we missed to­ day." , After Ma'ariv, he would return his study stand to its regular place and once again become completely absorbed in learning and deep thought. This display of total self-control and will-power left a pro-

One day a year, on Purim , Reb N aftali varied his routine. On this day, the y eshivah students w ere perm itted to spend as much tim e as they w ished in his company. Reb N aftali spent the day telling stories to h is students about his teacher and his fam ed colleagues.

W ith the end o f Purim and the appearance o f the first stars, Reb N aftali would rise from his chair and becom e a different person. " Gentlem en," he would say, "Purim is over, the time has come to return to our work. We m ust regain our sobriety and join in the evening prayer with awe and trepidation. We m ust be even more diligent in our study o f Torah to m ake up the time w e m issed today."

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In his teachings Reb N aftali stressed the centrality o f the daily study o f M ussar. H e devoted two hours a day to its study: One hou r was spent in theoretic contem plation o f the classic M ussar texts, and th e remaining time was devoted to understanding its m essage on an em otional level. H e explained that both the rational and em otional senses o f man m ust be influenced to properly discharge their spiritual obligations. Reb N aftali also em phasized the importance o f studying M ussar in the Klaus w here there were no distractions. This concept o f designating special dim ly lighted rooms fo r M ussar reflection was one o f the early innovations o f Reb Yisrael.

found impression on his many young admirers. Rabbi Amsterdam became a living Mussar model before their inquisitive eyes and as­ piring souls.

In his teachings Reb Naftali stressed the centrality of the daily study of Mussar. He devoted two hours a day to its study: one hour was spent in theoretic contemplation of the classic Mussar texts, and the remaining time was devoted to understanding its message on an emotional level. He explained that both the rational and emotional senses of man must be influenced to properly discharge their spiritual obligations. Reb Naftali also emphasized the importance of studying Mussar in the Klaus where there were no distractions. This concept of designating special dimly lighted rooms for Mussar re­ flection was one of the early innovations of Reb Yisrael. While he lived in Kovno Reb Naftali would walk every day at the same hour to the Mussar Klaus located in the Synagogue of the sawmill work­ ers — the Klaus Reb Yisrael had established in Kovno. Neither the rain or snow could keep Reb Naftali from his daily commitment.

When he was asked why he insisted on this daily trek since there was another Mussar Klaus closer to his home, Reb Naftali replied: The minute I cross the threshold of the Klaus I visualize how my Rebbe sat here and shed so many tears while studying Mussar. Immediately I am overcome with enthusiasm and inspiration.

Wore No Rabbinic Garb

To avoid pride and haughtiness, h e refused to w ear the rabbinic garb worn by his colleagues.

Instead h e dressed in the fashion o f the unlearned masses. H is wife was not happy about this aspect o f his behavior and sh e complained about it to Reb Yisrael.

D ue to his deep m odesty Reb N aftali refrained from deciding halachic questions on his own when h e was in the active rabbinate. H e would often consult Reb Yitzchak Blaser and was also in constant correspondence with the doyen o f rabbinic respondents o f the second h a lf o f the nineteenth century, Reb Yitzchak Elchonon Spektor.

Most of Reb Naftali's efforts were directed at perfecting his charac­ ter traits. According to his diary he constantly strove to eliminate his weaknesses of pride, anger, irascibility, emnity, the pursuit of honor, and the pursuit of money. He strove to improve his desires to help his fellow man, to engage in Gemillus Chassadim, and to be constantly calm and patient with others. To avoid pride and haugh­ tiness, he refused to wear the rabbinic garb worn by his colleagues.

Instead he dressed in the fashion of the unlearned masses. His wife was not happy about this aspect of his behavior and she complained about it to Reb Yisrael. Reb Yisrael sent for Reb Naftali and asked him to define "Gemillus Chassadim." Reb Yisrael rejected all his answers, and finally explained that the highest expression of Chesed is in fulfilling the wishes of others. Reb Yisrael then noted the sen­ sibilities of Reb Naftali's wife regarding his manner of dress and Reb Naftali reconsidered his attitude.

Due to his deep modesty Reb Naftali refrained from deciding halachic questions on his own when he was in the active rabbinate.

He would often consult Reb Yitzchak Blaser and was also in constant correspondence with the doyen of rabbinic respondents of the sec­ ond half of the nineteenth century, Reb Yitzchak Elchonon Spektor.

Despite this diffidence to be a posek and to allow his own abilities to be known, Reb Naftali's spiritual goals and aspirations were ex­ tremely high-reaching. He did not hesitate to cite R. Joseph Karo, the author of the Bais Yoseph and the Shulchan Aruch, and R. Yeshayahu Horowitz, author of the Shenei Luchos Ha'Bris, as his spiritual examples. In a letter to Reb Yitzchak he wrote: 42

My thoughts are confused regarding my spiritual condition. I have stum­ bled like a man walking a road with snow on one side and fire on the other; my soul boils up within me - when will I reach my goal, the sublime level, the path of holiness which saints in previous generations achieved: the Beis Yoseph in his time, and the Sh'Lah in his time? They elevated themselves and came closer to G-d through abstinence, through solitary meditation, and through study of Torah for its own sake. (Quoted in: Dov Katz, Tenuas Ha'Mussar, Volume 2, p. 280.)

Reb Naftali did not hesitate to publish portions of his Mussar thoughts and accounts of his spiritual strivings. He contributed to the Orthodox newspaper, Ha'Levanon, which was the first newspaper published in Yerushalayim and afterwards appeared in Europe. This paper later resolutely contested the secular Haskalah and Reform movements. He aided Reb Yitzchak in editing the sec­ tion about the lives of Reb Yisrael and his teacher, Reb Yoseph Zundel of Salant, in the volume Or Yisrael. Reb Naftali also pub­ lished his essays in the periodical dedicated to Mussar teachings, Or Ha'Mussar. He also left many letters, particularly his correspondence with his colleagues, many of which have been published in various publications.

In 1906, after the death of his first wife, Reb Naftali settled in Jerusalem. In keeping with his Mussar ideals he did not inform anyone of the day he would arrive so he would not be greeted by the elders of the community. Instead he simply appeared one day at the home of his colleague Reb Yitzchak in the Strauss Courtyard of the Old City. The latter had previously settled there in 1904. That very day Reb Naftali entered the Bet Midrash of the Courtyard and con­ tinued his studies.

From Baker to Rav Once he had a meeting with Reb Yaakov Moshe Charlop, the spiritual leader of the Shaarei Chesed section of Yerushalayim. Reb Naftali introduced himself to Reb Charlop by telling him: "At first I was a baker, but later I chose to become a rav. When the people saw that I was not competent I was dismissed. However I do have the great merit of having served communities in which outstanding people lived." Similarly when honored to serve as Sandek at a Brit Milah in the Holy City, he told the child's father: "It is customary to honor a scholar and G-d fearing man to be Sandek. I am only a simple baker."

In Yerushalayim he married an elderly woman hoping she would care for him in his old age. Soon after their marriage, she took ill and Reb Naftali had to attend to her needs. He gladly took on many of the chores of the households as an opportunity to express his yearn­ ing to help others. Although close to eighty years old and weak in health he lovingly cared for her in his own final years.

Reb Naftali continued to disseminate his ideas in Yerushalayim and opened a Mussar Klaus in the Old City. He also delivered Mus­ sar discourses for the public in the Strauss Courtyard and many of the community's scholars were influenced by his teachings. He also

M y thoughts are confused regarding my spiritual condition.

I have stumbled like a man walking a road with snow on one side and fire on the other; my soul boils up within m e - when will I reach my goal, the sublim e level, the path o f holiness which saints in previous generations achieved: The Beis Yoseph in his time, and the Sh'Lah in his time? They elevated them selves and cam e closer to G -d through abstinence, through solitary m editation, and through study o f Torah for its own sake, (Q uoted in: Dov Katz, Tenuas Ha'M ussar, Volume 2, p.

280.)

In 1906, after the death o f his first wife, Reb N aftali settled in Jerusalem . In keeping w ith his M ussar ideals h e did not inform anyone o f the day h e would arrive so h e would not not be greeted by the elders o f the community.

Instead he sim ply appeared one day at the hom e o f his colleague Reb Yitzchak in the Strauss Courtyard o f the Old City. The latter had previously settled there in 1904. That very day Reb N aftali entered the Bet M idrash o f the Courtyard and continued his studies.

In Yerushalayim h e m arried an elderly woman hoping sh e would care for him in his old age. Soon after their m arriage, sh e took ill and Reb N aftali had to attend to her needs. H e gladly took on m any o f the chores o f the household as an opportunity to express his yearning to help others. A lthough close to eighty years old and weak in health he lovingly cared fo r her in his own fin al years.

43

established an old age home for lonely old people. Despite his ad­ vanced age, he invested much energy in obtaining the necessary support for his home which was called "OsefNidachim" (a gathering of the dispersed).

On Adar sixth, 1916, in his eighty-fourth year, Reb Naftali re­ turned his soul to his Creator and found his earthly rest on the Mount of Olives, In his will he decreed that he was not to be eulogized either in Yerushalayim or in Kovno. He again stressed his indebtedness to Reb Yisrael Salanter for having instructed him in the path of the Lord. Reb Naftali walked in this path and became the most impressive example of the high level of piety that could be attained by students of the Mussar teachings. His sacred memory is a blessing to us all.

—

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45

Reuven P. Bulka

Logotherapy—A Step Beyond Freud: Its Relevance for Jewish Thought Id, Ego, and Superego are familiar terms to any student of the behavioral sciences. Besides being psychological constructs, they also relate quite pointedly to the developmental aspects of Viennese psychotherapy. The first Viennese school of psychotherapy is, of course, Freudian psychoanalysis, which, in Freud's own words, re­ lates to the basement of the edifice. The second Viennese school is that of Alfred Adler and the third Viennese school of psychotherapy is Viktor Frankl's logotherapy.

Freud and the Id, Adler and the Ego, Frankl and the Superego— these seem to suggest, on a superficial level at least, an evolutionary pattern in the Viennese circle.

In Frankl's words, Freud's system may be broadly characterized as emphasizing the will to pleasure, Adler's the will to power, and logotherapy the will to meaning. Logotherapy, as the third Viennese school, does not reject the contributions of Freud and Adler, but sees itself as the dwarf standing on the shoulders of the giant, there­ fore able to see even further. Logotherapy takes the human being as is, without reducing human behavior to id or ego expressions. In­ stead, logotherapy is a system which asserts that the primary moti­ vational force in the human being is the drive to find meaning in life.

Logotherapy is a clinical approach which tackles problems of dis­ ease, existential despair, and even forms of melancholia, depres­ sion, and schisophrenia by opening up the world of meaning for the patient. Logotherapy's clinical approach is based on a distinct philosophical attitude and approach to the human being.

Most Talmudic students who are exposed to Frankl's writings— "There is no doubt that the existential vacuum is increasing and spreading.

According to a report I was shown recently, the percentage of those suffering from it, among a population of 500 Viennese youngsters, has increased within the last two years from 30 percent to 80 percent. Even in Africa the existential vacuum is spreading, particularly among the academic youth.

Also, Freudians are fully aware of this phenomenon, and so are Marxists.

At an international meeting of psychoanalysts it was stated that ever more patients are suffering from a lack of life content, rather than clinical symptomatology, andJhat this state of affairs may well account for so-called interminable analyses because, as the Freudians have contended, in such cases the psychoanalytic treatment becomes the only life content available to the patient. As to the Marxists, only recently the head of the department of psychotherapy at Karl Marx University in Leipzig confessed to the fre­ quency of the existential vacuum as substantiated by her own investiga­ tions. As the head of the psychiatry department at a Czech university puts it, the existential vacuum is passing the borders between capitalists and Communist countries 'without a visa'.

M ost Talmudic students w ho are exposed to Frankl's writings - m ost notably Man's Search fo r M eaning - f e e l intuitively that w hat he has to say is consistent with Jew ish tradition.

Dr. Bulka is Rabbi o f the Congregation M achzikei Hadas in Ottawa, Canada. H e is Founding D irector o f the Center fo r the Study o f Psychology and Judaism , and recently founded the Journal o f Psychology and Judaism , w hich h e serves as Editor. H e has published articles on Logotherapy in Tradition, and other scholarly and popular journals.

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O ne really cannot appreciate Frankl's philosophy until one sees Frankl, the man. H e breathes every w ord o f his theory. H e is a living em bodim ent o f the search fo r m eaning and the passionate com m itm ent to bringing the concept o f m eaning into prim ariness.

most notable Man's Search for Meaning —feel intuitively that what he has to say is consistent with Jewish tradition.

Such was my reaction about nine years ago, when I first read Frankl's works. I wrote to Frankl, briefly describing how his logotherapy seemed to be consistent with Jewish thought. I ended by saying that though we were separated by the Atlantic Ocean, if he ever came over, I would like to meet him.

I received a response quite quickly in which Frankl told me that he would be arriving at a specific date in Rochester, New York. I geared myself for travelling to Rochester on the appointed day. Two days before the anticipated meeting, I received a phone call, person-to -person, from Boston. It was Dr. Frankl. He had arrived a few days earlier and would, in fact, be in Rochester not in two days, but the next day.

I was overwhelmed by his consideration, having had just token correspondence with him and not even having a firm appointment. I suggested the possibility of my going to Rochester to meet him and he said he was busy and would not have more than five minutes. I took a chance, and the five minutes became four hours.

One really cannot appreciate Frankl's philosophy until one sees Frankl, the man. He breathes every word of his theory . He is a living embodiment of the search for meaning and the passionate commit­ ment to bringing the concept of meaning into primariness.

Ironically, for reasons that defy explanation, Frankl has not felt at home with Jewish audiences. He relates that when he delivered a lecture to a group of Jewish scholars, they tried to just finish him off, simply because they were against his philosophy and felt that every­ thing had to be explained along Freudian lines. Frankl felt that for this group Freud was higher than Moses—first was Freud and then, "If asked for a brief explanation, I would say that the existential vacuum derives from the following conditions. Unlike an animal, man is no longer told by drives and instincts what he must do. And in contrast to man in former times, he is no longer told by traditions and values what he should do. Now, knowing neither what he must do nor what he should do, he sometimes does not even know what he basically wishes to do. Instead, he wishes to do what other people do - which is conformism - or he does what other people wish him to do - which is totalitarianism.

In addition to these two effects of the existential vacuum, there is a third, namely, neuroticism. The existential vacuum is not a neurosis, per se, at least not in the strictly clinical sense. If it is a neurosis at all it would have to be diagnosed as a sociogenic neurosis. However, there are also cases in which the existential vacuum results in clinical symptomatology. Such patients are suffering from what I have called "noogenic neuroses." ...As to the existential vacuum, however, which in itself is not a neurosis, a statistical survey recently showed that among my European students, 25 percent had themselves had this 'abyss experience,' Among my American students it was not 25 but 60 percent."

—Viktor E. Frankl in his latest work, The Unconscious G-dI Psychotherapy and Theology (New York, Simon and Schuster,1975)

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let's see to what extent Moses can be reconciled with Freud. When he lectured at the Hebrew University, Frankl said, he felt more lonely than when he walked through the desert the previous day.

Other faith systems have eagerly digested logotherapy, which makes his cool reception in Jewish circles even more incongruous.

Frankl is an optimistic man. He looks upon human experience very positively. Having lived through the concentration camps, he is still able to say, on countless occasions, that he prefers a world in which Hitler is possible to a world in which everyone is automati­ cally good. For Frankl, evil is a necessary component of a world that is based on free choice. If only good is possible, there are no choices.

That Frankl went through the concentration camps is well known.

What is less well known is that he had the opportunity to leave for a position offered to him in America. The day before he was to leave his hometown, he encountered the ruins of a shul and a shattered part of the ten tablets of the Decalogue (Aseres Ha'dibros) The part he found carried the commandment to honor one's father and mother.

He saw this as a call: a call to stay, not to desert his parents.

Frankl felt that fo r this group Freud was higher than M oses first was Freud and then, let's see to w hat extent M oses can be reconciled with Freud. When he lectured at the H ebrew University, Frankl said, h e felt m ore lonely than when h e walked through the desert the previous day.

"The Freedom to Choose" In the camps, he found corroboration of his conviction that human beings have the freedom to choose. He saw saints and he saw human beings reduced to animals. He saw a living refutation of Freud's thesis that if a number of strongly differentiated human beings are subjected to the same level of starvation, the increasing imperative need for food will blot out all differences and be replaced by the uniform expression of the one unsatisfied instinct. The con­ centration camps proved this to be untrue. They corroborated Frankl's view that while human beings can not always determine their destiny, they can determine their response to their destiny.

In this context, Frankl offers a very interesting approach to the problem of free will versus determinism. Rather than apologizing for the fact of determinism and its apparent denial of freedom, Frankl twists it around. In an almost Talmudic exercise, he says that freedom without destiny is impossible, that a person may be free but is not floating freely in airless space. There are always restrictions, but they are not constrictions: they are jumping off points for free­ dom. Freedom is contingent upon restrictions.

Frankl here takes the problem and makes it the solution. There is an underlying thought process in all of Frankl's thinking, which is based on the fundamental assumption that humankind must have been granted the means to actualize humaness, and that if freedom is necessary to make this actualization possible, it must perforce exist. It is an optimism about life, and faith in life's meaningfulness.

In this context, Frankl offers a very interesting approach to the problem o f free will versus determinism.

R ather than apologizing fo r the fact o f determ inism and its apparent denial o f freedom , Frankl twists It around. In an alm ost Talmudic exercise, he says that freedom w ithout destiny is impossible, that a person may be free but is not floatin g in airless space. There are always restrictions, but they are not constrictions: they are jum ping o ff points fo r freedom . Freedom is contingent upon restrictions.

Death: an Existential Alarm Clock In true existential fashion, Frankl makes of other problems solu­ tions. Death is necessary as it points to the human being's finite­ ness. If individuals could live forever, they would constantly post49

pone the demands of the day with the valid argument that there will always be a tomorrow. Thus, death is necessary as an existential alarm clock. It is somewhat akin to the Talmudic dialectic in which a sage advised his disciples that they repent one day before their death. They immediately asked the obvious question: "How do we know when we will die?", to which the sage responded: "all the more reason for you to repent today, lest you die tomorrow—that way all your life will be spent in a state of repentence." (Shabbos, 153a) Because people are finite, they cannot bridge the gap to the infi­ nite. In an existential sense, this means that the individual is guilty, but guilt implies a sense of responsibleness, for if an individual is not responsible, guilt is impossible. Since individuals have free will, they are responsible and therefore guilty.

Frankl argues that the individual has a right to be considered H e has ventured into such unlikely guilty and guilt is healthy if used positively. He has ventured into such unlikely places as the San Quentin penitentiary to expound places as the San Q uentin penitentiary to expound this this notion, and has found a receptive ear among inmates who re­ notion, and has fou nd a receptive sent the usual approach of visiting psychiatrists telling them: "it's ear am ong inm ates w ho resent the not your fault; you had a bad family background," or "you were usual approach o f visiting psychiatrists telling them : "it's not brought up in a poor environment." This approach makes the in­ you r fau lt; you had a bad fam ily mates feel their families or environment should be imprisoned, not background, " or "you were they. Frankl makes them feel positively guilty, so that they feel brought up on a poor responsible for the past, and thus, answerable in the present and en vironm ent." This approach open to a more responsible future. This seems to be a logical ap­ m akes the inm ates feel their fam ilies or environm ent should be proach based on some interesting research, which has shown that imprisoned, not they. criminals, as well as alcoholics and drug addicts, usually have low scores in the Purpose-in Life Test, devised to measure the individu­ al's meaning and direction in life.

Frankl aims to rekindle responsibleness, and hence, responsive­ ness to the world of meaning and purpose, initiating a process whereby the convict can transcend criminality into the human sphere.

I f individuals could live forever, they would constantly postpone the dem ands o f the day with the valid argum ent that there will always be a tommorrow. Thus, death is necessary as an existential alarm clock. It is som ew hat akin to the Talmudic dialectic in w hich a sage advised his disciples that they repent one day before their death.

The Desire for Perfection We all want to be perfect. Frankl insists that we should always desire perfection, but we should be aware of the impossibility of attaining it. Perfection would destroy individual uniqueness, as all individuals would be equalized by the common ground of perfec­ tion. It is nuances of individual imperfections which make for the uniqueness of the individual. The individual who is perfect is no longer becoming, no longer reaching for the world of values. As Frankl would say, as soon as one appreciates one's own sense of finiteness, one thereby overcomes it.

The human being is unique in the capacity to commit suicide T he hum an being is unique in the consciously and intentionally, as opposed to an animal, which may capacity to com m it suicide consciously and intentionally, as perhaps kill itself, but not through an act of will— What does this opposed to an anim al, w hich may mean: For Frankl, it means that precisely because the human being perhaps kill itself, but not through can say "no!" to life through suicide, the decision to remain alive is, an act o f w ill - W hat does this in itself, and affirmation of life. The possibility of suicide is a necesmean?

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sary contingency for life's meaningfulness.

We normally tend to think of activity as an escape from boredom.

For logotherapy, it is not activity which exists to escape boredom, rather boredom exists in order to show us the meaning of activity. If a sense of emptiness did not creep into an individual who was unfulfilled, there would be no will to find meaning.

The Will to Meaning In logotherapy, the mediating principle between the subject and object, between the human being and the values waiting to be ac­ tualized, is the will to meaning. The individual does not have a drive towards meaning, rather meaning is willed. It is a decision, not an urge. Even a religious urge, in Frankl's view, is not a valid and authentic expression. It must be a human choice and the will must be towards meaning, not towards pleasure. Pleasure is selfdefeating in that the more one attains, the more one wants. This elusiveness of pleasure is obvious in the famous Midrashic state­ ment that nobody departs from the world with half his desires gratified. One who has one hundred, wants to turn it into two hundred, and one who has two hundred, wants to turn it into four hundred. (Koheles Rabbah 1:13).

Frankl also radically opposes the power principle—what he calls the will to power. Power is a means, not an end. It is akin to the Talmudic concept: "Glory will escape one who pursues it, but will catch up with one who runs away from it" (Eruvin, 13b). Even self-realization, in Frankl's view, is not an end in itself. You cannot search for yourself. You rather strive to reach values and find mean­ ing; the self actualization must come on its own, in the same way that pleasure comes from the fulfilment of a meaning or the living of love. An overwhelming percentage of potency problems, examined in the clinical situation, appear to be the result of one or both of the partners in a relationship, being more interested in their own highs than in fulfilling the partner. The Masters-and-Johnson technique of deflecting the partners from sex was long ago anticipated by Frankl.

Those who seek pleasure alone have a frustrated sense of meaning.

Studies have shown quite conclusively that the existential vacuum or sense of meaninglessness is much higher in samplings of people who frequent amusement parks. Logotherapy tackles the immediate problem at its philosophical roots, and focuses on the meaning in the relationship to get it back on the right track.

Logotherapy posits the notion that life is unconditionally mean­ ingful in any and in all circumstances. Even if creative or experiential values are rendered impossible by a specific predicament, attitudinal values are still possible. The attitude one takes to suffering can give that very suffering a meaning, can change "suffering from" to "suf­ fering towards". Life is not a quantity. It is rather a quality, and it is a quality that only becomes manifest through the human ingredient: what one gives to life. The human ingredient is the commitment to the world of values and the actualizing of these values.

Frankl makes it clear that these values are not subjective, they are

Even a religious urge, in Frankl's view, is not a valid and authentic expression. It m ust he a hum an choice and the will m ust be towards m eaning, not towards pleasure.

Pleasure is self-defeating in that the m ore one attains, the m ore one wants.

Those w ho seek pleasure alone have a frustrated sense o f meaning.

Studies have shown quite conclusively that the existential vacuum or sense o f m eaninglessness is much higher in sam plings o f people w ho frequent am usem ent parks.

T he attitude one takes to suffering can give that very suffering a m eaning, can change "suffering from " to "suffering towards".

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objective. They are there in the world and do not depend upon subjectivity for existence. Frankl sees as a major malaise in present society the fact that tradition no longer tells the individual what he should do.

Frankl insists that it is not valid to ask what one can expect from life. Instead, one is obliged to respond to life. The rewards of life are commensurate with what the individual gives to it, or, "The reward is in proportion to the labor expended" (Avos 5:26). If life is a qual­ ity, its worth cannot be measured in terms of individual achieve­ ment of a material nature or the attainment of high position. Life's worthiness is measured by what the human being gives to it. A gas Life's w orthiness is m easured by w hat the hum an being gives to it. station attendant's life can be much more meaningful than the life of A gas station attendant's life can be a prominent surgeon. As the Talmud puts it: "One may gain eter­ much m ore m eaningful than the nity in a sifigle moment, while another may gain it only after many life o f a prom inent surgeon. years, (Avodah Zarah, 10b), each fulfilling themselves in their own unique way.

Human achievement is a permanent part of life. It cannot be erased. It is there. As the Talmud says: "All your deeds are written in a book" (Avos 2:1). Why should an individual envy a young per­ son with a life full of potential when potential actualized is the greater value. The past, in Frankl's words, is one's real future. He approximates the famous Midrash (Koheles 7:1) about the ships— the one coming into port and the other going out. The one coming in is congratulated for having achieved its mission. The one leaving carries a sense of trepidation, not knowing what the future holds.

Values fulfilled are life lived. They are not transitory—they are real.

Frankl's philosophy is obviously quite useful for individuals whose despair is rooted in a distorted philosophy. To be sure, logotherapy carefully avoids imposing values in a clinical situation, but it does not shrink from proposing values in the meta-clinical context. Mainly, logotherapy attempts to open up the world of meaning in the patient. Meaning in life is viewed as the corrective M eaning in life is view ed as the corrective fo r w hat Frankl terms for what Frankl terms the "existential vacuum", or sense of empti­ the "existential vacuum ", or sense ness directly linked to lack of purpose and meaning. The so-called o f em ptiness directly linked to lack "Sunday neurosis" and "unemployment neurosis", as well as "re­ o f purpose and m eaning. The tirement neurosis", are areas where the existential vacuum is the so-called "Sunday neurosis" and "unem ploym ent neurosis", as well likely culprit. as "retirem ent neurosis", are areas Logotherapy appears as a highly idealistic world-view and clinical w here the existential vacuum is the approach, but Frankl insists it is not idealistic, but realistic, because likely culprit. logotherapy does not moralize about what is right: it develops its view of life from the frame of reference of the healthy human being and healthy human living, and translates this into philosophical and clinical terms. This is in sharp contrast with other systems which focus on the sick aspects of the person and develop their world­ views from that starting point. For logotherapy, the truth about the human condition is perceived in direct relationship to the person's healthy and truly human expression. Logotherapy is, at once, em­ pirical and naturalistic.

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Humane Humans in the Minority Frankl is realistic enough to recognize that humane humans are, and will probably always remain, in the minority. True to form, Frankl sees this not as a reason for despair but as a challenge to join the minority.

Frankl is a deeply religious man. He believes there is a religious sense that is deep-rooted in all people. He sees religion as an indi­ vidual's search for ultimate meaning, a meaning which Frankl in­ sists exists unconditionally, even after Auschwitz. Every human being has unconscious religiousness.

What does Frankl mean by unconscious? He states that the foun­ dation of existence cannot fully be reflected upon and cannot be aware of itself. The human spirit in its origin is unconscious spirit.

Conscience itself is the voice of transcendence. Unconsciousness is understood as a latent reaction to the transcendence inherent in human beings. The irreligious person is not one who does not have the transcendental quality, but one who fails to recognize it.

In Frankl's view, the pathos of atheism is based on an implicit religious ethos and the passion of the unreligious includes a hidden love of G-d. But this is Frankl the philosopher speaking, not Frankl the clinician. Clinically he makes it quite clear that the logotherapist cannot be driven by an instinct, nor pushed by a psychiatrist. How­ ever, if the issue of religiousness arises in the clinic, the logotherapist may not negate it, since it is a very positive human phenomenon.

Frankl once recommended to an individual suffering from obses­ sional neurosis, who had become suicidal, that he stop fighting the neurosis and since the patient was a religious man, Frankl was able to recommend that he see the neurosis as the will of G-d that should be accepted. The patient's religiousness allowed for such a mediat­ ing concept. He stopped fighting the obsessional neurosis and even­ tually the obsessional neurosis stopped fighting him.

Frankl's philosophy, theology, and clinical theory take an affirma­ tive attitude to the religious quest. In a certain sense; the logotherapeutic view of religion is even more affirmative than some of religion's most zealous practitioners. That logotherapy has much in common with Judaism does not mean that it is totally consistent with it. One thing however is sure: Frankl gives the Jewish philosopher, the Jewish theologian, and the Jewish clinician much to think about.

Frankl is a deeply religious man.

H e believes there is a religious sense that is deep-rooted in all people. H e sees religion as an individual's search fo r ultimate m eaning, a m eaning w h ich Frankl insists exists unconditionally, even after Auschwitz. Every hum an being h as unconscious religiousness.

Frankl once recom m ended to an individual suffering from obsessional neurosis, w ho had becom e suicidal, that h e stop fightin g the neurosis and since the patient was a religious man, Frankl was able to recom m end that h e see the neurosis as the will o f G -d that should be accepted.

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Bernard Weinberger

Satmar and Lubavitch: The Dynamics of Disagreement Saturday, April 9, 1977 about 6:45 P.M., it was Bein Hashmoshes, twilight, in Williamsburgh. At the Satmar Bais Hamedrash on Rod­ ney Street, thousands of Jews were gathered to participate in the traditional Seuda Shlishis, the third meal of Shabbos. In most of the other synagogues, it was the interval between Mincha and Ma'ariv and most people were learning or gathered in small group discus­ sions waiting for the Ma'ariv to usher in the final day of Pesach. In the street, hundreds of men and women were walking leisurely and the serenity and jubilant air of the Yom Tov pervaded the air. From the distance on Bedford Avenue, one heard the chanting of Lubavitcher Chassidim in their annual march from Crown Heights to Williamsbrrg. Suddenly, there were shouts, outbursts, name­ calling, and before anyone could recognize the adversaries, a melee developed that involved hundreds of Chassidic Jews in an exchange of blows. Police were everywhere, separating the groups—it was not always clear who was fighting whom, but, for the first time in memory the media reported an outbreak of violence between the Satmar Chassidim of Williamsburg and the Lubavitcher Chassidim of Crown Heights.

Everyone agrees that it was a terrible Chillul Hashem— desecration of G-d's Name—to see Jew fighting Jew—and on Shab­ bos. All level-headed people agreed that everyone involved in the fracas was wrong. Partisans still disagree on who started it, or who was more to blame. Partisans also differ as to what can be done in the future to avoid such horrifying experiences. But all would do 11 well to pause, look back, and try to seek out the underlying causes that led to such a sad spectacle. Was it an isolated, unfortunate occurrence, or does it reflect the deeper divisiveness that alas en­ gulfs the Chassidic and Torah communities?

In recent years, there has been a greater public and political awareness of ethnicity, and because Chassidim are easily identified as "Jewish ethnics," the media have given them much attention. But most of the reporting has been superficial and focused on the social, economic, and political lives of the Chassidim. Few have dealt at all with the theological underpinnings of the religious lives and beliefs of the Chassidim.

The fundamental and overriding principle of Chassidic philosophy is that every aspect of life is invested with metaphysical and transcendental importance. Everyone and everything in life is important. Nothing is wasted, nothing is trivial. Life is a full-time job you work at unrelentingly. From the color of your clothing to buttoning your coat from left to right, in the traditional doublebreasted garb, or the absence of the tie which involves making a knot. Small, ostensibly insignificant matters are treated with utmost

Was it an isolated, unfortunate occurrence? - or does it reflect the deeper divisiveness that alas engulfs the Chassidic and Torah communities.

Rabbi Weinberger writes about Chassidus as an insider, coming him self from a Chassidic fam ily.

For over two decades h e has been a leader and spokesm an fo r O rthodox Jew ry and a provocative yet objective observer o f the Jew ish scene. His "Confessions o f an O rthodox Rabbi, o r a Tale o f Three Bridges ," (Tishrei 5736), and "The Growing Rate o f D ivorce in O rthodox Jew ish Life" (Iyar 5736/Spring 1976) w hich appeared in this journal are am ong his m any literary contributions to a better understanding o f w here Judaism is at in this decade. This study o f the origins o f Chassidus and th e Dynamics ofD isagreem ent is a fu rth er contribution w hich w e are pleased to bring to our readers.

seriousness because of their metaphysical importance. Since right represents compassion and love, and left represents justice and strength, right should dominate over left. Because white, like milk symbolizes purity and compassion, it is to be preferred to red, the symbol of blood and impurity. Since every facet of life has such tremendous importance, the simple shoemaker, tailor, butcher, and workingman, labor in the vineyard of the L-rd together with the Torah Scholar. The tailor who mends a garment is equated with the penitent sinner who has to mend his damaged soul because of his sin. The watchmaker, who repairs a watch, to make it measure time precisely, does holy work; he is making every moment count. The shoemaker who fits every shoe differently proclaims the uniqueness of each man: no two feet are alike; no two human beings are alike.

From this root principle of the transcendence of every life experi­ From this root principle o f the transcendence o f every life ence, two additional principles emerge: (1) we must approach life experience, two additional joyously because of its infinite opportunities to serve G-d, and (2) all principles em erge: (1) w e m ust approach life joyously because o f its men, whatever their station in life, have the capacity to contribute to infinite opportunities to serve G-d, the redemption of the world and are part of the great symphony, and (2) all m en, w hatever their which is the consecration of the Name of G-d in this world. The station in life, have t h e capacity to Psalmist exclaims, "The heavens belong to G-d, but he has given the contribute to the redem ption o f the earth to the sons of man;" to which the Kotzker Rebbe adds, "he has w orld and are part o f the great given the earth to man to make of it heaven." Judaism has em­ sym phony, w hich is the consecration o f the N am e o f G -d in phasized the need to bring heaven into our earthly existence. Chasthis world. sidism has added the challenge of making our earthly existence heavenly.

If indeed the opportunities to serve G-d are infinite, then how is I f indeed the opportunities to serve G -d are infinite, then how is one to one to make his choice of vocation and avocation, who is to judge m ake h is choice o f vocation and where he can best make the contribution he is destined to make? avocation, w ho is to ju dge w here he can best m ake the contribution h e is Chassidus supplies the answer by introducing the key role played by the Tzaddik, the rebbe, who guides his flock in directing each destined to make? Chassidus supplies the answ er by introducing man's energies towards his calling in life. the key role played by the Tzaddik, In Chassidic tradition, the Tzaddik, the righteous man, plays a the rebbe, w ho g u ides his flock in dominant role because he is more than a spiritual guide or teacher. directing each man's energies towards his calling in life.

The chassid and the rebbe are tied to one another by the inexorable link of their souls. The rebbe touches my soul in such a way that I feel my soul in harmony with the soul of the Tzaddik. Some have traveled thousands of miles, passing by many other righteous men, in the search for that Tzaddik for whom the bells of his soul toll. A chassid inherits from his father a Tzaddik, or a dynasty of Tzaddikim, in the same way as you inherit your ancestors' mode of prayer. At times, you may have to search out for yourself a new or different Tzaddik. But, always a binding, all-enveloping relation­ ship has to develop that is not necessarily comprehensible, but is felt in the depth of the soul. The Tzaddik is not only consulted for every important step one takes in life, from choosing a spouse to choosing a line of work or business—his every word is examined for hints or indications of what he suggests might be appropriate avenues of pursuit.

The passage: "The Tzaddik is the foundation of the World" (Proverbs 10:25) has been adopted as a fundamental teaching of Chassidus—interpreted literally and mystically. It not only equates Sm all, ostensibly insignificant m atters are treated w ith utm ost seriousness because o f their m etaphysical importance. Since right represents compassion and love, and left represents ju stice and strength, right shou ld dom inate over left. Because w hite, like milk, sym bolizes purity and compassion, it is to be preferred to red, the sym bol o f blood and impurity.

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the Tzaddik with the pillar upon which the world of Chassidim rests, but, it also underscores the word foundation as synonymous with sexual purity. Man was created in the image of G-d and is viewed by the mystics as just one notch under G-d. Man most closely approximates the divine when he is creative. The closest man can get to creating, ex nihilo, out of nothingness—which is the exc­ lusive domain of G-d— is in the act of procreation of another human being. To the extent, therefore, that man remains pure in this aspect of his being, to that extent, he gains the power of bestowing bles­ sings upon others, and the suitable receptacle for channelling of the Almighty's beneficence to others.

The only patriarch who earns the appellation "Tzaddik" is Yoseph. Yoseph experienced the supreme test of seduction and temptation and emerged triumphantly pure. Yoseph is the Tzaddik who, because of his purity, becomes the provider of sustenance for his brothers in Egypt. The retention of "creative purity" on all three levels of existences, thought, speech, and action, makes Yoseph, the Tzaddik, capable of sustaining the entire community, and the vehi­ cle through which the blessings of G-d flow to man.

In Chassidism, the tzaddik is a disciple of Yoseph in the realm of "creative purity," from which it follows that he can provide bles­ sings to all who are united with him. The Tzaddik is more than a righteous person who lives by the code of Torah law. He has achieved a level of purity that includes thought and speech as well as action. To remain pure in action is required of all Jews. But to retain the purity of speech, which separates the human from the animal, is the achievement of the Tzaddik. While no one can judge another mart's thoughts, faith in the Tzaddik implies that he is also pure on that level. The Tzaddik, therefore approximates, as closely as is humanly possible, the pure being able to serve as the inter­ mediary between man and G-d. He can bring the blessings of G-d to man, and can elevate man to come closer to G-d. The chassid writes on a slip of paper his name, his mother's name, and his needs and concerns, and gives it to the Tzaddik. He then listens closely as the Tzaddik offers his blessing for the fulfillment of that wish. The words the Tzaddik uses, often reveal to the Ghassid what he must do, and the likelihood of success.

Even thiB rudimentary formulation of Chassidic belief makes it clear why it was, from the very outset, fraught with tremendous dangers. Little wonder then that, from its inception, it was con­ demned by outstanding Torah luminaries, whom Chassidim clev­ erly dubbed Misnagdim opponents. Some Chassidic leaders themselves recognized the dangers inherent in the misinterpretation of Chassidic belief and incessantly warned against them. The most crucial danger lay in the seeming deification of the Tzaddik. Perhaps the saving grace of Chassidus was that the early Tzaddikim were men of such genuine piety that they themselves were the first to project the dangers involved and developed techniques to guard against abuses. The Tzaddik could easily become arrogant and selfcentered and obsessed with his own importance if he were to be­ come overwhelmed with the adulation of his Chassidim. Like every

M an was created in the image o f G -d and is viewed by the m ystics as ju st one notch under G-d. M an m ost closely approxim ates the divine w hen he is creative. The closest man can get to creating ex nihilo, out o f nothingness - which is the exclusive domain o f G -d - is in the act o f procreation o f another hum an being.

Yoseph experienced the suprem e test o f seduction and temptation and em erged trium phantly pure.

Yoseph is the Tzaddik who, because o f his purity, bestows sustenance on h is brothers in Egypt. The retention o f "creative purity" on all three levels o f existences, thought, speech, and action, makes Yoseph, the Tzaddik, capable o f sustaining the entire community, and the vehicle through which the blessings o f G -d flow to man.

The chassid writes on a slip o f paper his name, his mother's name, and his needs and concerns, an d gives it to the Tzaddik. H e then listens closely as the Tzaddik offers his blessing for the fulfillm ent o f that wish. The words the Tzaddik uses, often reveal to the Chassid w hat h e m ust do, and the likelihood o f success.

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leader who enjoys the loyalty of his followers he could become demagogic and abusive, devoid of self-analysis while insulated from public criticism. Any system that bestows upon its leaders such unquestioning loyalty—particularly when intensified by religious fervor—is susceptible to aberration.

Aside from the dangers resulting from "false Tzaddikim" or A side from the dangers resulting from "false Tzaddikim" or "self-centered Tzaddikim" there was an inherent chauvinism that "self-centered Tzaddikim " there endangered Chassidus. In their total allegiance and loyalty to their was an inherent chauvinism that Tzaddik, there was the tendency to berate and disparage the other endangered Chassidus. In their total allegiance and loyalty to their man's Tzaddik. The childlike attitude of "my Tzaddik is holier than Tzaddik, there was the tendency to your Tzaddik" was endemic to the Chassidic way of life and plagued berate and disparage the other the development of Chassidus almost from its inception. Rivalries man's Tzaddik. T he childlike and animosities between one group of Chassidim to another group attitude o f "my Tzaddik is Jiolier than your Tzaddik" was endem ic to were commonplace, though they were minimized, happily, by the the Chassidic way o f life and saintliness of the Tzaddikim themselves, who with genuine mod­ plagued the developm ent o f esty, avoid such rivalries by according respect and honor to other Chassidus alm ost from its Tzaddikim. inception.

Classical Judaism had glorified every human being's right to con­ front G-d without recourse to any intermediary. Chassidism intro­ duced the role of the Tzaddik, if not as an indispensable inter­ mediary, than, at least, as a helpful guide to approach G-d. This was fraught with danger and was so perceived by the Misnagdim as well as the early rebbes. Classical Judaism had always insisted that no­ Classical Judaism had alw ays insisted that nobody was beyond body was beyond the Law and every Jew was subject to rebuke, the Law and every Jew was subject from the humblest Jew to the renowned talmudic scholar. Chassidus to rebuke, from the hum blest Jew to attributed to the Tzaddik a mystical dimension that made his be­ th e renowned talm udic scholar.

Chassidus attributed to th e Tzaddik havior transcendentally sacred even if not completely understood a mystical dimension that m ade his within normative Judaism. This created even greater dangers that behavior transcendentally sacred every practice of the Tzaddik would be emulated by thousands of even if not completely understood Chassidim who could not at all comprehend the reasons for such within norm ative Judaism . This practices. created even greater dangers that every practice o f the Tzaddik would Classical Judaism had a simple standard for leadership within the be em ulated by thoysands o f Jewish community: Torah knowledge, scholarship, and observance, Chassidim w ho could not at all which could only be achieved through single-minded pursuit of com prehend the reasons fo r such Torah knowledge. Chassidism introduced the concept of a son in­ practices. heriting the mantle of leadership, and explained that while the "Crown of Torah" was available to anyone who pursued it, Avodah, the "Crown of worship," was based on the soul bequeathed to a Jew by his parents. The prayers of a Tzaddik, who is the son of a Tzad­ dik, enjoy a privileged status. The abuses that resulted from this dynastic component were so enormous that they contributed more than anything else to the denigration and ultimate dimunition of Chassidus.

But, Chassidus had already sunk deep roots; it caught hold de­ But, Chassidus had already sunk deep roots; it caught hold despite spite the obvious dangers and despite the opposition of so many the obvious dangers and despite the outstanding scholars and leaders. It promised a life of joy and a new opposition o f so m any outstanding zest and fervor for living. The Rambam (Maimonides), rationalist scholars and leaders. It prom ised a life o f joy and a new zest and fervor that he was, had, of course, recognized that eating, drinking, and fo r living. guarding one's health were religious obligations since they in­ creased one's capacity to study and observe Torah. But, Chassidus made the very act of eating and drinking properly a religious experi58

ence. Every table was an altar, every home a sacred sanctuary—if imbued with the right spirit. Classical Judaism had reserved for the scholar immersed in Torah the opportunity of communion with G-d. Chassidism opened that coveted mountaintop to the common man who could behold the Divine in genuine and sincere prayer, or in an act of kindness, or in simply telling the story of a Tzaddik. It equated the innocent whistling of a shepherd boy who couldn't read the Hebrew prayers, with the pious devotion of the elders of the community. Chassidism opened new vistas for the simple Jew; it brought a new vigor into his life; it removed doubt and hesitation by a visitation to the rebbe; and it solidified the sense of community, comraderie, and fellowship among all who sat humbly at the table of the Tzaddik. But all this was to change as Chassidism grew and branched out.

With the growth of Chassidism came the emergence of Tzaddikim of lesser stature, whose only claim to leadership was their ancestry.

This inevitably weakened the quality of Chassidus even as it grew in numbers. Divisions and rivalries became normative in Chassidic life.

At times the animosities became so intense and widespread that they virtually split communities in half and engendered hostility even within families. Ultimately, the influence of lesser Tzaddikim influenced the quality of Chassidic life and led to confusion and the shifting of priorities in Chassidic values.

Starting prayer services past their fixed times, originally justified by the Tzaddik's need for extensive preparation before prayer, be­ came an end in itself. Singing and dancing became substitutes for Torah Study. The Tzaddik was no longer simply a saintly spiritual guide, but a worker of miracles, and telling stories about the great Tzaddikim was deemed equal to prayer. Even in Torah study itself, the wise and clever saying of the Tzaddik, whose use of gematria and the esoteric were intended to inculcate some ethical teaching, replaced the literal meaning of the text. What Chassidism introduced as added dimensions in the comprehension, appreciation, and broadening of Jewish religious life became ends for themselves and at times the totality of Jewish life.

Much of the popular literature on Chassidism lumps all Chas­ sidim into one large and massive movement within Judaism. There is a total failure to isolate, identify, and distinguish the various branches into which Chassidism grew. The growth of Chassidism brought wide differences in the specializations of the various Tzad­ dikim and the differing nuances which each contributed. It was not a monolithic development, and the differences are often pro­ nounced and while sometimes less evident, nonetheless critical. It would require a voluminous study to categorize all of the Chassidic dynasties and the various Tzaddikim who headed these Chassidic family trees, but one can more easily identify general categories.

Classical Judaism speaks of Torah as analogous to a garden with a variety of fruits. The Hebrew word for "garden" (pardes) is a four letter acrostic (PRDS) that is regarded as an abbreviation of the four levels of interpretation for each word of Torah. Only words spoken

by G-d Himself could be subjected to such a consistent analysis and

Classical Judaism had reserved for the scholar immersed in Torah the opportunity fo r communion with G -d. Chassidism opened that coveted mountaintop to the common man w ho could behold the D ivine in genuine and sincere prayer, or in an act o f kindness, or in sim ply telling the story o f a Tzaddik.

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Singing and dancing became substitutes fo r Torah Study. The Tzaddik was no longer sim ply a saintly spiritual guide, but a worker o f miracles, and telling stories about the great Tzaddikim was deemed equal to prayer.

M uch o f the popular literature on Chassidism lumps all Chassidim into one large and massive m ovement within Judaism . There is a total failu re to isolate, identify , and distinguish the various branches into w hich Chassidism grew.

The Hebrew word for " garden" (pqrdes) is a fou r letter acrostic (PRDS) that is regarded as an abbreviation o f the fou r levels o f interpretation fo r each word o f

interpretation, and, therefore, only the study of Torah in its sacred tongue can capture this four-dimensional nature of Torah teaching.

Translation at best can capture only one quarter of its meaning and will be confined to Pshat, unable to provide the other three elements of Brush, Remez, and Sode. Pshat is the simple meaning, or the literal rendering of the sentence. Drush includes inferences, derivations; applications, and all of biblical exegesis governed by a fixed methodology of expounding the Torah. Remez is a hint or an allusion that includes gematria, and an examination of the choice of particu­ lar words or sentence structure all of which provide clues for what is being hinted at beneath the surface of the text.

Chassidic literature can itself be generally divided into various categories. There were those masters who were content with simple Pshat or literal teachings of Chassidus which were but an extension or an added dimension of Halacha. The word "chasid ," literally means one who extends observance beyond the letter of the law.

Torah forbids telling a lie. Chassidim forbids lying to yourself. Adul­ tery is a cardinal sin. The Tzaddik would exhort his follower not to commit adultery with his own wife. Of such nature were the inci­ sive, penetrating, teachings introduced by the Tzaddikim. Others, however, went beyond elaborating on Torah law, and sought to elevate their followers to higher levels of spirituality, stressing the impact human behavior could have on the celestial spheres. Our earthly existence was only a hint—a microcosm of the greater worlds above. The marriage of a man and a woman became an occasion to ponder and pray for the union of G-d and His Shechinah. Still other masters indulged their followers in the esoteric literature to learn the ways of the soul, which is the offspring of the Divine. The variations The variations am ong C hassidic teachers w ere as m anifold as in among Chassidic teachers were as manifold as in Rabbinic Judaism; Rabbinic Judaism ; each Tzaddik each Tzaddik developing a different approach to achieving the goal developing a different approach to achieving the goal that united them that united them all: elevating their followers to exert more and more effort to satisfy the soul's yearning for a more spiritual life. all: elevating their follow ers to exert m ore and m ore effort to Interestingly, the variations became more evident in the later de­ satisfy the soul's yearning fo r a velopmental stages of the growth of Chassidus. The early masters m ore spiritual life. incorporated the totality of Chassidic teachings. The third and fourth generations brought a branching out into variants that I be­ lieve could be designated as regional. Chassidic life can be seen as concentrated in four major regions, each developing its own particu­ lar style in accordance with some of the variants outlined above: the Polish, the Hungarian, the Galician, and the Russian branches of Chassidism. There was obvious overlapping and intermingling, a good deal of which was the result of intermarriage of the families of Tzaddikim; but a case can be made for delineating these four regions Postulating regional differences am ong C hassidim conjures up the as the major schools of Chassidim as it developed over the years suggestion that the non-Jew ish until today. environm ent m ay h ave influenced Postulating regional differences among Chassidim conjures up the particular m ode o f the the suggestion that the non-Jewish environment may have influ­ Chassidim . U ndoubtedly, this theory has som e validity, so long as enced the particular mode of the Chassidim. Undoubtedly, this it is not reduced to the ad theory has some validity, so long as it is not reduced to the ad absurdum o f sociologists w ho absurdum of sociologists who ascribe all mutation to the environ­ ascribe all m utation to the ment. Chassidism, too, might have been influenced by the nonenvironm ent.

Torah. Only words spoken by G -d H im self could be subjected to such a consistent analysis and interpretation, and, therefore, only the study o f Torah in its sacred tongue can capture this four-dim ensional nature o f Torah teaching.

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Jewish environment in which it existed. Surely, the difference in style, at least, between Lubavitcher and Hungarian (Satmar, et al) Chassidim has something to do with the difference in the challenges posed by the Czarist and Communist societies which Lubavitch con­ fronted, and the Nazi regime which the Hungarian Chassidim had to survive. Communism challenged the spiritual life of the Chassidic Com m unism challenged the community and required bold and brazen efforts to survive as Jews. spiritual life o f the Chassidic Nazism was more directly a physical threat to life and required comm unity and required bold and brazen efforts to survive as Jews. shrewdness, astuteness, subterfuge, and bribery to survive. Surely Nazism was m ore directly a differences among Chassidic schools were generated by the domin­ physical, threat to life and required ant culture in which they lived. Nevertheless, the development of shrewdness, astuteness, regionalism within Chassidism followed, interestingly—with some subterfuge, and bribery to survive, variation of course—the four categories of Torah exegesis outlined above. In a very general way it can be suggested that the Chassidus of Polish Jews emphasized Pshat;Galician Chassidus tended more to Remez; Hungarian Chassidus more of Drush; and Russian Chassidus was in the stream of Sode.

Awareness of the genesis of these variations within Chassidism is critical to perception of the contemporary Chassidic scene.

Ironically, the New York Chassidic scene has also become re­ gionalized: Williamsburg is the seat of Hungarian Chassidim; Crown Heights is Lubavitch— the archetype of Russian Chassidus; and Boro Park with Bobov, Belz, and Bluzov representing Galician Chassidus, and Ger the living heir of Polish Chassidus. Surely, the categorization is not nearly as simple and as neat as is here suggested—there are many different shadings within each group.

Obviously, the Chassidus of Czernobol, Reshzin, and Stolin concen­ trated in Rockland county and Boro Park cannot be relegated to Secondary positions within Russian Chassidus, anymore than can Vishnitz, Spinka and Munkacz be completely absorbed by the do­ minant Hungarian Chassidim. But, for purposes of easy indentification it is safe to assume that the above named four areas within the American Chassidic community can be regarded as heirs to the four dominant strains within the development of Chassidus.

Just as the early Tzaddikim of Chassidus were fully aware of the Ju st as the early Tzaddikim o f dangers to which early Chassidism was subject, so too the later Chassidus were fu lly aware o f the Tzaddikim saw the diminution of authentic Chassidus in later gen­ dangers to w hich early Chassidism was subject, so too the later erations and made strenuous efforts to play down the distinctive Tzaddikim saw the diminution o f character of Chassidus. This was particularly true of the Hungarian, authentic Chassidus in later Galician, and Polish tzaddikim who were honest and humble generations and m ade strenuous enough to recognize that they were not of the calibre of their ances­ efforts to play down the distinctive character o f C hassidus . tors and that their Chassidim in turn were not the sort of disciples their ancestors had, and this magnified the danger that Chassidus would be turned into a superficial imitation of the body of Chassidus without its soul: a caricature of what once was a sacred movement with much promise. They therefore elected to return to the Ways of classical Judaism, with the Rabbinic and Halachic emphasis domin­ ant, retaining the Chassidic legacy as an added dimension of Rab­ binic Judaism—not as something separate and apart from it. In Polish and Hungarian Chassidus, in particular, it became com­ monplace for the Tzaddik to function as the “rabbi" and the “re61

bbe," the Torah authority with Torah scholarship, and the rebbe to In Polish and H ungarian Chassidus, in particular, it became whom those in distress could turn to for guidance and help. com m onplace fo r the Tzaddik to So alarmed was Hungarian Chassidus about its future deteriora­ function as the "rabbi" and the tion that it became ultra-conservative, resisting any new modes or "rebbe," the Torah authority with innovations.

It remained the only segment of European Jewry that, Torah scholarship, and the rebbe to w hom those in distress could turn in the main, did not join the ranks of the Agudath Israel movement. to fo r guidance and help.

Polish Chassidus was equally careful to link itself inextricably with mainstream Judaism and made Torah study and scholarship the hallmark of its Chassidus. To this day, Gerer Chassidus includes Torah study as an integral part of its Shabbos morning service.

Galician Chassidus, however retained more of its historical Chas­ sidic elements and the traditional role of the Tzaddik was more pronounced. Interestingly, Lubavitcher Chassidus remained an­ chored to its mystical base and retained an unbroken coritinuity of its traditional stress on the role of the Tzaddik, the fusion of Halachah and Kabbalah, the cognate and the mystical, and the need to spread far and wide the message of the original and authentic Chassidus. Because it had been bold and extravagant from the out­ Because it had been bold and extravagant from the outset in its set in its belief that Chassidim could master the secrets of the mysti­ belief that Chassidim could m aster cal world through its teachings on the dynamics of the soul, and it the secrets o f the m ystical world faced challenge after challenge from w ithin and without, through its teachings on the dynam ics o f the soul, and it faced Lubavitcher Chassidus incorporated a tenacious belief in its own challenge after challenge from dynamic power that for some time was self-fulfilling. It refused to within and w ithout, Lubavitcher give credence to the reality that future generations might not be Chassidus incorporated a tenacious equipped to master the rational discipline. belief in its own dynam ic pow er From what has been said it should be relatively simple to deal that fo r som e time was self-fulfilling. with the contemporary divisiveness and antagonisms among Chas­ sidim as exemplified in the current dispute between Satmar and Lubavitcher Chassidim. For one thing, disputes among Chassidim are almost inevitable, particularly when different groups are thrown together in close geographical proximity. Such a natural cantanker­ ousness becomes inflamed and widespread when both need to ap­ peal to a third force, in the current context: municipal, state, and national government. Given the tremendous role that government Given the tremendous role that governm ent plays in our lives and plays in our lives and the need of all groups to exercise political the need o f all groups to exercise power, Chassidic groups become important clusters of bloc-voting political power, C hassidic groups power, particularly in an atmosphere of ethnic voting blocs. Hence, becom e im portant clusters o f what might otherwise be limited to a religious rivalry now becomes bloc-voting power, particularly in a competition for blatant political "muscle." It is no secret that both ari atm osphere o f ethn ic voting blocs. H ence, w hat m ight Satmar as well as Lubavitch are strong political influences within otherw ise be lim ited to a religious New York City's municipal political structure. While influences may rivalry now becomes a competition at times be exaggerated and magnified beyond credibility, they do fo r blatant political "m uscle." enhance the self-image of the group and add to its strident determi­ nation to dominate.

Yet, the overriding issue in the current dispute is a major organic difference in substantive Chassidus that relates to other-relatedness as well as to self-image. It has a history, a philosophy, and above all a metaphysics all its own. A true Chassid might argue that, divested of its acrimony and vituperate quality, this dispute is a blessing from heaven in that it provides checks and balances on each other's extremes.

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Satmar Chassidus, the prototype of Hungarian Chassidus, begins with the self-effacing premise that it is no match for the Chassidus of the original disciples of the Baal-Shem-Tov. It is aware that neither its leaders nor followers are worthy heirs of the pious men of gener­ ations ago. Yet, they have retained the traditions and forms of the Chassidim of old, while recognizing that the passion and fervor, the purity and piety of their grandparents is beyond their grasp. The Satmar Rebbe himself has been the strongest advocate of introspec­ tion and has sought every means at his disposal to dissuade his thousands of followers from attributing to him the mystical standing of the Tzaddik of old. Although his leadership spans a period of sixty to seventy years, and he has enjoyed the respect and acclaim of world Jewish religious leaders of generations, he has achieved this adulation through Torah scholarship more so than as a scion of the most distinguished Chassidic families. His erudition and devotion to Torah scholarship have accorded him the respect of Misnagdim as well as Chassidim; and he has himself emphasized more his role as rav over that of rebbe. In the town of Satmar, where he served as rav and rebbe, in his Shabbos morning d'rasha, when he spoke to the community at large, he would exhort the women to wear sheitleich, to cover their heads; while in the afternoon at the Seudah Shlishis, he would admonish his Chassidim not to let their women wear sheit­ leich,, which was too modern, but to have them cover their heads with tichlech or turbans. By every conceivable standard the Satmar Rebbe qualifies as a Tzaddik in the classical Chassidic mold. He enjoys a pedigree that links him with all of the greatest Tzaddikim.

He has been reared, from his earliest youth, in the sanctified life­ style of the Tzaddik. He is by erudition, scholarship, and piety emi­ nently qualified to fill the role of Tzaddik. Yet, no one has done more to discourage that image than he himself. To be sure, he ac­ cepts kvitlech as the Tzaddikim of yesteryear, but he discourages the notion that he enjoys any mystical standing or that he is wont to perform miracles. It is all in the tradition of the ordinary rabbi or sage who offers a blessing to a person in need. His acceptance of the role as head of the Eidah Charedis, the old settlem ent in Yerusholayim, is further witness to his standing as a world Torah scholar rather than as a rebbe. Most of these people are not Chas­ sidim, and do not relate to him as a Chassidic rebbe.

The Satmar Rebbe has sought every means available to foster a return to classical Rabbinic Judaism that is governed by a clearly defined code of law, rather than allow for the mystical tendencies of Chassidim, which allows for the introduction of new, innovative, and extra-legal patterns of behavior. Satmar is cognizant of the dan­ gers of Chassidism being reduced to a new cult in the reality of twentieth-century America. It clings tenaciously to the basic tradi­ tions of Chassidus, in its style, form and external behavior, but it strenuously resists the slightest relationship to any form of trans­ cendentalism, that could remotely lead to a strain of messianism, which it believes could endanger the faith of as feeble a generation as ours. Satmar is satisfied and delighted to remain mainstream Rabbinic Judaism with a coat or two of Chassidus. In the schematic 63

Satm ar Chassidus, the prototype o f Hungarian Chassidus, begins with the self-effacing prem ise that it is no match fo r the Chassidus o f the original disciples o f the Baal-Shem -Tov. It is aw are that neither its leaders nor follow ers are w orthy heirs o f the pious men o f generations ago.

Satm ar is cognizant o f the dangers o f Chassidism being reduced to a new cult in the reality o f twentieth-century America. It clings tenaciously to the basic traditions o f Chassidus, in its style, form and external behavior, but it strenuously resists the slightest relationship to any form of transcendentalism, that could rem otely lead to a strain o f m essianism, w hich it believes could endanger the faith o f as feeble a generation as ours.

trend outlined above, Satmar can even be said to have dropped its Urush or exegesis of Chassidism, with which we have characterized Hungarian Chassidism, and to have returned more to Pshat, the literal "bread" of Chassidus.

Ironically, most people have thus completely misinterpreted and misunderstood the militant opposition of Satmar, first, to Zionism as a political movement and later to the State of Israel. They mistook the Satmar position as predicated on some mystical premise that only the coming of the Messiah will restore Jewish sovereignty over Eretz Yisrael. In fact, the Satmar position is contrarily devoid of any mystical component and is rather predicated on basic rabbinic teach­ ings. Zionism, the Satmar position states, is any attempt to distort the essential quality of Jewish peoplehood by linking Jewish survival to nationalism. Zionism transforms the historical messianic yearn­ ings of Jews for the promised land into a secularist nationalist ideol­ ogy that assumes that a national home for Jews will free Jews from the antisemitism that has accompanied it throughout the diaspora.

Satmar, citing talmudic sources, demonstrates that the creation of the State of Israel is a violation of the oath taken by Klal Yisroel not to rebel against the nations of the world, and, is in fact a cause of rising antisemitism rather than the deterrent it purports to be. If the chambers of the United Nations are any barometer of world public opinion then the treatment accorded Israel in contradistinction to the P.L.O. and the other Arab nations would tend to support the Satmar contention that antisemitism has not abated but possibly increased since the creation of the State of Israel. It is beyond the scope of this paper to deal with the specifics of the ideologies sur­ rounding the State of Israel. What is significant, is the recognition that the Satmar view on Israel is not a position growing out of its Chassidus, but rather a result of its non-Chassidic emphasis.

Lubavitcher Chassidus enjoys the distinction that its continuity Lubavitcher Chassidus enjoys the distinction that its continuity has has never been endangered and it boasts of seven generations of never been endangered and it boasts direct transmittal of leadership to recognized heirs. As a result it o f seven generations o f direct never wrestled with the internal challenges that affected other forms transmittal o f leadership to of Chassidus and the link to its orginal masters never faltered or recognized heirs. As a result it never wrestled with the internal weakened. Moreover, its special brand of Chassidus with its unique challenges that affected other form s emphasis on the mystical and esoteric literature remained intact and o f Chassidus and the link to its was never subjected to the adjustments of other forms of Chassidus. original m asters never faltered or Thus, while the calibre of its practitioners experienced the same weakened. M oreover, its special brand o f Chassidus with its unique downward trend as other forms of Chassidic leaders, it never em phasis on the m ystical and created the self-doubt that troubled other Chassidic leaders. The esoteric literature remained intact Tzaddikim of the Lubavitcher dynasty were regarded with the same and was never subjected to the reverence in each generation, and the current Rebbe is to his genera­ adjustm ents o f other form s o f Chassidus. tion what the orginal master was to his own generation. There never existed the need to demonstrate the individual greatness in Torah scholarship of each generation of Tzaddik, since the tradition of Lubavitch enjoyed world recognition of its stature in such scholar­ ship. In Lubavitch there was no need to link the rebbe with the functions of the rav, since that would have been almost a condescen­ sion in a Chassidus that dealt with the most profound teachings of Jewish mysticism and Kabbalah. Very often, the bulk of Chassidim 64

were equipped to understand only the sichos (discussions) of the Rebbe, but not the actual teachings of Chassidus, which were un­ derstood only by the very learned and the elders among the Chas­ sidim. Because of this unbroken linkage with its origins, Lubavitcher Chassidus fed on its strength and grew in its self-reliance and selfassurance with each successive generation. The fact that the Chas­ sidus of today is conceived as the unaltered Chassidus of its origin some two hundred years ago is its own propelling force and re­ inforces its faith in itself.

One other important element derives directly from the inherent nature of Lubavitcher Chassidus. Because it provides significant in­ sights into the dynamic realm of the Jewish soul, it is seen as an attempt to illuminate the mundane world with the secrets provided by the esoteric teachings of Chassidus. Its original masters saw in its capacity to illuminate the darkness of the world an integral part of the redemptive process of the Jewish People. This gave its Chas­ sidus an "evangelical" quality and messianic character as well. It endowed this Chassidus with a zeal to spread its teachings far and wide, which became the foundation for its current network of beacheads established throughout the world to spread the teachings of Lubavitch. A famous Chassidic parable tells of a discussion bet­ ween the Baal Shem Tov and the prophet Eliyahu, who will be the precursor of Moshiach—similar to such discussions in the Talmud.

In this parable, the Baal Shem Tov asks Eliyahu "when will thou come, sir?" refering to the coming of Moshiach and the redemption of Klal Yisrael; to which Eliyahu is reported to have responded to the Baal Shem -Jrwhen your teachings and wells of knowledge become widespread." This had further enforced the sense of determination on the part of Lubavitch to spread the teachings of Chassidus and in that way hasten the coming of Moshiach.

Lubavitch and Satmar are really poles apart. Externally, they seem to be identical in their lifestyle and in their yearnings, but, they really operate with diametrically opposed assumptions about them­ selves and the world about them. Ironically, their philosophical dif­ ferences as well as their external similarities are distinct sources of friction. STheir philosophical differences place them on opposite sides of some of the basic issues of our time. Their external similarities render them competitors for the same political and social influences.

The Talmud tells that "in the days to come G-d will seat all the righteous in a circle and they will all point with their fingers and proclaim, this is the G-d we have yearned for, let us rejoice in His salvation." The Rebbe of Mezritz explained the use of the word "circle": on the perimeter of a circle, all are equidistant from the center. While differing in their approaches, all of the righteous as­ pire to the same goal—closeness to the Almighty.

And so it may be that the differences are not the problem, but the similarities which deceive us to view all Chassidus as one is the greatest stumbling block to understanding.

JASA photo by Dore Gold

Rabbi Jack Simcha Cohen

The Orthodox Synagogue: Challenges of The Inner City and Suburbia Anniversaries generally are a time for reflection. Thus it is fitting that on the conclusion of America's Bi-centennial celebration, an assessment be made of the posture of the Orthodox synagogue re­ garding the challenges of the inner city and suburbia.

A basic issue is the impact of urban blight upon the Orthodox community. This social cancer has eroded the viability of core cities and precipitated a mass exodus to suburbia. For Orthodoxy, two problems are apparent: 1. - how do we meet the needs of the older people and institutions still remaining in urban centers; and 2. - how do we respond to the problems of the younger generation in suburbia.

For an overview, it is essential to delineate the demographic and social components of the problem.

The Inner City Historically Orthodoxy in America developed and flourished mainly in the major urban centers. In these areas Jews congregated within the inner city; built synagogues, schools, mikvahs; and established kosher butcher stores and bakeries that together formed a positive cultural milieu for the growth of traditional patterns of life. Yet, these neighborhoods generally were destined to last but a few gen­ erations as attractive centers of in-migration. Demographic data con­ firmed the process of repeated out-migrations from primarily Jewish neighborhoods. For example, a survey reported in the 1976 edition of the American Jewish Year Book noted that New York City's Jewish population had, since the 1970 census, been sharply reduced by more than 600,000. During the same period of time, the suburban counties of Nassau, Suffolk and Westchester aud adjacent New Jer­ sey communities evidenced a comparable rate of growth.

These statistics are replicated throughout the country. In wave upon wave, Jews fled from enclaves of rich, religious and cultural life. The centers of major cities became Jewish wastelands as Jews fled en masse to suburban areas. Such population shifts underscore profound problems for the Orthodox commuity and necessitate a radical restructuring of the nature and scope of Orthodox synagogues. According to recent statistics, in New York City today—except for Staten Island—-more than one quarter of the Jews are over 60 years of age. Many of these Jews remaining in decaying

H istorically, O rthodoxy in Am erica developed and flourished m ainly in the m ajor urban centers. In these areas Jews congregated within the inner city; built synagogues, schools, m ikvahs; and established kosher butcher stores and bakeries that together form ed a positive culture milieu fo r the grow th o f traditional patterns o f life. Yet, these neighborhoods generally w ere destined to last but a few generations as attractive centers o f in-m igration.

Rabbi Cohen is Executive D irector o f the M etropolitan Council on Jew ish Poverty in N ew York City. H e has written on urban affairs in scholarly and popular journals.

quarter o f the Jew s are over 60 years o f age. M any o f these Jews remain ing in decaying areas o f the city subsis t on m inim al fixed incomes and are ravaged by recession and inflation. T hese are Jew s w ho, fo r econom ic or psychological reasons, cannot, or w ill not relocate.

areas of the city subsist on minimal fixed incomes and are ravaged by recession and inflation. These are Jews who, for economic or psychological reasons, cannot, or will not relocate.

Indeed, the economic factors of relocation are oft-times prohibi­ tive. The Orthodox Jew, moreover, finds that moving from a familiar neighborhood is a traumatic experience. He simply can not acquire a home in a new neighborhood that is devoid of religious institutions.

As a result, the process of relocation for the Orthodox is more dif­ ficult than for other Jews. This phenomenon suggests that inner city synagogues must reorient their programming to expand senior citi­ zen activities. It also underscores the need for more emphasis upon the construction of senior citizen complexes replete with synagogue facilities.

Yet, such activities pose sociological as well as Halachic problems.

For example: synagogues in deteriorating neighborhoods with a predominantly senior citizen clientele generally schedule Mincha and Maariv sevices at an early hour so that worshipers can return to their homes while it is still light. Since these Jews may be apprehen­ sive about attending evening services, added police protection must be obtained on such occasions as Selichos services. As more and more Jews move into high rise apartment complexes, problems con­ cerning the use of elevators on Shabbas come increasingly to the fore. Moreover, to preserve the viability of their institutions, synagogue leaders must be directly involved in neighborhood stabilization programs which may not necessarily be Jewish in con­ tent or format. Inner-city synagogues must also develop outreach programs to the senescent, aged, and forlorn who are simply not attuned to regular modes of religious worship.

The Fate of Old Synagogues What is to be the fate of the once thriving Orthodox synagogues?

What happens to the millions of dollars of Jewish money left behind in tabernacles of stone? One need only visit some of the old neighborhoods to see what has happened. Who rightfully may lay claim to the estates of these congregations and their lucrative cemet­ ery properties? Is it to be the second and third generation descendents of the incorporators who, in many instances have strayed far from paths of Orthodoxy or from communal responsibility? Or, must synagogal and /or central communal bodies assume responsi­ bility for the proper divestiture of these estates? The late Rav Hen­ ken, of Blessed Memory, in a significant Halachic ruling, con­ demned as improper and sacreligious the action of a congregation that used part of the proceeds of the sale of a synagogue to acquire a new building and divided the balance among the remaining mem­ bers. He strongly urged that such funds be utilized only for religious purposes and for sacred activities.

Yet, hundreds of synagogues are dissolved throughout the coun­ try and formal congregational and communal groups have taken little interest in assuring that the funds remain earmarked for Jewish religious endeavors. How long shall this scandalous condition con-

W hat happens to the m illions o f dollars o f Jew ish m oney left behind in tabernacles o f stone?

O ne need only visit som e o f the old neighborhoods to see w hat has happened. Who rightfully may lay claim to the estates o f these congregations and their lucrative cem etery properties?

T he late Rav H enken, o f Blessed M em ory, in a significant H alachic ruling, condem ned as im proper and sacreligious the action o f a congregation that used part o f the proceeds o f the sale o f a synagogue to acquire a new building and divided the balance am ong the rem aining m em bers.

68

tinue? Why is it that interest is generated only after the fact rather than prior to the demise of the synagogue? Indeed, national or reg­ ional groups may wish to adopt a procedure similar to that employed by the National Council of Young Israel. That organiza­ tion has, within the body of its constitution, a stipulation that title to all of its defunct branch synagogues reverts to the national organiza­ tion. Other national organizations should develop techniques to safeguard the assets of Orthodox synagogues throughout the coun­ try. Perhaps even the awareness that a communal body is involved in the problem will provide sufficient moral suasion to deter certain remaining members of congregations from diverting religious funds to personal use.

The Fate of Old Rabbis As neighborhoods decay and synagogues dissolve, the fate of their rabbis becomes an ever-increasing social concern. Many rabbis of defunct small inner-city synagogues are simply not able to find employment after the demise of their congregations. Frequently such institutions barely managed to sustain their rabbis to begin with, and never had either the funds or the inclination to provide for pensions. As a result, rabbis in such circumstances are generally either too old or too unskilled in other professions to adjust to some other form of employment. If they are younger than 65 and not eligible for Social Security, they must resort to Food Stamps and Welfare. The trauma for the rabbi in such a situation is unbearable.

Is this to be the fate of our aged leaders? Perhaps one provision of the sale of a synagogue should include an assurance of sustenance for its former spiritual leader. It has also been proposed that these individuals be engaged to perform religious functions in nursing homes or senior citizen facilties on a part-time basis. Such activities would fill a vital communal need and would also be a profound act of communal charity.

M any rabbis o f defunct sm all inner-city synagogues are simply not able to fin d em ploym ent after the dem ise o f their congregations.

Frequently such institutions barely m anaged to sustain their rabbis to begin with, and never had either the fun ds or the inclination to provide fo r pensions.

Perhaps one provision o f the sale o f a synagogue should include an assurance o f sustenance fo r its form er spiritual leader. It has also been proposed that these individuals be engaged to perform religious functions in nursing hom es or senior citizen facilities on a part-tim e basis.

Jewish Statistics

S I

iS lii

The Jewish National Population Study of 1971 noted that only 8.9% of the families interviewed listed themselves as being affiliated with Orthodox synagogues. This compares with 23.1% who reported Conservative affiliation and 13.5% who listed membership in a Re­ form congregation. The majority of the respondents, 53%, reported no formal congregational affiliation whatsoever. According to these figures, the total Orthodox Jewish population is estimated at slightly over 500,000 persons.

Severe criticism has been levelled at these statistics. This is not the forum for a complete analysis of the study data. What is of interest, however, is that these statistics do not jibe with the membership rolls of the major Orthodox synagogal bodies. At present, some 600 synagogues throughout the country participate in some phase of the Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America (UOJC) activ­ ity, either as members or through involvement with its Youth Pro-

69

A t present, som e 600 synagogues throughout the country participate in som e phase o f the Union o f O rthodox Jew ish Congregations o f America

(UOJC) activity, either as m embers or through involvem ent w ith its Youth Program , the N ational Conference on Synagogue Youth (NCSY). The UOJC estim ates that these represent roughly 150,000 fam ilies affiliated with the m ovem ent.

In addition, the N ational Council o f Young Israel has a m ailing list o f approxim ately 4 0,000 individual mem bers. Taking an average o f 2 .7 per fam ily, the fig u re used fo r N ew f o r k City, and an extrem ely low estim ate w hen analyzing O rthodox fam ilies, these figu res alone produce well over one h a lf m illion O rthodox Jew s-th e fig u re cited in the N ational Jew ish Population Study.

gram, the National Conference on Synagogue Youth (NCSY). The UOJC estimates that these represent roughly 150,000 families af­ filiated with the movement.

In addition, the National Council of Young Israel has a mailing list of approximately 40,000 individual members. Taking an average of 2.7 per family, the figure used for New York City, and an extremely low estimate when analyzing Orthodox families, these figures alone produce well over one half million Orthodox Jews — the figure cited in the National Jewish Population Study. Yet, what about all the members of Chassidic communities, Agudath Israel, and the un­ counted shtiebelach that are not affiliated with any formal umbrella congregational body?

In the Boro Park section of New York City, for example, there are more than 125 synagogues and minyanim. Yet, virtually all of these groups are not affiliated with a major Orthodox synagogal body.

They are certainly not reflected in any count of the true number of Orthodox Jews in America. In addition, what percentage of the 53% of non-affiliated American families do indeed attend Orthodox synagogues on the occasions when they choose to participate in communal worship? Perhaps then the 8.9% Orthodox figure merely reflects affiliation with modern Orthodox organizationally-oriented synagogues. This suggests that there is a vast world of Orthodoxy unaffiliated with any congregational movement, untapped and un­ counted by statisticians.

Jewish Education Where Orthodoxy has seemingly achieved its greatest success has been in the area of intensive Jewish education. At the same time, its impact upon Talmud Torah studies has weakened perceptibly. A survey completed in November 1976 by the American Association for Jewish Education noted that today's pupil in synagoguesponsored Talmud Torahs is receiving a less intensive Jewish educa­ tion than ever before. Fewer and fewer schools are operational and these schools are offering increasingly curtailed programs. In keep­ ing with this trend, Orthodox Talmud Torahs are virtually being phased out of existence. According to the report only 23,108 pupils are receiving Jewish education in Orthodox Hebrew schools throughout the country. Of these, 6,824 are attending Orthodox Talmud Torahs in New York City and Nassau and Westchester counties, so that exclusive of Metropolitan New York City, the rest of the country is providing only 16,284 youngsters with a Hebrew education under Orthodox auspices. As a result, the Orthodox synagogue is no longer the center for the education of youth in America.

A significant by-product of this trend is that many teachers (rebbes) in Day Schools are no longer able to supplement their incomes by teaching in afternooon Talmud Torahs. Thus, more and more, Yeshiva K'tanah (Day School) staff members are finding it economi­ cally difficult to devote themselves to Torah education. Some day schools have solved this problem by engaging sacred studies staff on

a full-time basis and scheduling their classes during mornings and afternoons. Other institutions, however, maintain that it is a religi­ ous requirement to conduct Torah studies during the morning and relegate the secular program to afternoon hours. Faculty of such institutions are thus forced to subsist on part-time salaries. As a result, they are slowly leaving the field of chinuch.

A positive note, however, is the fact that yeshiva education is dramatically increasing year by year. Torah Umesorah notes that in 1965 there were 323 affitiated Day Schools with an aggregate en­ rollment of 63,000 students. For 1976-77, 446 schools are reported with a combined total of 82,000. This suggests that the new genera­ tion of laymen coming into the Orthodox synagogues will be Ameri­ can born, college-educated, yet possessing an intensive Jewish edu­ cation and a high degree of commitment to Orthodoxy. If, however, teaching at a Yeshiva is no longer financially feasible, the most skil­ led teachers will in all likelihood not enter the profession. Thus, while Day Schools may proliferate quantitatively, the quality and intensity of their educational patterns may suffer a corresponding decline.

Some Conclusions All of these facts suggest that the Orthodox synagogue must de­ velop positive programs to meet its new posture as well as for the new type of laymen who will be affiliated with it in the future. The problem articulated here is that most synagogues have difficulty in providing a multi-dimensional approach. Either they tend to be oriented toward the general Jewish public and neglect the religious needs of the intensely observant and educated, or they function as "closed clubs" that display no interest in attracting the lessobservant. While the efforts of the suburban Orthodox rabbi to at­ tract his predominantly non-Orthodox members by instituting in­ novations that do not violate Halachic parameters have been thoroughly documented, little has been said about the need to relate to the proliferation of shtieblach that are attracting an increasing number df Yeshiva-educated worshipers. In the future a positive approach must be developed relating to these institutions. Perhaps the synagogues should attempt to co-opt the function of the shtiebel under the roof of the main synagogue, developing Bais Medrash minyanim to meet such needs.

Also: what shall be done concerning the size and location of future congregations? At what point does the camaraderie so essential to the vitality of the synagogue end and the impersonality of a formal institution that mitigates against emotional participation of its mem­ bership begin? How should the mushrooming suburban sprawl be dealt with in relationship to the prohibition of Shabbos travel?

From a pragmatic point of view, limits on the size of future synagogues must be considered. Perhaps a viable option is the con­ struction of a series of small satellite synagogues wherein members worship in a small minyan in close proximity to their homes while utilizing the central synagogue, replete with all the social amenities 71

W hile the efforts o f the suburban Orthodox rabbi to attract his predom inantly non-O rthodox members by instituting innovations that do not violate H alachic parameters have been thoroughly documented, little has been said about the need to relate to the proliferation o f sh tieblach that are attracting an increasing num ber o f Yeshiva-educated worshipers.

From a pragm atic point o f view, lim its on the size o f future synagogues m ust be considered.

Perhaps a viable option is the construction o f a series o f sm all satellite synagogues wherein

m em bers w orship in d sm all minyan in close proxim ity to their hom es w hile utilizing the central synagogue, replete with all the social am enities o f a m odern-day institution, fo r social dnd com m unal functions.

of a modern-day institution, for social and communal functions.

Efforts must be made to develop a more heterogeneous congrega­ tional structure. A concerted outreach program must be undertaken to attract the Chassidic and so-called "right-wing elements" as well as the non-observant sector of the community.

Another option might be the development of Orthodox Chauburot for youth seeking to explore various facets of their rela­ tionship of Judaism. Also, the concept of the curcuit-rabbi might have to be redeveloped and restructured to meet the needs of Kehilla-type Orthodox synagogues in suburbia.

These are the issues that Confront the modern Orthodox synagogue and it is with these issues that American orthodoxy must come to grips.

The Officers and Directors of the

Union of Orthodox Jewish Congregations of America request the pleasure of your participation at our

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For reservations and further information contact: UOJCNational Dinner Committee / 776 Fast 27th Street / New York, N. Y. 70016 Solomon T. Short Dinner Committee Chairman

71

Harold M. Jacobs President, UOJC

Rabbinic

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