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Chapter 5. Qualitative games content analysis
One of the main goals of our research project was to analyze representations of disability in video games. Seventy-nine games were selected for this purpose and became the basis for our study. The main variable determining whether a production would be included in the research sample was even a small range of disability representations. Our team did not want the entire sample to consist of obvious games in which problems with disability or diseases that may lead to it can be observed, such as games within the serious games segment; therefore, we addressed mainly games that aim at providing entertainment for users. Games of this type accounted for 83% of the analyzed titles. Such a selection of a research sample seems nonobvious, as games designed for therapeutic or educational purposes usually remain the main subject of research in the scientific discourse.
The analysis of such a research sample of games was threefold. The first level concerned general information about the games, the method of their distribution, accessibility for specific age groups, genre characteristics, and accessibility understood as the possibility of using games by people with limitations resulting from illness or disability. The second level of the analysis concentrated on the characteristics and styles of heroes and heroines with disabilities. The selected demographic aspects, such as gender and age, were analyzed; the categories and types of disabilities of male and female characters were studied more thoroughly with a focus on their visual representations. The second part presents the data on the narrative layer in the research sample under study. The role and functions of characters with disabilities in the narrative structure were characterized. Models of plot development and ways of communicating disabilities through stories presented in games were also defined. The third part considered the relationship between disability and the layer of gameplay mechanics and pointed to the degree to which these mechanics reflect the specificity of a disability and the general nature of the simulation.
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We chose to use triangulation in our study. In terms of the qualitative analysis, we concentrated on a thorough discussion of the threads related to representations of disability at all three levels. The quantitative approach allowed for the presentation of the scale of disability representation on the basis of a wide range of variables.
General information on the research sample
The foundation of the analysis was the profile of games. The PEGI system was used for this
purpose:
Figure 1: Classification of games according to the PEGI system35
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 30, every ten units, the horizontal axis—a scale from 0 to 18, irregular; bars from the left: 28%, 16%, 18%, 13%, and 25%)
The majority of games in which disability representations are present in the sample under study include ultimate categories. Games intended for users aged 3+ constituted 28% of the research sample, while those for 18+ adult users accounted for 25%. Games within the 12+ (18%), 7+ (16%) and 16+ (13%) age categories did not exceed 20% each. The data showed that the game developers do not associate a decision on disability representation with the age category, which may be encouraging as each of the groups identified in the PEGI age rating system is likely to find certain disability representation. Even the two leading age categories, which surpassed other variables, namely 3+ and 18+, did not dominate the scale substantially to prevent other age groups from encountering games in which disability representations occur.
The genre analysis of games was also significant; it allowed for the identification of the dominant narrative conventions.
As the figure shows, two genres evidently dominated, namely adventure (35%) and action-adventure (30%) games. It is noteworthy that these genres provide the developers with
35 Sources of the figures our elaboration.
more extensive opportunities to create characters. Open worlds where a player can meet numerous characters identify games within these segments—this facilitates implementations of representations of interest. Furthermore, they contain various storylines connected to the main plot line or to side episodes potentially related to the issue of disability. Shooter games were the third most popular genre. When it comes to the narrative aspect within this genre, it primarily concerns the tragedy of war or various conflicts, which enables the presentation of characters with disabilities. Heroes lose their limbs and suffer psychological trauma during fights; thus, the developers are able to present physical or, less often mental, disabilities in such games without numerous narrative descriptions. Interactive books and simulators (both 5%) were the final types wider represented in our research sample. It should be emphasized that games within these two genres commonly combine entertainment with the therapeutic or educational purpose; therefore, they go beyond the entertainment trend and are a proof of deliberate actions of the game designers who aim at the introduction of the subject of disability to players. It is noteworthy that the list did not include certain genres, for example, sports games. The absence of this particular type indicates that certain topics related to the environment of people with disabilities, such as sports, are entirely overlooked in video games.
Figure 2: Classification of games according to the genre
(Alternative description: A pie chart by genre; from the bottom: adventure game—35%, action-adventure—30%, interactive book/movie—5%, simulator—11%, RTS—1%, shooter—3%, hack’n’slash—2%, fighting game—4%, survival/horror—5%, sandbox/survival—3%)
The analysis of narrative conventions, which are often the main driving force of the gameplay, was also important in this context.
The most frequently used narrative convention for games that incorporate representations of disability was fantasy or fairy tale (39%). This convention, like science fiction—the third in the ranking (22%), allows for great discretion setting creation. Such creative freedom may also result in interesting opportunities for the game developers who decide to present characters with disabilities. Such an example is the presentation of Taimi featured in Guild Wars 2—despite problems with her lower limbs, the heroine does not use prostheses but a huge mech (a two-legged robot with a seat), which has become her alternative means of transportation. The second most popular convention was the realistic style (30%). Contrary to games implemented in the most popular narrative conventions, games of this type often attempt at presenting disability in their narration in a way similar to the realistic one, which stems much from the simulation nature of a game and setting it in the present. The least popular were horror (8%) and historical (1%) conventions. The minor presence of disability representation in horror-type games may somewhat be misleading for two reasons. On the one hand, many of such games present opponents with various body deformities. In a sense, they could also be referred to as characters with disabilities; however, it is difficult to attribute human traits to many of them. Nonetheless, if we concentrate more on the representation of “human” characters with disabilities in games within this convention, the lack of such heroines and heroes can also be explained by fear to combine the subject of disability with the aesthetics of blood, horror, and fear. According to our focus group participants, these concerns are not fully justified.
Figure 3: Classification of games according to narrative conventions
(Alternative description: A bar chart describing the classification of games according to the plot; the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 40, every ten units, the bars are named; from the left: science fiction—22%, fantasy/fairy tale—39%, realistic—30%, historical—1%, horror—8%) As indicated in the introduction to the chapter, entertainment was the most common purpose of the analyzed games (84%), followed by educational (14%) and therapeutic (3%) purposes.)
Figure 4: Classification of games according to their main purpose
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 100, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: therapeutic—3%, entertainment— 84%, educational—14%)
Furthermore, the game mode deserves attention. According to the analysis results, the developers most often included representations of disability in single-player games (84%), and only 5% of the analyzed titles were multiplayer games. In terms of modes, 10% of the entire sample used both single- and multiplayer modes, which is frequently expressed, for example, in the option of a cooperative game on a split screen, as in Overcooked 2.
Figure 5: Classification of games according to game modes
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 100, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: single player—82%, multiplayer— 5%, both— 13%)
Single-player games seem to be the most favorable to portray disability as their pace is often slightly slower than multiplayer games. The slow narration allows the developers
to focus on a more accurate presentation of disability, as confirmed by “Hellblade: Senua’s Sacrifice”. The work on this game was based on, among others, numerous consultations with psychologists or people with cognitive disabilities in order to best present the problem of psychotic episodes with which the main character struggles. On the other hand, the imperceptible presence of disabilities in multiplayer games means that the potential to interact with characters with disabilities, controlled by other real players, has been wasted. This leads to situations in which these characters are either protagonists controlled by a player or heroines and heroes controlled by a computer. There is no third option that would allow players to notice that characters with disability in the gaming world do not have to be controlled only by them or an algorithm.
The further part of the analysis addressed the financial and organizational aspects of production. The first aspect concerned the game distribution platform.
Figure 6: Classification of games according to the most popular platforms
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 40, every ten units, the horizontal axis—five named bars; from the left: mobile game—8%, PC—29%, console— 5%, PC/console—54%, PC/mobile—4%)
More than half of the analyzed games (54%) were available for both personal computers and consoles. This is a positive aspect due to the fact that both console and PC players have a chance to observe representations we investigated. Within the sample, 29% of games could be played only on computers (PC), 8% were games within the mobile games segment, and 5%—typical console titles. Games available for both personal computers and mobile devices accounted for 4 percent of the research sample. A small share of games with disability representations in the mobile market is appealing. If we assume that this market is dominated by casual games, which do not require a lot of effort and commitment, then perhaps
the specificity of these games makes their developers avoid the topic of disability as difficult and uncomfortable, which, according to them, would necessitate special preparations and a greater amount of work.
When selecting games for the sample, we kept almost on the equal division between AAA and Indie budget segments, with the advantage of one AAA game.
Range/budget of a game
AAA 51%
Indie 49%
Table 1: The budget range of the studied games
The distribution model of games included in the research sample was also analyzed.
Figure 7: Division of games according to a form of distribution
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every ten units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: physical copies—52%, digital—41%, free-to-play—9%)
It is noticeable that the most commonly adopted distribution model was physical copies distribution (52%), which was surprising, given the current demand for digital media. It may be due to the fact that the research sample also included games that were produced before the advent of digital game distribution platforms. It should also be remembered that games sold in physical copies, in the majority of cases, have their digital counterparts offered in online stores. Data revealed that 41% of titles were distributed only digitally, which confirms the
popularity of this business model. Only 8% of games were offered within the “free-to-play” model, that is, free distribution with the possibility of purchasing goods within the application.
In this part of the chapter, we sought to show in what way the developers present characters with disabilities or diseases that may be their source. In the research, attention was paid to the basic variables describing each virtual character, such as gender or age, but also characters’ role in the gameplay: whether they are a protagonist or an anti-hero. The last issue investigated in this chapter was the way of visualizing characters in the virtual world.
Gender and age of a character
Figure 8: Character’s gender
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 80, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: male—75%, female—18%, to be chosen in a character creation screen—8%)
Analyzing the gender category of characters with disabilities in video games, it can be stated that male was definitely the dominant (75%), while the representation of women with disabilities accounted only for 18%. We did not manage to find any transgender characters among the investigated games. Customized characters comprised 8% of the sample. The majority of them are generated in the so-called creation screens implemented mainly in RPG games. They allow for building own character at the beginning of the game, using a variety of modifiers related to appearance (for example, build, skin color, face shape), as well as skills and character. While the research sample incorporated numerous RPG games, only a minor part of them included character creation screens, which would allow for gender selection. On the other hand, the number of games allowing for the assignment of a disability at the stage
of the character creation was even smaller (which has been discussed later in the analysis). This low percentage is a serious drawback of games, as indicated by players with disabilities who took part in our focus interview.
Subsequently, the age category was analyzed.
Figure 9: Classification of characters according to age
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 40, every ten units, the horizontal axis—10 named bars; from the left: 0-10—11%, 11-20—14%, 21-30—10%, 31-40—6%, 41-50—6%, 51-60—5%, 61-70—3%, 71-80—3%, 91-100+—5%, not stated—37%)
As it can be noticed, 37% of the developers did not decide to determine the age of characters in games. 63% of virtual avatars were of a certain age, or it was estimated, hence the cafeteria based on age ranges. The fact that the age of characters may change during the gameplay requires consideration. Characters with disabilities in games were most commonly adults. Nonetheless, a large representation—over 20%, comprised children and adolescents with disabilities. It seems that the presence of female and male characters with disabilities in all age groups is a favorable aspect as it makes disability in games an age-independent variable.
Types of represented disabilities
Types of disability were the first element analyzed. All three types of disability appeared in the studied sample, namely motor, intellectual, and sensory.
Figure 10: Types of disability
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every ten units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: sensory disability—18%, motor disability—57%, cognitive disability—25%)
The most common group of disabilities represented in games were those that affect the character’s motor system (57%). This type of disability is undoubtedly one of the simplest in terms of a visualization in the virtual world. On the other hand, those disabilities which seem to be more complicated when designing interaction mechanics, that is, cognitive and sensory, accounted for 25% and 18%, respectively. It seems that disabilities of this type appear less frequently also because the game developers are afraid of this topic; that is, they doubt whether they are able to present it in an appropriate and acceptable manner, not only for the community of people with disabilities.
The table below lists the types of disabilities present in the studied productions.
Type of disability/illness Occurrence in the sample
Paralysis of a limb or limbs 24%
Lack of a limb or limbs 16%
Visual impairment (including blindness)
Unformed body parts
Mutilations 14%
6%
6%
Psychosis
Loss of consciousness 5%
5%
Memory loss
The autism spectrum 4%
2%
ADHD
Intellectual disability
A disease that limits motor capabilities
Hearing impairment
Speech impairment
Asthma
Depression36
Coma
Dementia
Table 2: Types of disabilities in games 2%
2%
2%
2%
1%
1%
1%
1%
1%
Visualization of characters with disabilities
In the visual analysis of characters with disabilities, the research team concentrated on several aspects that determine the way they are presented. The first of them was the type of graphics.
Figure 11: Types of graphics in games
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: 3D (Game Art)—67%, 2D (Game Art)—28%, Pixel Art—5%)
36 According to “The Global Burden of Disease” report, unipolar depression is the world’s leading cause of adult disability (Murray and Lopez, 1996), quoted after (Zielska, n.d.).
Graphics 3D were the most common (67%). The 3D technology allows for obtaining a much more precise image of various types of physical disability. In the analyzed games, 28% used 2D graphics/art; there were numerous productions with arcade elements or adventure games in general, which frequently present the gameplay in two dimensions. Pixel art was the least common (5%).
The visual style was investigated due to its significance.
Figure 12: Main visual styles in games
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60 every, ten units, the horizontal axis—four named bars; from the left: realistic—32%, cartoon—57%, grotesque— 10%, other—15%)
More than half of the games presented both characters and the setting in a cartoon style (57%), which undoubtedly is not synonymous with the casual theme of games. The cartoon style is a popular procedure that is often used by developers to make a game stand out. For instance, in the case of the Borderlands series, which does not resemble a fairy tale or cartoon in the narrative layer, its style is embedded in this convention.
Realistic was the second most common visual style (32%). It allows for the presentation of disability in an almost veristic way. Grotesque is a style that appeared in 10% of productions; it was often present in horror as well as adventure games. The exaggerated characters allow, for example, for showing their tragedy, as in the case of Fran Bow. Other styles (1%) included the presentation of characters in the form of the so-called stickmen (composed of lines) present in educational games in which the content is more important than the visual layer.
Picture 10: Sir Hammerlock featured in Borderlands 2
(Alternative description: The picture shows a saluting elderly man with a metal prosthetic right hand. A man is wearing a lord’s outfit. He has a bushy black mustache, a monocle on his left eye, a hat on his head, and a brown vest with claret lapels. The character is in a winter seaside environment. There are car tires and boat debris scattered all around.)
Another detailed aspect of the visual characteristics was the color scheme of characters.
Figure 13: The color scheme of characters
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: dark—27%, natural—67%, player-dependent (a character creator screen)—6%)
Due to the fact that the clothing of characters in games differs extremely and the division of the color scheme would reach the categorization of 40 or 50 variables, we distinguished only three categories. A natural color scheme was chosen most frequently (in 67% of cases). According to our distinction, it is a range resembling real colors, as well as light colors of characters—in both cases they do not evoke negative emotions. Dark colors (present in 27% of games) appeared as a sign of a pessimistic atmosphere, fear, or hostility. The player’s choice of color scheme was the least common option (only 6%).
When analyzing the visual aspects of a character, the measurements of the body were also taken into consideration. In 78% of cases, these were characters of natural height. Short characters with disabilities in games appeared less often—only in 18% of games. On the other hand, the research sample did not comprise characters with sizes significantly exceeding the typical ones—there were no giants and colossuses among them.37 As in the case of color schemes, the player could also decide on the size/height of the character (in 4% of games).
Figure 14: Character’s size
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 80, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: natural—76%, short—18%, player-dependent— 4%)
37 Enormous characters with disabilities can also be found in the selected games. In addition to the studied sample, there was a large group of characters featured in Dark Souls who are opponents of the player-controlled hero. Their body size significantly exceeds the protagonist.
Narrative contexts of characters
We sought to discuss the results of the quantitative analysis of the narrative layer of the studied games. Numerous contexts related to the role and functions of characters with disabilities in the stories told in games were presented. This part focused on the analysis of the ways of communicating disability in the narrative structures of games and forms of narration related to it. All these issues can indicate how schematic characters with disabilities are in
games, as well as the entire plots associated with them.
The scope and nature of the participation of characters with disabilities in the plot.
When investigating the role of characters with disabilities in the plots of games, both the nature of this character’s participation in a game, as well as the related narrative functions, deserve mention.
The fact whether we deal with a protagonist, a side character, a minor character, or an opponent significantly indicates the character’s influence on the story; therefore this aspect was analyzed first.
Figure 15: Classification of characters according to their role in the gameplay
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—four bars; from the left: main character—61%, side character—18%, Non Player Character (NPC)/minor character—10%, opponent—11%) More than half of characters representing disability played primary roles in video games (61%). The key protagonists are always main characters in a game that a player controls. Side characters were represented in 18% of cases of all virtual avatars. Their presence in a game is most frequently marked by functions such as a donor, a mentor, or a helper of the main character. Opponents in games accounted for 11% of all the characters analyzed, which
is a considerable number, with regard to the fact that there are fewer main antagonists in games than good or neutral avatars. Minor characters/NPCs (10%) most often try to support the main character with advice or send him to certain places to complete a mission.
A subsequent aspect under study concerned the character’s narrative functions. The analysis of the structure of Vladimir Propp’s fairy tales has been employed for the typologization.
Figure 16: Classification of characters according to their narrative functions
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—five named bars; from the left: main character—62%, opponent— 11%, donor—13%, helper—11%, sender—3%)
Characters with disabilities were most frequently presented as main male and female protagonists (62%). This fact should be positively assessed because it demonstrates that the game developers are not afraid to consider a character with a disability as the protagonist. A donor, that is, a character who put a protagonist to the test and assigns the missions, was the next most frequent function (13%) of disabled characters. Commonly, the donors are old men who are paralyzed or struggle with other age-related diseases. Their wisdom helps the main character throughout the majority of the plot; they play the role of mentors. The third most popular functions among characters with disabilities were the helpers and the opponents. The helpers (11%) are characters that are often encountered during the gameplay, advise the protagonist, or ultimately become, for example, a part of the hero’s fellowship and, regardless of their disability, help them in difficult times. The opponent (11%) is a type of a character whose goal is to prevent the main character from completing a quest. In this context, disability is often aimed at reinforcing the bad intentions of a character, for example, by presenting him/her with an experimentally deformed body as in Very Little Nightmares or
Tormented Souls. The most infrequent representation was that of the senders (3%); however, we meet briefly such characters in games; thus it is good that heroines and heroes in the remaining groups appear in the gameplay for longer periods of time.
The morality of a character was a significant variable from the perspective of perceiving representation of disability in games; in relation to the research sample under study, this variable was very diverse.
Figure 17: The morality of characters
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—scale from 0 to 60, every ten units, the horizontal axis—five named bars; from the left: good—57%, evil—10%, neutral—9%, player-dependent—9%, ambivalent—15%)
More than half of the characters analyzed were the ones of good or even noble nature (57%). As the majority of representations concern key protagonists, who are main characters of games, such a method is not unusual. Some of the characters with disabilities were distinguished by negative features (10%). In this case, each of them was an opponent of the main character, not controlled by a player. Characters with an unstable attitude to good and evil were defined as characters of the “ambivalent” morality in our study. They constituted 15% of the studied sample. It is noteworthy that this ambivalence is related in certain cases to heroines and heroes’ disability—it causes their frustration and depression, which may lead to reprehensible acts.
The morality dependent on a player’s decision (9%) was, in turn, a noteworthy variant of the character’s ethical profile, which does not occur as often as would be expected. The player’s ability to create the morality of heroines and heroes with disabilities is an option that inspires interesting observations and conclusions if we compare the morality of these characters with this of able-bodied characters. It seems that in the future, it would be worth-
while to devote a separate study to this issue, focusing on the attitude of players to the ways of shaping the morality of characters with disabilities during the gameplay. Characters with neutral morality (9%) were mainly donors; that is, heroes who assign tasks often take the role of the mentors who do not influence the decisions of their apprentices (players) due to their neutrality.
Impact of disability on the plot
The following important issue is the role of disability in game plots. It was presented in the communication perspective. We aimed at establishing the background and ways of revealing the causes of disability in the plot of a game.
Figure 18: Background of represented disabilities
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis— a scale from 0 to 100, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—two named bars; from the left: disability acquired prior to the plot— 81%, disability acquired during the gameplay—19%)
The most common narrative technique used by the game developers was to transfer the moment of occurrence of a disability prior to the game plot (81%). Such a technique can be considered quite convenient because the developers do not have to provide players with information about the health of a character. Such a move is often motivated by the fact that the developers do not want to show a brutal accident or experiments on a character. Occasionally, even though disability is acquired by a character before the plot begins, the story designers decide to show this fact in retrospect. Disability was acquired during the gameplay much less frequently (19%). Various strategies appear here; for example, when a whole series of games based on the same universe is published, in one part, a given hero acquires a disability in order to function as a character with a disability in another. In this way, for example,
Bentley the turtle has been presented in the Sly Cooper series. In the final mission of the second part, the hero suffers injuries, the consequence of which is moving in a wheelchair in subsequent parts of the game.
In games in which the circumstances of disability are communicated in the gameplay, they are rarely portrayed in a brutal way; however, it is possible to find such instances. This is the case of Malik featured in Assassin’s Creed. Malik, along with his brothers Kadar and Altaïr (controlled by a player), have set off to the Temple of Solomon to get a treasure for Al Mualim, his mentor. Malik has warned Altaïr not to break the rules, kill innocent people and act inconspicuously; however, Altaïr starts fighting the Templars there. Malik has been injured in this fight but won and obtained the treasure for Al Mualim. Unfortunately, his other brother died, which Malik cannot forgive Altaïr. After returning to Masyaf, a base of operations of the Assassins, he bleeds heavily. Later he has undergone a hand amputation. Altaïr is relegated to the rank of an ordinary assassin as a punishment and has to carry out various missions that are assigned to him by Malik in the office of assassins. Malik’s nature and his attitude to disability are reflected in his dialogues with Altaïr. Narratively, the circumstances of the character’s acquisition of a disability seem to be a ploy, showing the loss of an arm as a punishment, but this time not directly attributable to a character with a disability, but the player-controlled character.
Figure 19: Ways of communicating the background of represented disabilities)
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every ten units, the horizontal axis—three name bars; from the left: interactive moments during the gameplay—52%, cutscenes and intros—32%, supplementary materials (trailers, films/videos and peritexts, not featured in a game)—16%)
In addition to the background of disability, we also analyzed thoroughly in what ways the developers attempted to communicate to players the moment when a disability or a disease occurred.
Most frequently, a player learned about the background of disability in the course of the proper gameplay from dialogues or notes in game logs (52%). These are interactive moments that require more effort from both a developer who has to prepare such a gameplay situation and a player directly confronted with the poor health of a character. It must be remembered that it is often a player’s character who takes part in the incident that affects his/her condition so that players can experience the effects of disability represented in the game. The in-depth analysis of such instances has been included in the qualitative chapter.
Title (character) Disability Type of message
Borderlands 2 (Sir Alistair Hammerlock) Limbs loss (arm and leg)
The stories circulating around the game setting, as well as Sir Hammerlock’s statements, tell how he has lost his limbs during a fight against the Old Slappy—a monster.
Disco Elysium (Harrier Du Bois) Memory loss In the initial phase of the game, a player learns that Harrier has lost awareness of
who he is after consuming too much alcohol.
Mass Effect (Joker) Severe bone fragility
The dialogue of the main character with Joker. It illustrates an open way of communicating the disease, pride in being the best pilot of the Alliance Academy, even better than his instructors—talking about the disease is combined with communicat-
ing his professional excellence. Table 3: Interactive messages concerning the background of a disability (Source: own elaboration)
The second most often applied way of communicating disability were cutscenes or games’ intros (32%). In this case, a player is denied any possibility of interaction with the existing communication situation; however, it is still a part of the gameplay, and a player, as the recipient, experiences the presented story, which in certain cases allows for better identification with the character. Let us compare the examples below:
Title (character) Disability Type of message
Oddworld: Munch’s
Oddysee (Munch) Lower limb mutila-
tion
In the initial cutscenes with Munch, he is caught in a trap; it resulted in a lower limb injury, a consequence of which is the use of a wheelchair. Another cutscene shows a med-
ical experiment, during which sonar is planted in place of a removed piece of Munch’s skull.
Graveyard Keeper (the main character) Loss of conscious-
ness
The game’s intro shows the main character returning home at night; suddenly, he is hit by a car, which causes him to lose consciousness and transfer to a fictional world.
Table 4: Messages concerning the background of a disability in games’ intros or cutscenes (Source: own elaboration)
The subject of the background of a disability appeared the least frequently in supplementary materials, such as trailers and other visual and audiovisual materials (for example, comic books) or other peritexts created by the game developers (16%). It should be noted that these messages are not a proper part of the game; that is, they do not appear in the gameplay but on websites as commercials or on a developers’ website. Examples of this type of activity are three peritexts related to Tormented Souls, Lego Marvel Super Heroes, and Overwatch:
Title (character) Disability Type of message
Tormented Souls
(Wheel Monster) Mutilation A developers’ website presents visualization and a short story describing the moment of mutilation of the character.
Lego Marvel Super Heroes (Professor X) Limb paralysis We learn about the situation in which
the main character suffered damage to health from comic books dedicated to
the Marvel universe.
Overwatch (Reinhardt) Eye loss
We learn about the background of the injury in combat from an animated video dedicated to the character, which enriches the game universe.
Table 5: Messages concerning disabilities represented in supplementary materials (Source: own elaboration)
Figure 20: Scenarios of the gameplay related to represented disabilities
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 80, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—two named bars; from the left: disability as “a problem to fix” during the gameplay (medicalization)—27%, becoming accustomed to disability—73%)
The scenarios of coping with disability were another analyzed variable. The most common method was the one in which the character slowly gets accustomed to his/her own limitations (73%). Such an approach in presenting this type of heroines and heroes can communicate positive values because players, both able-bodied and with disabilities, see a will of self-acceptance and a willingness to face adversities. Characters with disabilities are thus associated with motivation to overcome difficulties of a very different nature. Characters in games are much less frequently subject to medicalization, which seems to be a positive phenomenon, as it would mean that the paradigm of “fixing” disability was not as popular as it might seem (27%). The medical approach to disability is presented in games within our
research sample from two perspectives. The first is taking medications or using therapy to heal or return to fairly stable health, while the second perspective adopted by the game developers is a technological enhancement, most frequently as prostheses and exoskeletons. Nonetheless, the game developers do not intend them to be used as assistive technology but rather as a weapon to defeat the protagonist controlled by a player. It is noteworthy that this form of enhancement technologies strengthen the image of people with disabilities as imperfect, requiring correction. Technologies found in games ensure a perfect return to the group of normates by characters who use them—their control mechanics are mostly indistinguishable from mechanics of other characters.
Another problem emerged from the analysis of becoming accustomed to a disability or an attempt to medicalize it: in what way characters or narration in video games valuate a given disability.
Figure 21: Valuation of represented disabilities
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 50, every ten units, the horizontal axis—four bars; from the left: disability as a “weakness”—46%, disability as a “force”—32%, valuation of disability does not occur—27 %, disability as a punishment— 6%)
Disability as a “weakness” (46%) was the most common valuation metaphor appearing in game productions. Nonetheless, this variable deserves more thorough consideration. It needs to be highlighted that it often appears as a weakness that motivates characters to be better, as in the case of Joker featured in the Mass Effect series. Joker is a pilot of Normandy spacecraft, the most important ship in the galaxy. Its crew, led by Commander Shepard— controlled by a player, has been assigned a mission to save the galaxy from the invasion of the Reapers—machines destroying all life. Joker is confined to the captain’s bridge due to his mobility problems but exhibits aviation skills well beyond the capabilities of a typical
spaceship pilot. He performs impossible maneuvers and helps Shepard during his mission. While on the ship, Shepard can talk to Joker listen to his opinion about the crew and the latest mission. The hero treats Shepard as a friend, even though he does not spare him ironic comments. Their friendship is highlighted by a scene at the beginning of the second part of the game when Normandy has been attacked and destroyed. During the evacuation mission, Shepard has returned to save Joker, who cannot walk, but dies himself. Nonetheless, Shepard’s body and personality have been reconstructed, and he is assigned a new spaceship. Shepard’s principals decide that it should be navigated by the best of pilots. It is Joker. The hero is therefore valued in his profession, even though he does not actually appear anywhere else than the captain’s bridge. With time, EDI, artificial intelligence embedded in the body of a female cyborg, becomes his partner and develops a deep intellectual relationship with him. EDI makes Joker’s abilities grow even more, which allows him to control the ship even better.
A disability defined as a kind of “force” of a character appeared in 22% of cases, in games such as
Title (character) Disability Character’s force
Valheim (Odyn) Lack of eye Losing an eye was a deal for a character. After donating a part of his body, he was able to drink from the wisdom well, which allowed him to discover many hidden secrets.
Sly Cooper 2: Band of Thieves (Bentley) Limbs paralysis
Bentley’s disability is not fixed, but technologized—the hero equips the wheelchair with more and more sophisticated mechanisms and weapons, and it becomes not only assistive technology in the strict sense but also a weapon of the protagonist.
Table 6: Disabilities understood as a force
It is also striking that quite a significant part of games (27%) did not include the valuation of disability. This may be due to the fact that it is the so-called cautious approach to the phenomenon of disability, and the game developers can avoid accusations of inadequate axiologization. Also, the developers might simply not pay attention to the fact that disability
plays any role in their production. Table 7 presents instances of games that have approached valuation this way:
Title (character) Disability The reason for the lack of valuation
Guilty Gear 20 (Baiken) Lack of limb Character’s lost hand is replaced with its mechanical counterpart, which does not change the mechanics of the game or its storyline in any way.
Spyro Reignited Trilogy (Spyro) ADHD The character has been presented as quite nervous and active. Nonetheless, the game, pertaining to the arcade genre, is based on constant movement. The very behavior of Spyro is therefore not linked by players to the disability context at all.
Table 7: The reasons for the lack of valuation of represented disabilities (Source: own elaboration)
The last evaluation method employed by the research team was perceiving disability as a punishment (6%). A clear example of such a punishment is the fate of the brothers— two princes, Lothric and Lorian, featured in Dark Souls 3, whose disabilities are the result of a curse on their family, imposed for shameful deeds and bargaining with dark powers.
Disability vs. game mechanics
Another aspect of the quantitative research on disability representations in games was the analysis of mechanics and the overall structure of the game. This part of the analysis concerned both the way disability is represented and simulated in the game mechanics layer and whether it is credibly presented as well as the results and observations on how disability affects the mechanics of games constituting our research sample.
In 51% of games, disability varied in terms of scope and intensity of impact on the gameplay, which can occur both in relation to mechanics and the plot. In the case of 49% of games, no influence on the gameplay was observed—heroine or hero’s disability was only a visual emblem or a prop with no impact on the game setting. A subsequent example could
be a wheelchair as an element of the game environment, a kind of furniture that is part of a visual ornament.
Figure 22: Impact of character’s disability on the gameplay (Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every ten units, the horizontal axis—two named bars; from the left: disability with no impact on the gameplay— 49%, disability with impact on the gameplay—51%)
Selected examples of the impact of disability on the gameplay have been presented in Table 8:
Title (character) Disability Impact of disability on the gameplay
Assassin’s Creed
Valhalla (Sigurd Styrbjornsson) Lack of arm During the gameplay, a player learns that Sigurd has lost his hand. This is related to the plot line in which the character becomes the rein-
carnation of the Norse god, Tyr, who, according to Norse legends, lost his hand trying to tame a mythical wolf—Fenrir. The acquisition of a disability by Sigurd is; therefore, a contribution to the continuation of the main plot of the game.
Chernobylite (Boris Glukhov) Psychosis
Chernobylite (a mineral) caused the character’s psychosis; however, he gained the ability to teleport to chosen places in the Chernobyl zone and other skills, for example, spreading harmful radiation. This influence is defined as
the development of combat mechanics with the main antagonist.
To The Moon
(John Wyles) Coma The main goal of the game is not to fight disability but to fulfill the last wish of the hero. The disability that comes with a coma is a tool to achieve the goal. The character connected to a special apparatus “lends” his memories, which scientists (players) can access, trying to fulfill John’s last dream.
Table 8: Impact of disability on the gameplay (Source: own elaboration)
The scope of using simulations to present selected forms and aspects of disability in games and a discussion on the credibility of disability mechanics represented in games were summarized in the final part of the analysis.
Figure 23: Simulation of the perception of the setting conditioned by disability
(Alternate description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 60, every twenty units, the horizontal axis—two named bars; from the left: present—35%, absent—65%)
As much as 65% of the games analyzed by the research team did not attempt to simulate a disability in a game. Nonetheless, considering how often characters with disabilities are equipped with prostheses or other technologies to reduce the effects of disability, this result is not surprising. Disability is only declarative in this case—it is actually a pseudo-disability. The remaining 35% of games involved simulating indication of disability in virtual universes: a motor disability, and in a few cases also cognitive and sensory disabilities were represented.
The table below exemplifies certain simulations:
Title (character) Disability Simulation of setting
Pulse (the main heroine) Blindness The heroine suffers from blindness, and just like her, players cannot see anything on the screen until they hear something. The more sounds a given object makes, the clearer its shape appears in the protagonist’s head, which is shown on screen as a slightly glowing object.
The Quiet Man Hearing loss Since the character was born deaf, a player is also unable to hear the dialogue lines and tries to activate the lip-reading skill. Ambient sounds are muffled and a player is encouraged to adopt a perception of the world of deaf people.
Table 9: Types of simulation of the setting (Source: own elaboration)
After discussing the scope of the disability simulation in the mechanics layer, attention was paid to one of the equally important aspects of games, which can enrich this simulation even more. In the games analyzed, we aimed at investigating in what way they present prostheses and other assistive technology that, for example, allow characters with functional motor limitations to move around.
Figure 24: Shape of prostheses, implants
(Alternative description: A pie chart showing classification by implant shape; from the bottom: not applicable—52%, hospital bed—1%, mask/helmet—3%, wheelchair—23%, sonar—1%, sword—1%, lens imitating an eye—3%)
Apparently, it seems that more than 50% of the game developers did not pay attention to the appropriate representation of disability, as they did not choose to show the characters’ prostheses. Nonetheless, nothing could be further from the truth. The variable “not applicable” (52%) referred to characters who either do not use assistive technology due to the specificity of their disability or purposefully do not use such improvements (for instance, The Quiet Man’s the protagonist does not use a hearing aid). Such a situation is primarily associated with disabilities that cannot be repaired or stabilized prosthetically, including all cognitive disabilities and certain sensory limitations.
When analyzing what kind of assistive technology appears most often in video games, it turned out that it is a wheelchair that aids 23% of characters in games. The following most popular aids were various types of prosthetic limbs (16%). Other forms of prostheses included helmets or masks (3%), which hide mutilations of characters or let see and hear better. Lenses aiding the blind comprised 3% of representations. Other very unusual prostheses indicated only once in a game included sonar implanted in the skull, used by a character to solve puzzles, or a sword, which constitutes a prosthesis of a limb of a character who has lost the bodily form in an unknown way.
The last point which allowed for quantitative research of the ways of representing disability in video games concerned the degree of advancement of disability mechanics in representing motor aspects.
Figure 25: Motor credibility of represented disabilities
(Alternative description: A bar chart, the vertical axis—a scale from 0 to 50, every ten units, the horizontal axis—three named bars; from the left: advanced disability-related mechanics— 25%, selective or scarce disability mechanics—29%, lack of reflection of disability mechanics—46%)
Advanced or selective mechanics related to disability appeared in more than 50% of titles. Games in which no mechanics reflecting the health of characters were observed accounted for 46% of the research sample. The deficiency of representation of disability could be noticed, for instance, when a character had a mechanical limb, which only served as an attractive visual element. Such a prosthesis was not only not reflected in game mechanics in this case but was not even the subject of the characters’ dialogues. Selective or scarce images of limitations resulting from disability were found in 29% of cases. In such situations, representation of disability in the mechanics layer was limited to minor motor modifications—a character is placed in a wheelchair but does not even make pushing movements with their hands; in other case a character moves in a wheelchair but rides it in an unrealistic way, for example, the wheelchair climbs a steep platform, and so on. Motor credibility at an advanced level (25%) was noticeable in virtually every simulator that would reflect a disability. For instance, in Wheelchair Simulator, a player using the virtual reality headset adopts the perspective of a character in a wheelchair who moves around a bustling city. The game discussed is one of few that use VR technology or haptic interfaces. The research sample comprised only 4% of games that applied these solutions.
The data collected and analyzed in this chapter show that representations of disability in video games are the resultant of the complex structure of the medium, design choices, as well as the genre and plot of the game. An important role in the ultimate shape of these representations is also played by users who complete the appearance and actions of characters they control in a “final” way. In such a situation, it seems particularly important to provide players with the opportunity to independently create heroes and heroines, taking into consideration the context of disability, as well as access to active characters, for whom disability is not an obstacle for becoming interesting male and female protagonists for players.
The sample of games analyzed in this chapter should be set in the context of a vast number of other titles produced in the world, in which the subject of disability does not appear. Undoubtedly, it does not always need to because it is difficult to expect that simple logical or arcade games would show any broader social context beyond simple mechanics of play. Nonetheless, players may react to these images through fixed stereotypes about disability, which can be addressed and criticized even in simple forms of digital entertainment when the visualization and simulation of disability appear there.
In view of the underrepresentation of disability in the world of games on the macroscale, the microscale of the presented quantitative research can only narrowly determine what disability representations appear in games and what they should look like. In the studied sample, the topic of disability is present in a narrow group of genres, and the game designers most frequently decide to represent only functional motor limitations. Games that show disability in rather a cliché manner, sometimes limited only to specific episodes or characters, prevail, and the titles which, in an in-depth way, create mechanics reflecting the nature of specific disabilities are relatively few. Meanwhile, these simulation possibilities of games and the option of creating deep disability mechanics seem to be their untapped potential. Even though simulation is not seen as the most favorable practice within cultural disabilities studies, it can be an advocate and play an educational role in games, as well as be part of identity building.
