All Roads Lead to Rome

All Roads Lead to

Rome

M I L E STO N E S A N D T H E I R T Y P O G R A P H Y | J E N E A E WO O D

"He who chooses the beginning of the road chooses the place it leads to."

Harry Emerson Fosdick

Cover: Français : Ruines romaines de Timgad (Wilaya de Batna, Algérie). Rue menant à l’Arc de Trajan.

15 April 2007 PhR61 commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Timgad_rue.jpg

Content

PREFACE i THE BEGINNING 1 THE ROMAN ROAD

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medium/materials 7 technology 13 type analysis 17 THE EARLY AMERICAS 25 medium/materials 27 technology 33 type analysis 37 THE MODERN HIGHWAY 43 medium/materials 45 technology 51 type analysis 55 CONCLUSION 67 BIBLIOGRAPHY 70 APPENDIX 72

Preface During the initial research for this book

forgotten. As I started researching Highway

I was challenged to give five examples of

signs, I came across several references and

typographic execution. One of the examples

images of mile markers. I was intrigued and

I chose was Highway Signage. Highway

further investigation down that trail led to

signs are probably the most commonly

their predecessor, the roman milestone. The

viewed signs out there, as well as some of the

history of milestones is quite fascinating

most forgotten. People depend on these signs

and they have a long typographic history.

as they travel daily, and yet never really

The milestone’s adaption by the world and

think about or remember them. Highway

its evolution into the mile-markers of today

signs are a perfect example of invisible

was interesting. Milestones were created for

typography and the resulting attentional

pedestrian and carriage traffic and used more

saturation from seeing these signs so much

as a form of advertising and politics, versus

that a person stops noticing details or

the modern mile markers of today which are

remembering them.

primarily informational and need to easily be read while going a high rates of speed, so the

Attentional saturation can lead to inattentional amnesia, which is the failure to create a lasting memory.

typography used is extremely important to their successful functionality.

I was also intrigued by the thought that

Figure i: Milestone XXIX

something so important, necessary and

from the Via Romana

used was also the most overlooked and

XVIII, which connected Bracara Augusta to Asturica Augusta.

i

THE BEGINNING

All Roads Lead to Rome...

The milestone was first seen during ancient Roman times and they were used to mark every mile from the Holy City of Rome, which was considered the center of the civilized world. “The ideological function implicit in all milestones takes precedence in the Miliarium Aureum (Golden Milestone)

Figure 1: (top right) Rome, Forum Romanum, Milliarium Aureum (Golden Milestone), Center of all

[Figure 1], which Augustus set up in the Roman forum in 20 BCE. By listing the principal cities

Roman Roads. All roads

of the empire and the distances to them as

lead toward Rome.

measured from the Servian Wall [Figure 2], the monumental mile marker both established the city as the center of the vast imperial road system and commemorated Augustus’s role in overseeing the Roman transportation network�

(Cioffi, 7) Roman milestones not only told a

Figure 2: (left) Servian Wall, near

traveler their location on the road, but also

Stazione Termini,

served to let them know they were in traveling

Rome, Italy.

in the imperial domain.

Figure 3: (right) Obelisk in front of the Luxor Temple in Egypt.

Figure 4: (left) Augustus of Prima Porta

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“The Roman Road is the greatest monument ever raised to human liberty by a noble and generous people. It runs across mountain, marsh and river. It is built broad, straight and firm. It joins city with city and nation with nation. It is tens of thousands of miles long, and always thronged with grateful travelers.�

Robert Graves, Claudius the God and His Wife Messalina

Figure 5: (right) Ruins of Ancient Rome.

4

THE ROMAN ROAD

6

Medium and Materials 7

Figure 7 (right) Roman Milestone on Pateley Moor. A Roman milestone on Pateley Moor marks the route to the nearby Roman iron workings. Looking westwards to Wake Hill

Roman milestones were originally fashioned after Egyptian obelisk and were made out of whatever local stone was available or concrete, which the Romans used on bridges. According to Logan Thompson (27)” the name of the ruling emperor and the date upon which the stone was erected,” in addition to the distance was inscribed on the marker. The information was either engraved or painted onto the surface of Figure 6: (left) Reverse side of Roman

to move soldiers and supplies quickly across

milestone. On the front

their Empire: they measured distance to aid

it names Emperor

timing and efficiency, marking every thousandth

Maximinus, 303-313AD. 6thC inscription on

double-step with a large cylindrical stone... The

reverse names Cantusus

Latin for thousand was ‘mille’ and the distance

son of Paulinus. The

was 1618 yards “ (The Milestone Society).

stone is from near Port

Hence the eventual name milestone, which later

Talbot, S. Wales, now in the Margam Stones Museum, nr Port Talbot.

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the milestones. “The Romans laid good... roads

developed into the modern Mile Marker.

Figure 8: (left) Milestone XXIX from the Via Romana XVIII, which connected Bracara Augusta to Asturica Augusta

Figure 9: (right) Israel - Judea - Roman Milestone on the Road of the Patriarchs between Jerusalem and Hebron.

13

14

Figure 10: (page 14, top left) Roman milestone at Middleton. There are Latin words carved into the stone but these are not original, dating back only to 1836 when the stone was uncovered ‘by Richard Bownass of Hawkin Hall, who ploughed it up some 200 m to the west of its current position in a field near Middleton Church’.

Figure 11: (page 14, middle left) Remains of a roman milestone, found in the Dürre Ager, and presented behind the Hauptschule Timelkam, Römerstraße. Created under Emperor Claudius, 41-45 AC.

Figure 12: (page 14, bottom left) Faded milestone, Church Road, Cadoxton. Presumably formerly freestanding, the old milestone is now surrounded by a stone wall

Figure 13: (page 14, top right) Lane to Vindolanda on line of Roman Stanegate. The stump of stone on the left is the remains of a Roman

Figure 14: (page

Figure 15: (page 14, bottom right)

Figure 16: (above)

milestone marking the sixteenth

14, bottom middle)

This milestone stands near the Roman road called

This Roman Milestone is situated

Roman mile west of Corbridge. It

Roman milestone and

Dere Street, between Corbridge and Risingham.

just off the Roman Dere Street

is recorded as being intact in 1725,

dedication altar at the

It position marks the twelfth Roman mile from

seen in the background, north of

some time after which the upper

Balassa Bálint Museum

Corbridge. It was discovered during road building

West Woodburn

section of the milestone was broken

along the line of Dere Street and was re-erected.

off and split into two to provide gateposts.

11

12

Technology 13

Roman milestones were normally made out of available local stone or concrete. Often, the writings were painted on with a broad tipped brush and then chiseled out. They frequently recorded distance from the royal city, who commissioned that stretch of road, and who was responsible for the upkeep should repairs need to be made.

Figure 17: Stone carving tools.

14

Figure 18: Weiltingen ( Bavaria ).

Archaeological park Ruffenhofen: Limeseum - Ancient Roman chisels.

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16

Type Analysis 17

Roman Letter-forms “Our knowledge of Roman letter-forms derives from monuments, palaces and columns, their versals hewn in stone for all eternity, without a comma or a full stop.

The capitalis romana, the forbear of all Roman type, evolved principally into block capitals, its characters accommodating the basic geometric shapes of circle, square and triangle with unmatched consideration for legibility. The scriptura monumentalis was the preferred form for inscriptions in stone. The letters would first be drawn on the stone with a paint-brush, then hollowed out by the stone mason. Precise elaboration of the corners gave rise to the fine serifs. “ (Moorsataion) Latin and Greek were the primary languages of the Roman empire, with Latin being the written language. The Romans only wrote in uppercase letters until late in their history.

18

“Our knowledge of Roman letter-forms derives from monuments, palaces and columns”

Figure 19: (left) Inscription displaying apices (from the shrine of the Augustales at Herculaneum)

Figure 20: (right) Obelisk in front of the Luxor Temple in Egypt.

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According to R.D. Grasby in his article Latin Inscriptions: Studies in Measurement and Making, “the linear arrangement of words and the direction of writing, regulating principles of most writing systems, are taken to their logical conclusion in the stoichedon ‘letters in style’ of Attic inscriptions of the fifth century BC. Lightly engraved vertical and horizontal lines forming a grid or chequer are visible on many inscriptions.

Every letter is placed in a square or over the intersection of grid lines (154)”.

Figure 21: (above) CIL XII 3261, Musee Archeologique, Nimes and Inscription CIL XII with the grid of ten units to the square of the letter height

Lightly engraved vertical and horizontal lines forming a grid or chequer are visible on many inscriptions.

Grasby 20

imposed on each line.

(Grasby, 158)

Figure 22: (right) Dedication of the Temple of Athena Polias.

(Grasby, 155)

25

Figure 23: (left) Trajan’s Column in Rome

Figure 24: (right) Detail of the inscription on the base of Trajan’s Column, Rome.

(Grasby, 160)

The inscriptions on the base of Trajan’s column in Rome are considered a valuable model for studying roman inscription capitals because it contains most of the letters at differing sizes. (Grasby) Figure 25 shows a close up of the base of the column, and shows four studies that Grasby did.

Proposal overlays include (i) an overall controlling grid; (ii) the modular square derived from that grid; (iii) subdivision into ten units used to measure line, heights, spaces; and (iv) letter widths. Proportional rectangles are shown in a broken line.

26

23

“America’s highways, roads, bridges, are an indispensable part of our lives. They link one end of our nation to the other. We use them each and every day, for every conceivable purpose.”

Christopher Dodd

Figure25: (right) Hand-painted centerline on state highway M-15 in Marquette County, Michigan, 1917

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THE EARLY AMERICAS

26

Medium and Materials 27

Early America The early American colonist continued the use of mile stones in the new world. Judge Samuel Sewall erected the earliest milestone in Boston in 1707. Most of the time milestones were commissioned by wealthy landowners or tavern owners. Unlike the Roman Roads and their subsequent milestones, the early

American milestones were more like a form of advertisement since they were commissioned by individuals. Additionally, the style of the milestones was also “random�, based on the individual artisan. Many of the early milestones resemble tombstones, but you can still find some that look like obelisk as well.

The first federally funded road was approximately 820 miles long and constructed between 1811 and 1834. Even though the road was federally funded the shape and size of the markers still varied depending on in what area they were made.

Figure 26: (left)

Figure 27: (top)

Mile marker 7 of the

1767 Milestones, mile

1767 Milestones in

marker 70

Massachusetts.

32

Figure 29: (right) “Old Mud Pike” milestone along modern U.S. Route 20 in Woodville, Ohioen.

Placed on the Maumee and Western Reserve Turnpike in 1842, it marks a point on the road that was 16 miles from Perrysburg and 15 miles from Lower Sandusky (now called Fremont)

Figure 28: (left) A Boston & Providence milestone reading “B. 48 Km 29.82 M” along the former Dedham Branch right of way in Dedham, Massachusetts

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34

Figure 30: (page 34, top left) Milestone marks five miles (8 km) from the Boston Town House (now the site of the Old State House in downtown Boston) placed at the current day Soldier’s Monument by Paul Dudley in 1735

Figure 31: (page 34, bottom left) Post Road mile marker 62, East Brookfield Massachusetts, July 2009

Figure 32: (page 34, top right) Pike’s Mile Marker No. 9, along U.S. Route 1, Calais.

Figure 33: (page 34, bottom middle) The National Road Mile Markers — listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio County, West Virginia.

Figure 35 (above) 1767 Milestones, mile marker 53, Leicester, Massachusetts.

Figure 34: (page 34, bottom right) A mile marker along the National Road in western Franklin County, Ohio.

31

32

Technology 33

Materials were often times made of local stone or cast iron. “The states put their

Milestones represented an individuality in the fledging states.

own stamp on the mile markers. The first markers in Maryland looked like tombstones. In Pennsylvania, the iron makers lobbied successfully, and starting around 1835, any stone markers that needed to be replaced between Cumberland and Wheeling were replaced with cast iron obelisks.

The Indiana mile markers were made from stone and resembled the tombstone shaped Maryland markers. Only two original Indiana stones remain. Illinois didn’t bother with setting mile markers.

Ohio modeled its markers after stones commonly seen in England. All but one of the eastern Ohio stones was formed from a five foot tall sandstone column, with the lower two feet sunk into the ground.”

(Hartman, 27) The road was meant to connect the young country, but the milestones represented an individuality in the fledging states.

34

Figure 36: A stonemason’s stone workbench from the 1845

Figure 37: Blacksmithing at Agricultural and Mechanical College, Greensboro, N.C

35

36

Type Analysis 37

Analyzing the fonts used on American milestones is difficult because of the lack of unity and because they were created by Figure 38:

different artist. Figures 38 thru 40 all use a

Boston Post Road

serif font similar to that found on Roman

Upper MP 8

milestones. Figures 38 and 40 use all capitals in the same manner, but Figure 39 only capitalizes the first letter in each word.

Figures 39 and 40 have serifs which are angled and very similar to Didot (which was designed in 1784). In some older milestones an “f ” is used in place of the “s” (Figures 42 -45 ) which can help in the dating of the markers as this was often seen in the 1700’s.

Figure 39: English: Boston Post Road Milestone 60, Spencer Massachusetts

Figure 40: One of the 1767 Milestones, Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA

42

Figure 41: Boston Post Road Milestone 63, East Brookfield Massachusetts

43

44

Figure 42: (page 44, top left) Milestone to Boston at the intersection of Rte. 16 & Park Street, Milford, Massachusetts, USA. Distance 34 miles; milestone dated 1773.

Figure 43: (page 44, bottom left) Close up of Milestone to Boston - at the intersection of Rte. 16 & Park Street, Milford, Massachusetts, USA. Distance 34 miles.

Figure 44: (page 44, bottom right) Historic American buildings survey frank o.

Branzetti, photographer July 23, 1940 (b) 7- mile stone, opp. 1040 Adams st., Dorchester

Figure 45: (above) Historic American buildings survey frank o. Branzetti, photographer July 9, 1940 (a) 4- mile stone, pond st., Dorchester

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“To understand America, you must understand highways. In this past half century, these masochistic marvels have—along with telephones, television and jet planes—reshaped American culture.”

Robert Samuelson, The Washington Post - June 25, 1986

Figure 46: (right) View west along Virginia State Route 259 northern Rockingham County, Virginia

42

THE

MODERN HIGHWAY

44

Medium and Materials 45

The Modern Mile Modern day mile markers in the United States have done away with stones, and are now mostly made on sheet aluminum with adhesive plastic coatings, which are normally retro reflective for nighttime and low-light visibility. Additionally, mile markers and directional signs are now all uniform in how they are made. The US Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) regulates United States

Figure 48: (top right) A close-up of a road sign along K-99 in

Highway Signage, including the font used.

Emporia, Kansas,

The numbers on current day mile markers in the

USA. Most larger signs

US vary by state, but usually measure the distance

manufactured by the Kansas Department of

to the southern or western state line. For example,

Transportation feature

Interstate 10 runs east to west. The first mile

demountable copy,

marker in Florida once you cross the Alabama/

meaning the letters

Florida Line is one. Most interstate highways have

and graphics can be removed from the sign

mile markers at every mile. Mile post on some

as needed.

Historic Highways are also used to mark places of interest.

Figure 47: (left) 146 Miles to Jacksonville, Florida, I-95 South.

Photo by Ken Lund

Figure 49: (right) Mile Marker 10 on the Westchester stretch of the w Bronx River Parkway. These mile markers are a special brown compared to the rest.

Figure 50: (left) Mile marker 23 on US 36 in Delaware County, Ohio. It marks the location which is 23 miles from the Union County line.

Figure 51: (page 52, top left) South end of US 1. This is the mile zero marker at the intersection of Whithead and Fleming Streets in Key West, Florida.

Figure 52: (page 52, bottom left) Early County line, Georgia State border, US84EB, Georgia

Figure 53: (page 52, top right) Mile Marker 106 on Colorado Highway 14.

Photo by Alan Levine

Figure 54: (page 52, middle) One of the “mile� markers on w:U.S. Highway 192. Taken February 6, 2005

Figure 55: (page 52,

Figure 56: (above) Mile 1,337 on

bottom right) Corridor H

the Alaska Highway (between Tok

milepost along eastbound

and Delta Junction) near Dot Lake.

U.S. Route 48 (Corridor

This is the roughly westbound view

H) just east of Forman

(towards Tok). Power lines, trees,

in Grant County,

and terrain are visible.

West Virginia

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50

Technology 51

Figure 57: Putting the finishing touches on a sign at the Franklin Correctional Center.

(Garrison) 52

Many of America’s highway signs are made by inmates in factories.

Figure 58: Signature ltd. manufacturing company.

Mark Garrison 53

54

Type Analysis 55

Highway Gothic The US Federal Highway Administration

However, in early 2016, that decision was

(FHWA) regulates United States Highway

reversed and Highway Gothic is now the

Signage, including the font used. In 2004,

US font for highway signs yet again. The

the FHWA adopted Clearview as the

interesting thing about Highway Gothic is

font for US Highway signs, replacing the

that according to Yaffa, the letter shapes

1940’s font Highway Gothic. “In its 2004

were never tested, since they were not really

approval memo, the agency noted that

designed in the first place.

Clearview boosted highway-sign legibility for drivers traveling at 45 miles per hour by 80 feet of reading distance—or 1.2 seconds of bonus reading time.” (Capps)

56

Figure 60: (right) Highway Gothic Samples

“It’s brash and blunt, not so concerned with detail.

It has a certain unvarnished honesty” TOBIAS FRERE-JONES - THE ROAD TO CLARITY Figure 59: (left) Highway Gothic (Page Studio Graphics, Page 1) 57

58

Figures 61-62: Highway Gothic samples from my fonts.com 59

FHWA Series B Figures 63-67: FHWA Highway Gothic Series B - F

FHWA Series C

FHWA Series D

FHWA Series E

FHWA Series F

60

Figures 68: A new version of this font Pixymbols Highway Gothic 2002.

61

Clearview “The development of Clearview Type System

grid proposed a uniform alternative to fixed

has been recognized worldwide. Conceived

measurements that were not proportional

in 1992 as a program to improve legibility

to primary legend sizes. This was based on

and the ease of reading for older drivers, our

simple kit of proportions that created a

design of the Clearview typeface provides

uniform layout regardless of the complexity

approximately a 20% gain for all drivers

or amount of information. For conventional

with little or no change in sign size. The

roads, this system allowed uniform road

design eliminates halation and out-performs

guidance, recreational and cultural area

all upper case with mixed case of same size.

interest signs, and motorist services signs

The project has been a partnership with

to accommodate a common relationship

the Larson Pennsylvania Transportation

of legend to panel to aid readability and

Institute (LPTI), Terminal Design Inc., and

consistency while using mixed-case legends

support from 3M Company. Clearview was

in lieu of all upper case legends.� Figure 67,

given interim approval for positive contrast

from Clearviewhwy.com shows in a similar

applications by FHWA (2004).

comparison of E-modified (spaced to FHWA standards) to ClearviewHwy 5-W, the length

This project had a series of goals that

of the ClearviewHwy 5-W in this display of

included elimination or control of halation

the entire lowercase alphabet is 4.7% greater.

or overglow when headlamps shine on high brightness materials and quantification of the difference between mixed-case legends and all upper case on guide signs to learn if mixed-case legends would aid recognition and understanding and improve legibility for older drivers and all drivers. The freeway 62

“Sign legibility for drivers traveling at 45 miles per hour by 80 feet of reading distance—or 1.2 seconds of bonus reading time.”

KRISTIN CAPPS

Figures 69: A similar comparison of E-modified (spaced to FHWA standards) to ClearviewHwy 5-W

67

Figure 70: (left) Metamorphosis of Design: FWHA Standard Highway Alphabet E-modified to ClearviewHwy

Figure 71: (left)Highway Gothic versus Clearview

68

Figure 73: (above) Highway Gothic Series E-modified (top) vs.

Clearview-Bold (bottom)

Figure 72: (left) All Upper Case versus Mixed Case 65

“One’s destination is never a place, but a new way of seeing things.”

HENRY MILLER

Figure 74: (right) Looking west toward Wagon Mound on NM Hwy 120 66

CONCLUSION

Conclusion During this research I found myself

When looking at modern mile markers

getting lost is the stories of some of the

in America, the typeface becomes more

historic milestones. The Roman milestones

important. I believe this evolved out of

were implemented to convey locational

necessity as vehicles became faster and

information, but were also used as a political

reading mile markers at such high rates of

tool to “advertise” the importance of the

speed became more difficult. Additionally,

person that commissioned that part of

uniformity became important as the United

the road or oversaw it. Likewise, the early

States became unified and connected by the

American milestones functioned in the same

highway systems.

manner, “advertising” the wealthy land owner or tavern owner that commissioned it.

As technology advanced, so did the needs of the users. Road signs must be readable

I found no evidence that readability was

during the day and at night, so the fonts, as

a consideration for the Roman or Early

well as the construction materials, must be

American milestones, but rather was

researched under various conditions. The

normally the typeface of the time, or in

Federal Highway Administrations decision to

the case of the Early American milestones,

return to Highway Gothic after converting

the preference of the artist commissioned to

to Clearview for a few years leaves one to

create the individual milestones. Often times,

question the results of the research and the

the artist commissioned for the work was a

reason for the change..

tombstone mason. .

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“Typography is the craft of endowing human language with a durable visual form.”

ROBERT BRINGHURST, THE ELEMENTS OF TYPOGRAPHIC STYLE

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Bibliography Capps, Kriston. “America’s Sudden U-Turn on Highway Fonts”. CityLab. (2016). Web. 30 January 2017. <citylab.

com/commute/2016/01/official-united-states-highway-sign-font-clearview/427068/>.

Cartwright, Mark. “Roman Roads,” Ancient History Encyclopedia. (2014). Web 30. January 2017. <www.ancient.eu /

article/758/>.

Cioffi, Robert L. “Travel in the Roman World “. Oxford Handbooks Online. (2016). 26 January 2017. DOI 10.1093/

oxfordhb/9780199935390.013.110

Garrison, Mark. “Ever Wonder Who Makes Those Big Highway Signs?” Marketplace. (2015). Web. 30 January 2017.

<marketplace.org/2015/09/22/life/ive-always-wondered/ever-wonder-who-makes-those-big-highway-signs>.

Grasby, R. D. “Latin Inscriptions: Studies in Measurement and Making.” Papers of the British School at Rome, vol.

70, 2002, pp. 151–176. www.jstor.org/stable/40311046.

Grout, James. “Milliarium Aureum”. penelope.uchicago.edu. (2017). Web. 27 January 2017. <penelope.uchicago.

edu/~grout/encyclopaedia_romana/romanforum/milliariumaureum.html>.

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crossroads/cf4.pdf>

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typography-and-legibility/#>.

Moorstation. “How the Romans Wrote”. Moorstation. Web. 30 January 2017. <moorstation.org/typoasis/tbp/topic/

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romworx/eng/roman.htm>.

Page Studio Graphics. “Highway Gothic fonts”. My Fonts. Web. 30 January 2017. <cdn.myfonts.net/s/aw/

original/389/0/199284.pdf>.

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<milestonesociety.co.uk/aboutmilestones.html>.

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January 2017.

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<csad.ox.ac.uk/projects/associated/scriptura-monumentalis.html>.

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Highway Administration. (2015). Web. 30 January 2017. <fhwa.dot.gov/infrastructure/numbers.cfm>.

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magazine/12fonts-t.html>

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Appendix Figure i: Roman milestone XXIX on Via Romana XVIII â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the road linking the Iberian cities of Bracara Augusta

and Asturica Augusta. Photo credit JĂşlio Reis . <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milestone#/media/File:Geira_Milha_

XXIX_caminho.jpg>

Figure 1: Rome, Forum Romanum, Milliarium Aureum (Golden Milestone), Center of all Roman Roads. All roads lead

toward Rome. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:RomaForoRomanoMiliariumAureum01.JPG>

Figure 2: Servian Wall, near Stazione Termini, Rome, Italy. Photo credit Joris van Rooden, the Netherlands on 03-01-

2006. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Servian_Wall.JPG>

Figure 3: Obelisk in front of the Luxor Temple in Egypt. Photo credit Jerzy Strzelecki 12-19-2007. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Luxor07(js).jpg>

Figure 4: Augustus of Prima Porta. Statue located at Chiaramonti Museum, Braccio Nuovo (New Wing) Discovered

20 April 1863: discovered (Villa Livia, Prima Porta, Rome) Photo credit Till Niemann. <commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/File:Statue-Augustus.jpg>

Figure 5: Ruins of Ancient Rome. Photo credit Mirandavandorst. <pixabay.com/en/users/Mirandavandorst-2188287/> Figure 6: Reverse side of Roman milestone. On the front it names Emporer Maximinus, 303-313AD. 6thC inscription

on reverse names Cantusus son of Paulinus. The stone is from near Port Talbot, S. Wales, now in the Margam

Stones Museum, nr Port Talbot. Photo credit Robin Leicester. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Margam_

Stones_1_Roman_milestone_B.JPG>

Figure 7: Roman Milestone on Pateley Moor. A Roman milestone on Pateley Moor marks the route to the nearby

72

Roman iron workings. Looking westwards to Wake Hill. Photo credit Peter Crump. <commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/File:Roman_Milestone_on_Pateley_Moor_-_geograph.org.uk_-_116716.jpg>

Figure 8: Milestone XXIX from the Via Romana XVIII, which connected Bracara Augusta to Asturica Augusta.

Photo credit Júlio Reis. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geira_Milha_XXIX_detalhe.jpg>

Figure 9: Israel - Judea - Roman Milestone on the Road of the Patriarchs between Jerusalem and Hebron. Photo

credit Utilisateur:Djampa. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Israel_Road_of_the_Patriarchs_Roman_

Milestone.jpg>

Figure 10: Roman milestone at Middleton. There are Latin words carved into the stone but these are not original,

dating back only to 1836 when the stone was uncovered ‘by Richard Bownass of Hawkin Hall, who ploughed

it up some 200 m to the west of its current position in a field near Middleton Church’. © Copyright Karl and

Ali and licensed for reuse under this Creative Commons Licence. <geograph.org.uk/photo/4054810>

Figure 11: Remains of a roman milestone, found in the Dürre Ager, and presented behind the Hauptschule Timelkam,

Römerstraße. Created under Emperor Claudius, 41-45 AC. Photo credit Herzi Pinki. <commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/File:Roman_milestone_02,_Römerstraße,_Timelkam.jpg>

Figure 12: Faded milestone, Church Road, Cadoxton. Presumably formerly free-standing, the old milestone is now

surrounded by a stone wall © Copyright Jaggery and licensed for reuse under this Creative Commons Licence.

<geograph.org.uk/photo/2380088>

Figure 13: Lane to Vindolanda on line of Roman Stanegate. © Copyright Phil Champion and licensed for reuse under

this Creative Commons Licence. <geograph.org.uk/photo/407910>

Figure 14: Roman milestone and dedication altar at the Balassa Bálint Museum. Photo credit Julie Lyn. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Esztergom_-_Roman_milestone_and_dedication_altar_at_the_Balassa_Bálint_

Museum.jpg>

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Figure 15: This milestone stands near the Roman road called Dere Street, between Corbridge and Risingham. It

position marks the twelfth Roman mile from Corbridge. It was discovered during road building along the line

of Dere Street and was re-erected. © Copyright Pete Saunders and licensed for reuse under this Creative

Commons Licence. <geograph.org.uk/photo/2103568>

Figure 16: This Roman Milestone is situated just off the Roman Dere Street seen in the background, north of West

Woodburn. © Copyright Robert Caldicott and licensed for reuse under this Creative Commons Licence.

<geograph.org.uk/photo/288546>

Figure 17: Weiltingen (Bavaria). Archaeological park Ruffenhofen: Limeseum - Ancient Roman chisels. Photo credit

Wolfgang Sauber. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Limeseum_-_Meisel.jpg>

Figure 18: Inscription displaying apices (from the shrine of the Augustales at Herculaneum). Photo credit Oleg.

<commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Inscription_displaying_apices_(from_the_shrine_of_the_Augustales_at_

Herculaneum).jpg>

Figure 20: Roman Milestone located at Sankt Margarethen im Lungau. Photo credit MatthiasKabel. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Roman_milestone_St_Margarethen_Austria_201_aC.jpg>

Figure 21: CIL XII 3261, Musee Archeologique, Nimes and Inscription CIL XII with the grid of ten units to the

square of the letter height imposed on each line. (Grasby, 158)

Figure 22: Dedication of the Temple of Athena Polias. (Gasby, 155) Figure 23: Trajan’s Column, Rome. Photo credit Carole Raddato. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Trajan’s_

Column,_Rome_(14271430744).jpg>

Figure 24: Detail of the inscription on the base of Trajan’s Column, Rome. (Grasby, 160) 74

Figure 25: Hand-painted centerline on state highway M-15 in Marquette County, Michigan, 1917. Author unknown.

<commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:M-15_centerline_1917.jpg>

Figure 26: Mile marker 7 of the 1767 Milestones in Massachusetts. Located in the Allston neighborhood of Boston.

Photo credit Magicpiano. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:BostonMA_Milestone7.jpg>

Figure 27: 1767 Milestones, mile marker 70. Photo credit Magicpiano. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1767_

Milestones_Marker_70.jpg>

Figure 28: A Boston & Providence Railroad milestone reading “B. 48 Km 29.82 M” along the former Dedham Branch

right of way in Dedham, Massachusetts. Photo credit Pi.1415926535. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/

File:Former_Boston_%26_Providence_Railroad_milestone_on_former_Dedham_Branch_ROW,_

November_2015.JPG>

Figure 29: “Old Mud Pike” milestoneen along modern U.S. Route 20 in Woodville, Ohioen. Photo by and ©2006

Dustin M. Ramsey. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Old_Mud_Pike_mile_marker_on_U.S._Route_20_in_

Woodville,_Ohio.JPG>

Figure 30: Milestone marks five miles (8 km) from the Boston Town House (now the site of the Old State House in

downtown Boston) placed at the current day Soldier’s Monument by Paul Dudley in 1735. Photo credit

MarkinBoston. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jamaica_Plain_mile_marker.jpg>

Figure 31: Post Road mile marker 62, East Brookfield Massachusetts, July 2009. Photo credit John Phelan.

<commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Post_Road_mile_marker_62,_East_Brookfield_MA.jpg>

Figure 32: Pike’s Mile Marker No. 9, along U.S. Route 1, Calais. Photo by Ken Gallager. <commons.wikimedia.org/

wiki/File:Pike’s_Mile_Marker_9,_Calais,_Maine.jpg>

75

Figure 33: The National Road Mile Markers â&#x20AC;&#x201D; listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Ohio County,

West Virginia. Photo credit Bwsmith84. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:National_Road_Mile_Markers_

Numbers_8_9_10_11_13_14.jpg>

Figure 34:: A mile marker along the National Road in western Franklin County, Ohio. Photo credit Originally

uploaded by VidTheKid (Transferred by rohith_goura). <zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Natl_Road_Marker_in_

FraCo_OH.jpg>

Figure 35: 1767 Milestones, mile marker 53, Leicester, Massachusetts. Photo credit Magicpiano. <commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/File:1767_Milestones_Marker_53.jpg>

Figure 36: A stonemasonâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s stone workbench from the 1845. Photo credit Roger Griffith. <commons.wikimedia.org/

wiki/File:Stone_Mason%27s_Bench_-_Eglinton.JPG>

Figure 37: Blacksmithing at Agricultural and Mechanical College, Greensboro, N.C. Photo credit African American

Photographs Assembled for 1900 Paris Exposition. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Blacksmithing_at_

Agricultural_and_Mechanical_College,_Greensboro,_N.C_LCCN2001705881.jpg>

Figure 38: Boston Post Road Upper MP 8. Photo credit SPUI. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Upper_Post_Road_

MP_8.jpg>

Figure 39: English: Boston Post Road Milestone 60, Spencer Massachusetts. Photo credit John Phelan. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boston_Post_Road_Milestone_60,_Spencer_ MA.jpg>

Figure 40: One of the 1767 Milestones, Huntington Avenue, Boston, MA. Photo credit Biruitorul. <commons.

76

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:1767MilestoneHuntington.JPG>

Figure 41: Boston Post Road Milestone 63, East Brookfield Massachusetts. Photo credit John Phelan. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Boston_Post_Road_Milestone_63,_East_Brookfield_MA.jpg>

Figure 42: Milestone to Boston - at the intersection of Rte. 16 & Park Street, Milford, Massachusetts, USA. Distance

34 miles; milestone dated 1773. Photo credit Daderot. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milestone_34_

miles_to_Boston_-_Milford,_Massachusetts_-_DSC02884.JPG>

Figure 43: Close up of Milestone to Boston - at the intersection of Rte. 16 & Park Street, Milford, Massachusetts,

USA. Distance 34 miles. Photo credit Daderot. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Milestone_34_miles_to_

Boston_-_Milford,_Massachusetts_-_DSC02886.JPG>

Figure 44: Historic American Buildings Survey Frank O. Branzetti, Photographer July 23, 1940 (b) 7- MILE STONE,

opp. 1040 ADAMS ST., DORCHESTER - Milestones A, B, E, HHH, III and PPP, HABS MASS,13-

DORCH,11-6. This image or media file contains material

employee, created as part of that personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s official duties. As a work of the U.S. federal government, such work

is in the public domain in the United States. <loc.gov/pictures/item/ma1121.photos.076757p/>

based on a work of a National Park Service

Figure 45: Historic American Buildings Survey Frank O. Branzetti, Photographer July 9, 1940 (a) 4- MILE STONE,

POND ST., DORCHESTER - Milestones A, B, E, HHH, III and PPP, Various Dorchester locations,

Dorchester, Suffolk County, MA. This image or media file contains material based on a work of a National

Park Service employee, created as part of that personâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s official duties. As a work of the U.S. federal

government, such work is in the public domain in the United States. <loc.gov/pictures/item/ma1121.

photos.076752p>

Figure 46: View west along Virginia State Route 259 (Brocks Gap Road) at Virginia State Secondary Route 820

(Bergton Road) in northern Rockingham County, Virginia. Photo credit Famartin. <commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/File:2016-06-26_17_22_11_View_west_along_Virginia_State_Route_259_(Brocks_Gap_Road)_at_

Virginia_State_ Secondary_Route_820_(Bergton_Road)_in_northern_Rockingham_County,_Virginia.jpg> 77

Figure 47: 146 Miles to Jacksonville, Florida, I-95 South. Photo by Ken Lund. <flickr.com/photos/

kenlund/5824748763>

Figure 48: A close-up of a road sign along K-99 in Emporia, Kansas, USA. Most larger signs manufactured by the

Kansas Department of Transportation feature demountable copy, meaning the letters and graphics can be

removed from the sign as needed. Photo credit CC-BY-SA. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:K-99_mileage_

sign_closeup.jpg>

Figure 49: Mile Marker 10 on the Westchester stretch of the w:Bronx River Parkway. These mile markers are a special

brown compared to the rest. Photo credit Mitchazenia. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Bronx_River_

Parkway_Westchester_mile_marker_10.JPG>

Figure 50: Mile marker 23 on US 36 in Delaware County, Ohio. It marks the location which is 23 miles from the Union

County line May 5, 2013. Photo credit Wbm1058. <en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/File:Ohio_mile_marker.JPG>

Figure 51: South end of US 1. This is the mile zero marker at the intersection of Whithead and Fleming Streets in Key

West, Florida. Photo credit Sirkan. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:South_end_of_US_1_2012.jpg>

Figure 52: Early County line, Georgia State border, US84EB, Georgia. Photo credit Michael Rivera. <commons.

wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Early_County_line,_Georgia_State_border,_ US84EB.JPG>

Figure 53: Mile Marker 106 on Colorado Highway 14. Photo by Alan Levine. <flickr.com/photos/cogdog/19251933212> Figure 54: One of the â&#x20AC;&#x153;mileâ&#x20AC;? markers on w:U.S. Highway 192. Taken February 6, 2005. Photo credit SPUI. <en.

78

wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_192_marker_7_eastbound.jpg>

Figure 55: Corridor H milepost along eastbound U.S. Route 48 (Corridor H) just east of Forman in Grant County, West

Virginia. Photo credit Famartin. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:2016-06-06_18_54_45_Corridor_H_

milepost_along_eastbound_U.S._Route_48_(Corridor_H)_just_east_of_Forman_in_Grant_County,_West_

Virginia.jpg>

Figure 56: Mile 1,337 on the Alaska Highway (between Tok and Delta Junction) near Dot Lake. This is the roughly

westbound view (towards Tok). Power lines, trees, and terrain are visible. Photo credit Nader Moussa. <en.

wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Alaska_Highway_Mile_1337_(Looking_Westbound).jpg>

Figure 57: Putting the finishing touches on a sign at the Franklin Correctional Center. <marketplace.org/2015/09/22/

life/ive-always-wondered/ever-wonder-who-makes-those-big- highway-signs> (Garrison)

Figure 58: Signature ltd. manufacturing company. <signatureltd.com/road-traffic-signs-signplate/> Figure: 59: Highway Gothic (Page Studio Graphics, Page 1) Figure 60: Highway Gothic Sample. Source unknown. <commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Highway_Gothic_sample.

svg>

Figures 61-62: Highway Gothic font samples from myfonts.com. <myfonts.com/fonts/pixymbols/highway-gothic/b/> Figures 63-67: FHWA Highway Gothic Series B - F. Photo credit Atanamir. <en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Highway_

Gothic>

Figure 68: A new version of this font Pixymbols Highway Gothic 2002. <myfonts.com/fonts/pixymbols/highway-

gothic/>

79

Figure 70: Metamorphosis of Design: FWHA Standard Highway Alphabet E-modified to ClearviewHwy. learviewhwy.

com/ResearchAndDesign/>

Figure 71: Highway Gothic versus Clearview. <clearviewhwy.com/ResearchAndDesign/> Figure 72: Upper Case Versus Mixed Case <clearviewhwy.com/ResearchAndDesign/recognizingANeed.php> Figure 73: Highway Gothic Series E-modified vs. Clearview-Bold. <clearviewhwy.com/ResearchAndDesign/

legibilityStudies.php>

Figure 74: Looking west toward Wagon Mound on NM Hwy 120. Photo credit Vacaypicts. <commons.wikimedia.org/

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wiki/File:NM_Hwy_120_MM_44_Looking_West.jpg>

81

â&#x20AC;&#x153;Perfect typography is certainly the most elusive of all arts.

Sculpture in stone alone comes near it in obstinacy.

JAN TSCHICHOLD