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Over 100 years of industry knowledge

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JAMES DUNLOP / KASHMIR

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General textiles unraveled We understand that there are a plethora of textiles available and it can often be overwhelming when it comes to making your choice.

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JAMES DUNLOP / STUDIO

n this chapter we detail common fibres, yarns and fabric types, along with their respective properties and characteristics. We document weaving, dyeing and finishing methods and give an overview of industry testing standards. Also included is advice on care and maintenance of general textiles, to assist with the preservation of your customer’s furnishings.

An overview of common fibres & their characteristics

An overview of common yarns & their characteristics

Basic types of fabric

Common textile constructions

Lining unraveled

Different textile looms

Dyeing techniques

Finishing processes

Fabric testing methodologies

General care and maintenance

Handling and care of velvet

High performance textiles

How to increase the lifespan of your textiles

Important points

Summary

MOKUM / STUDIO

Contents:

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An overview of common fibres & their characteristics Natural fibres: Occurring in nature which are of animal, vegetable/plant or mineral origin.

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COTTON:

LINEN:

SILK:

VISCOSE/RAYON:

WOOL:

Plant origin.

Plant origin; derived from cellulose fibres that grow inside the stalks of the flax plant.

Animal origin; an animal fibre that comes from the silkworm. The silkworm creates its cocoon from very long silk fibres which are harvested from mulberry trees.

Viscose/Rayon is a transparent fibre made of processed cellulose. Cellulose fibres from wood or cotton are dissolved in alkali to make a solution called viscose, which is then extruded through a nozzle, or spinneret, into an acid bath to reconvert the viscose into cellulose. Viscose is generally a term widely used in Europe, whilst Rayon is American terminology

Animal origin; a natural animal fibre made from sheep fleece.

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A strong fibre, even stronger when wet, cotton has good natural durability. Can be affected by mildew however a mildew resistant finish can be applied to reduce this issue. Generally has reasonable sunlight resistance but should be protected with a quality lining when used as a drapery and protected from direct sunlight when used as an upholstery. It is an absorbent fibre which means it can move with changing humidity levels. May shrink with laundering but this can be reduced through a finishing process on the fabric known as sanforising. Sunlight resistance can be greatly reduced in acidic polluted conditions.

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As with cotton it is affected by acidic pollution.

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Can be affected by mildew which will likely cause the fibre to deteriorate over time.

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Considered to be the strongest of the natural fibres; if constructed for upholstery it is very durable, particularly when blended with up to 10% nylon.

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Is regarded as a luxury fibre because of its lustre and texture.

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It is an absorbent fibre which means it can move with changing humidity levels

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Linen has moderate sunlight resistance and should be protected by a quality lining when used as a drapery and protected from direct sunlight when used as an upholstery.

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It is naturally fine in texture, and colours beautifully.

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Its biggest disadvantage in furnishing is its sensitivity to UV light degradation (direct & reflected). Due to its sensitivity, it should not be used in direct sunlight or even bright light.

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An absorbent fibre, it has the potential to move in humid environments.

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Silk is a relatively strong fibre and can withstand a certain amount of abrasion, particularly when used in conjunction with a backing fabric.

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Unrivalled in splendour and smoothness, silk is regarded the most exclusive of all natural fibres.

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Can be adapted to specific use – from fine to heavy fibres depending on required usage.

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Can be affected by mildew.

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The fibres soft handle and beautiful lustre provides a luxury finish.

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A very absorbent fibre, it will move with changing humidity levels. Often movement in the fabric is apparent when viscose is used as the warp yarn however if blended with stable fibres this issue is minimised.

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Viscose is not regarded as a UV resistant fibre and should always be lined when used as drapery and protected from direct sunlight when used as an upholstery.

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Has become very popular in interiors with a resurgence in the demand for quality natural products.

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Pure wool compositions are not considered to be suitable for curtains, unless protected from direct sunlight due to its sensitivity to UV light degradation, which can make wool brittle and weak. Blending wool with synthetic fibres can reduce this sensitivity.

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The crimp and fine molecular structure of this fibre ensures woollen textiles are elastic, allowing the yarn to stretch when pulled and helping it return to its original form.

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When used in tightly woven constructions wool can be very durable.

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Wool can be affected by cloth moth larvae as well as bacteria and mildew, which can deteriorate and weaken the fibre over time.

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Wool enjoys the natural benefits of being inherently flame retardant, dirt repellent, anti static & temperature regulating.

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DID YOU KNOW? Solution dyed polypropylene/ olefin/polyolefin generally meet the pilling and abrasion requirements for commercial heavy duty upholstery whereas solution dyed acrylic usually won’t surpass requirements for medium duty residential upholstery.

CS TREVIRA:

Synthetic fibres: Of man-made origin, not occurring naturally. Manufactured from different raw materials.

An inherently FR polyester yarn created by adding phosphate during the yarn production process. Trevira is a trademarked yarn and is used globally for many contract applications. NYLON:

POLYESTER:

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Can be manufactured and woven for specific use, from fine sheers to heavy upholsteries, depending on required usage.

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Can be manufactured and woven for specific use, from fine sheers to heavy upholsteries, depending on required usage.

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Can be manufactured and woven for specific use from fine sheers to heavy upholsteries, depending on required usage.

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Drape and handle is very good if manufactured for this purpose.

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Fibre is generally not affected by mildew.

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Drape and handle is excellent if designed for this use.

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Durability and abrasion resistance is good if produced for upholstery application however can be susceptible to pilling.

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Long exposure to UV light will affect the fibre over time, weakening the yarn.

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Durability and abrasion resistance is generally very good.

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Very strong and stable fibre that is often blended with other fibres to improve durability for upholstery application.

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Generally has very good UV light resistance.

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A non-absorbent fibre, it will move very little in humid conditions.

A synthetic yarn from the polyolefin family which is a by-product of the petrochemical industry. Olefin, polyolefin and polypropylene share the same performance characteristics and are generally used to manufacture outdoor textiles. They are most suitable for outdoor application when the fabric has been solution dyed, which refers to the fibre being dyed in solution form prior to being extracted and manufactured into a yarn. Solution dyed fabrics give the best possible resistance against colour fading from direct UV exposure. The production of these yarns are generally environmentally friendly, being recyclable and resulting in minimal waste.

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Not affected by acidic pollution or mildew.

The benefits of polypropylene/ olefin/polyolefin:

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Strong and stable.

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Wrinkle resistance and recovery is very good.

Excellent colour fastness and resistance to fading.

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Fast drying.

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Highly stain and soil resistant.

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It is a strong fibre and has excellent abrasion resistance.

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Resistant to fading and mildew.

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Resistant to mildew and chemicals, making it easy to clean.

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Excellent sunlight resistance, most colour change experienced over time can be attributed to varying qualities in the dye stuff used during production rather than to the fibre itself.

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Generally not affected by mildew.

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Not affected by acidic pollution.

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Strong and stable, non absorbent.

DRALON:

POLYPROPYLENE/ OLEFIN/POLYOLEFIN:

ACRYLIC:

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Trademarked name for a highly durable acrylic yarn made by Bayer in Germany, which has a popular history in cost effective velvet production. MICROFIBRE: Microfibre is a term for fibres with strands thinner than one denier (1/60th of a human hair). Fabrics made with microfibres are exceptionally soft and hold their shape well. Microfibres are so fine it is difficult for moisture/ stains to penetrate the yarn giving them an inherently easy care finish. If microfibre is made from a synthetic yarn the fabric will be washable and generally stains will be relatively easy to remove. As outlined, fibres are natural or synthetic structures that can be spun into yarn. Yarns are then woven, knitted or bonded into fabric. The inherent characteristics of fibre properties directly relate to the performance and required care and maintenance of the finished fabric, therefore understanding fibres and yarns will in turn help you to understand fabric better.

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Novelty/Fancy yarns:

A continuous textile fibre of infinite length. Relatively long, measured in metres or yards. A filament yarn consists of filament fibres (long continuous fibres) which are either twisted, plied or grouped together. The majority of filament yarns are synthetic, except for silk which is a natural filament yarn. Texturised filament yarns are made by a process of air texturising plied filament yarns, replicating the characteristics of spun yarns. Finally a monofilament yarn has just one, single fibre that is usually not twisted.

An overview of common yarns and their characteristics Yarn is a long continuous length of interlocked fibres, suitable for use in the production of textiles. There are two main types of textile yarns; filament and staple/ spun. We outline the core differences between Filament and Staple/ Spun yarns and also explore the various Novelty/ Fancy yarns which are commonly used to produce textiles.

Staple/Spun: Relatively short, measured in millimetres or inches. Spun yarn is made by twisting staple fibres (a textile fibre of finite length) together to make a single, cohesive thread. These strands of yarn are twisted together (plied) in the opposite direction to make a thicker yarn. Twisting fibres into yarn in the process called spinning can be dated back to the Upper Palaeolithic era and yarn spinning was one of the very first processes to be industrialised. Spun yarns may contain a single type of staple fibre, or be a blend of various types. Most natural fibres are staple; the only natural filament fibre is reeled or cultivated silk. Combining synthetic fibres (which can have high strength, lustre, and fire retardant qualities) with natural fibres (which have good water absorbency and skin comforting qualities) is very common. The most widely used blends are cotton-polyester and wool-acrylic fibre blends. Blends of different natural fibres are common too, such as alpaca, angora and cashmere, with the yarn being selected for different textiles based on the characteristics of the yarn fibres, such as warmth, weight, durability or handle.

NOTE: Whilst most natural fibres are staple fibres, all synthetic fibres can be staple or filament; they generally begin as filament, and in this form can produce reeled/silk-like fabrics. They can also be cut or broken into staple to produce fabrics that look and feel more like wool, cotton or linen.

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MOKUM / STUDIO

Filament:

Novelty yarns, also referred to as Fancy yarns, include a wide variety of yarns made with unusual features, structures or compositions. Both synthetic and natural fibres are used to produce novelty yarns; synthetic fibres can be easily adapted and modified during production whereas natural fibres are allowed to retain their normal irregularities. BOUCLÉ: Bouclé is a yarn with a length of loops of similar size which can range from tiny circlets to large curls. To make bouclé, at least two strands are combined, with the tension on one strand being much looser than the other as it is being plied, with the loose strand forming the loops and the other strand as the anchor. Bouclé can also refer to the fabric made from this type of yarn, especially fabric that maintains the loopy appearance. CHENILLE: The soft, fuzzy surface of chenille yarns, which resemble pipe cleaners in appearance, can be created in several ways. A chenille yarn is generally created by placing short lengths of yarn, called the "pile", between two "core yarns" and then twisting the yarn together. The edges of these piles then stand at right angles from the yarn’s core, giving chenille both softness and its characteristic fuzzy appearance. The yarn is commonly manufactured from cotton, but can also be made using acrylic, rayon and olefin. Used to create a lustrous appearance and soft handle, it will look different in one direction compared to another as the fibres will catch the light differently.

CREPE: Crepe yarns may be classified as fancy yarns and are created by tightening the twist given to a yarn, resulting in a kinked or looped strand.

adding a metallic fibre or yarn to the blend. We recommend using stainless steel fibres for metallic effects to avoid degradation in strong ultraviolet conditions.

EYELASH:

NUB:

Eyelash yarn is made from a polyester fibre with a furry texture resembling eyelashes. These novelty yarns are made of a thin central ply surrounded by short "hairs" and are evenly spaced threads at intervals between lengths of bare core yarn.

A nub or knot is created by tightly twisting an effect yarn around the core base yarn at various intervals RIBBON: Ribbon is a type of yarn that resembles a ribbon. It can be made from synthetic or natural fibers, such as silk or cotton. Some ribbon yarns are flat, while others are tubular in construction.

HEATHERED: Yarn which is spun using pre-dyed fibres with flecks of alternative colours to produce a muted shade. Typically used to mix multiple tonal shades of a single colour.

SPACE DYED: Space dyed yarns are produced by dipping or jet spraying yarns in multiple colour combinations resulting in a multi-coloured yarn. Unlike heathered yarns where the colours are tonal, space dyed yarns can be either tonal or contrasting. Package-injection yarns are also referred to as space dying, where dye loaded needles are repeatedly and regularly injected into yarns wound onto cones.

MELANGE YARN: To create a similar effect as space dyed yarns however they are produced by using more than two different fibres (either different fibre types or same type different colour) plied together. METALLIC: Metallic yarns are often classified as fancy yarns and are created by

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JAMES DUNLOP / STUDIO

Basic types of fabric

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APPLIQUÉ:

EMBROIDERY:

Fabric: Starboard.

Fabric: Medallion.

Appliqué in reference to fabric, refers to a needlework technique in which cut out designs are created and sewn onto or applied to a larger piece of contrasting material. Most appliqué are now produced on modern embroidery machines where both the stitching, detailing and trimming are achieved mechanically by following a program.

Embroidery is ornamental needlework to decorate fabric and mainly produced by programmed embroidery machines. A wide variety of thread types can be used, with either silk, cotton, viscose or polyester being the most commonly used. The design work can also incorporate other materials such as pearls, beads and sequins.

JACQUARD:

PLAIN:

Fabric: Cappadocia.

Fabric: Envoy. Plain fabrics are characterised by simple weaves and textures not showing any complex design. They are mostly woven on dobby looms. Simple weaves are for instance – hopsacks, twills, herringbones and satins.

Jacquards are intricate fabrics woven on jacquard looms, a machine which was invented by Joseph J.M. Jacquard in 18011804. Jacquard looms are able to weave any pattern or design, with the loom’s patterning mechanism allowing control on any interlacing of up to several hundred warp threads. Traditional jacquard fabrics are brocades and damasks.

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PRINTED: Fabric: Solandra.

Burn Out Printing: A process which uses chemicals, rather than colour, to burn out or dissolve away one fibre in a fabric. The purpose is to achieve a sheer design on a solid or opaque fabric. The chemicals used during production can make this fabric sensitive to ultraviolet degradation when hung in direct sunlight. Digital Printing: Rapidly becoming a popular and commercially viable printing method due to its flexibility, precision and consistency. With this new printing technique it is now possible to print any design, even with photographic detail, onto fabric. There are no restrictions in the amount of colour that can be used.

Engraved Roller Printing: The printing method used for the majority of fabrics worldwide. The colours are printed directly onto the fabric. There must be one roller for each colour used in the print. The more colours used, the better the print definition and depth of colour. The number of colours used is printed on the left hand selvedge of a fabric along with the brand. Hand Block Printing: The oldest form of printing. Print designs are created by transferring dyestuffs onto fabric with the help of wooden, linoleum, or copper blocks. Artisans hand craft individual blocks to carry each different colour in a design and perfectly match block placement to create the all-over design. Transfer Paper Printing: Generally used to print onto polyester/cotton blend fabrics. The printing technique is transferring a printed design from paper to fabric via heat and pressure. Print definition is generally excellent.

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MOKUM / MAGNOLIA

Printing is the process of applying coloured designs and patterns to a woven textile. One or more colours are applied to the fabric in specific parts only, using thickened dyes to prevent the colour from spreading beyond the limits of the pattern or design. In quality printed fabrics, the colour is bonded with the fibre so as to resist loss of dye from washing and friction (crocking). Printing is an ancient textile manufacturing technique; below we outline a variety of print production methodologies.

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Common textile constructions There are various textile constructions/qualities that fall within the previous five fabric “types”. In this section we will discuss the most commonly manufactured constructions.

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CHINTZ:

DAMASK:

FAUX-LEATHER (VINYL):

FELT

FIL COUPÉ:

Fabric: Chintz.

Fabric: Nouveau Brocatelle.

Fabric: Ultra Leather.

Fabric: Mackenzie.

Fabric: Sadah.

Chintz is a closely woven plain fabric, traditionally cotton, with a shiny and lustrous appearance. The fabric is processed with a glazed or calendared finish to give it a polished look.

Damasks are traditional jacquard fabrics, which were originally woven in a single colour, where the design and ground are in contrasting weaves, (using generally warp-faced and weftfaced satin weaves).

Polyvinyl chloride (commonly abbreviated as PVC or referred to as vinyl) is the third-most widely produced polymer after polyethylene and polypropylene. It should not be washed with cleaning solvents, but more specifically only a mixture of gentle soap and warm water.

Felt is matted fabric with a predominantly woollen composition. There are two types of felt, woven and un-woven. Felting of woven wool fabric is achieved by interlocking the natural scales on the surface of wool fibres through heat, moisture, steam, pressure and friction.

A small jacquard pattern on a lightweight fabric, in which the fil/weft threads connecting each pattern/motif are cut and removed from the reverse of the fabric leaving the remaining pattern/ motif with frayed edges.

Polyurethane (PU) is becoming an equally important vinyl composition as it has a stronger resilience to cleaning solutions than PVC. Where PVC cracks, breaks down and looses its plasticiser (compound that keeps it soft) through exposure to alkaline cleaning chemicals, PU does not. It has a natural resilience to being cleaned and therefore is a suitable polymer to be used in healthcare and other frequently cleaned environments. Topical finishes can be applied to PVC Vinyls to achieve the same cleaning performance as PU but these topical finishes can rub off with heavy wear.

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IKAT:

LACE:

LENO:

MATELASSÉ:

MICROFIBRE:

MOIRÉ:

Fabric: Hula.

Fabric: Bruge Lace.

Fabric: Lyon.

Fabric: Magician.

Fabric: Moire.

Ikat fabrics are produced by resist dyeing methods of patterning yarn for warp and/or weft. Predetermined sections of yarn are bound tightly before dyeing to prevent penetration of the dye into the tied sections. When the yarn is woven the cloth shows characteristic blurred edges to the pattern, partly from movement or redistribution of the warp when put onto the loom, and partly from bleeding and capillary action.

Lace fabrics are delicate, openwork fabrics usually with a ground of mesh or net on which patterns are created either as the ground is made or at a later stage. The yarns in the construction are looped, twisted or knitted to achieve the openness of the fabric and the pattern.

Lenos are transparent woven fabrics, where warp yarns are made to diagonally cross other warp yarns by a special mechanism on the loom. This allows for weft yarns to be widely spaced and firmly held in place and produces an open and mostly transparent fabric.

Are soft, double cloth or compound fabrics which have a quilted surface effect and are made on Jacquard looms. Matelassé fabrics show surface effects such as blistered, puckered, quilted or wadded depending on the construction used.

Synthetic fibre that is spun extra thin (less than 1 denier). Made from a variety of synthetics such as polyester and rayon, microfibre can be made to resemble natural products such as suede leather or silk. Microfibre fabrics are woven/ knitted very tightly to keep dust and other allergens from seeping inside, they are also stain resistant (Spilt liquid initially forms into beads making it easy to wipe away with a dry cloth).

Fabrics which have a moiré or wavy watermark pattern. This is produced in finishing by calendering, usually on a fabric showing a rib or cord effect in the weft direction. The moiré effect can be achieved either by embossing with a roller engraved with a moiré pattern, or by feeding two layers of fabric face to face through a calendering machine. The effect may be permanent or temporary depending on the fibres and chemicals used.

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Microsuede – A soft type of microfibre created with 100% polyester and is designed to look and feel like real suede.

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MOQUETTE:

SATIN/SATEEN:

SHEER:

SUEDE:

Moquette fabrics are firm, woven warp-pile fabrics where the pile yarns are lifted over wires, which may or may not have knives. Withdrawal of the wires will either give a cut or an uncut pile creating a loop. Moquette fabrics are mainly used for upholstery, particularly in the public transport sector.

Fabric: Super Satin.

Fabric: Liquidity.

Fabric: Rio Velvet.

This type of fabric is woven in a satin weave and typically has a glossy surface and a dull reverse. Satins tend to have a strong lustre due to the high number of floats on the fabric surface.

Sheers are fine and transparent fabrics which, when used at the window, create a sense of movement and allow light to enter a room whilst also offering privacy. They can also help slow down deterioration of your soft furnishings from sunlight and UV degradation.

OMBRÉ: Fabric (woven): Maixme. Fabric (printed): Highline. Ombré fabrics show a graduated or shaded effect of colour, usually ranging from light to dark tones of one colour. The term ombré describes any fabric with a dyed, printed or woven design in which the colour is graduated from light to dark.

If a fabric is formed with a satin weave using filament fibres such as silk, nylon, or polyester, the corresponding fabric is termed a “satin”, although some definitions insist that the fabric be made from silk only. If the yarns used are short-staple yarns such as cotton, the fabric formed is considered a "sateen".

NOTE: Floats are missed interlacings, where the warp yarn lies on top of the weft.

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Sheer fabrics are often used with a coloured lining to create a main drape, whether they’re hung on a separate track or not depends on the desired outcome. Linings come in a wide variety of finishes and colours to produce a decorative look.

Suede fabrics are woven or knitted cloths, in which the face of the fabric is finished to resemble suede leather.

Sheers are available in various densities, weaves and widths, with some qualities being weighted on one selvedge. Historically weighted selvedges were made from lead however it is common nowadays for these to be made from zinc. Although the weighted hem gives a finished look and allows the sheer to drape well, their use can be restricted by room height. Architectural homes often have studs higher than 3.2m; in this situation, some sheers can be hung ‘wide width’ with the selvedge’s joined together to create an appropriate height drop (if you’re using a weighted sheer, just trim the weight off first).

TIP: Choose a coloured lining to match your main curtain for an inconspicuous look, or opt for a contrasting colour to use the lining as a feature.

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TAFFETA:

TAPESTRY:

TARTAN:

TOILE:

VELVET:

Fabric: Taffy.

Modern tapestry constructions are based on those that were traditionally woven on a vertical loom and have been in use for centuries.

Fabric: Lanark.

Fabric: Miyako.

Fabric (plain): Vintage.

Tartans are originally woollen twill fabrics, which were woven in checks of various colours and worn by Scottish clans. Tartans are now descriptive of a wider range of fabrics with this type of patterning and are sometimes called plaids.

Toile de Jouy is a type of decorative fabric consisting of a usually white or off-white background on which a repeated pattern depicting a fairly complex scene is shown. The motifs are generally printed and consist of a single colour, most often black, dark red or blue.

Fabric (pattern): Waterlily.

Taffeta fabrics are tightly woven, smooth, crisp fabrics with a slight weft direction rib and were originally made from continuous filament silk yarn, but are now often made using other fibres, particularly polyester.

Tapestries form only a small part of the upholstery market and are often used for more decorative applications due to its delicate nature and heavy weight.

Many effects are possible, for example the pile may be left erect or it may be laid in one direction to give it a lustre.

Velvet has a rich history and has been around for thousands of years. This opulent and luxurious fabric was once reserved for royalty, however due to modern manufacturing methods it is nowadays readily accessible for both traditional and contemporary interiors. Velvet’s recognisable textural quality will add softness and warmth to any space however this luxurious fabric needs to be handled and treated with care.

Generally, velvet used for drapery application is manufactured with the pile facing up as aesthetically this will give you a deeper and more intense colour and functionally any pile disturbance will disappear quickly as the pile relaxes. Alternatively, when using velvet in an upholstery application, it is most common to use the pile in a downwards orientation to give the furniture a smooth and consistent appearance.

Velvet is a cut warp pile fabric, in which cut fibrous ends of the yarn form the surface of the fabric. Velvet can be made from a variety of fibres ranging from natural compositions such as silk or cotton, through to complex synthetic blends. The fibre is woven on a special loom, weaving two pieces of velvet at the same time. The two pieces are then sliced apart and the lengths of fabric are wound on separate take-up rolls.

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TIP: When using velvet with the pile in a upwards direction, we recommend regular gentle vacuuming to remove accumulated dust as left unattended can become a fire hazard. Please refer to page XXX for more detailed information on the handling and care of velvet.

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Whenever you sell a fabric make sure you promote the protection of the main drape with a suitable lining. There are various types of lining on the market, each providing unique properties and characteristics. Using a quality lining, regardless of the type, will provide long term benefits for the customer by protecting their soft furnishings from fading and degradation. Linings will also improve the fullness of a curtain and compliment the finished appearance of the drape. Pairing a drapery order with a quality lining will increase the monetary value of every sale you make.

TIP: When choosing the colour of your lining consider the view of the house from the outside. We recommend choosing a colour which matches or compliments the outside of the house.

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CATHERINE MARTIN BY MOKUM / PALAIS

Lining unraveled

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We outline the most popular lining options: BLACKOUT THREE PASS LINING: Three pass (three layers) of coated compound is known as “Blackout” thermal lining. The process totally eliminates light penetration. Blackout lining naturally minimises the risk of natural flaws in the fabric from showing through. Blackout lining provides effective insulation and acoustic benefits.

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INTERLINING (BUMF):

DIMOUT LINING

Interlining/Bumf adds body and fullness to lightweight fabrics such as silk and taffeta. Its composition is typically either a blend of polyester/viscose/cotton or 100% napped cotton. Interlining/Bumf also improves insulation and acoustic properties of a room through noise reduction and provides extra protection from harmful UV rays. It works as additional padding for headboards and pelmets when used between the face fabric and lining.

Unlike the coated linings, a dimout lining is a woven construction that allows a small amount of light to pass through – hence the name “dimout” as opposed to “blackout”. It is a popular lining in both commercial and residential applications due to its affordability, washability, noise reduction properties and it has a soft/thick handle which adds fullness to a lightweight fabric such as silk and taffeta. Also, 100% polyester woven dimout linings elicit great natural mildew resistance. NOTE: Composition is important! 100% cotton is subject to shrinkage, which can pull the curtains out of shape on the leading edge. Also, being a natural fibre, 100% cotton is more rapidly affected by sun degradation and the accumulation of mildew in non-insulated or unventilated environments. For these reasons, synthetic blend linings are preferred.

NOTE FOR COATED LININGS:

TIP: When drawing your curtains during the day a blackout lining will ensure the colour of your main curtain isn’t saturated/washed-out by sunlight.

ONE PASS LINING: One pass (one layer) of coated compound is sometimes referred to as thermal lining. When paired with a face fabric, it offers the advantages of insulation and energy savings by trapping a pocket of air between the layers. It is important to understand that a certain amount of light will pass into the room with this construction. As with all quality linings, one pass lining not only protects soft furnishings from fading, they are also treated to resist mildew and have good draping characteristics. The manufacturing process of a one pass lining involves a single coat being applied directly to the reverse side of the fabric to reduce the amount of harmful ultraviolet light passing through the fabric, whilst increasing the insulation. See page XXX for further information about insulation.

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For all coated linings, the coated side of the fabric must face the glass to maximise UV and mildew resistant properties. ACRYLIC SUEDE VS SILICONE LAYERS: Traditionally, coated linings have been comprised of layers of acrylic suede compound. Although these acrylic suede layers have proven to be very successful in eliminating light source, they are unable to be machine washed. They can be gently hand washed if necessary and drip dried with coated surfaces facing out, however professional cleaning by a specialist is the recommended option. Recent advancements in technology have lead to coated lining layers being made of silicone compound, which creates a soft agile handle and has the added benefit of not eliciting any loose dust, as occasionally experienced with acrylic suede lining. As well as this, silicone coated linings are completely machine washable. We recommend washing silicone coated linings on a gentle machine cycle, not exceeding 30 degrees. As with acrylic suede linings, they should be drip dried with coated surfaces facing out.

TIP: Darker dimouts achieve a higher degree of light reduction than lighter colours.

UNCOATED LINING For customers not requiring blackout properties or an additional compound on their lining, standard uncoated linings are a popular choice. An uncoated lining is the ideal solution for those wanting to add weight and body to a curtain without compromising the soft integrity of the face fabric.

NOTE: Quality linings from reputable suppliers will add considerable benefits to your drapery installations and help preserve the lifespan of your clients' curtains.

Uncoated lining qualities vary in weight; with the simple square weave construction, also know as a “sheeting” weight, providing the most basic solution. However, when specifying uncoated linings, we recommended opting for the more substantial quality of a sateen weave with the inclusion of polyester for added stability. James Dunlop Textiles offer a proven 65% polyester / 35%cotton sateen weave uncoated lining that provides a subtle lustre with a full bodied yet very soft handle.

In Australasia, our proximity to the ozone layer hole means fading to some degree is inevitable. Although linings should not be expected to completely eliminate fading or mildew build-up, a quality lining will significantly improve the life span of soft furnishings. We always recommend stacking back your curtains away from the window to minimise degradation of the leading edge.

TIP: For those that don’t want a coated lining, a quality sateen weave uncoated lining is an excellent solution. It is far more effective than a basic square weave construction in providing the curtain with body and form for a luxurious finish.

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EXAMPLE / DOBBY LOOM

WARP VS WEFT:

Different textile looms

EXAMPLE / JACQUARD LOOM

Drapery and upholstery fabrics are generally woven on one of the following looms. DOBBY LOOM: Dobby looms are capable of weaving simple weaves and small geometric figures in a regular pattern. They cannot weave the complicated patterns that are woven on a Jacquard loom. The warp yarns are controlled by the raising and lowering of shafts through which the warps are threaded and the weft yarns are inserted through the warp by a shuttle running from one side of the loom to the other. As always, the warp yarns run vertically (up the roll) on the loom and the weft yarns run horizontally (selvedge to selvedge). JACQUARD LOOM:

to the weaving process, with their patterning mechanism allowing individual control of up to several hundred warp threads, making any interlacing with the weft thread possible. The warp yarns run vertically (up the roll) on the loom and the weft yarns run horizontally (selvedge to selvedge).

Jacquard looms enable very intricate weaving methods, making it possible to weave any design or large pattern into a given fabric. The Jacquard mechanism is one of the greatest weaving inventions of all time, invented by Joseph J.M Jacquard in 1801-1804. Jacquard looms offer incredible versatility

James Dunlop Textiles will always measure and record the vertical pattern repeat in the warp direction (up the roll) and the horizontal pattern repeat in the weft direction (across the roll, from selvedge to selvedge), regardless of the fabric width or the direction in which the fabric has been sampled. This is common industry practice, so having a clear understanding of warp and weft directions is very important. In the proceeding chapters we discuss pattern repeats and manufacturing directions for both drapery and upholstery application.

LOOM

Before proceeding with the nuts and bolts of the following chapters it is important to understand the terms warp and weft in relation to how the fabric comes off the textile loom. These terms will be referenced throughout Woven, so taking time to look at the following diagram will be helpful. Warp yarns always run up the roll, whilst weft yarns always run across the roll (from selvedge to selvedge).

TIP: It is easy to remember “weft to left”.

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YARN DYEING:

Warp-Beam Dyeing:

Yarn dyeing is the dyeing of the yarns before fabric manufacturing. Fabrics will showcase several colours in the woven design and texture as a result of this dyeing process. Yarn dyeing is, for example, used to create interesting checks and stripes with different coloured yarns in the warp and weft. There are many forms of yarn dyeing; below we outline the main methodologies.

Beam dyeing is a similar principle to package dyeing, but on a much larger scale. An entire warp beam is wound onto a perforated cylinder, which is then placed in the beam dyeing machine, where the flow of the dye bath alternates as described in the package dyeing above. Beam dyeing is more economical than skein or package dyeing, but it is only used in the manufacture of woven fabrics where an entire warp beam is required.

Package Dyeing: In package dyeing the yarn is wound on a small perforated spool or tube called a package. Many spools fit into the dyeing machine in which the flow of the dye bath alternates from the centre to the outside, and then from the outside to the centre of the package. Package dyed yarns do not retain the same softness and loftiness that skein-dyed yarns do, however they’re satisfactory and are very widely used.

Dyeing techniques Colour can be applied to fabric via a range of different dyeing techniques for various fibre types and at different stages of the textile manufacturing process. Textiles may be dyed as fibre, as yarn or as finished fabric depending on the type of fabric being produced. Below we outline the various dyeing methods available:

PIECE DYEING: Piece dyeing is the dyeing of fabric in piece form after it has been woven or knitted. It provides a single colour to the material and is the most commonly used method of dyeing. Below we outline two artisinal piece dying techniques. Basket Dyeing: An artisan process whereby washing and dyeing occurs during one simultaneous process. A formula of water and dye stuff is poured into a large washing machine along with the fabric. The volume is limited to one piece of fabric at a time, hence colour variation can occur across pieces. The fabric is tumbled with the liquid mixture to give a washed out/vintage effect. It is important to understand that this bespoke dyeing method is influenced by a number of extraneous variables and as such, there will be slight variation in colour and appearance across pieces. We recommend requesting a cutting for approval (CFA) when ordering basket dyed fabric.

Skein (Hank) Dyeing: Skein dyeing consists of immersing large, loosely wound hanks (skeins) of yarn into dye vats that are especially designed for this purpose. Soft, lofty yarns, such as hand knitting yarns are usually skein dyed. Skein dyeing is the most costly yarn-dye method. Solution Dyeing: Solution dyeing creates yarn from pre-coloured pellets such as olefin, polyester or acrylic. The pellets are put into solution, spun through a small nozzle into a chemical solution where they solidify and create mono-filament yarn that has colour throughout the yarn. Solution dyeing is now widely used for yarns that will be used for high performance outdoor fabrics and carpets.

Cross Dyeing: Cross dyeing is a process in which different yarn fibres in a fabric are dyed in the same bath but have different affinities for absorbing dye, subsequently resulting in a two-toned effect.

Space Dyeing: Colourants are applied at intervals along the yarn to create either a random or regular multi-coloured appearance.

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by living organisms however some can also be replicated in the lab, or specifically engineered to perform in a particular way. The biologically friendly enzymes gently eat away at the fabric for a matter of seconds, then are thoroughly washed away in water. The enzyme finish will create a unique variation in colour and may vary from roll to roll. Upon ordering a fabric with an enzyme finish we recommend requesting a cutting for approval (CFA), which is cut from the available rolls, allowing you to view and approve the fabric you will receive.

Finishing processes Before a fabric is finished at the mill it would be unrecognisable compared to how the finished fabric will look on a sample or piece of furniture. There are a lot of finishing processes used after weaving to improve the appearance, handle or performance of the fabric. Sometimes a fabric may only go through one or two finishing processes however some will undergo multiple processes. Fabrics which are produced to allow them to be used in their raw and unfinished state are called “loomstate". Loomstate fabrics generally have a natural look and feel.

Stone Washing:

CALENDERING: Calendering flattens the yarns, closes up the fabric and gives the cloth increased smoothness and lustre. The fabric is passed under rollers at high temperature/ pressure which polish the surface. Calendering is used on fabrics such as moiré to produce its watered effect, on chintz and cambric, as well as various types of sateens. The calendering finish is not always permanent, daily wear and washing can affect this finish over time. EMBOSSING: A surface effect achieved by passing fabric through a series of rollers. The rollers have engraved

patterns on them and the textured design becomes stamped onto the fabric, a process that is most effective on soft fabrics. The end result is a raised or sunken pattern depending on the roller, however, this effect is not permanent and can wear off over time. PLEATING: The pleating process forms folds by creasing fabric back upon itself and fixing the folds in place mostly through heat and pressure. Fabrics gain a puckered or crinkled effect through this process, which can be temporary or permanent depending on the fabric composition.

All of the finishing processes outlined below are designed to soften the feel or “handle” of a fabric and/or enhance the appearance in some way compared to how the fabric comes off the loom. Pile fabrics such as velvet and those with chenille yarn, will often go through multiple finishing processes after weaving.

through the machine by an intense airflow and then ejected against an impact grid positioned in the rear of the machine. This process discharges all the accumulated kinetic energy and provides a permanent effect of softening through a natural compaction of the fibres, delivering what is universally known as a “soft Airo handle”.

Airo Finish/ Biancalani:

Enzyme Finishing:

SOFTENING PROCESSES:

The Airo machine, commonly referred to as Biancalani, is based on the principle of an air-only fabric transport system coupled with the high speed crashing of the fabric against a special grid. The fabric, in rope form, is driven

Stone washing is a textile finishing process that creates a beautiful worn-out appearance. Stonewashing also helps to increase the softness and flexibility of otherwise stiff and rigid fabrics such as canvas and denim. The fabric is placed in a large horizontal industrial washing machine that is also filled with large stones. As the washing machine rotates, the fabric is repeatedly beaten to roughen up the fibres. This process creates a unique appearance that will likely vary from roll to roll, therefore in instances where a match is required we recommend requesting a cutting for approval (CFA) upon ordering. SOIL OR STAIN REPELLENT FINISH/TEFLON: During a soil or stain repellent finishing process, chemicals are applied to either the yarn or fabric, creating a barrier that inhibits absorption of dirt/water or oil based liquids, subsequently aiding in the easy removal of soil or stains from the fabric. Teflon is universally recognised brand of stain, soil and water repellent.

Enzyme finishing is a laundering process that uses enzymes to clean or finish fabric to achieve a “wornin” look. The washing process also yields a softer, more supple fabric. The enzymes used in this technique are proteins produced

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The main performance areas that relate to interior soft furnishings are:

For upholstery fabrics, a pressure of 12KPA is added to the moving sample head.

• Abrasion resistance

• Wyzenbeek or Oscillatory Abrasion Test: The Wyzenbeek test is the abrasion testing standard which is mainly used and accepted in North America.

• Colour fastness to light (UV) • Colour fastness to rubbing (crocking) • Colour fastness to washing and/ or dry cleaning • Dimensional Stability (Shrinkage) washing test. • Fire retardant rating – flammability performance to meet NCC requirements • Pilling

Fabric testing methodologies Fabric testing forms an important part of establishing the appropriate end use for a given fabric. It is based on how the fabric performs over a number of key performance indicators, all with different testing methodologies. Fabric testing is a means to determine whether the textile is suitable for the intended end use. By testing, fabrics can be classified into their suitability for end use categories, from delicate through to heavy duty commercial use. There are various testing methods used throughout the world with many countries establishing their own unique standards that fabrics must comply with.

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• Seam slippage ABRASION RESISTANCE: Abrasion is the wearing away of fibres and yarns through friction and rubbing. An abrasion test determines the fabrics resistance against abrasion and although this applies mainly to upholstery fabrics, pilling and abrasion damage can also occur with drapery if there is constant rubbing against walls and frames. The two most popular abrasion testing methods are as follows: • Martindale Cycles Test: The Martindale abrasion test is the British standard but it is also widely used and accepted in Europe, Australia and New Zealand. During Martindale testing a circular specimen, mounted in a specimen holder, is freely rotatable around its own axis and is rubbed against a standard abradant fabric in a pattern of movement known as the lissajous movement, which are basically mathematical curves. The machine is motor driven with an electronic digital counter to control the number of cycles. The normal end point of the test is when two threads are broken or in the case of pile fabrics when the pile has completely worn off.

Fabric is rubbed in a backward and forward motion along the warp and weft with a wire mesh screen over a curved stationary surface. The Wyzenbeek testing machine is motor driven with four abrasion heads and electronic digital counter to control the number of rubs. The apparatus allows for a mass or pressure to be applied onto the fabric surface during testing. The normal end point is when two threads are broken.

NOTE: There is no correlation between Martindale & Wyzenbeek test results. Both are different methods which test different properties. Success in one testing method does not infer success in the other.

It is important to select the appropriate method when testing abrasion, for example the Martindale test is not suitable for vinyls and faux leathers. Abrasion ratings are one important part of assessing the durability of an upholstery fabric, but understanding ratings of seam slippage, pilling, colour fastness and care instructions is also critical.

COLOUR FASTNESS TESTING: The different colour fastness tests measure the quality of the dyestuff/ colourant used on a fabric by indicating how well they’ll resist fading from various agencies such as UV light, rubbing and washing. Fading means a change in the fabric’s colour which may be a change in hue, depth or brightness, or any combination of these. • Colour fastness to rubbing (crocking): This test ascertains the resistance to dye loss when a fabric is subjected to rubbing by other fabrics as it happens while in use. The fabric is tested for both dry and wet rubbing. Dry and wet rubbing are exactly the same test; the only difference is the white fabric used to rub against the tested fabric is damp for the wet rubbing test, which makes this a more severe test for dye loss than the dry test. It should be noted however that in rare instances, some constructions perform worse with dry rubbing than they do with wet. The white fabric rubbed against the tested fabric is checked for colour transfer. The level of dye transfer is graded against ISO grey scales for rating colour change and staining, with 5 indicating no dye loss. Generally a result of 4 for dry rubbing and 3 for wet rubbing is desirable for upholstery fabrics. • Colour fastness to UV light: To access a fabrics colour fastness to light, the fabric to be tested is put under a Xenon Arc lamp under controlled conditions to replicate the effects of natural light exposure. To establish the degree of change, the fabric is removed at specific intervals (usually 40 hours for furnishing fabrics) and compared

to both a piece of the original fabric and a standard set of “blue scales”. The colour fastness to light test uses 8 blue scales which slowly graduate from light to dark, the results are graded between 1-8, 1 being poor and 7 being very good. It is important to note that the scales are logarithmic, meaning it will take blue scale 5 twice as long to fade to blue scale 4, keeping this in mind sales people begin to understand that there is a big difference between a 4 and a 5 result.

DIMENSIONAL STABILITY WASHING TEST:

Generally a result of 5 or greater is optimal for furnishing fabrics – particularly drapery fabrics, however as upholstery fabrics are generally not subjected to the same levels of direct sunlight exposure as drapery fabrics, a result of 4-5 or greater is considered sufficient.

The washing test can be conducted at various temperatures depending on care instructions recommended by the textile manufacturer.

This washing test is not a widely quoted test you will find on upholstery sampling, due to the fact that most upholstery fabric will be on fixed frames so only spot cleaning or dry cleaning in situ will be possible, not full washing. Drapery, loose covers and removable cushions/bean bag covers are the exception, making the washing test more relevant to them.

For a lot of soft furnishing fabrics 30-40 degrees Celsius would be a normal wash temperature if the fibres in the fabric are washable. For some synthetic fabrics the wash temperature can be a lot higher – 60-80 degrees Celsius, which is of particular relevance for fabrics intended for the commercial Health Care sector.

COLOUR FASTNESS TO WASHING/ DRY CLEANING: When testing colour fastness properties to dry cleaning or washing, laboratories use a small scale test replicating the real life wash or dry cleaning solutions that may be used to clean the goods. It is important to keep the liquor ratio (ratio of textile mass to water level) to a level that simulates domestic or commercial washers/ dry cleaning units. The textile to be tested is placed against a multifibre strip which is a strip of test fabric containing all major and common textile fibres; wool, acrylic, cotton, polyester, acetate and nylon. The test is conducted at a cycle and temperature that is likely to be used depending on the end use application of the fabric. The colour fastness rating is determined by using the grey scale for rating colour change and staining, with 5 indicating no dye loss. In some instances a spectrophotometer may be used to measure colour differences after the test.

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The wash test measures the percentage of fabric shrinkage (dimensional stability) that occurs after washing and drying at the recommended temperature in both the warp and weft direction. As a general rule of thumb, natural fibres tend to shrink more than synthetics as synthetic fibres such as polyester and nylon can be heat set. For many fabrics with fibres that do not respond well to washing, dry cleaning will often be the recommended cleaning method. FIRE RETARDANT TEST: An FR test reports on how the fabric reacted to fire; how quickly it ignited, how much smoke developed, how far the flame spread and how much heat was created from the burning fabric. There are many different FR testing methods used throughout the world with different FR regulations required in

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The British standard (BS) test is widely quoted for fire retardant fabrics, as is the North American standard (NFPA). In Australia and NZ the Australian Standard (AS 1530) is used. Many FR tests will have different levels of testing depending on the end use of the fabric being tested. For upholstery the AS 1530 part 3 is performed, whereas for drapery often both the AS1530 parts 2 and 3 are performed. Fabrics can be made FR either by using inherently FR yarn during the weaving process (such as CS Trevira) or they can be treated after weaving to improve the FR rating. As a general rule of thumb, synthetics tend to shrink and melt away from the heat whereas cellulosic fibres such as linen, cotton and viscose will burn aggressively like paper does. For upholstery fabrics this is often achieved by applying a backcoating of FR acrylic to the fabric that inhibits flame ignition and lowers the spread of flame index.

cleaning. The pilling test is generally performed using the Martindale abrasion method with the main difference being that the abradant used for the abrasion test is removed and replaced with the fabric to be tested, meaning the testing specimen rubs against a sample of itself on the base plate. There is no pressure used and the test runs for 1000 cycles only, with the laboratory assistant looking for changes to the appearance of the fabric not broken threads. At the end point of 1000 cycles, pilling will have formed on the fabric surface during the test as it would in upholstery application if the fabric is prone to pilling. Pilling is evaluated against a set of photographs rated 1- 5. The observer will rate the fabrics appearance based on which of these photographic scales it is closest to. Half points can be given if the result is rated between two photographs. If the level of change in the appearance of the fabric is minimal or non-existent then the fabric will be assigned a 5, i.e. no pilling. The more a fabric pills and causes a change in the appearance of the fabric the lower the number will be. A pilling result of between 3 and 4 is considered suitable for everyday use on furniture.

Often FR tests will just provide a result that the fabric has achieved against an index. For example the AS1530 part 2 test will give a number for the spread of flame from 1-100 with 0 indicating no spread of flame. Depending on the requirements for a given project the fabric will have to test lower than the index specified.

SEAM SLIPPAGE:

PILLING:

This is an important test for upholstery fabric, to ascertain how a fabric seam on a piece of furniture will hold when subjected to pressure. It is also used for drapery fabric, to test how it will

Pilling is the creation of unsightly balls or “pills” on the face of a fabric caused by the entangling of surface fibres during wear/ abrasion or washing and dry

Seam slippage is the measure of a woven fabrics ability to hold a seam. This test sews two pieces of the same fabric together with a standard seam, then subjects the seam to a controlled and constant load, measuring (in millimeters) any seam opening at that load. Slippage results in seam opening or a “grinning” appearance.

behave when a curtain header is sewn and subjected to weight. Depending on the test method and fabric application (i.e. drapery or upholstery), the fabric is pulled apart with different loads. Slippage can occur when warp yarns slip over weft or vice versa, hence both directions are tested. Basically the smaller the seam opening, the greater its ability to resist seam slippage. For upholstery use, the seam opening after the test has been performed should be no greater than 5 mm. The test also analyses how well the fabric would recover once the force is released, but generally speaking seam slippage damage is permanent. Recommendations for fabrics that are likely to stretch/move and therefore may be prone to seam slippage: •

In some cases an additional safeguard of stitching through a quarter inch tape along the seam may be necessary to prevent fraying in high- load areas (such as corner back cushions). This may be done at the manufacturer’s discretion after testing on individual designs.

•

Minimum of ½ inch seam allowance.

•

Minimum of 10-12 stitches per inch (25 mm).

•

Overlocking the seams.

•

We recommend reinforcing upholstery seams.

JAMES DUNLOP / MACKENZIE

different countries. The Australian Building Code or National Construction Code prescribes tests according to the end use of the textile, for example, whether the fabric is intended for drapery, upholstery or wall paneling.

UPHOL ST ERY

TIP: Fabric softeners which may have a lubricating effect (especially silicones) need to be avoided on fabrics that may be prone to seam slippage as the problem can be exacerbated by their use.

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General care and maintenance

MOKUM / INFINITE

Your fabric will be delivered with tickets attached advising relevant information. Tickets will relate to a variety of aspects of your fabric such as: design, colour, quantity supplied, width of fabric, pattern repeat, dye batch reference, composition, usage and care instructions. Thoroughly check the fabric against your measure sheet for accuracy. Do not assume your supplier will have retained reference to the dye batch number of your fabric once goods have been supplied to you.

TIP: Always instruct your workroom to retain all tickets until you are satisfied that the job has been completed to your requirements.

It is almost impossible to dyematch a fabric, should you need more for any reason, without this information – especially if your fabric was air freighted into the country specifically for your job. Cut a small sample of the fabric and attach to the ticket – keep this with the customer file for future reference.

and life of a fabric, so don’t automatically apply standard cleansers. Use of water-based solvent cleaners may cause excessive shrinking. The most effective way to maintain furnishings is with frequent vacuuming or light brushing to remove dust and grime. Regular preventative maintenance provides longevity.

Once the fabric is cut you have accepted responsibility for it.

TIPS:

The appropriate maintenance of soft furnishings depends on the fibre content, type of weave and the way in which the fabric was coloured and finished. Proper care and maintenance will significantly improve the life span of the fabric.

• Upholstering with slip-covers provides the added advantage of easy removal for regular cleaning. • Water stains may become permanent and impossible to remove with solvent cleaning agents. To address emergency spotting, gently blot up spills with a clean towel. Rubbing frantically or dousing with water may only worsen the situation, causing dirt to become engrained or dyes to bleed.

The appropriate cleaning code is assigned to the fabric at point of manufacturing. These codes must be included in all manufacturers’ retail swatches. However, despite whatever a particular code may recommend, cleaning by a professional furniture cleaning service is always safest. Many household cleaning solvents can be harmful to the colour

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CLEANING:

Handling and care of velvet

Velvet’s recognisable textural quality will add softness and warmth to any space, however this luxurious fabric needs to be handled and treated with care. The surface pile is vulnerable to pressure marks during manufacturing and use. Our orders of velvet are delivered in suspended cartons for larger rolls and smaller orders are protected by corrugated cardboard and plastic wrap for transportation. Despite this, bruising may occur if the roll is dropped or other heavy items are placed on top. If this does occur it is recommended that the fabric be unrolled and laid on a table flat and left for several days. This procedure will allow the pile to ‘breathe’ and recover naturally. Any severe bruising can be removed by gently steaming on the reverse side of the fabric.

TIP: It is a sound practice to unroll the velvet, and allow it to relax overnight before cutting.

COTTON VELVET: Cotton velvet is a natural product and being a pile fabric it will always bruise or flatten. If you run your hand over the velvet, the pile will move. Press on it and it will leave a mark, brush it in the right direction and it will return to its natural state. If the pile does flatten the angle of the pile alters which results in areas of the pile appearing lighter or darker in shade. This can easily be mistaken for uneven dyeing or shading but it is in fact an inherent characteristic of velvet/pile fabrics. During transit, velvet will always endure some marking. This does not render the velvet unusable as the fabric can be corrected by rubbing or brushing once it has been made up as drapery or upholstery.

TIP: Cotton velvet should be unrolled at the end of the working day and left on the cutting table overnight to rest. This will remove 99% of any transit damage. Bruises that occur during the manufacturing process can be brushed out or lifted with a light water mist.

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When cotton velvet is made up for curtains or as upholstery it will adopt its own unique appearance after some time, due to gravity and humidity of the surroundings. Pressure marks and rolling stripes are inherent in the product and will disappear in a ventilated and relatively humid environment. Cool steam or distilled water through a sprayer will enhance this process especially in climates where there is low relative humidity. Please note however this procedure should not be applied to fabrics that are flame retardant as liquids will likely cause stains which cannot be removed by dry cleaning. ROLLING: Your velvet should always be rolled with the pile surface on the inside and in the same direction as the pile. STORAGE: Rolls of velvet should always be stored in a horizontal hanging position, either in a shelving system designed to suspend rolls or in the original box, suspended. Velvet must not be stored vertically as this will cause creases that are difficult to remove

CATHERINE MARTIN BY MOKUM / BESPOKE

Dry cleaning is the preferred method for virtually all velvets although some Trevira velvets can be machine washed gently at 30 degrees Celsius. The best way to dry velvets after washing is a natural drying process rather than tumble drying.

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Technological advances have enabled the creation of high performance fabric. These are scientifically manufactured to withstand the rigours of adverse environmental and atmospheric conditions. In this section we outline the most common high performance textiles for our market.

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CATHERINE MARTIN BY MOKUM / PARADISO COLLECTION

High performance textiles

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ANTIMICROBIAL:

CRYPTONTM COATED:

FLAME RETARDANT:

Antimicrobial fabrics are inherently ‘bio-static’ textiles which will inhibit the growth of micro-organisms and provide protection against yeast, fungi and bacteria developing and settling into fabric. It also has stain resistance properties by inhibiting the absorption of liquids such as blood and urine. This is essential in the Health Care sector where spread of infection is of paramount concern.

Engineered on a molecular level, CryptonTM coated upholsteries are high performance heavy duty fabrics which elicit many long term benefits. Every fibre is encapsulated with technology that provides extreme stain resistance, easy stain release, odour release and silver ion microbial resistance that won’t wear or wash away. These qualities are permanently bonded to the fibre resulting in a long-lasting, easy-to-clean, highperformance fibre. Crypton’sTM impenetrable moisture barrier prevents anything from seeping through, keeping liquids and stains on the surface making them extremely easy to clean and maintain. The integrated barrier makes the fabric a non-porous surface, which means CryptonTM fabric can be disinfected when used in conjunction with an EPA approved CryptonTM disinfectant & deodoriser. Held to extremely high contract standards, all fabric must pass stringent tests for heavy-duty abrasion, strength, flammability, stain resistance, moisture barrier, resistance to microbial growth, cleanability and colour fastness.

Generally flame retardant fabrics are required for hotels, hospitals, offices, restaurants, cinemas, theatres, schools and other public buildings such as airports.

Anti-microbial textiles are required for beds, seating and privacy screens in hospitals and hospice applications but also add value wherever there is a high use environment. Hospitality is a growth market for these types of textiles as they are constantly exposed to food and liquid which can encourage the growth of bacteria. CryptonTM fabrics retain an inherent anti microbial finish that provide protection for the life of the textile, making them appropriate for these demanding environments.

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Flame Retardant fabrics; commonly referred to as ‘FR’ fabrics, are engineered to reduce the spread of fire. There is a misconception that an FR Textile is “fire proof ”, this is not the case. When a flame comes into contact with an FR fabric it is expected that the fabric will contract and a hole will appear, however it will not continue to ‘burn’ or add to the flame. FR fabrics have self extinguishing properties which control the spread of fire when a fabric comes into contact with a naked flame. A good example of this is when a candle is positioned within dangerous proximity to an FR curtain. If the flame gets blown into contact with the curtain, the FR fabric will contract as though it is melting and a hole will appear (a silhouette of the candle flame). A non FR fabric will likely combust and the flame will track up and across the curtain spreading to anything else in the room that can burn. Governing bodies around the world adhere

to different FR standards, which require respective supporting test results. We recommend you talk to your nearest friendly Fire Engineer to educate yourself on your local textile ‘FR’ standards. There are two primary forms of fire retardant textile; those which have an FR treatment applied retrospectively, and those which are inherently FR through fibre and construction. FR TREATMENTS: A chemical process whereby a fabric has an FR treatment applied onto the yarn retrospectively, or after the fabric has been produced. The chemical creates the barrier between the flame and the fabric. FR treated textiles are often more affordable than inherently FR fabrics. The lifetime of the FR treatment cannot be guaranteed as it can dissipate in time through hard wear or washing.

TIP: FR treatments can be applied to most textiles in order to achieve local codes of compliance. These treatments can be job specific. There are many facilities that can offer this service.

INHERENT FR CONSTRUCTION:

MACHINE WASHABLE: Machine washable textiles are in high demand for both residential and commercial applications. Residentially, there is often a request for washable fabrics for upholstery, top-of-bed and drapery, especially in situations where small children and pets are prevalent.

A process whereby the molecular structure of the fibre/yarns used to produce a fabric have been engineered to possess FR characteristics. The fire retardant nature of these products will remain true for the full life of the product as it is inherent in the yarn and therefore cannot be washed out. We recommend inherent FR products for high usage commercial applications where laundering is important.

These can be natural yarns such as cotton and linen, blended yarns such as polyester/cotton and for high performance, polyester and/ or acrylic yarns. Commercially, the hospitality market demands washable fabric, for example in high use applications such as hotel rooms where textiles are constantly in use. In some cases, high performance fabrics are capable of being hot washed to 60 degrees Celsius which is an excellent selling feature for the Health Care sector. Residentially this is also advantageous especially in a situation where the home dweller suffers from allergies. It is important when utilising washable fabrics to carefully read the provided care instructions as some will require a more gentle, cold or delicate cycle where temperature and detergent must be sparingly used for best results and to avoid damage.

TIP: In order to preserve the inherent FR construction, it is imperative to refuse any additional treatments or finishes as these may affect or alter the FR properties of these fabrics.

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COVERIN G S

OUTDOOR:

Designed and engineered for both outdoor and indoor use, these high performance textiles are durable, easy care and have excellent sunlight resistance. Due to technological advancements in outdoor yarns, nowadays outdoor textiles achieve a more natural appearance, softer handle and finer construction than ever before. This improves the flexibility of application with outdoor textiles, enabling them to work seamlessly in both indoor and outdoor spaces where the fabric is subjected to direct sunlight and heavy usage.

• These compositions will withstand even the strongest sunlight and UV exposure. • Its lifespan will outlast all natural fibres as the fabric will not fade or degrade. • Solution dyed acrylic & olefin/ polyolefin/polypropylene have colour permeated throughout the fibre – not only on the surface, resulting in excellent colour fastness to light. • Solution dyed acrylic & olefin/ polyolefin/polypropylene are easily cleaned and air dry quickly. These fibres are machine washable at 30 degrees Celsius plus bleach-cleanable for stubborn stains. • Solution dyed acrylic & olefin/ polyolefin/polypropylene do not promote the growth of mould and bacteria and can be used in humid environments.

Outdoor fabrics should be woven with the tried and tested fibres of solution dyed acrylic and solution dyed olefin/polyolefin/ polypropylene. These compositions will provide benefits in both the quality and longevity of the fabric:

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Did you know? Solution dyed polypropylene/ olefin/ polyolefin generally meet the pilling and abrasion requirements for commercial heavy duty whereas solution dyed acrylic won’t surpass medium duty residential requirements.

TIP: When upholstering for the outdoors, it is important to use outdoor reticulated foam which allows water to reticulate or drain away ensuring the cushions dry quickly and maintain their shape, comfort and durability. They come in three densities – soft, medium and firm. When outdoor reticulated foam is combined with quality high performance fabrics and manufactured using a mesh base, the furniture’s cushions will dry out easily and effectively and thus provide comfort and superior performance for years to come.

JAMES DUNLOP / CARIBBEAN COLLECTION

Many of our outdoor textiles offer high performance aspects such as UV resistance, soil and stain resistance, mildew resistance, high abrasion results and fire retardancy along with the added value of being machine washable. This ensures their suitability for residential, commercial, indoor and outdoor applications where washability is required and/or desired.

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TIP: Always be aware of recommended usage and care instructions provided by your textile wholesaler.

FABRIC STABILITY:

How to increase the lifespan of your textiles DURABILITY/PILLING: Though this applies mainly to upholstery fabrics, pilling and abrasion damage can also occur in drapery if there is constant rubbing against walls and frames. Different weaves greatly affect a fabric’s performance, such as the density of weave and the number of floating fibres, but if woven for a situation where strength and abrasion resistance are the prime consideration, then cotton, linen, polyester, nylon, acrylic and wool can make strong and durable upholstery fabrics. Nylon particularly, when even 10% is blended with cotton or linen, produces a far more abrasion resistant fabric. While the above are guidelines, understanding the properties of fibres will help in discerning their suitability in certain situations. Many fabrics contain combinations of yarns in order to achieve the best performance and effect.

Best choice: Polyester, acrylics, cotton and blends Caution: Silk, linen, viscose in lightweight constructions. Fabric stability is particularly critical for curtains and blinds and while a degree of tolerance is essential because all fibres expand and contract as a result of atmospheric changes, some fibres are more affected than others. Generally fabrics alter in length when they absorb or release moisture. Fibres that release a lot of moisture will obviously ‘move’ more. Most natural fibres absorb moisture readily, which is why they are used for towels etc. Synthetic or man made fibres have very poor absorption which can make them uncomfortable to wear, but in furnishings they ‘move’ less. However, other factors must also be taken into account such as location, for example the proximity to the sea. As sea air is heavy with salt, being anhydrous (it absorbs water), when this adheres and settles amongst the fibres, this will naturally attract moisture and this will cause additional weight.

Abrasion ratings are part of assessing upholstery fabrics, but understanding ratings of ‘tensile

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HUMIDITY: Best Choice: Polyester, acrylic Caution: Cotton, wool, silk, viscose, linen In humid conditions, bacteria, fungi (mildew) and sometimes moth larvae can create unsightly problems and in some cases totally destroy the fibres. Generally mildew thrives on natural and cellulose fibres e.g. cotton, silk, wool, linen and viscose. While good air circulation in a room coupled with hanging curtains at least 10 cm from the glass helps, selecting fibres such as polyester and acrylic, which are mildew resistant, is a better option. However, even this may not completely eliminate the problem. While mildew will not grow on these fibres, it will grow on dust or dirt which may become trapped between the fibres. Regular vacuuming and washing or dry cleaning will help prevent this but in extreme conditions, this is no guarantee.

JAMES DUNLOP / HIGHLINE

seam slippage’ and ‘pilling’ is also critical. Quality suppliers with reputable brands and standards will supply only ‘fit for purpose’ products.

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SUNLIGHT & UV DEGRADATION:

TIPS:

High levels of humidity is the largest contributor to drapery movement.

Best choice: Acrylic and polyesters blends

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TIPS:

While Southern Hemisphere conditions can be so severe that virtually no fabric producer worldwide will guarantee their products at the window, with modern technology, beautiful fabrics are being created which will perform well with longterm satisfaction, even in harsh conditions. Sunlight degradation is one of the prime considerations of curtaining and man-made fibres perform well in resisting damaging rays. The fibre most resilient to sunlight damage is acrylic, followed very closely by polyester. If fabrics made from these fibres do experience colour change, the problem will probably be with the dye or cleaning process, not the fibre.

If your client insists on using delicate fabrics make them fully aware of the ramifications of their choice by recording any ‘industry performance’ notations in your quotes. This can save a lot of issues later on.

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Leading edges of curtains are susceptible to fading. If fading occurs, a cost effective solution is to swap the curtains so that the leading edge becomes fixed to the wall, and vice versa.

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Rotate furniture cushions frequently to ensure sun degradation occurs evenly.

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Using a synthetic ‘band’ of a contrast fabric down the leading edge will help to protect the curtains and can also be a dramatic design feature.

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In curtaining, unless the fabric is a sun filter or sheer, it should always be lined. An allowance must be given for a certain amount of movement as a result of atmospheric conditions. Considering all the different fibre characteristics, the blending of different fibres into yarns and the combining of different yarns into fabrics can overcome many of the disadvantages of specific fibres.

Caution: Silks, wools

Of the natural fibres, cotton and linen have quite good sun resistance and again, any colour change here is usually the result of dye or cleaning. However, it is recommended that for Australasian conditions, these fabrics should be protected with a quality lining. Silk is admired for its beauty and luxury, however it is sensitive to UV damage and affected by even reflected light. The addition of coated linings coupled with bumf will help protect the fabric, although the exposed ‘leading edge’ of curtains will likely still deteriorate. Where possible, it will increase the life of silk curtains if they can be stacked beyond the window.

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drapery applications. Depending on the situation, there are many different linings available e.g. coated linings for added insulation and protection, and three pass blackout linings where light control is a priority such as in children’s bedrooms. •

Important points

It is important to have a realistic understanding that all fabrics, regardless of dyestuffs used, will eventually fade/deteriorate under direct sunlight over time. James Dunlop Textiles utilise the best standard dyestuffs, and whilst no warranty can be made as to colour fastness because of our extreme UV conditions, they should perform sufficiently under normal conditions provided proper care is taken.

JAMES DUNLOP / ALPINE COLLECTION

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Fabrics manufactured from natural fibres that are not dyed may suffer from after bleaching, causing lightening or a deepening in colour when exposed to natural light. As this is a natural phenomenon, allowance must be made for this unpreventable colour change reaction. Some yarns, such as silk, are even susceptible to indirect UV rays and every precaution should be taken to protect the fabric by the use of a bumf or interlining as well as conventional lining. Even then, colour degradation may still occur over time. A superior quality lining is always recommended for

to shipment. Please ensure the original sample selected is checked against the fabric dispatched before it is put into manufacture. Once fabrics are cut or manufactured, colour matching and inherent faults are deemed as accepted by the consumer.

Leading edges of curtains (those facing the windows) are particularly vulnerable to sunlight degradation. To help minimise this effect, it is recommended that curtains be rotated periodically where possible, i.e. the left-hand curtain swapped into the right hand position, annually. A quality sun filter is also important where sunlight is directly reflecting on the fabric behind the glass.

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Curtains should be hung at least 10 cm from the glass to enable air to circulate. This helps prevent mildew and reduces heat build up that will also adversely affect fabrics. Regular cleaning of windows is also very beneficial as this removes mildew spores, which can accumulate and transfer onto curtains.

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Depending on fibre content, there will always be some movement in curtain length (the longer the curtain, the greater the variation) due to temperature change and the absorption and release of atmospheric moisture from the yarn of the fabric. This is normal for heavy yarns such as cotton.

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To maintain and preserve the lifespan of your furnishings, regular dusting and vacuuming should be undertaken, but frequent laundering is seldom required.

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Whilst all care is taken in production, there can be dye batch variation from shipment

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Fabric pattern repeats are approximate as they vary from batch to batch and are often affected by the finishing processes used during production.

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When dealing with roll stock, 5– 6 flaws per 50 metres is deemed acceptable by international industry standards. Spinning, weaving, dying and finishing processes during fabric production involve unique materials and methodologies, accordingly, when quoting for large volume, i.e. commercial projects, an allowance of 3% by volume should be added to your fabric order to cover ends, joins and fabric imperfections.

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Your role is to meet your customer’s needs. Each customer is unique and will have their own ideas on design and style. In order to properly advise customers seeking soft furnishings you must consider the following: •

How much UV light is in the area? Is it direct or indirect? Have you taken this into consideration when specifying an appropriate fabric and colour?

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What are the realistic requirements for composition based on your customer’s expectations? Will the inherent characteristics of the fabric’s composition perform?

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What are your customers expectations? What do they want to achieve?

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What is the surrounding environment and how will this affect the fabric? E.g. if it’s very humid, have you considered the likelihood of fabric shrinkage and allowed for movement in fabric quantity calculations? The topic of shrinkage is especially important for loose upholstery covers.

Listen to your client’s request and use your textile expertise to ensure they’ll be satisfied with the end result. By successfully engaging your customer with product knowledge and expertise, whilst identifying and solving problems, you will soon find that you are closing at least 80% of your presentations. Make sure you are selling a quality product. Although your fabric samples will cover a large range of price points to cover the various market segments, you should be careful to ensure that all of the fabrics you recommend meet minimum quality criteria. There is no point in including fabrics that shrink, warp, fade or do not have good draping characteristics. Selling substandard fabrics, even if they are competitively priced, will prove to be expensive in the long run. The cost of replacing curtains and the loss of goodwill will decrease any of the initial profit on the job. When you are considering introducing a new fabric into your range, make sure that you get the fabrics product specification sheet from the wholesale supplier.

COVERIN G S

The product specification sheet should include: •

Care instructions

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Composition

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Pattern repeat

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Selvedge and/or pattern direction indicators as required

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Relevant test results

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Recommended usage

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Width

The company representative can supply or advise you with recommended usage and care details. As an extra precaution, give a sample of any new fabric to the most experienced person in your company workroom and ask for their opinion on its sewing, handling and draping capabilities. You must have total confidence in each of the fabrics in your sample range. JAMES DUNLOP / DRIFT

Summary

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