ITJEMAST V11(8) 2020 @ TuEngr.com

Volume 11 Issue 8 (2020)

DEVELOPMENT OF PREPARING FEED MACHINES

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PREPROCESSING OF ARECA LEAF FOR SHREDDING USING A DOMESTIC MIXER

http://TuEngr.com MEDIATING EFFECTS OF ICT ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' ATTITUDE AND ANXIETY TOWARDS SCIENCE DETERMINATION OF STOCK RETURNS USING FIVE-FACTOR CAPM: EVIDENCE FROM PSX SUSTAINABILITY OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING: A REVIEW OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS EFFECTS OF PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS ON REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: CASE STUDY OF PARK VIEW APARTMENTS IN ERBIL CITY CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSE LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS BY THE BUYERS’ NEEDS ACCORDING TO THE KANO MODEL ENTERPRISE RISK MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF PAKISTAN MANUFACTURING FIRMS: DOES THE EQUITY OWNERSHIP MATTER? COMPARISON OF THE CONSTRUCTION COSTS OF LEED AND NON-LEED COFFEE SHOPS IN BANGKOK, THAILAND KEY FACTORS FOR SMART HOUSE QUALITY ASSURANCE

PROSPECTS OF USING RICE CEREALS AND FLOUR IN THE PRODUCTION OF CANNED PRODUCTS OF LONG STORAGE INTER-CITY BUS SERVICE QUALITY AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF TRAVELERS: A CASE OF LONG-DISTANCE ROUTES IN PAKISTAN EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND NITRATE ON CORAL HEALTH LEVELS: A CASE STUDY OF HUMP CORAL (Porites sp.)

EFFECTS OF BASEL EQUITY AND LIQUIDITY REGULATIONS ON BANKING SECTOR FAILURE RISK IN EMERGING ASIAN ECONOMIES TECHNOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENT OF CROP CULTIVATION PROCESSES AN EXPERIMENTAL BATHYMETRY SURVEY USING A SMART IoT PONTOON IN THAILAND RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEW MEDIA LITERACY AND MOTIVATION IN SOLVING FAKE NEWS PROBLEM ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CROPS PRODUCTION USING A TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM SMART IOT PONTOON MANEUVERING ALONG RIVER CURRENTS ROLES OF HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES IN ENHANCING EMPLOYEES RETENTION: EVIDENCE FROM BANKING SECTOR OF SHAHEED BENAZIRABAD, PAKISTAN 3D DOCUMENTATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES USING DRONE AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY: A CASE STUDY OF PHILIPPINE UNESCO-RECOGNIZED BAROQUE CHURCHES

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

International Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief Ahmad Sanusi Hassan, PhD Professor Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA

Executive Editor Boonsap Witchayangkoon, PhD Associate Professor Thammasat University, THAILAND

Editorial Board:

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Mohamed Gadi (University of Nottingham, UNITED KINGDOM) Professor Dr.Hitoshi YAMADA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Professor Dr. Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN ) Professor Dr.Mikio SATOMURA (Shizuoka University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Chuen-Sheng Cheng (Yuan Ze University, TAIWAN) Emeritus Professor Dr.Mike Jenks (Oxford Brookes University, UNITED KINGDOM ) Professor Dr.I Nyoman Pujawan (Sepuluh Nopember Institute of Technology, INDONESIA) Professor Dr.Toshio YOSHII (EHIME University, JAPAN) Professor Dr.Neven Duić (University of Zagreb, CROATIA) Professor Dr.Dewan Muhammad Nuruzzaman (University Malaysia Pahang MALAYSIA) Professor Dr.Masato SAITOH (Saitama University, JAPAN)

Scientific and Technical Committee & Editorial Review Board on Engineering, Technologies and Applied Sciences:

Associate Prof. Dr. Paulo Cesar Lima Segantine (University of São Paulo, BRASIL) Associate Prof. Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA ) Associate Prof. Dr. Truong V.B.Giang (Vietnam National University, Hanoi, VIETNAM) Associate Prof. Dr. Fatemeh Khozaei (Islamic Azad University Kerman Branch, IRAN) Assistant Prof.Dr. Zoe D. Ziaka (International Hellenic University, GREECE) Associate Prof.Dr. Junji SHIKATA (Yokohama National University, JAPAN) Assistant Prof.Dr. Akeel Noori Abdul Hameed (University of Sharjah, UAE) Assistant Prof.Dr. Rohit Srivastava (Indian Institute of Technology Bombay, INDIA) Assistant Prof. Dr.Muhammad Yar Khan (COMSATS University, Pakistan) Assistant Prof. Dr. David Kuria (Kimathi University College of Technology, KENYA ) Dr. Mazran bin Ismail (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA ) Dr. Salahaddin Yasin Baper (Salahaddin University - Hawler, IRAQ ) Dr. Foong Swee Yeok (Universiti Sains Malaysia, MALAYSIA) Dr.Azusa FUKUSHIMA (Kobe Gakuin University, JAPAN) Dr.Yasser Arab (Ittihad Private University, SYRIA) Dr.Arslan Khalid (Shandong University, CHINA)

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies.

:: International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

Volume 11 Issue 8 (2020) http://TuEngr.com

ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642

FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES DEVELOPMENT OF PREPARING FEED MACHINES

11A8A

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PRE-PROCESSING OF ARECA LEAF FOR SHREDDING USING A DOMESTIC MIXER

11A8B

PROSPECTS OF USING RICE CEREALS AND FLOUR IN THE PRODUCTION OF CANNED PRODUCTS OF LONG STORAGE

11A8C

INTER-CITY BUS SERVICE QUALITY AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELLBEING OF TRAVELERS: A CASE OF LONG-DISTANCE ROUTES IN PAKISTAN

11A8D

EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND NITRATE ON CORAL HEALTH LEVELS: A CASE STUDY OF HUMP CORAL (Porites sp.)

11A8E

EFFECTS OF BASEL EQUITY AND LIQUIDITY REGULATIONS ON BANKING SECTOR FAILURE RISK IN EMERGING ASIAN ECONOMIES

11A8F

TECHNOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENT OF CROP CULTIVATION PROCESSES

11A8G

AN EXPERIMENTAL BATHYMETRY SURVEY USING A SMART IoT PONTOON IN THAILAND

11A8H

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEW MEDIA LITERACY AND MOTIVATION IN SOLVING FAKE NEWS PROBLEM

11A8I

ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CROPS PRODUCTION USING A TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM

11A8J

SMART IOT PONTOON MANEUVERING ALONG RIVER CURRENTS

11A8K

ROLES OF HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES IN ENHANCING EMPLOYEES RETENTION: EVIDENCE FROM BANKING SECTOR OF SHAHEED BENAZIRABAD, PAKISTAN

11A8L

i

3D DOCUMENTATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES USING DRONE AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY: A CASE STUDY OF PHILIPPINE UNESCORECOGNIZED BAROQUE CHURCHES

11A8M

MEDIATING EFFECTS OF ICT ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' ATTITUDE AND ANXIETY TOWARDS SCIENCE

11A8N

DETERMINATION OF STOCK RETURNS USING FIVE-FACTOR CAPM: EVIDENCE FROM PSX

11A8O

SUSTAINABILITY OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING: A REVIEW OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS

11A8P

EFFECTS OF PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS ON REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: CASE STUDY OF PARK VIEW APARTMENTS IN ERBIL CITY

11A8Q

CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSE LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS BY THE BUYERS’ NEEDS ACCORDING TO THE KANO MODEL

11A8R

ENTERPRISE RISK MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF PAKISTAN MANUFACTURING FIRMS: DOES THE EQUITY OWNERSHIP MATTER?

11A8S

COMPARISON OF THE CONSTRUCTION COSTS OF LEED AND NON-LEED COFFEE SHOPS IN BANGKOK, THAILAND

11A8T

KEY FACTORS FOR SMART HOUSE QUALITY ASSURANCE

11A8U

Contacts: Professor Dr.Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Editor-in-Chief), School of Housing, Building and Planning, UNIVERSITI SAINS MALAYSIA, 11800 Minden, Penang, MALAYSIA. Tel: +60-4-653-2835 Fax: +60-4-657 6523, Sanusi@usm.my, Editor@TuEngr.com Associate Professor Dr.Boonsap Witchayangkoon (Executive Editor), Thammasat School of Engineering, THAMMASAT UNIVERSITY, Klong-Luang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel: +66-2-5643005 Ext 3101.

Fax: +66-2-5643022 DrBoonsap@gmail.com, Editor@TuEngr.com Managing Office TUENGR Group, 88/244 Moo 3, Moo Baan Saransiri, Klong#2, KlongLuang, Pathumtani, 12120, THAILAND. Tel/WhatsApp: +66-995535450.

P t l P id i MALAYSIA/THAILAND Side image is Sweet Tropical Oranges (Tangerine: C. reticulata).

The #stayhome is a popular hashtag and helps save lives, during Covid19 pandemic.

ii

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8A

DEVELOPMENT OF PREPARING FEED MACHINES Alexey Marchenko

1*

1

Department of Descriptive Geometry and Graphics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

ABSTRACT

Article history: Received 02 August 2020 Received in revised form 03 February 2020 Accepted 20 February 2020 Available online 24 February 2020

This article presents the results of the development of a device for the production of feed in devices based on real screw drums. The novelty lies in the manufacture of the working body of the device for the continuous preparation of feed from sections, the elements of which during installation are mounted at predetermined angles both to each other and to the axis of rotation. In this case, they work like shelves, capture portions of particles of feed components and direct them towards not only each other but also opposite walls of a rotating real screw drum.

Keywords:

Feed technology; Relational screw drum; Feed production; Machinary invention.

Disciplinary: Agricultural Machinery. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION At the enterprises of our country and abroad for the execution of feed production operations, the most widespread are various drum devices with mixing blades located inside.

However, the low intensity of the ongoing processes and their localization in a limited area leads to a long duration of the implementation of feed production processes and therefore, the implementation of these technological operations in drum devices is ineffective. An engineering and scientific search for innovative feed production technologies is constantly being carried out, ensuring an increase in their efficiency and productivity.

This problem can be solved with the help of machines, the working bodies of which are real screw drums, which due to the original geometry provide not only non-standard forms of particle movement of feed components with a large amplitude (10-1000 mm or more) but also a significant energy intensity of their interaction. The spatial form of relational screw drums was created by us due to the helical lines of the main and opposite directions formed along their perimeter.

Such original devices retain the positive characteristics of both drum devices - ease of manufacture, operation, insignificant losses in the transfer of energy from the engine to the masses of *Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

1

granular media, and vibration devices - not only the high speed of the feed preparation processes but also highly specific productivity at relatively low energy costs, as well as significantly smaller, compared with other devices, dimensions. As a result of the creation of such devices for the continuous preparation of feed, a fundamental possibility of reducing production areas, vehicles, capital, and operating costs, that is, the creation of resource-saving machine-based innovative technologies opens up. A feature of such machines is the combination of technological and transport operations.

2. METHOD The basis for the development was taken the device, which consists of a frame 1, welded from the corners. Four support bearings  are fixed in pairs on the bed . Two shafts  and  are mounted in them with the possibility of rotation. Four support rollers 5 are rigidly mounted on the shafts, on which the rotary screw drum 7 is rotated with the possibility of rotation by means of rims 6.

Figure 1: Device for the continuous preparation of feed (front view).

Figure 2: Device for the continuous preparation of feed (section AA in Figure 1)

2

Alexey Marchenko

A loading device 8 is fixed on the bed 1, providing a continuous supply of particles of the components of the concentrated feed into the relational screw drum 7. On the opposite side of the relational screw drum 7, on the discharge side, a slip 9 is mounted on the bed 1, with which particles of the components of the concentrated feed after mixing from the inner cavity of the relational screw drum 7 is moved under the action of its own weight in the tank 1. The rotation of the relational screw drum 7 is communicated from the motor 11. Through the clutch gear 13 and the belt drive, by means of interchangeable pulleys 14 and 15, the rotation is communicated to the shaft 3. The shaft 3 rotates in the bearing bearings 2 and by means of the support rollers 5 and the rims 6 transmits the rotation to the rotary screw drum 7. The angle of inclination of the axis of rotation the relational screw drum is adjustable by tilting the entire device.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The elements from which the rotating relational screw drum is assembled are different in area, size and configuration, therefore, the intensity of the feed preparation increases, since these elements, working as shelves, capture portions of feed different in volume and direct them towards each other, thus violating , the stationarity of their movement, increase the intensity of interaction, expand technological capabilities.

The execution of a relational screw drum from sections, the elements of which, when mounting the drum, are mounted at certain angles not only to each other, but also to the axis of rotation, and therefore, working like shelves, they capture portions of particles of feed components and direct them towards not only each other, but and opposite walls of the rotating drum. Therefore, the intensity of feed preparation increases, the technological capabilities of the device for continuous preparation of feeds increase. The area, shape and size of the bore of the relational screw drum along its length varies from loading to unloading, first to increase and then decrease, thereby intensifying the preparation of feed, not only the activity of the interaction of particles of the components of the feed with each other and with the walls of the drum increases , but also changes the frequency of their interaction and the amplitude of the movement relative to each other, resulting in increased technological capabilities of the device for the continuous preparation of feed. This constructive design of the relational screw drum along the perimeter with helical lines and screw surfaces allows not only to provide longitudinal cascade movement of feed components along the entire length of the drum, but also to increase the productivity of feed preparation and expand technological capabilities. The cross-sectional shape of the relational screw drum is a polygon, which in length changes not only the shape and dimensions of the sides of the polygon, but also their location relative to the axis, giving the particles of the feed components a waterfall mode of movement, which helps to increase productivity. Since the frequency of movement of particles of the components of the feed in the proposed design is determined not only by the rotational speed of the relational drum, but also by the number of flat elements along its perimeter, such a structural design of the drum by increasing the number of flat elements in each section around the perimeter increases the frequency of collisions for each revolution of the drum particles of feed components between each other and with the walls of the drum, increases the productivity of feed preparation, increases technological capabilities. The elements from which the *Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

3

relational screw drum is assembled are mounted at certain angles to each other, therefore the intensity of the interaction of the components of the feed increases, since these elements, working like shelves, capture portions of particles of the components of the feed, direct them towards each other and on the walls moving on the opposite side of the drum, violating, thus, not only the stationarity of their movement, but also expand technological capabilities. Figure 3 shows a prototype device for continuous preparation of feed.

Figure 3: Device for the continuous preparation of feed (view from the loading side)

Table 1: Parameters of the device for continuous preparation of feed Parameters Relative Screw Drum Length Diameter of a relational screw drum (conditional) (mm) Drive power (kW) Overall dimensions (mm) Productivity (kg/h)

Values 1800 350 1,5 3000Ă—1000Ă—2000 1920

To determine the effectiveness of the feed preparation process on installation for continuous feed preparation, experimental studies were conducted. o Processing (mixing) time: 0.5 min. o The frequency of rotation of the relational screw drum RC 5.1.a: 64 rpm. o The total volume of the relational screw drum is 44 liters (44000 cm3).

The experiment was carried out when loading 0.5 volume of a relational screw drum, i.e. with a volume of 22 liters (22000 cm3) (KV = 0.5), namely: 5.5 liters (5500 cm3) of wheat, 5.5 liters (5500 cm3) of corn, 5.5 liters (5500 cm3) of alfalfa, 5 5 liters (5500 cm3) oats.

A sample of 1.1 liters of the mixture (1100 cm3), which are divided into fractions, was taken.

The results of experimental studies are presented in the form of nomograms (Figure 4, Figure 5) and show that for a RC 5.1 rotary screw drum, the optimal cooking time is 1.75 minutes.

Deviations in volume from the average value are: o for wheat + 4.7%; o for corn 0.0%;

4

Alexey Marchenko

o for alfalfa +3.2%; o oats +2.9%.

That is, the maximum deviation is + 4.7% and the minimum is 0.0%.

Figure 4: Dependence of changes in the volume of feed particles in samples of the intake of the mixture from the time of their mixing.

With the continuation of the experimental study, there is a slight increase in deviations, for example: o 1.75 minutes deviation is +7.3% .- 0.4%; o 2.0 minutes the deviation is +6.5% .- 0.4%; o 3.0 minutes the deviation is + 9% .0.0%.

Therefore, for high-quality mixing of particles of the components of the feed, you can take the duration of the process from 1.5 minutes to 1.75 minutes

*Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

5

Figure 5: Dependences of deviations from 100% theoretically high-quality mixing of feed components in sampling samples from the time of mixing

Figures 6 and 7 show samples of a mixture of feed components with a volume of 1.1 liters (1100 cm3) taken after mixing the components of the mixture for 0.5-2.75 minutes.

Figure 6: Samples of the feed mixture after conducting research on the process of mixing them in the RC 5.1.a relational screw drum for 0.5-2.75 min.

To assess the quality of mixing the components of the feed-in relational screw drums, studies were conducted. As a controlled component (indicator) we use black rapeseed. The average weight of 1 grain of rapeseed is 0.0043 g. For research, 12 samples were taken from the stream, each weighing up to 30 g. The degree of mixing of two or more components is estimated using the coefficient of

6

Alexey Marchenko

variation in the quantity in the samples of the controlled component (included in the mixture in a lower dose). The numerical value of this indicator depends on many variables:

υ = f (d , l , y у , tc ,η , g П )

(1).

Figure 7: Samples of the mixture of feed components taken after researching the process of mixing them in the RC rotary screw drum for 0.5-2.75 min.

To determine the amount, the content of beet seeds was chosen manually (using sieves):

∑ (Х

σ=

ν= where

i =1

)

2

n

i

−Х

n −1

σ Х

(2),

100% (3),

Xi – concentration of the component in the samples;

Χ – the arithmetic mean concentration in samples; n – number of samples.

Then mixing uniformity

δ = 100 − ν

(4).

To determine the component Xi, we used the well-known dependence:

Χi = where

W2 g ni − g bi W2 − W1

(5),

W2 – moisture content of one component; W1 – moisture content of the second component; qni – mass of the mixture, g; qbi – mass in water sample, g

*Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

7

Recalculate xi to the accepted mass of the sample:

Х in = where

Хi ⋅ g n g фi

(6),

Xi, Xn – mass of the component in the samples, actual and reduced to qn qn = 30 g; qphi – mass of the sample, in fact.

Then, formula (2) becomes

∑ (X n

n=

100 X in

i =1

in

− X in

n −1

)

2

,

(7),

where Xin is the average component, with n

Х in =

∑X i =1

in

n

(8),

where n is the number of samples (30 samples were taken).

Factors and their levels are determined. The most significant of them are presented in Table 2.

Table 2: Most significant factors determining the optimization parameters Factors Humidity components, Wcomp.

The angle of the relational screw drum, α The number of calls winding, S Diameter of relational screw drum, D1 The frequency of rotation of the relational screw drum, ω Granulometric composition of components, σcomp.

The duration of the mixing process, T Duty factor, Kv The length of the relational screw drum, l dr.

Level of variation 0 +1 10 12 7 10 5 9 0.5 0.6

Designation

Dimension

X1 Х2 Х3 Х4

% degrees PCS. m

-1 8 4 1 0.4

Х5

s-1

1

5

9

Х6

mm

0.3

0.5

0.7

Х7 Х8 Х9

min

0.5 0.2 1.5

1.75 0.5 2.0

3.0 0.8 2.5

m

Investigations of the feed preparation process were carried out by a screening experiment according to the Plackett-Berman plan.

Having identified the significant factors influencing the optimization criterion from the degree of significance of the factors (δ is the heterogeneity of the mixture, is the homogeneity of the particle size distribution, Nsp is the specific power), we determine the operational parameters of the relational cylindrical screw drums. Various studies of the process of preparing feed (mixing the components of the feed) show that the optimal process condition is described by a second-order polynomial.

8

Alexey Marchenko

n

n

n

i =1

i =1

i= j

Y = b 0 + ∑ b i x i + ∑ b ii x i2 + ∑ b ij x i x j (9).

Taking into account (9) Yδj − Y j σj

≥t

(10),

b i 〉 t кр S bi ,

(11).

To verify the adequacy of the obtained mathematical model of the process, the Fisher F-test was calculated.

To calculate the economic efficiency of the proposed feed preparation machine as a base, to compare the proposed feed preparation machine based on a relational screw drum, the existing technology for mixing feeds with a VKS-3M mixer is adopted. Technical and operational characteristics of the compared feed preparation machines are presented in table 3. Using standard calculation methods, the economic efficiency of the proposed technology and feed preparation machines was evaluated.

Table 3: Comparison of economic efficiency of the proposed and control feed preparation machines. № 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Indicators Book value of equipment, rubles Operating expenses per year, rubles Costs per 1 ton of feed, RUB / t Specific capital investments, rubles/t Presented costs, rub./t Annual savings in operating costs rub.

Economic effect, in a year rub/t.

КМRC5.1.а proposed 589480 403625.8 10.6 7859.7 6560.5 6727.5 129

VKS-3M base 609090 410347.4 10.6 8121.2 6689.5 -

% to the base case 96.7 98.4 100 96.8 98.0 -

According to the results, the annual economic effect of the proposed feed mixer was 129 rubles / t, and its payback period was 1.1 years. The competitiveness assessment results showed that the competitiveness level of the new feed preparation machine based on the RC5.1.a relational screw drum (KMRC5.1.a ND) is quite high and amounted to 1.38. Evaluation of economic efficiency showed the advantage of the developed device over the closest analog.

4. CONCLUSION As a result, a device for the preparation of feed was developed, the design of which provides for the presence of a rotating relational screw drum. This allows for consistent compaction and discharge of the feed component streams, their movement from loading to unloading, which expands technological capabilities and increases the efficiency of feed preparation.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors

*Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

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6. REFERENCES Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V., Serga M.G. Drum feed mixer. Pat. No. 2373809 Russian Federation, IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2008121050/13; declared 05/26/2008; publ. 11/27/2009, Bull. No. 33, 8 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V. Feed Mixer. Pat. No. 2373810 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2008121667/13; declared 05/28/2008; publ. 11/27/2009, Bull. No. 33, 8 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V., Kholyavko E.V., Goryachev A.S., Chernyshenko E.G., Nefedov P.A., Snegovsky A.B. Vibration device for mixing feed. Pat. No. 2467670 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2011101096/13; declared 01/12/2011; publ. 07/20/2012, Bull. No. 33, 8 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Gostev M.E. Device for the preparation of feed. Pat. No. 2358620 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2008109377/13; declared 03/11/2008; publ. 2009.06, Bull. No. 17, 10 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V., Serga M.G. Drum mixer of bulk materials (options). Pat. No. 2385663 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2008125556/13; declared 06/23/2008; publ. 2010.04, Bull. No. 10, 13 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V. A device for mixing feed. Pat. No. 2372817 of the Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2008125523; declared 07/23/09; publ. 2009.11, Bull. No. 32, 7 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V., Serga M. G. Installation for mixing feed components (options). Pat. No. 2385664 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2008127560/13; declared 07/07/2008; publ. 2010.04, Bull. No. 10, 10 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V., Tsybulevsky V.V. Installation for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2565733 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2014129157/13; declared 07/15/2014; publ. 10/20/2015, Bull. No. 29, 10 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. A device for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2566657 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2014129161/13; declared 07/15/2014; publ. 10/27/2015, Bull. No. 30, 11 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. A device for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2566669 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2014131508/13; declared 07/29/2014; publ. 10/27/2015, Bull. No. 30, 10 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Device for continuous preparation of feed. Pat. No. 2566991 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2014133334/13; declared 08/12/2014; publ. 10/27/2015, Bull. No. 30, 20 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Installation for continuous preparation of feed. Pat. No. 2566996 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2014132825/13; declared 08/08/2014; publ. 10/27/2015, Bull. No. 30, 14 p.

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Alexey Marchenko

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Machine for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2569954 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2014128860/13; declared 07/14/2014; publ. 12/10/2015, Bull. No. 34, 12 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Small-sized installation for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2570719 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2014131675/13; declared 07/30/2014; publ. 12/10/2015, Bull. No. 34, 15 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Small-sized vibrating unit for preparing concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2572208 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2014135076/13; declared 08/26/2014; publ. 12/27/2015, Bull. No. 36, 13 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Small-sized installation for the preparation of concentrated feed. Pat. No. 2579209 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2014131509/13; declared 07/29/2014; publ. 04/10/2016, Bull. No. 10, 15 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Feed preparation machine. Pat. No. 2600009 Russian Federation. IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. No. 2015124236/13; declared 06/22/2015; publ. 10/20/2016, Bull. No. 29, 24 p.

Marchenko A.Yu., Serga G.V. Vibration unit for the preparation of feed. Pat. No. 2603023 Russian Federation.

IPC A23N17/00 (2006.01); applicant and patent holder Federal State Educational Institution of Higher Professional Education Kuban State Agrarian University. № 2015124234/13; declared 06/22/2015; publ. 11/20/2016, Bull. No. 32, 11 p.

Dr.Alexey Marchenko is an Associate Professor at the Department of Descriptive Geometry and Graphics, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, Krasnodar, Russia. He is a Candidate of Technical Sciences. His research emphasizes on Feed Machineries.

*Corresponding author (Alexey Marchenko). E-mail: ipmarchenko@rambler.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8A http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8A.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.142

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A8B

AN EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION ON PRE-PROCESSING OF ARECA LEAF FOR SHREDDING USING A DOMESTIC MIXER 1

1

Srikantamurthy J S , Veeresh B R , Gowreesh S Subramanya 1 Anandkumar R Annigeri 1

1*

,

Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore, INDIA.

ARTICLEINFO

ABSTRACT

Article history: Received 02 August 2019 Received in revised form 03 February 2020 Accepted 20 February 2020 Available online 24 February 2020

An experimental investigation has been carried out on pre-processing of areca leaf to achieve powdered form to prepare organic fertilizer at home using a domestic high-speed mixer.

From the preliminary study, it is found that time taken to decompose for the grain size in the range of 0.1 to 0.6 mm is 4-5 days. A process study is carried out by conducting experiments on various samples of pre-processed areca leaf.

The fixed parameters considered for the study are the blade profile of the mixer, RPM, Power and sample quantity (0.02 kg). Controllable parameters are Moisture content in samples (Dry, soaked (15 minutes), soaked (72 minutes)), leaf size (120x20 mm, 40x20 mm, 20x20 mm and 5x5 mm), sliced, grated and combination controllable parameters (Dry, Dry-Compact, Dry-Torched, Dry-Compact-Torched, and Wet) are considered. For all the samples, time taken to bring down the powdered form (time taken for crushing) is studied.

Keywords:

Shredded areca leaf, Domestic mixer grinder; Shredding, Slicing, Grating; Recycling areca palm waste; Sustainable organic waste management; Agro-waste.

Disciplinary: Engineering.

Agricultural

Waste

Management,

Mechanical

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Areca is a species of palm which grows in much of tropical Asia, parts of East Asia and Africa Pacific. Areca leaves are disposable, biodegradable and are a great substitute for plastic/paper disposables. A large quantity of areca sheath remains unutilized because of handling, storage, and management related difficulties. The reasons for this are its low bulk density, large area/volume requirement for storage, hence the farmers burn most of these or dispose them of in an inefficient way wherein the bulky waste is dumped and left to degrade in open pits. This takes more time to disintegrate and it remains as a heap for a long time posing various environmental problems.

Shredding proves to be the best way to use these wastes and to gain economic benefits from it. *Corresponding author (G.S.Subramanya) Tel: +91-9959577166 Email: Gowreesh.ss@gmail.com

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8B http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.143

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Shredding of leaves into smaller pieces makes it easy for handling and management. This shredded mass can also be used for the preparation of animal fodder and organic fertilizers. In the present paper tape, scale and digital Vernier calipers are used for measuring the size of the powder.

Kishore et al. (2019) studied on the mechanical behavior of constant volume fraction of areca leaf fibre reinforced epoxy composite along with different fiber orientations. Ashok et al. (2018) studied chemical treatment effects on areca fibres of different lengths and also areca powder.

Shashikumar et al. (2017) worked on an areca sheath shredder that has been designed for chopping of areca sheath into small pieces suitable for animal fodder. The areca sheath passes horizontally against the rotating knives and gets reduced into small pieces. Desai et al. (2016) concluded that areca fibers are good in mechanical properties with bio-degradable in nature, it can be used as a reinforcement material. Chethan and Krishna (2016) worked on different volume fractions of natural-polymer composites, the strength of the natural-polymer composites changes by varying the volume fractions.

Pickering et al. (2016) compared the specific modulus of areca leaf fiber with synthetic and natural fibers. By comparing the specific modulus value of areca fibers got the seventh position out of 11 various natural and synthetic fibers. Nithyananth et al. (2014) studied the design of an agro-waste shredder machine which is powered by a ‘Kamko tractor. The waste shredder machine converts the agro-waste into different size particles and useful for nourishing the fertilizer. Kumar and Kumar (2015) studied on design and development of a Shredder machine, which focuses on the chopping of areca leaves along with other various agricultural wastes.

Mohanraj et al. (2017) worked on an improved areca leaf plate manufacturing machine where cutting, punching operations are done simultaneously and waste areca leaf converted into powder form. Srinivasa and Bharath (2011) studied areca fiber such that the strength of areca fiber composites increases with an increase in the volume fraction of fiber in the composite and post composite curing time.

From the literature survey, it is found that there is no work carried out on the pre-processing of the areca leaf before shredding. In this paper, the pre-processing process parameters for areca leaf shredding is studied.

2. METHODOLOGY In this investigation, an experimental study is been carried out for pre-processing of the areca leaf, the task aims to explain the variation of controllable/uncontrollable input variables under conditions that are hypothesized to reflect the variation in the grinding time.

The chart of the pre-processed samples is shown in Figure 1. For dry samples, the moisture content is almost zero. For the soaked samples, two types of soaking are considered namely soaked for 15 min and soaked for 12 Hours. In 15 minutes absorption time is minimum and for 720 minutes absorption time is maximum.

Three types of Dry Areca leaf considered for the study are 1. Dry, 2. Rammed and 3. Torched.

Dry areca leaf sample refers to sun-dried leaf. Rammed sample refers to sun-dried leaf hand rammed for 10 min to increase the stiffness of the leaf. Torched areca leaf sample refers to heating the dry leaf in a vessel for 5 minutes to achieve brittleness.

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Srikantamurthy J S, Veeresh B R, Gowreesh S Subramanya, Anandkumar R Annigeri

The sample sizes considered for the investigation are grouped into three groups, 1. Grated, 2.

Sliced and 3.strip-sizes (120x20 mm, 40x20 mm, 20x20 mm, 5x5 mm).

Uncontrollable or fixed parameters are Blade profile, Quantity of the sample used, speed (7000 rpm) and voltage (220-240 V) of the domestic mixer. The blade profile is shown in Figure 2. Table 1 gives controllable and fixed input variables considered for this experimentation.

Figure 1: Process chart of the major parameters studied for areca leaf shredding.

Figure 2: Blade profile considered in a domestic grinder.

Table 1: Controllable and fixed input variables.

Controllable Parameters Dry Moist 1 (Soaked for 15 min) Moist 2 (Soaked for 12 Hrs) -

Combination of Controllable Parameters Dry ( sizes: 120x20, 40x20, 20x20 and 5x5 mm) Dry-Compact Dry-Torched Dry-Compact-Torched

Fixed Parameters Blade Profile

*Corresponding author (G.S.Subramanya) Tel: +91-9959577166 Email: Gowreesh.ss@gmail.com

RPM Torque Power

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8B http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.143

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Testing procedure: Collected leaves are cut into the required sizes, rammed, torched and soaked.

After the pre-processing of the samples crushing operation is carried out using a household mixer and crushing times for each sample are tabulated.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 3.1 STRIPS (120 MM LENGTH, 20MM WIDTH) Figures 3 to 6 show before and after crushing of 120x20 mm the samples sizes of for Dry, Dry-compact, Dry-Torched, Dry-Compact-Torched respectively. Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 50, 40, 33 and 40 seconds respectively.

Figure 3: Dry (50seconds grinding time).

Figure 4: Dry and Compact (40seconds grinding time).

Figure 5: Dry and Torched (33seconds grinding time).

Figure 6: Dry, Compact and Torched (40seconds grinding time).

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Srikantamurthy J S, Veeresh B R, Gowreesh S Subramanya, Anandkumar R Annigeri

3.2 STRIPS (40 MM LENGTH, 20MM WIDTH) Figures 7 to 10 show the before and after crushing of the sample size of 40x20 mm for Dry, Dry-compact, Dry-Torched, Dry-Compact-Torched respectively.

Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 43, 45, 36 and 42 seconds for Dry, Dry-compact, Dry-Torched, Dry-Compact-Torched respectively.

Figure 7: Dry (43seconds grinding time).

Figure 8: Dry and Compact (45seconds grinding time).

Figure 9: Dry and Torched (36seconds grinding time).

Figure 10: Dry, Compact and Torched (42seconds grinding time).

3.3 SQUARE (20 Ă— 20 MM) Figures 11 to 13 show the before and after crushing of the sample size of 20x20 mm for Dry, Dry-compact, Dry-Compact-Torched respectively. Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 45, 36 and 35 seconds for Dry, Dry-compact and Dry-Compact-Torched respectively.

*Corresponding author (G.S.Subramanya) Tel: +91-9959577166 Email: Gowreesh.ss@gmail.com

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8B http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.143

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Figure 11: Dry (45seconds grinding time).

Figure 12: Dry and Compact (36seconds grinding time).

Figure 13: Dry, Compact and Torched (35seconds grinding time).

Figures 14-15 show the before and after crushing of the sample size of 20x20 mm for wet soaked for 15 min and wet soaked for 12 hours respectively. For these samples, no results were found.

Figure 14: Wet (Soaked for 15 mins).

Figure 15: Wet (Soaked for 12 hours)

3.4 SQUARE (5 MM Ă— 5MM) Figures 16 to 18 show the before and after crushing of the sample size of 5x5 mm for Dry, Dry-compact, Dry-Compact-Torched respectively. Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 45, 34 and 33seconds for Dry, Dry-compact and Dry-Compact-Torched respectively.

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Srikantamurthy J S, Veeresh B R, Gowreesh S Subramanya, Anandkumar R Annigeri

Figure 16: Dry (45seconds grinding time).

Figure 17: Dry and Compact (34seconds grinding time).

Figure 18: Dry, Compact and Torched (33seconds grinding time).

3.5 SLICED Figures 19 and 20 show the before and after crushing of the sample of sliced for Dry and Dry-compact respectively. Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 26 and 35 seconds for Dry and Dry-compact.

Figure 19: Dry (26seconds grinding time).

Figure 20: Dry and Compact (35seconds grinding time).

3.6 GRATED Figure 21 shows the before and after crushing of the sample of Dry grated. Grinding time to bring it to powder form found to be 35 seconds. *Corresponding author (G.S.Subramanya) Tel: +91-9959577166 Email: Gowreesh.ss@gmail.com

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8B http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.143

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Figure 21: Grated (35seconds grinding time).

From the above experiments, it is found that without slicing the leaf it is impossible to achieve the powdered form. Also, it is found that soaking the leaf makes grinding very difficult. Figure 22 shows a plot of sample type (Dry (D), Dry and Compact (DC), Dry and Torched (DT) and Dry, Compact and Torched (DCT)) vs crushing time in seconds.

Figure 22: Sample type vs crushing time (seconds).

From the graph Figure 22, it is found that crushing time for the samples Sliced-Dry and Dry-Compact-Torched found to be 27 and 32 seconds respectively and could able to achieve a grain size of 0.1 to 0.6 mm.

Table 2 shows the quantity of crushed areca powder obtained during the grinding process.

During the grinding operation, 20g of the areca sample was fed to the grinding machine and the quantity of crushed areca in powder form for different cases is recorded as below.

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Srikantamurthy J S, Veeresh B R, Gowreesh S Subramanya, Anandkumar R Annigeri

Table 2: Quantity of crushed areca powder obtained during the grinding process.

Case Strip 120 MM LENGTH, 20MM WIDTH Strip 40 MM LENGTH, 20MM WIDTH Square 20 × 20 MM Square 5 MM × 5MM Sliced Grated

Dry Dry and Compact Dry and Torched Dry, Compact and Torched Dry Dry and Compact Dry and Torched Dry, Compact and Torched Dry Dry and Compact Compact and Torched Wet (Soaked for 15 mins) Wet (Soaked for 12 hours) Dry Dry and Compact Compact and Torched Dry Dry and Compact Grated

Average

Areca Powder from Grinding machine (g) 17.8 18.1 18.4 18.4 18 18.2 18.5 18.5 18.1 18.1 18.5 18.2 18.5 18.4 18.6 18.6 18.8 19 19 18.41

4. CONCLUSION In this research, experiments are conducted on the pre-processed areca leaf to obtain a powdered form by grinding the pre-processed leaf in a domestic mixer. Experiments were carried out for measuring the factors affecting the crushing time for various samples. From the experiments, it is found that crushing time for the samples Sliced-Dry and Dry-Compact-Torched found to be 27 and 32 seconds respectively. During grinding operation out of 20g of sample on an average of 18.41g of the samples are crushed in to powder form and the efficiency of the grinding machine found to be 92.02%. From this experimental study, it is concluded that without slicing the leaf it is impossible to bring it to powdered form using a domestic mixer and also soaking of the leaf gives no effect in bringing it to the powdered form.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6. REFERENCES Kishore Dinakaran; Harish Ramesh; Allan Dojo Joseph; RamuMurugan; SathishkumarJothi. (2019).

Development and characterization of areca fiber reinforced polymer composite. Materials Today: Proceedings 18(3), 934–940.

R.B. Ashok; C.V. Srinivasa; B. Basavaraj. (2018). A review of the mechanical properties of areca fiber reinforced composites. Science and Technology of Materials, 30(2), 120-130 Shashikumar; D.J.Shrinivasa; M.anantachar; M.Veerangowda. (2017). Conceptual Design of Arecanut sheath shredder. International journal of current Microbiology and Applied Sciences 6(10), 1920-1929 R.H. Desai; L.Krishnamurthy; T. N.Shridhar. (2016). Effectiveness of Areca (Betel) Fiber as a Reinforcing Material in Eco-friendly Composites. A Review. Indian Journal of Advances in Chemical Science S1, 27-33. *Corresponding author (G.S.Subramanya) Tel: +91-9959577166 Email: Gowreesh.ss@gmail.com

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8B http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8B.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.143

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Chethan M. R.; S.G.G Krishna. (2016). Effect of fiber length on tensile characteristics of untreated natural areca sheath for green composites. International Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Special Issue, 90-92.

K.L. Pickering; M.G. AruanEfendy; T.M. Le. (2016). A review of recent developments in natural fibre composites and their mechanical performance. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 83, 98-112.

S.Nithyananth; Libin Samuel; Nithin Mathew; S.Suraj. (2014). Design of Waste Shredder Machine. Libin Samuel International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 4(3), 487-491 I.M.SanjayKumar, D. R.; T.R. Hemanth Kumar. (2015). Design and Development of Agricultural Waste Shredder Machine. IJISET 2(10), 164-172.

Mohanraj K.S.; Vijayakumar P; Senthilkumar R; GokulKarthik A. (2017). Design and Analysis of Semi-Automatic Paper Cum Areca nut Plate Making Machine. International Research Journal of Engineering and Technology(IRJET) 4(5), 3546-3550 C.V.Srinivasa; K.N. Bharath. (2011). Impact and Hardness Properties of Areca Fiber-Epoxy Reinforced Composites. Journal of Material and Environmental Science. 2(4), 351-356.

Srikantamurthy J S is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore, affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India. He earned his B.E. in Mechanical Engineering and a Master’s degree in Production Engineering and System Technology and pursuing a PhD in Mechanical Engineering (Research Scholar).

Veeresh B R is an Assistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore, affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India.

He earned his B.E. in Mechanical Engineering and a Master’s degree in Design Engineering and pursuing PhD in Mechanical Engineering (Research Scholar).

Dr.Gowreesh Subramanya is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore, affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India. He earned his B.E. in Mechanical Engineering and a Master’s degree in Thermal Engineering and PhD in Mechanical Engineering from JNTU, Hyderabad, India. His research interests include Computational Fluid Dynamics, Finite Element Methods and Thermal Management.

Professor Dr.Anandkumar R Annigeri is Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, JSS Academy of Technical Education, Bangalore, affiliated to Visvesvaraya Technological University, Belagavi, India. He earned his B.E. in Mechanical Engineering and a Master’s degree in Production Management from Karnataka University and PhD in Mechanical Engineering Sciences from Indian Institute of Technology Madras, Chennai, India. His research interests include Finite Elements Methods, Mechanical Vibrations, and Mechanism Optimization.

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Srikantamurthy J S, Veeresh B R, Gowreesh S Subramanya, Anandkumar R Annigeri

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8C

PROSPECTS OF USING RICE CEREALS AND FLOUR IN THE PRODUCTION OF CANNED PRODUCTS OF LONG STORAGE Albina Varivoda

1*

1

2

, Nadezhda Kenijz , Nikolay Belugin , Yuri Belugin

3

1

Department of Technology for Storage and Processing of Crop Products, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, RUSSIA 2 Department of Physiology, Surgery and Obstetrics, Stavropol State Agrarian University, RUSSIA. 3 Department of Economics and Management, Belgorod University of Cooperation, Economics and Law, Stavropol Institute of Cooperation (branch), RUSSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 06 September 2019 Received in revised form 19 January 2020 Accepted 28 January 2020 Available online 25 February 2020

The article is devoted to the study of prospects and the possibility of introducing into the production of rice cereals and flour for canned products of long-term storage. It has been established that in food production it is simpler, cheaper, faster to use starch-containing raw materials instead of pure starch. The nutritional and biological value of the feedstock was studied and it was noted that rice and rice flour do not contain fat, gluten (a protein containing gliadin) - an irritant of the gastrointestinal tract and do not have allergic properties, have a neutral taste and a clean aroma. Based on a complex of studies, it was found that in canning it is advisable to use: rice flour as a thickener, structure-forming agent and partially filler in the production of various sauces, jelly, desserts, creams, marmalades, jams, etc .; Rice groats as a filler in the production of a variety of cereals, pastes, pastes, second and first courses.

Keywords:

Rice flour; cereals; starch; thickener; biological value; nutritional value; canned food.

Disciplinary: Food and Nutrition Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION In view of the insufficiently favorable environmental situation in the country, the search for means that increase the human body's resistance to harmful environmental influences is of particular relevance. On the other hand, in conditions of the economic instability of the nutrition structure, the population is undergoing significant changes in the direction of exacerbating the imbalance of the main components of the diet. One of the reasons for this is the high cost and low incomes of the population, therefore, the issue of finding conditions, selecting, developing formulations of food products, especially long-term storage, when they are prepared using natural, equivalent in nutritional value, but cheaper types of raw materials, is also more relevant. sparing technological parameters of *Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

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the technology for preparing finished food products, ensuring the safety of their natural biological value in the manufacture [1-5].

Among the violations of the nutritional status of the population of Russia (2000–2020), there is a factor of excessive sugar intake, which affects body weight and is one of the causes of excess weight (an important problem for many). Therefore, in the production of canned sugar-containing concentrated products (jams, jams), a decrease in the formulations of expensive high-calorie sugar is relevant, because this increases the usefulness of the product and will affect the reduction of its cost.

However, sugar refers to carbohydrates, which are an essential energy component of food, providing up to 60% of the calorie intake, confirming the need for carbohydrates in food [6-8].

Therefore, the search for cheaper carbohydrate equivalent raw materials (materials) instead of granulated sugar is important. Such raw material is starch. In recent decades, experts in the field of chemistry of starch production have studied, evaluated its innumerable possibilities, developed various methods for its modification processes and ways to adapt the properties of starches to the ever-increasing needs of consumers around the world, starch is an almost universal raw material, it is used in the world for the production of a number of food products (sauces, jelly, mayonnaise, etc.) as a thickener, structurant, filler [9-10]. In a practical world, the most common raw materials for starch use are potatoes, corn, tapioca, wheat. The technology for producing starch is relatively labor-intensive, energy-intensive, and material-intensive, so the price of starch is quite high. The use of starch incomparably upsets the cost of the finished product, the diet of which includes pure starch.

Starch, depending on the amount added, makes the product structure creamy, emulsified, thick, pouring, loose, etc [11-14].

Based on the foregoing, the conclusion is that it is advisable to add not starch to the formulation of starch-containing products, but starch-containing raw materials from which starch is obtained, it is simpler, cheaper, faster. In addition, raw materials, as a rule, are biologically valuable, which is lost in the process of making starch [15-19].

When choosing starch-containing raw materials, it is necessary to take into account that these raw materials are neutral in taste, clean in aroma (odorless).

In this case, in parallel with the quality, the cost issues of the finished products produced will be positively resolved.

In Russia, starch is traditionally obtained from potatoes, corn, and sometimes from wheat. It is known that only potato starch has a pure aroma, but it is expensive, almost at the level of sugar, and starch from wheat, waxy corn has a mild aroma characteristic of raw materials, which is not desirable for canned products. Rice products are supposed to meet our requirements.

The canning industry in the production of canned products of long storage is guided by the following postulates: o o o

2

use only high-quality natural raw materials of guaranteed useful quality; use gentle technologies to maximize the nutritional and biological value of the raw materials used; finished products should have good gustatory and taste properties and provide the body with the required complex of biologically active substances, be as useful as possible to the health of the consumer.

Albina Varivoda, Nadezhda Kenijz, Nikolay Belugin, Yuri Belugin

Currently, canned products produced according to traditional technology and recipes have good food and taste properties, a fairly high biological value, but relatively expensive, which reduces its purchasing value against the background of the cost of imported products, significantly inferior in all quality characteristics of domestic products, as It contains many cheap additives - enhancers of taste, aroma, consistency, preservatives, stabilizers of artificial origin, even often having an expired shelf life. In the production of many canned domestic products, such as sauces, meat-and-vegetable, canned meat, modified materials (soy and soy products: flour, starch, etc.) are used as thickeners and flavor enhancers, which, according to medical studies, are not safe for human health, especially to children.

2. METHOD The studies were carried out in the laboratory and bench conditions of the Research Institute "Biotechpererabotka" and in the production conditions of canning enterprises in the Krasnodar Territory.

The object of the study was: corn and potato starch, rice flour, finely ground, processed by IR radiation or extrusion, rice (cereal), white polished or brown peeled.

Standard physical and chemical (dry substances, pH, titraTable acids, mineral impurities) and organoleptic (taste, color, smell, consistency, appearance), as well as indicators characterizing food, are selected as the main indicators characterizing the quality and value of objects of research. and biological value: vitamins: (C, β-carotene, P (polyphenols)), minerals K, Na, Ca, Mg and trace elements, free acids, and microbiological indicators, in accordance with regulatory requirements.

Physicochemical parameters, organoleptic properties, vitamins C, β-carotene, etc. were determined by standard methods [8-16].

Macronutrients K, Na, Ca, Mg on a FLAVIO flame photometer, other trace elements were determined using an atomic adsorption spectrograph, amino acids on an amino analyzer.

3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Summarizing the theoretical review, the experience of related specialties and, having completed a set of experiments, we found that rice flour is positively indicative of the production of several canned products for long and short-term storage: different types of sauces, meat and vegeTable (pastes, stews, pasta, cereals, various second courses) and even highly concentrated sugar-containing canned food - jams, jam, desserts, and others.

The research revealed the advantages of rice flour, rice cereal in the production of canned goods from a technological point of view, which are shown in Table 1. Based on constant research, it was found that rice flour is most suitable for use as a thickener, a structuring agent, a water-binding component, a sweetener in the production of canned food long-term and short-term storage like sauces for various purposes, creams, jelly, desserts, marmalade jams, second meat and vegetable, meat and fish dishes (paste you, pasta, stews, meatballs, ravioli, etc.).

Rice groats are white and especially shelled brown in color suitable for the production of cereals *Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

3

such as "Porridge for health", desserts, pilafs, stuffed vegetables, etc.

Since the production of flour and peeled cereals is less time-consuming, energy-intensive, simpler, cheaper than the production of starch and their price is relatively lower, this will reduce the cost of canned products while maintaining its traditional food taste, nutritional and biological value. It is very important that rice, rice flour do not contain gluten - an irritant of the gastrointestinal tract, and therefore canned food with rice products are more dietary, which is also important for human health.

Rice and flour from it are 100% positive for use in the production of canned food, as they have a neutral taste, clean aroma and biologically valuable, taste improve, but do not reduce the traditional food taste properties of the finished product.

Table 1: Benefits and suitability of rice flour in the production of canned food Indicators and their characteristics The use of flour The taste is neutral

Light color The method of adding flour to the recipe mixture Influence on the structure of the finished product

Effect on the nutritional and biological value of canned food

Fat The presence of gluten (protein) - a gastrointestinal irritant in: rice cereal (brown, white) flour Allergic properties

Types of canned food Meat, second courses Desserts, Jelly Jams Universally Does not distort the Does not distort the Does not change the taste of the main natural taste and taste of canned meat components does not worsen and vegeTable The color of the main components (prescription) products is kept natural Sauces

Both dry and hydrated

Increases viscosity, promotes the formation of a good sTable consistency characteristic for sauces

It binds water in the ratio: 1: 4; 1: 4.5.

Increases the finished product

Hydrated

Forms stable gels, which makes the appearance of canned food palaTable and attractive

It promotes the formation of a jelly-like jam-sTable, granular structure in jams with a significantly lower content of sugar and dry substances in the finished product

It increases the nutritional and biological value of canned food by the content of protein, free amino acids, mineral elements, vitamins, primarily group B, and dietary fiber contained in rice.

Reduces sugar and dry matter, eliminates synergies at high temperatures, which is important and valuable when using jam and jams in the confectionery industry not detected not detected

not detected not detected not detected

Based on experimental studies and literature data, the Institute studied the properties, characteristics, nutritional and biological value of starch, rice flour and polished, polished, peeled cereals, the results are presented in Table 2.

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Albina Varivoda, Nadezhda Kenijz, Nikolay Belugin, Yuri Belugin

Table 2: Comparative characteristics of rice products Indicators, units measuring

Rice Starch

Rice flour

General Characteristics

The main component of processed rice, broken during processing, is present in the endosperm of the grain, accounting for 90-93% of the dry matter of rice

Made from ground polished rice, which consists more of starch and does not contain gluten.

Features

Disadvantages

Benefits (lack of gluten (protein) (protein) in rice, which contains gliadin - a digestive system irritant Allergenicity Popularity, the prevalence in the world: In the Kuban

Rice, groats Husked (brown) unpolished Enriched with natural minerals (iron, Polished rice, phosphorus, silicon, the size of magnesium, which is not potassium, iodine, less than ž of calcium) and vitamins the length of (biotin, thiamine, whole rice = niacin, B6), fiber, Ready rice beta-glucan lost during grinding Polished (white)

Use in the world practice As - filler, thickener in the production of sauces, desserts, bread, jelly, sweet syrups, meat products; - emulsifier, stabilizers in dairy As a thickener (in small quantities) in products; sauces, goulash, meat products, - the basis for dry creams, desserts, pastries, especially in Asian sauces, soups, various cuisine when baking sticky coconut mixtures of ping-dings, jelly; cakes and sweets, bread.

- a builder in the production of oriental sweets, marmalades, fillings for pies, while the consumption is 4-7%, sugar consumption is reduced to 10% Products are dry because flour absorbs a lot of moisture, it is necessary to take this into account and give more liquid and less flour. Not used for yeast dough, due to lack of gluten.

Products bake longer and at lower temperatures than wheat flour products

As a filler in the production of second courses (pilaf, cereals, side dishes for meat, fish, vegetables, fruits, berries)

It is recommended for dietary food if there is a problem with the digestive system (constipation, gas in the intestines, diarrhea, etc.) intolerance

Not allergic Is being introduced

Introduced, mastered

Popular, 2nd culture by volume Popular, 2nd culture by volume

*Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

5

Table 3: The chemical composition of rice products Thermoplastic Extruded

Polished (white)

Husked (brown) unpolished

Rice, groats

Not investigated

IR-Treated

Finely ground

Rice flour

Potato

Indicators, units measuring

Corn

Starch

14.0 7.0 1.0 74.0 0.7 72.9 3.0 0.7

14.0 7.3 2.0 63.1 3.1 55.2 9.0 4.6

1240.0 54;100.0-202 8.0;24-40 24-50;0-16 12;26-89 21-96;150-328 80 133 1.0-1.02 1250.0 1420.0 250.0 120.0 50.0 2.7 3.4 1.7 1.4 1.0

1240.0 202.0 66.0 96.0 89.0 328.0 60.0 133.0 1.8-2.6 9630.0 912.0 400.0 1800.0 560.0 224.0 80.0 20.0 51.6 26.7 2.8 2.3 6.9 0.5 0.1 0.6 0.5 35.0 85.0 12.0 1.0 3.8 no no -

6

50.0 20.0 30.0 22.0 119.0 1.3

Not investigated

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0.06 0.03 6.3 1.4 no no -

Not investigated

-

-

0.08 0.04 0.18 78.0 3.5 19.0 0.40-0.45 1.6 no no 0.4

-

-

0.42 0.33 0.61 0.26 0.13 0.24 0.75 0.34 3.08

0.48 0.36 0.76 0.32 0.18 0.29 0.11 0.45 2.95

0.49 0.38 0.80 0.33 0.19 0.31 0.10 0.47 3.07

0.40 0.39 0.73 0.29 0.15 0.26 0.09 0.41 2.72

Total Replaceable Amino Acids: Total Amino Acids: 343.0 313.0 356.0 Not investigated

-

Not investigated

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Not investigated

Not investigated

-

-

Albina Varivoda, Nadezhda Kenijz, Nikolay Belugin, Yuri Belugin

0.39 0.60 0.64 0.19 0.4 1.34 0.36 0.36 0.29 0.14 4.71 7.43 333.0

Not investigated

15.0 40.0 0.0 6.0 77.0 0

Not investigated

15.0 7.0 1.0 30.0 20.0 0

Not investigated

9.0 7.4 0.6 80.2 0.7 79.1 2.3 0.5

Not investigated

20.0 0.1 0.0 78.2 0.9 73.3 1.4 0.3

Not investigated

Calories, kcal

13.0 1.0 0.6 83.5 0.0 83.5 1.7 0.2

Not investigated

Mass fraction per 100 g of product Water g Proteins, g Fats, g Carbohydrates, including Mono- and disahara, g Starch, g Dietary fiber, g Ash, g Mineral substance Silicon mg Potassium mg Calcium mg Magnesium mg Sodium, mg Phosphorus mg Sulfur, mg Chlorine mg Iron mg Manganese, mcg Aluminum, mcg Vanadium, mcg Zinc, mcg Copper, mcg Boron, mcg Fluorine, mcg Selenium, mcg Nickel, mcg Molybdenum, mcg Chromium, mcg Iodine, mcg Cobalt, mcg Vitamins: B1 (thiamine), mg B2 (riboflavin), mg B3 mg B6 mg B9, mcg Choline, mg Biotin (Vit. H), mgk Folacin, mcg E mg PP (niacin nicotinic acid, mg β-caronite, mcg C mg Pantothenic acid, mg Essential amino acids, g / 100 g Valine Isoleucine Leucine Lysine Methionine Triokhin Trintofan Phenylalanine Total Essential Amino Acids Replaceable amino acid Alanine Arginine Aspartic Gaiden Glycine Glutamic acid Proline Serine Tyrosine Histin

283.8

Rice protein is defective, amino acid deficiency in lysine and threonine. The mineral composition is extremely rich, contains almost all vital elements, and has catalytic properties. The use of rice flour and cereal are biologically beneficial and physiologically valuable.

Starch - a plant polysaccharide with a complex structure consists of amylose and amylopectin.

The ratio of amylose and amylopectin in the starch molecule in different species is different (amyloses 13-30%; aminopectin 70-80%), both amylose and aminopectin in plants are formed in the form of starch grains, the structure of which has not been fully identified, but the properties are well understood (Table 4).

Table 4: Properties of amylose and amylopectin starch.

Properties Molecular mass Retrograde ability β-Milose Action Products Glucoamylose Action Products Molecule shape

Amylose 50 thousand-2 million High Maltose 2-glucose Linear

Amylopectin 1 to several million Low Maltose β-relic decoder D-glucose Branched, which determines a high degree of gelatinization

The rice starch molecule contains more amylopectin than amylose, which is why it has a high degree of gelatinization.

An important property of starch (both pure and contained in raw materials) is gelatinization, for which it is used in the production of food products.

Intact starch grains are insoluble in cold water, but can reversibly absorb moisture and swell easily. The increase in grain diameter during swelling depends on the type of starch, for rice, up to 200%.

As the temperature rises, the vibration of starch molecules increases, their intermolecular bonds are destroyed, which leads to the release of binding sites for interaction with water molecules through hydrogen bonds. The penetration of water, the increasing separation of large and long segments of starch chains increases the disorder in the overall structure, reduces the number and size of crystalline regions. With further heating in the presence of a large amount of water, a complete loss of crystallinity occurs, accompanied by a loss of grain shape. As a rule, large starch grains are gelatinized at a lower temperature than small ones.

The temperature corresponding to the destruction of the internal structure of starch grains is called the temperature of gelatinization, it depends on the type (source of starch raw materials) of starch (Table 5).

Table 5: The dependence of the temperature of gelatinization of starch on the source (raw material) of its receipt Raw materials Rice (gluten free) Corn (gluten free) Waxy Corn (Gluten Free) Tapioca (gluten free) Buckwheat (gluten free) Wheat (gluten-containing) Rye (gluten-containing) Oats (gluten-containing) Barley (gluten-containing) Peas Beans

Amylose Content, % 18 28 1 -

Gelatinization temperature, ºС 61-78 62-70 63-72 52-64

26 27 22 35 24

53-65 57-70 56-62 56-62 57-70 64-67

*Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

7

We studied the conditions for hydration of rice flour and cereal, at what ratio of flour and water the flour dissolves and gelatinizes, and at what temperature and time parameters. The criterion for evaluating the optimality of the process is selected indicator of the dynamic viscosity of an aqueous solution of flour when it is completely dissolved in a solvent.

Viscosity was determined on a viscometer using the Heppler method with a falling ball. The time of the fall of the ball was measured in a cylindrical tube, inclined by 10 ° C with respect to the vertical, and filled with the test solution.

Studies have shown: when the ratio of dilution of flour and water is 1: 3; 1: 4; 1: 5; 1: 6; 1: 7; 1: 8 solution at a temperature of 90-98 °C, respectively, after 0.5; 1; 1.5; 2 minutes. becomes very thick, absolutely not pouring and therefore does not fit in this condition for introduction into the product; with a ratio of 1: 9 weight after 1.5 minutes densely pouring, viscosity 82.3 poise, with a ratio of 1:10, the viscosity of the solution 51.8 poise, with a dilution of 1:11; 1:12; 1:15; 1:20 solution when boiling after 1.5-1.3 minutes. becomes sticky, thickened with a viscosity of 48.9, respectively; 48; 32.6; 1.3 poise. That is, the higher the dilution of flour, the lower the viscosity when boiling and holding for 1.5-1.3 minutes.

Figure 1 shows the dynamics of the viscosity of the solution depending on the dilution of flour with water under the same heat treatment conditions (temperature, 98-100 ºС for 1.5-1.3 min). During this period, the flour is completely dissolved and gelatinized, and the smaller the dilution, but not lower than 1: 9, the lower the viscosity of the finished solution.

Figure 1: Dynamics of viscosity of a dynamic aqueous solution of rice flour when heated to its complete dissolution The work performed shows that rice flour, rich in starch, as well as pure starch, dissolves well and provides high gelatinization of the solution, acting as a thickener. Flour, added to the recipe mixture, shows its gelatinizing properties in an aqueous solution, and therefore in the product only in the hot state when heated. This confirms the possibility of using flour in the production of canned food with a viscous consistency.

The value of rice flour as a thickener is that it contains starch rich in amylopectin (up to 85%), which ensures the formation of thermostable gels that do not cause retro-gradation of starch during storage of products.

Therefore, it is better to add rice flour to the recipe mixture in a hydrated form both in cold and in hot condition, depending on the product group.

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Albina Varivoda, Nadezhda Kenijz, Nikolay Belugin, Yuri Belugin

Hydration (dissolution) of flour is most optimal when hot for a period of time (1-1.5 min), when the flour is completely dissolved in solution.

As a solvent, based on the formulation of the product, the conditions for its preparation can be, in addition to water, one of the liquid aqueous components of the formulation: juice, puree, mashed vegetable mass (in tomato sauces) or fruit (in fruit sauces, jam, jam) or oil etc. In jam, jam butter is mixed with sugar, which also gives good quality uniform mixing.

The solubility of rice flour depends on the degree of dilution, temperature and heat treatment time, pH of the medium and on the type and amount of other components present.

It is established that rice flour is gelatinized, which increases the viscosity and density of the finished product. This is especially significant when making jam and jams.

The increase in the viscosity of jam, jam traditionally occurs due to the gelation of the product caused by pectin substances used in the formulation of the main raw material. At the same time, both the quantitative content of pectin and the pH of the medium along with heat treatment affect the gelation. This process occurs with a certain ratio of raw materials, sugar, acid.

The introduction of jam, jam, rice flour in the recipe accelerates the gelation process with a significantly low ratio of raw materials and sugar, significantly lower solids content in the product, while achieving the required structure of canned food.

In the production of canned food, including rice groats, it is necessary to know the optimal ratio of water (liquid) and cereals.

Traditionally, cereals, including rice, are used for cereals, pilaf, first and various dishes.

Therefore, the norms of the liquid for cooking cereals, etc. worked out, are given in Table 6.

According to the consistency of porridge, they are friable, viscous and liquid, it is determined by the ratio of water and cereals taken. The cereals are washed before cooking, while the cereal absorbs water up to 10-30% by weight. This amount must be taken into account in the calculation.

Table 6: The amount of liquid and salt per 1 kg of rice cereal Name of cereals Rice: friable knitting liquid

Amount of water needed for cooking, dm3

Amount of salt, g

Weight gain, %

The output of finished products, kg

Humidity, %

2,10 3,70 5,20

28 45 60

180 350 500

2,8 4,5 6,0

70 81 86

Heat treatment: bringing to a boil, then adding at a temperature of 90-100°C, not less Based on a set of studies, it was found that for the conditions of canning production, it can be expediently used: o o

- rice flour as a thickener, structure-forming agent and partially filler in the development of sauces for various purposes; jelly, desserts, creams; jam and jams, etc.; - Rice groats as a filler in the production of a variety of cereals, pastes, pastes, second and first courses.

The obtained conclusion is the basis for the development of recipes and technologies for the production of new types of canned food for long-term storage: eastern sauce; confectionery jam, *Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

9

includes all types of fruits and berries growing in the southern zone of Russia.

Rice flour is a part of new types of canned food as a thickener, structure-forming agent, and partially a filler.

The use of rice flour in the production of sauces allows us to achieve good food and taste qualities of canned food, the required pleasant consistency, the appearance of products enriched with a group of vital minerals, vitamins and other biologically active substances contained in rice, at a price slightly lower than traditional sauces produced by the industry due to the reduction in consumption expensive main raw materials (pasta, mashed potatoes) approximately not less than 10-20%.

Due to the inclusion of rice flour during boiling, the confectionery jam reaches the required consistency with a significantly reduced solids content - 45% compared to traditional - 66%, while maintaining the standard food-taste properties, texture, presentation. It is very important that the confectionery jam is not subject to degradation (delamination), synergism during subsequent heat treatment, i.e. lives up to its name - confectionery. Jam is used in the confectionery industry for baking pies, gingerbread, cakes and other confectionery. The decrease in solids in the finished product reduces the duration of heat exposure during boiling, which favorably affects the preservation of the natural aroma, taste of raw fruits and vegetables.

4. CONCLUSION Rice flour is a good thickener, structure-forming agent, and filler in the production of canned products of long-term storage: sauces, jelly, desserts, creams, jam, jams, etc. Rice cereal, primarily unpolished, is a good filler that determines dietary properties in the production of the first and various main dishes, such as: cereals, pilaf, meat and vegetable products, including pastes, pastes, stews, goulash, etc. Using flour allows you to achieve a characteristic traditional consistency, gustatory properties with significantly less e expensive recipes, which leads to lower prices for finished products while maintaining and even improving the biological value of canned food.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information from this work is available by contacting the corresponding author.

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[2] Alabina, N.M., Volodzko, G.V., Drozdova, V.I., Kostromina, N.I. (2012). Canned foods for herodietetic nutrition. Food industry. 5, 34-35.

[3] Kozubaeva, L. A. Kuzmina, S. S., Vishnyak, M. N. (2010). Gluten-free cookies made from a mixture of rice and buckwheat flour. Vestn. Altaysk. agrarian. univ. 69(7), 62-65.

[4] Tsyganova, T., Schneider, D., Kostyleva, E. (2011). Formulation of the production of protein-free and gluten-free products. Bakery products. 12, 44-46.

[5] Sabelnikova, EA, Parfenov, A.I., Krums, L.M. (2010). Problems of organizing dietary nutrition for patients with celiac disease in Russia. Experimental and clinical gastroenterology. 3, 107-110.

[6] Chugunova, O.V., Leiberova, N.V. (2011). Development of the assortment of functional flour confectionery. Izv. Ural. econ. univ. 35(3), 152-157.

[7] Vishnyak, M. N. (2011). Development and evaluation of consumer properties of gluten-free flour confectionery: dis. ... cand. tech. sciences. Barnaul, 181 p.

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Albina Varivoda, Nadezhda Kenijz, Nikolay Belugin, Yuri Belugin

[8] Danovich, N.K., Krasina, I. B., Kazmina, O.I. (2015). The use of unconventional raw materials in the production of gluten-free wafer bread. News of higher educational institutions. Food technology. #1 (343), 49-52.

[9] Leiberova, N.V., Chugunova, O.V., Zavorokhina, N.V. (2011). An innovative approach to the development of consumer-oriented foods. The economy of the region. # 4, 142-148.

[10] Tekutieva, L.A., Bozhko, S.D., Ershova, T.A., Sleep, O.M., Mukhortov, S.A., Alekseev, N.N. (2013).

Development of multicomponent formulations of dry fitness cereals. Food industry. # 1, 52.

[11] Catassi, C., Kryszak, D., Louis-Jacques, O. et al. (2007). Detection of Celiac disease in primary care: a multicenter casefinding study in North America. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 102(7), 1454−1460.

[12] Garsed, K. (2007). Can oats be taken in a gluten-free diet? A systematic review. Scand. J. Gastroenterol. 42(2), 171-178.

[13] Upton, M. P. (2008). Give us this day our daily bread - evolving concepts in celiac sprue. Arch. Pathol. & Laboratory Med. 132(10), 1594-1599.

[14] Gallagher, E., Gormley, T. R., Arendt, Е. К. (2004). Crust and crumb characteristics of gluten-free breads. J. Food Eng. 56, 153–161.

[15] Korus, J., Grzelak, K., Achremowicz, K. et al. (2006). Influence of prebiotic additions on the qulaity of gluten-free bread and on the content of inulin and fructooligosaccharides. Food Sci. Technol. 12, 489-495.

[16] Hovell, C. J., Collett, J. A., Vautier, G. et al. High prevalence of celiac disease in a population-base study from Western Australia: a case for screening? Med. J. Austr. 175(5), 247-250.

[17] Kelly, A. L., Moore, M. M., Arendt, E. K. (2008). New product development: the case of gluten-free food products. Gluten-free cereal products and beverages (Ed. by Arendt, and Bello). Burlington, San Diego, 413-432.

[18] Sanchez, H. D., Osella, C. A., De La Torre, M. A. (2004). Use of response surface methodology to optimize gluten-free bread fortified with soy flour and dry milk. Food Sci. Technol. Int. 10, 5-9.

[19] Varivoda, A.A., Kenijz, N. V., Rebezov, M.B. Okuskhanova, E. (2018). Development of dietary food with the use of soy protein. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences. 9(4), 1005-1013.

Dr.Albina Varivoda is an Associate Professor of the Department of Technology for Storage and Processing of crop products, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, Russia. She is a Candidate of Technical Sciences.

Dr.Nadezhda Kenijz is an Associate Professor of the Department of Technology for Storage and Processing of crop products, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, Russia. She is a Candidate of Technical Sciences.

Dr.Nikolay Belugin is an Associate Professor of the Department of Physiology, Surgery and Obstetrics, Stavropol State Agrarian University, Russia. He is a Candidate of Veterinary Sciences.

Dr.Yuri Belugin is an Associate Professor of the Department of Economics and Management, Belgorod University of Cooperation, Economics and Law, Stavropol Institute of Cooperation (branch), Russia. He is a Candidate of Economic Sciences.

*Corresponding author (A. Varivoda). Email: Varivoda@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8C http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/10A8C.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.144

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8D

INTER-CITY BUS SERVICE QUALITY AND THE PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING OF TRAVELERS: A CASE OF LONG-DISTANCE ROUTE IN PAKISTAN Abaid Ur Rehman

1,2

3

4

, Samina Aisha , Mohsin Atta , You Xuqun

1*

, Zain Abbas

5

1

School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, CHINA. Department of Psychology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Sub Campus Layyah, Punjab, PAKISTAN. 3 Department of Psychology, Institute of Southern Punjab, Multan, PAKISTAN. 4 Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha, Multan, PAKISTAN. 5 Department of Sociology, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, PAKISTAN. 2

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 19 September 2019 Received in revised form 24 January 2020 Accepted 14 February 2020 Available online 25 February 2020

Long-distance travel is perceived as a burden by the travelers. In recent years, people preferred to travel by mode of luxury buses for inter-city travel. Luxury bus companies have launch facilities in terms of service quality for their travelers. Therefore, the current study examined the role of service quality, provided by liberalized transport companies, and its sub-components on the psychological well-being of long-distance Keywords: travelers.

For this study, a sample of 400 long-distance/inter-city Overall Service; travelers from Multan to Karachi (938 Kilometers) was approached. The Availability of bus stop; age of participants ranged from 20 to 60 years (M = 40.53, SD = 9.15).

Long-distance travelers; Bus service quality; The data was collected with the help of self-report measures based on Psychology well-being of service quality questionnaires and psychological well-being scale of travelers; Punctuality; travelers at bus terminals. The findings demonstrated that service quality Intercity travel. was significantly related to psychological well-being. Regression analysis revealed that service quality affects travelers' psychological well-being during their travel except for personal security sub-component. The study provides valuable bases for future research in the context of long-distance travelers’ mode choice in case of long-distance route travel.

Disciplinary: Psychology (Social Psychology), Social Engineering.

Psychology,

Customer

Service

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION The inter-city bus transport system plays a vital role in the mobility of travelers with parallel to other modes of traveling because it aims to meet the citizens’ needs with ease of mobility. Due to the economic recession in recent years, many countries have imposed various demands on *Corresponding author (You Xuqun). Email: rehman@snnu.edu.cn, youxuqun@snnu.edu.cn ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8D http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.145

1

policymakers to justify and rationalize public expenditure. Therefore, it is a need of time for decision-makers to identify the bus services that significantly influence the perception of users as well as the mode of choice (Eboli & Mazzulla, 2007). In recent years, the transport system has become a key element in improving mobility services in medium and large cities, and it helps to reduce travel time (Pena, C., Moreno, E., 2014). Economic deregulation has increased competition between operators and providing better service quality to their travelers (Hensher, D et al., 2010).

While commuting is considered as a burden and people choose to commute if they consider compensation. Office of National Statistics, (2014), explores that relationship between traveling and subjective wellbeing affects life satisfaction. Furthermore, it also affects the daily life of commuters in terms of their daily life activities, anxiety, and level of happiness (ONS, 2014).

In developing countries such as Pakistan, has witnessed increased in the 1990s that low-income families always rely on the mode of public transport for their travel and commute. People use public transit as a means of commuting to access education, employment, and other services (Haider & Badami, 2007). Most of the transport facilities in the region are liberalized, and private transport companies are providing intercity as well as urban commute facilities. In the context of improving traffic-related safety issues, recent research has focused on developing countries (Aftonso et al., 1998). On the other hand, research has also focused on the type and vehicle size for better adjusted in the physical environment in the developing world (Vijayakumar, 1986). In the context of Pakistan, various organizations have invested in improving the intercity passenger transport infrastructure (Haider & Badami, 2007).

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Keeping the underdeveloped regions of Pakistan, the study intends to examine service quality provided by liberalized transport companies and its role in psychological well-being. The present study was intended to extend the role of the transport sector, particularly long-distance/intercity bus travel impact on psychological well-being in underdeveloped regions of Pakistan. In recent years, Pakistan has surmounted by the issue of terrorism, unstable political government, and less developed road infrastructure (Azy, 2010). The study is planned to conduct in two cities of Pakistan, i.e., Multan and Karachi. The distance from Multan to Karachi 938 Kilometers

2.1 SERVICE QUALITY Service quality may be defined as the range of attributes influenced by transport operators.

These attributes may include vehicle time and access, service reliability, provision of information, marketing and promotion, and journey time (Paulley, N. et al., 2006).

Service quality has been perceived as a critical factor in the transport industry for both users and bus operators (EN 13816, 2002). Passenger comfort is an essential attribute that is used to measure the service quality of transport services and a critical factor for the community’s choice of traffic mode (Dell’ Olio et al., 2011). Regarding service quality passengers perceive less journey time as compared to actual journey time if the bus offers a comfortable riding environment (Litman, 2008). Research has shown that passengers, as well as bus drivers, may suffer physical and psychological disorders (Alperovitch-Najenson et al., 2010).

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Abaid Ur Rehman, Samina Aisha, Mohsin Atta, You Xuqun, Zain Abbas

Furthermore, specific bus service attributes can measure as passengers’ point of view in terms of service quality (Eboli & Mazzula, 2011). Regarding punctuality, scheduling of bus plan and Bus stop availability plays a crucial role in improving the popularity of public transportation and increase the performance of transits. However, due to dynamic traffic conditions, still, it is hard to forecast the accuracy and punctuality of time (Yin et al., 2017). Another service quality attribute was board information services. Past research shows that a law was established for transport operators to facilitate free information on routes, information about fares, and scheduling (Tavares, et al., 2015).

2.2 PSYCHOLOGICAL WELL-BEING Ryff (2008) has elaborated on psychological well-being as environmental mastery, purpose in life, personal growth, and self-acceptance (Burns & Machin, 2010). In recent years, work on subjective well-being has gained attention in the context of transport and mobility studies (De Vos et al., 2013). However, very few studies have explored the role of transport, and psychological well-being as it involves pursuing meaningful goals strives to achieve life challenges, and personal development (Ryff & Singer, 2008).

Travelling has always considered an essential aspect of people's lives that demands time, mental, and physical burden. Commuting is considered an essential component of working people, and it affects the psychological health and well-being of commuters in working life (Robert, Hodgson & Dolan, 2009). Therefore, it may be assumed that service quality may play a significant role in affecting other variables such as stress, anxiety and a person's health-related issues.

Traveling to work might affect well-being characterized by health satisfaction and happiness and low physical and mental health (Novaco, 2009). The article examines the role of service quality in psychological well-being among long-distance travelers. Although this study also focuses on demographics including age, gender, economic activity, family income. The primary focus of the study was to examine the role of service quality (affordability of price, Security, comfort, Bus stop availability, environmental protection, and boarding information) in travelers from Multan to Karachi and how service quality affects the psychological well-being of travelers. During travel, undergoing feelings is the only tip of the iceberg when traveling and well-being are linked (De Vos et al., 2013). Literature regarding the quality of service has been carried out in the past. Service Quality topic has been extensively investigated in Europe in terms of customer satisfaction and various factors from attributed, i.e., safety, staff, and comfort (Felleson & Friman, 2008). Other factors related to service quality have been punctuality, security, travel time, and time, which contribute to an increase in satisfaction level among passengers in transport (Budiono, 2009). In addition, The commute is associated with a lower level of health-related quality of life, and it is well documented that this association increase the level of stress (Ruger et al., 2017) Commuting not only takes time but also generates costs, causes stress and affect the work and family relationship.

Previous literature shows studies on service quality in the context of the urban transport system have extensively focused on productivity, efficiency, demand, pricing and air pollution of public *Corresponding author (You Xuqun). Email: rehman@snnu.edu.cn, youxuqun@snnu.edu.cn Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8D http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.145

3

transport services (Pucher et al., 2007). Based on the review of service quality by the private bus operators and psychological well-being literature and relevance of the applicability of these studies to investigate the role of service quality on psychological well-being to avoid sources of bias, research developed a conceptual model.

The previous research has been done on urban transportation or public buses in the context of large cities as research in transportation has focused on local transportation, especially in Europe.

Ladki et al., (2014), various aspects of local transport in Lebanon to check the visitors’ satisfaction level on price value, safety and efficiency, cleanliness, ease of use, challenging to reach and reachable attractions. Research on service quality and satisfaction in transportation shows service quality affects satisfaction level (Parahoo et al., 2014). However, less research work is done in the context of service quality and subjective well-being on long route/intercity bus passengers.

Therefore, first, the study intends to investigate the role of safety, efficiency, and quality in terms of service quality and its role in the psychological well-being of travelers who travel long-distance/intercity in underdeveloped regions. Second, this study examines the influence of service quality on the psychological well-being of extended route bus travelers as previous research has explored subjective well-being in terms of hedonisms or satisfaction. Therefore, it was hypothesized that service quality and its sub-factors will positively affect psychological well-being.

3. METHOD 3.1 STUDY AREA The present study focused on the two main cities comprising two provinces of Pakistan. Firstly, the data was collected from Multan bus terminals as Multan, the most populous and historical city in the underdeveloped region of south Punjab in Punjab province of Pakistan. Secondly, the Karachi bus terminals were selected; as Karachi has been referred to as the main business hub of Pakistan.

The study relies on collected primary data of 400 passengers who traveled from Multan to Karachi (A business city in Pakistan), through a questionnaire made after going through literature and consultation of passengers and various bus companies. As the Multan region is striving to develop its infrastructure, people travel to Karachi for their business, job, or labor as Karachi is perceived as a financial capital of Pakistan. Passengers can provide first-hand information about the actual level of long-distance/InterCity bus transport services and the level of service quality they receive from Bus companies. At each bus Terminal. Three private bus companies were selected randomly at their bus Terminal that was running a business class business for their passengers.

The core focuses of the current experience of long-distance/Intercity travelers about the service quality of business class buses provided by the companies and how the psychological well-being is maintained. To ensure that a range of participants contacted by using both formal and informal approaches and the contacts were made in both areas Multan and Karachi city bus stops.

3.2 SAMPLE & PROCEDURES Respondents were selected based on their age and travel in Business class bus. Self-rated measures were used to collect data. Respondents were asked to rate their overall service quality satisfaction provided by the business class buses. A five-point Likert scale was strongly satisfied= 5, satisfied=4, neutral=3, dissatisfied=2, and strongly dissatisfied=1. All respondents were selected

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Abaid Ur Rehman, Samina Aisha, Mohsin Atta, You Xuqun, Zain Abbas

using two bus stops Multan terminal and Karachi Terminal. Out of 400 Respondents, 250 were from Multan Bus Terminal who have traveled from Karachi as inter-city travelers and 150 were approached at Karachi terminal. The sample constitutes 61% male and 39% female. The age of the respondents ranged was 20-60 years, with a mean age of 38.5. We get the consent of the travelers and were briefed about the research before the questionnaire was handover to each participant.

3.3 INSTRUMENTS The bus service quality questionnaire was developed by the research using eight factors, 1.

Safety on board: 2. Affordability, 3. Punctuality, 4. Bus Stop availability, 5. Board information services, 6. Comfort, 7. Personal security, and 8. Environmental protection. The scale consisted of 31 items with a response rate of strongly satisfied 5, satisfied 4, neutral 3, dissatisfied 2, and strongly dissatisfied 1. Reliability coefficients for this study were reports .95. Another construct psychological well-being refers to one's positive sense of subjective well-being, i.e., a person, who thinks positively about his/her self and reports positively, is thought to have positive psychological well-being. We used an anxiety stress scale (Andrew & Robinson, 1991) to measure the construct.

The scale means physical tension general fatigue as possible outcomes in terms of feeling and physical symptoms leading to stress. It was measured by the translated version of adapted and validated by Khan (2008) comprising ten items on a 5-point rating scale ranging from strongly agree 5, agree 4, neutral 3, disagree 2, and strongly disagree 1. All items are summed, and the score ranges from 10 to 50, a low score indicates a low level of well-being and high score reflect high psychological well-being. Eight items were reverse scored. The reliability of psychological well-being for the present sample has been reported .83.

4. RESULTS Descriptive analysis, reliability coefficients, and regression analysis for the variables used in the study are presented in Table 1. The reliability of Service quality and mental well-being scales exceeding 0.70 is acceptable, see the last column of Table 1.

Table 1 Means, SD, alpha reliabilities and correlation matrix for all variables (N = 400).

Variables 1 1.Over all service quality 2. Safety on Board 3.Affordability 4.Punctuality 5.Bus Stop availability 6.Board info services 7.Comfort 8.personal security 9.Environmental protection 10.Psychoogical well-being

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

M

SD

Îą

.83**

.82**

.69**

.79**

.82**

.74**

.78**

.80**

.25**

105.46

22.86

.95

----

.77** ---

.54** .60** --

.62** .65* .61**

.63** .56** .49**

.48** .46** .40**

.51** .52** .42**

.60** .56** .40**

26** .28** 15*

16.01 16.81 12.98

4.53 4.14 3.07

.69 .79 .80

--

--

--

--

.65**

.50**

.52**

.56**

.20**

9.64

2.61

.83

----

----

----

----

----

.63** ---

.62** .59** --

.64** .61** .68**

.22** .12* .17**

12.08 11.02 14.98

3.23 3.53 4.02

.71 .82 .73

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

.18**

11.3

3.71

.68

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

--

37.15

5.32

.83

*p < .05. **p < .001.

Table 1 depicts the descriptive, alpha coefficients, and correlation matrix for all the variables used in the present study. Alpha coefficients are found to be satisfactory for all variables. *Corresponding author (You Xuqun). Email: rehman@snnu.edu.cn, youxuqun@snnu.edu.cn Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8D http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.145

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To investigate the contribution of service quality (i.e., safety on board, affordability, punctuality, bus stop availability, board information service, comfort, personal security, and environmental protection) and psychological well-being, a regression analysis was carried out.

Table 2 demonstrate that 15% of the variance (R2 = .15) in psychological well-being might be explained by the overall model {F (8, 391) = 7.93, p < .001}. Amongst the predictors, safety on board, affordability, punctuality, bus stop availability, board information service, and comfort were found to be the significant negative predictor of service quality. In service quality, comfort attributes were considered as an important factor for travelers using public transport (Le-Klähn et al., 2014).

Table 2 Multiple Regression Analysis for Predicting Psychological Well-being from Constructs of Service Quality (N= 400) Psychological Well-being β R2 F Safety onboard .19* Affordability .20* Punctuality .15* Bus Stop availability .22** .15 7.93*** Board information services .13* Comfort .17* Personal security .02 Environmental protection .06 *p < .05. **p < .01.

Variables

5. CONCLUSION This study gives a better understanding of the role of inter-city private bus service quality on travelers' psychological well-being. The empirical evidence elucidated the significant effect of service quality on psychological well-being and suggests that service quality has significantly influenced the psychological well-being of travelers and their choice of travel mode. The analysis showed that among these, fare prices, waiting time could quantify in models (Koppelman & Wen, 1998), yet other factors about service quality were affordability, punctuality, bus stop availability, and board information services, also influence psychological well-being. Satisfaction reflects the role of service quality (Cronin et al., 2000). Furthermore, data did not support personal security and environmental protection as significant predictors as Thompson and Schofield (2007) studies that ease of use was more important than efficiency and safety. For instance, the finding suggests that passengers were more satisfied with the inter-city bus transport regarding ease of use than safety.

This study investigates service quality factors on psychological well-being. As a predictor of psychological well-being, service quality has significantly predicted well-being about Bus stop availability and Board information services. Service quality in Europe in terms of customer satisfaction and various factors has been attributed to safety, staff, and comfort (Felleson & Friman, 2008). From the last ten years, Pakistan has fought a war against terrorism, and the country was in a state of war. Therefore, one plausible reason might be that the people in Pakistan are used to travel in trains, buses, and other transport vehicles without having serious concerns about security and a safe environment. The government and transport companies have never addressed these issues. It is therefore supposed that travelers have become desensitized to these issues. Moreover, passenger sometimes compromises on personal security and environmental protection at the cost of affordable

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Abaid Ur Rehman, Samina Aisha, Mohsin Atta, You Xuqun, Zain Abbas

fare and availability of transport. They further, usually, prefer safety on board and comfort during traveling and do not bother with environmental protection.

Results reveal that service quality factors influence psychological well-being were comfort and affordability in terms of prices. Findings also revealed that the exterior, as well as the interior cleanliness of buses regarding service quality, has a high impact on travelers. This study suggests a significant implication for delivering service quality to intercity bus travelers and for shaping travel behaviors that can lead to more efficient and systematic commuting between different city transport systems. Based on the findings, it is suggested that the operator should launch better initiatives to enhance security and personal well-being.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding authors

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research received a grant from The National Social Science Fund research on Socio-cultural Psychology Mechanism for the Community of a shared future for humanity: Grant Number 18ZDA333. We thank our participants who spent time answering our questionnaires.

8. REFERENCES Alperovitch-Najenson, D., Santo, Y., Masharawi, Y., Katz-Leurer, M., Ushvaev, D., & Kalichman, L. (2010). Low back pain among professional bus drivers: ergonomic and occupational-psychosocial risk factors, IMAJ, 12, 26-31.

Aftonso, N.S., Rezende, F., & Pavarino, V. (1998). Peace within traffic: A revolution of attitudes in Brasilia. Urban Transport Policy, 583-586.

Andrews, F. M., & J. P. Robinson. (1991). "Measures of Subjective Well Being." Pp. 61- 114 in Measures of Personality and Social Psychological Attitudes, edited by J. P. Robinson, P. R. Shaver, and L. S. Wrightsman. San Diego: Academic Press.

Azy. (2010). Major Problems in Pakistan, filed under Pakistan Issues, ILM.com.pk. [Online] Available: Retrieved October 2017 from, http://www.Major Problems of Pakistan _ ILM.COM.PK.htm Budiono, O., (2009). Customer satisfaction in public bus transportation: A study of travelers’ perception in Indonesia. Master thesis, Karlstad University.

Burns, R. A., & Machin, M. A. (2010). Identifying gender differences in the independent effects of personality and psychological well-being on two broad affect components of subjective wellbeing. Personality and Individual Differences, 48, 22–27.

Dell’Olio L., Angel I., & Patricia C, (2011). The quality of service desired by public transport users.

Transport Policy 18: 217-227.

De Vos, J., Schwanen, T., Van Acker, V., Witlox, F. (2013).Travel and subjective well-being: a focus on findings, methods, and future research needs. Transport Reviews, 33(4), 421-442.

Eboli, L., & Mazzula G., (2011). A methodology for evaluating transit service quality based on subjective and objective measures from the passenger’s point of view. Transport Policy 18:172-181. *Corresponding author (You Xuqun). Email: rehman@snnu.edu.cn, youxuqun@snnu.edu.cn ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8D http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.145

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Eboli, L., & Mazzulla, G., (2007). Service quality attributes affecting customer satisfaction for bus transit. Journal of Public Transportation, 10(3), 21-34.

EN 13816, (2002). Transportation Logistics and Services. European Standard Public Passenger Transport Service Quality Definition, Targeting and Measurement. CEN European Standard.

Fellesson, M., & Friman, M. (2008). Perceived Satisfaction with Public Transport Service in Nine European Cities. Journal of the Transportation, 47(3), 93-104.

Google. (n.d). [Google Maps directions for distance from Multan, Bahawalpur to Karachi], Retrieved September 25, 2017, from https://www.google.nl/maps/dir/Multan,+Paki stan/Bahawalpur,+Pakistan/Kar%C4%81chi,+Pakistan/ Haider, Murtaza, and Badami, Madhav (2007). Balancing Efficiency and Equity in Public Transit in Pakistan in Urban Infrastructure and Public Service Delivery for the Urban Poor. Pp. 122-143 (Chapter 6). Johns Hopkins University and Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars.

Hensher, D., Mulley, C., & Yahya, N. (2010). Passenger Experience with Quality Enhanced Bus Service: The Tyne and Wear 'Superoute' Services. Transportation: Planning, Policy, Research, Practice, 37(2), 239-256.

Khan, M.A., (2008). Conflict management styles of managers: interpersonal conflict with supervisors and colleagues and its outcomes (unpublished PhD Dissertation. Foundation University, Islamabad.

Koppelman, F.S., and C. Wen. (1998) Alternative Nested Logit Models: Structure, Properties, and Estimation. Transportation Research, (32), 289-298.

Ladki, S., Shatilla, F., & Ismail, S. (2014). The Effect of Lebanese Public Transport on Visitor’s Satisfaction. Journal of Tourism Challenges and Trends, 7(2), 87-96.

Le-Klähn, D., Hall, M. C., & Gerike, R. (2014). Analysis of visitor satisfaction with public transport in Munich. Journal of Public Transportation, Vol. 17, No. 3, 2014 Litman T., (2008). Valuing transit service quality improvements. J Public Transp 11:43-63 Novaco R., Gonzales O., (2009). Commuting and well-being. In: Amichai-Hamburger Y, editor.

Technology and psychological well-being. New York: Cambridge University Press.

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of National Statistics (2014).

Commuting and Personal Well-being, http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20151014110242/http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/rel/well being/measuring-national-well-being/commuting-and-personal-well-being--2014/index.html retrieved October 2018,

Parahoo, S. K., Harvey, H., L. & Radi, G., Y. A., 2014). The satisfaction of Tourists with Public Transport: An Empirical Investigation in Dubai. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing, 31 (8), 1004-1017.

Paulley, N., Balcombe, R., Mackett, R., Titheridge, H., Preston, J., Wardman, M., Shires, J., & White, P., (2006). The Demand for Public Transport: The Effects of Fares, Quality of Service, Income, and Car Ownership. Transport Policy, 13(4), 295 306.

Pena, C., & Moreno, E., (2014). Delay at Bus Stops of Transmilenio Transport System According to Parameters Measured “in situ.” Case Study Bogotá-Colombia. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 160, 121-129 Pucher, J. et al. (2007). Urban Transport Trends and Policies in China and India: Impacts of Rapid Economic Growth, Transport Reviews, 27(4), 379-410.

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Abaid Ur Rehman, Samina Aisha, Mohsin Atta, You Xuqun, Zain Abbas

Roberts, J., Hodgson, R., and Dolan, P. (2009). ‘It is driving her mad: gender differences in the effects of commuting on psychological well-being.’ Journal of Health Economics 30 (5), 1064-76.

Ruger, H et al. (2017). Does perceived stress mediate the relationship between commuting and health-related quality of life? Transportation Research Part F: Traffic Psychology and Behaviour, 50, 100-108 Ryff, C. D., & Singer, B. H. (2008). Know thyself and become what you are: A eudaimonic approach to psychological well-being. Journal of Happiness Studies, 9, 13-39.

Tavares, A., Galvez, C., Albuquerque, L., Almeida, A., Barros, R., Soares, M., & Villaarouco, V., (2015). Information on public transport: a comparison between information systems at bus stops.

Procedia Manufacturing, 3, 6353-6360.

Thompson, K., & Peter Schofield. (2007). An investigation of the relationship between public transport performance and destination satisfaction. Journal of Transport Geography 15(2): 136-144.

Vijayakumar, S. (1986). Optimal vehicle size for road-based urban public transport in developing countries. Transport Reviews, 6(2), 193-212.

Yin, T., Zhong, G., Zhang, J., He, S., & Ran, B., (2017). A prediction model of bus arrival time at stops with multi- routes. Transportation Research Procedia 25, 4623-4636 Abaid Ur Rehman is a doctoral student at School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China.

He got his Master’s and M.Phil degrees from Quaid I Azam University, Islamabad, Pakistan. His research area includes Human Social Psychology, Factor and Aviation Psychology.

Samina Aisha is an MPhil student in the Department of Psychology, Institute of Southern Punjab, Multan, Pakistan. Her research interest includes Social and Applied Psychology

Dr. Mohin Atta is an Assistant Profession in Department of Psychology, University of Sargodha, Pakistan.

His research includes I/O Psychology Psychological testing and Counseling Psychology.

Professor Dr. You Xuqun is Professor at School of Psychology, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi’an, China.

His research includes Visual-Spatial Cognition, Aviation Safety and Human Factors Engineering.

Zain Abbas has done a Master’s degree in Sociology from Department of Sociology, Bahauddin Zakariya University Multan Campus, Pakistan. He is interested in Social Psychology.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

*Corresponding author (You Xuqun). Email: rehman@snnu.edu.cn, youxuqun@snnu.edu.cn ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8D http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8D.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.145

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8E

EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND NITRATE ON CORAL HEALTH LEVELS: A CASE STUDY OF HUMP CORAL (Porites sp.)

1

1

Kittiya Samlansin , Petchporn Chawakitchareon *, and Sompop Rungsupa 1 2

2

Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND. Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok 10330, THAILAND.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 14 October 2019 Received in revised form 21 January 2020 Accepted 10 February 2020 Available online 28 February 2020

This research focused on the effect of salinity and nitrate on coral health levels in hump coral (Porites sp.). The corals incubated under salinity vary in 15, 20, 25, and 30 psu, and nitrate vary in 5, 20, 60, and 100 µg-N/l with triplicate experiments. The experimental results showed that the range of salinity in 20, 25 and 30 psu at 120 hours was unable to calculate LC50 (Lethal Concentration) because of insufficient in motility percentage. However, the results showed that 15 psu of salinity at 120 hours was able to calculate LC50 using Probit analysis. LC50 in 15 psu of salinity at 120 hours was equally to 105.40 µg-N/l. The loss of Zooxanthellae from coral tissues could observe by the change in color as coral slowly turning into paling color but there were no releasing mucus and tissue damage as tissue sloughed-off observed in any treatments in this study because of the highly tolerant to reduced salinity and high nitrate in Porites sp. The experimental results showed that the corals incubated under separately high nitrate or reduced salinity treatment indicated an increased amount of loss of Zooxanthellae. Then, the combination of salinity and nitrate exposure in coral can create more stressful conditions and adversely affect coral health status than exposure to salinity or nitrate alone.

Keywords: Salinity effect; LC50; Coral health chart; Coral health levels; Acute toxicity test; Nitrate effect; Zooxanthellae density; Hump coral; Coral bleaching.

Disciplinary: Environmental Science and Engineering, Marine Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Corals and coral reefs play an important role both direct and indirect way as providing vital ecosystem services as the main source of food and habitation, protecting the shoreline from storms and wave action and conducting economically valuable as tourist attractions, fishing and generating coastal developments for tourism that increased revenue to the government and private sector. In contrast, human activity by expanding in coastal development is the main threat of coral, leading to discharge wastewater into the sea, and overfishing. The status of coral reef in Thailand in 2015, was *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon) Tel +66-22186674, +66-22186666 petchporn.c@chula.ac.th ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8E http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.146

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continually declining in both the Gulf of Thailand and the Andaman side. In 2015, the percentage of live coral cover was 28.3% remarked on high damage level and 50.0% in live coral cover remarked on very high damage level, while the previous status in 2008 was 19.1% and 18% in live coral cover respectively. Moreover, there are various factors, caused declining coral health as reduced salinity events, inducing salinity stress in coral by losing control processes for homeostasis which leads to the reduction of the zooxanthellae and chlorophyll concentration, to against photosynthesis, respiration (Moberg et al., 1997), growth, reproduction (Richmond, 1996), and to severely result in coral bleaching (Hoegh-Guldberg and Smith, 1989) (Connell and Hawker, 1992). Others declining coral health’s factor as nutrient enrichment, including dominantly nitrate and ammonia from nutrient runoff from human activities on coastal or directly discharge untreated wastewater.

Nutrient enrichment can increasingly promote the growth rate of coral reef organisms. The other studies also found that high ammonia or nitrate concentrations, resulting in loss of zooxanthellae in coral from an imbalance between coral and zooxanthellae (Zhu et al., 2004) (Rungsupa et al., 2016).

Moreover, photographic assessment is developed for monitoring and analyzing coral health such as the change in coral color (Siebeck et al., 2006) or the change in coral’s activity (Rungsupa et al., 2018) (Hansuebsai et al., 2018). Therefore, this study is focused on the effects of salinity and nitrate on the health status of hump coral (Porites sp.) with an acute toxicity test. Coral health evaluation conducted a coral health chart, used for calculating health status and mortality percentages. The acute toxicity of nitrate concentrations resulting in bleached coral at more than 50% (50% Lethal Concentration: LC50 ) was calculated by Probit analysis, in order to use as baseline information for monitoring nitrate concentration in seawater that adversely effects on coral health which can result in coral bleaching.

2. METHODOLOGY 2.1 ACUTE EFFECTS OF SALINITY AND NITRATE Hump coral or Porites sp., colony size 15 centimeters or more, was kept in a filtered seawater pond with continuous water flowing for 7 days for acclimation. Then the selected corals were checked its color by using the coral health chart at the level of 6 and were cut into 3-4 centimeters from the tip of coral. Settling 3 pieces of selected coral into a chamber, sizing of 14×22×16 centimeter. Salinity was varied at 15, 20, 25 and 30 psu by mixing between filtered seawater (30 psu) and filtered water (0 psu). After that, adding potassium nitrate (KNO3) to get the various concentration of nitrate at 5, 20, 60, and 100 µg-N/l respectively as shown in Figure 1. Temperature and pH were constantly controlled at 30ºC and pH 8. In monitoring, coral health status was recorded and photographed by using Olympus stylus TG-4 in Macro mode in 120 hours.

Figure 1: Experiment kit example

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Kittiya Samlansin, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

2.2 CORAL HEALTH STATUS EVALUATION Evaluation of coral health status in Porites sp. could apply the Coral Health Chart in Figure 2 to estimate its health status. The color of each side was divided into 4 groups and classified into 6 levels on each side. In level 6 is the representative of coral in good health (best health) and level 1 is representative of declining coral health (unhealthy). After evaluating the coral health status based on colors, these statuses were calculated into percentages as shown in Table 1.

Figure 2: Coral health chart (Siebeck et al., 2006) Table 1: Health status and mortality percentages from the coral health chart Level 1 2 3 4 5 6

Remark Unhealth Poor health Declining health Fair health Good health Best health

Health status percentages 16.67 33.33 50.00 66.67 83.33 100.00

Mortality percentages 83.33 66.67 50.00 33.33 16.67 0.00

2.3 DATA ANALYSIS Pictures and amounts of color in 120 hours were used for converting into health status and mortality percentages with Table 1. The corals with health status lower than level 3 or having a mortality percentage higher than 50 would be inducted to calculate the acute toxicity test (LC50) by using Probit analysis.

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION After culturing Porites sp. under several seawater conditions. Table 2 shows the percentages of coral health status and mortality within 120 hr. At ambient salinity (30 psu) at 120 hrs showed a small change in health 83.33-100.00% as remarked on good to best health. This ambient salinity also found the lowest mortality percentage which was in ambient nitrate (5 µg-N/l). At reduced salinity (15 psu) found the highest mortality percentage in 100 µg-N/l of nitrate concentration at 120 hrs. Its coral mortality was equal to 50.00%. When the mortality percentage lower than 50, it would not enable in the calculation of nitrate concentrations and their effects on coral bleaching or LC50. Therefore, at 120 hrs with 50.00% in mortality could be calculated into LC50 using Probit analysis. Nitrate concentration that affected on coral bleaching or 50-percent coral mortality at 120 hrs was equal to 105.40 µg-N/l, shown in Figure 3. *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon) Tel +66-22186674, +66-22186666 petchporn.c@chula.ac.th ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8E http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8E.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.146

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Table 2: Health status and mortality percentages at salinity 15, 20, 25 and 30 psu Salinity 15 psu Nitrate (µg-N/l) 5 20 60 100 Salinity 20 psu Nitrate (µg-N/l) 5 20 60 100 Salinity 25 psu Nitrate (µg-N/l) 5 20 60 100 Salinity 30 psu Nitrate (µg-N/l) 5 20 60 100

0 hr.

100.00 100.00 94.44 100.00

Health Status (%) 24 hr. 48 hr. 72 hr.

96 hr.

100.00 88.89 88.89 88.89 100.00 100.00 83.33 83.33 94.44 88.89 72.22 72.22 100.00 94.44 83.33 72.22

120 hr.

88.89 72.22 61.11 50.00

Mortality (%) 120 hr 11.11 27.78 38.89 50.00

0 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 100.00

24 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 94.44

48 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 94.44

72 hr.

94.44 94.44 94.44 94.44

96 hr.

94.44 94.44 83.33 83.33

120 hr.

94.44 94.44 83.33 72.22

120 hr.

5.56 5.56 16.67 27.78

0 hr.

100.00 94.44 100.00 94.44

24 hr.

100.00 94.44 100.00 94.44

48 hr.

100.00 88.89 100.00 94.44

72 hr.

100.00 88.89 100.00 94.44

96 hr.

94.44 88.89 100.00 94.44

120 hr.

94.44 88.89 88.89 77.78

120 hr.

5.56 11.11 11.11 22.22

0 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 88.89

24 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 88.89

48 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 88.89

72 hr.

100.00 100.00 100.00 88.89

96 hr.

100.00 94.44 94.44 88.89

120 hr.

100.00 94.44 88.89 83.33

120 hr.

0.00 5.56 11.11 16.67

Figure 3: Calculating LC50 using Probit analysis at salinity 15 psu In this study, the loss of Zooxanthellae (algal expulsion) from coral tissue can be measured by Zooxanthellae density in seawater shown in Figure 4. At ambient condition in 120 hrs, at 30 psu in salinity and 5 µg-N/l in nitrate concentration in Figure 4 a), the Zooxanthellae density was 0.19-1.00 cells/l while at reduced salinity (15 psu), the Zooxanthellae density was higher than ambient salinity (30 psu). In Figure 4 b), at 15 psu in salinity and 5 µg-N/l in nitrate concentration the Zooxanthellae density was 0.45-1.50 cells/l and the highest Zooxanthellae density was equal 0.59-1.76 cells/l at15 psu in salinity and 100 µg-N/l in nitrate concentration in Figure 4 d). Then, there was a positive association between the loss of Zooxanthellae and the percentage of mortality in coral. Loss of Zooxanthellae from coral tissues can be caused by the disfunction of energy transfer from Zooxanthellae to coral tissues. The photosynthetic products, provided by Zooxanthellae as carbohydrates and oxygen are required for growth in coral (Muthiga and Szmant, 1987).

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Kittiya Samlansin, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

a) Nitrate concentration of 5 µg-N/l, 30 psu

c) Nitrate concentration of 100 µg-N/l, 30 psu

b) Nitrate concentration of 5 µg-N/l, 15 psu

d) Nitrate concentration of 100 µg-N/l, 15 psu

Figure 4: Zooxanthellae density and mortality percentage in Porites sp.

In Figure 5, change in coral color was also related to loss in Zooxanthellae in coral tissue.

Because of coral slowly turning into paling color. Moreover, there was acclimation or short-term recovery in coral within 120 hrs. Porites sp. showed fluctuating in Zooxanthellae density when they were in abnormal conditions as reduced salinity and/or high nitrate concentration in seawater.

Apparently, at high nitrate condition in Figure 4 a), acclimating coral could be detected within 48 to 96 hrs when Zooxanthellae density gradually deceased to show those coal tried to adjust themselves to the new condition. However, in this study, Porites sp. could survive throughout 120 hrs and had no mucus secretion under any treatments. The report of Manzello and Lirman (2003), noted that Porites furcate with 20 psu displayed mucus excretion and complete retraction of polyps but no tissue mortality in 24 hr of exposure Manzello and Lirman (2003). The coral defense mechanism, the corals under changes in environment or unstable conditions would release mucus covering their surface to protect themselves from all stimuli (Brown and Bythell, 2005). Though, extremely releasing mucus can cause tissue sloughed-off which coral is unable to recovery themselves in natural seawater, unlike to paled coral which can recovery themselves completely under natural conditions (Jandang, 2015).

Figure 5: Change in Porites sp at nitrate 100 µg-N/l with salinity 15 psu within 120 hrs *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon) Tel +66-22186674, +66-22186666 petchporn.c@chula.ac.th ©2020 International

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According to the results in Figure 6, the association between nitrate and the loss of Zooxanthellae under ambient salinity level within 120 hrs. At ambient nitrate (5 µg-N/l) in seawater (30 psu), the upper and lower of Zooxanthellae density in seawater was equal to 0.19-1.00 cells/l while at increased nitrate concentration (100 µg-N/l) showed an increase in Zooxanthellae density as the range between 0.25-1.88 cells/l. Therefore, this study indicated that loss of Zooxanthellae increased under increased nitrate relative to ambient nitrate in seawater. Similar to Schloder and D'Croz (2004), found that the branching corals incubated under nitrate enrichment resulting in the significant loss of Zooxanthellae and increased in size of algae and increased chlorophyll concentration (Marubini and Davies, 1996). Its effect on the loss of Zooxanthellae also caused paling in color and bleaching.

Figure 6: Zooxanthellae density in salinity at 30 psu at nitrate 5 and 100 µg-N/l In conversely, Tanaka et al. (2014) and Samlansin et al. (2018) also found the same results in the coral Acropora tenuis, loss of Zooxanthellae under high nutrient condition (both high in nitrate and phosphate) but the percentage rate of Zooxanthellae loss was not significant in the statistic.

Loss of Zooxanthellae due to excess of algal symbionts that increased competition between algae and coral host, those algae generated more stress in coral. To control symbiont density in coral, this coral response to detoxification or algal expulsion to decreases their stress (Cunning and Baker, 2013). But there is a process of Zooxanthellae loss from coral, which is also possible. This is an internal degradation as coral apoptosis or coral cell dead (Tissier and Brown, 1996). There were some studies confirmed that nitrate can adversely inhibit calcification on Porites compressa and Montipora caiptata by increasing competition between Zooxanthellae and coral host (Marubini and Brenda, 1999) (Silbiger et al., 2018). Moreover, an increased loss of Zooxanthellae was similarly found in the effect of ammonia on dice coral (Turbinaria peltate) that ammonia resulted in increased Zooxanthellae density at 48 hr (Udomsap et al., 2018). It was also correlated with a decline in coral health status (Udomsap et al., 2019).

The result in Figure 7 showed the association between salinity and the loss of Zooxanthellae under ambient. nitrate concentration within 120 hrs. The corals cultured at ambient salinity (30 psu), the Zooxanthellae density in seawater was equal to 0.19-1.00 cells/l while at reduced salinity condition (15 psu), the range of Zooxanthellae density slightly increased to 0.45-1.50 cells/l.

According to the result of the reduced salinity condition, the Zooxanthellae density in seawater was higher than the ambient salinity condition within 120 hr. Thus, indicating that loss of Zooxanthellae in reduced salinity also was higher than the ambient salinity.

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Kittiya Samlansin, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

Figure 7: Zooxanthellae density at nitrate 5 µg-N/l in salinity at 15 and 30 psu The other study found in a similar way as Sarcophyton spp turned into completely bleaching at 20 psu within 204 hr in the acute salinity test, and in the chronic test, this coral was decreased significantly in live tissue at 16 psu within 120 h (Nakano et al., 2009). The tissue damage is affected by the change in salinity (Van Woesik et al., 1995) and can mainly reduce photosynthesis and respiration rates on coral (Moberg et al., 1997). However, Porites sp used in our study could not show tissue damage or tissue sloughed-off because the other report confirmed that the species of Porites is highly tolerant of reduced salinity (survival 120 hrs in 17 psu) (Nakano et al., 2009).

Moreover, massive corals such as hump coral have large tissue layers using to provide more energy available and photosynthetic products. Those corals are slow in growth rate but long in living as an increase in regeneration and adaptability to the changes in the environment (Jimenez et al., 2001). Whereas, branching corals have thinner tissue layer compared with massive corals. These corals are considerably sensitive to the changes in the environment. The finding by Samlansin et al.

(2018) showed that Acropora sp. rapidly responded to the combination of reduced salinity and high nitrate by showing tissue damage or tissue sloughed-off and decreasingly in coral health level within 96 hours while hump coral (Porites sp.) in this study showed its effect in 120 hours.

Consequently, the above findings of Acropora sp. can confirm that branching coral is more sensitive than hump coral observed in this study.

4. CONCLUSION The combination of reduced salinity (15 psu) with high nitrate (100 µg-N/l) in 120 hrs showed the highest mortality percentages. High nitrate in seawater cause to increase in size and density of Zooxanthellae, living in coral tissue. Excess of Zooxanthellae in coral tissue leads to stressful conditions by increasing the competition between algal symbionts and coral hosts. To control those algal symbionts, these coral responses to expulsion or loss of algae that can physically indicate by paling in color or bleaching. In similar, reduced salinity affected the loss of Zooxanthellae and adversely affected tissue damage as tissue sloughed-off. Thought, there were no releasing mucus and tissue sloughed-off observed in this study.

Hence, the combination of salinity and nitrate exposure in coral can affect adversely coral health status than exposure to salinity or nitrate alone. However, the bleaching sensitive in coral depending on species of coral. Hump corals have larger layers of tissue more than branching corals. *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon) Tel +66-22186674, +66-22186666 petchporn.c@chula.ac.th ©2020 International

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Its tissue can provide more energy and photosynthetic products for their growth resulting in good resistance and adaptability under an unsuitable environment.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL All relevant data are already included in this article.

6. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This research was partially supported by Graduate School, Chulalongkorn University. The authors would like to thank the staff of Sichang Marine Science Research Station, Chonburi, Thailand, for their assistance and support in the experiments.

7. REFERENCES Brown, B., Bythell, J. (2005). Perspectives on mucus secretion in reef corals. Marine Ecology-progress Series - MAR ECOL-PROGR SER, 296, 291-309. DOI: 10.3354/meps296291 Connell, D. W., Hawker, D. W. 1992.

CRC Press.

Pollution in tropical aquatic systems. 1,

Boca Raton:

Cunning, R., Baker, A. C. (2013). Excess algal symbionts increase the susceptibility of reef corals to bleaching. Nature Climate Change, 3(3), 259-262. DOI: 10.1038/nclimate1711 Hansuebsai, A., Rungsupa, S., Kiyoki, Y., Sasaki, S., Chawakitchareon, P. (2018). Study the Effect of Ammonia by Image Analysis on Healthiness Detection for Coral Quality of Life. In Information Modelling and Knowledge Base XXIX, Vol. 301: 343-353.

Hoegh-Guldberg, O., Smith, G. J. (1989). The effect of sudden changes in temperature, light and salinity on the population density and export of zooxanthellae from the reef corals Stylophora pistillata Esper and Seriatopora hystrix Dana. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 129(3), 279-303.

Jandang, S. (2015). "Effect of chronic salinity stress on bleaching and recovery of a Staghorn coral Acropora millepora" The 6th Hatyai National Conference. 26 June 2015. Hatyai University: Hatyai University. 1553.

Jimenez, C., Cortés, J., León, A., Ruíz, E. (2001). Coral bleaching and mortality associated with the 1997-98 El Niño in an upwelling environment in the eastern Pacific (Gulf of Papagayo, Costa Rica). Bulletin of Marine Science, 69, 151-169.

Manzello, D., Lirman, D. (2003). The photosynthetic resilience of Porites furcata to salinity disturbance. Coral Reefs, 22(4), 537-540. DOI:10.1007/s00338-003-0327-0 Marubini, F., Brenda, T. (1999). Bicarbonate addition promotes coral growth. 44(3), 716-720. doi:10.4319/lo.1999.44.3.0716 Marubini, F., Davies, P. S. (1996). Nitrate increases zooxanthellae population density and reduces skeletogenesis in corals. Marine Biology, 127(2), 319-328.

Moberg, F., Nystrom, M., Kautsky, N., Tedengren, M., Jarayabhand, P. (1997). Effects of reduced salinity on the rates of photosynthesis and respiration in the hermatypic corals Porites lutea and Pocillopora damicornis. Marine Ecology Progress Series, 157, 53-59.

Muthiga, N. A., Szmant, A. M. (1987). The Effects of Salinity Stress on the Rates of Aerobic Respiration and Photosynthesis in the Hermatypic Coral Siderastrea siderea. The Biological

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Bulletin, 173(3), 539-551. DOI:10.2307/1541699 Nakano, Y., Tsuchiya, M., Rungsupa, S., Kiyoshi Yamazato, K. Y. (2009). Influence of severe freshwater flooding during the rainy season on the coral community around Khang Khao Island in the inner Gulf of Thailand. Galaxea, Journal of Coral Reef Studies, 11(2), 131-138.

Richmond, R. (1996). Effects of coastal runoff on coral reproduction. Biological Conservation, 76.

DOI:10.1016/0006-3207(96)83225-3 Rungsupa, S., Chawakitchareon, P., Hansuebsai, A., Sasaki, S., Kiyoki, Y. (2018). Photographic Assesment of Coral Stress: Effect of Low Salinity to Acropora sp. Goniopora sp. And Pavona sp. at Sichang Island, Thailand. In Information Modelling and Knowledge Base XXIX, IOS Press, Vol. 301: 137-148.

Rungsupa, S., Sesulihatien, W. T., Hansuebai, A., Chawakitchareon, P., Sasaki, S., Kiyoki, Y. (2016). "The Early Step of Healthiness Detection for Coral Quality of Life at Sichang Island, Thailand" The proceedings of 5th International Conference on Environmental Engineering, Science and Management, Environmental Engineering Association of Thailand. May 11-13, 2016. The Twin Towers Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand.

Samlansin, K., Chawakitchareon, P., Rungsupa, S. (2018). "Effects of Salinity and Nitrate on Coral Health Levels of Acropora sp." The 31st Environmental Technology Conference 2019.

Environmental Engineering Association of Thailand. November, 21-22, 2019. The Twin Towers Hotel, Bangkok, Thailand. 133-130 (in Thai).

Schloder, C., D'Croz, L. (2004). Responses of massive and branching coral species to the combined effects of water temperature and nitrate enrichment. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 313(2), 255-268.

Siebeck, U. E., Marshall, N. J., KlĂźter, A., Hoegh-Guldberg, O. (2006). Monitoring coral bleaching using a colour reference card. Coral Reefs, 25(3), 453-460.

Silbiger, N. J., Nelson, C. E., Remple, K., Sevilla, J. K., Quinlan, Z. A., Putnam, H. M., . . .

Donahue, M. J. (2018). Nutrient pollution disrupts key ecosystem functions on coral reefs.

Proc Biol Sci, 285(1880). DOI:10.1098/rspb.2017.2718 Tanaka, Y., Inoue, M., Nakamura, T., Suzuki, A., Sakai, K. (2014). Loss of zooxanthellae in a coral under high seawater temperature and nutrient enrichment. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology, 457, 220-225.

Tissier, M., Brown, B. (1996). Dynamics of solar bleaching in the intertidal reef coral Goniastrea aspera at Ko Phuket, Thailand. Marine Ecology-progress Series - MAR ECOL-PROGR SER, 136, 235-244. DOI:10.3354/meps136235 Udomsap, B., Chawakitchareon, P., Rungsupa, S. (2018). Effects of Temperature and Ammonia on Coral Health Status: A Case Study of Disc Coral (Turbinaria peltata). International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 9(1), 31-41.

Udomsap, B., Chawakitchareon, P., Rungsupa, S. (2019). An effect-analysis method for species-dependent coral health status in temperature and ammonia: a case study of Acropora sp., Turbinaria sp., and Porites sp. E3S Web of Conferences, 93, 01002.

DOI:10.1051/e3sconf/20199301002 Van Woesik, R., Vantier, L. M., Glazebrook, J. S. (1995). Effects of Cyclone 'Joy' on nearshore coral communities of the Great Barrier Reef. Marine Ecology-progress Series - MAR *Corresponding author (P.Chawakitchareon) Tel +66-22186674, +66-22186666 petchporn.c@chula.ac.th Š2020 International

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ECOL-PROGR SER, 128, 261-270. DOI:10.3354/meps128261 Zhu, B. H., Wang, G. C., Huang, B., Tseng, C. K. (2004). Effects of temperature, hypoxia, ammonia and nitrate on the bleaching among three coral species. Chinese Science Bulletin, 49(18), 1923-1928.

Kittiya Samlansin is a graduate student at Department of Environmental Engineering, Chulalongkorn University. She received her Bachelorâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s degree in Environmental Sciences from Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University. Her current researches involve Coral Health related to Environmental Changes and Coral Health Monitoring.

Dr.Petchporn Chawakitchareon is an Associate Professor in Department of Environmental Engineering at Chulalongkorn University. She received her B.Sc. (Med.Tech) and M.Sc.(Biochemistry) from Mahidol University. She obtained her PhD in Environmental Engineering from ENTPE-LyonI, France.

Dr.Petchporn current interests involve the Utilization of Industrial Waste for Environmental Engineering Applications, Coral Health Monitoring and Environmental Data Mining Applications.

Dr.Sompop Rungsupa was a researcher at Aquatic Resources Research Institute, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. He got his B.Sc. (Marine Science), M.Sc. and Ph.D. (Environmental Science) from Chulalongkorn University. His current research related to Bio-aquatic Plants and Animals.

Dr.Sompop also focused on the Impact of Water Quality related to the Circulation System in Thai Abalone (Haliotis asinina).

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Kittiya Samlansin, Petchporn Chawakitchareon, and Sompop Rungsupa

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A8F

EFFECTS OF BASEL EQUITY AND LIQUIDITY REGULATIONS ON BANKING SECTOR FAILURE RISK IN EMERGING ASIAN ECONOMIES 1

Yasmeen Akhtar , Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani 1

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Department of Management Science, COMSATS University Islamabad 44000, PAKISTAN.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 05 August 2019 Received in revised form 31 January 2020 Accepted 19 February 2020 Available online 02 March 2020

We study the effect of Basel equity requirements and liquidity creation measures on banking sector failure risk in the case of emerging Asian economies for 2004-2017 by using dynamic panel GMM methodology. This study’s results show that a rise in equity requirements is likely to decrease in failure risk (as the higher z-score implies the reduced failure risk). The finding suggests that by an incremental increase in equity ratio, liquidity creation results in a rise in bank default risk. The finding is consistent with the argument that the liquidity generation function exposes the banking industry towards the risk of illiquidity. The findings also suggest the positive relationship amid bank capital structure and z-score, which implies a surge of equity in bank capital structure is likely to reduce the failure risk.

Keywords: Liquidity creation; Basel equity requirements; Bank failure risk; Dynamic panel GMM Capital structure; Emerging Asian economies; z-score.

Disciplinary: Management, and Financial Sciences. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION The modern financial intermediation theory states that financial institutions undertake two basic functions in the economy i.e. to create liquidity in the system and do risk transformation. They generate liquidity by funding long-term, less liquid investments through short-term, liquid obligations. Hence, banks deliver money to the rest of the economic units by holding illiquid assets and face the risk of calling out of short-term liabilities invested in long-term assets. The recent subprime financial crisis demonstrates well how rapidly illiquidity in the system can prevail and sustain. Particularly, it indicates how various funding sources can dissolve and shows compounding concerns regarding assets valuation and regulatory capital requirements (BIS, 2009). Banks also provide liquidity to their customers through off-balance-sheet undertakings, like loaning commitments and letters of credits (Holmstrom & Tirole, 1998; Thakor, 2005; Kashyap et al 2002).

Bank role as a liquidity creator is risky as it holds illiquid investments when provides funding to external bodies. Liquidity creation enhances financial institute’s exposure towards risk and *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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increases the probability and intensity of losses related to the disposal of illiquid investments to fulfill the customers’ liquidity needs (Allen & Gale, 2004; Allen & Santomero, 1997). The increase in cumulative liquidity demands, in dire situations, may end in a run on banks by investors (Diamond & Dybvig, 1983). Present academic literature shows that a rise of liquidity generation in the system results in increased illiquidity in the banking sector that may be considered as a key reason for financial fragility (Berger & Bouwman, 2017; Thakor, 2005). The current study is complementary to the earlier literature, investigating how the bank capital contributes to liquidity risk-sharing by effecting the association amid bank failure risk and liquidity generation at bank-level data.

The role of regulatory capital is also important as it affects the bank risk-taking activities, which ultimately impact the liquidity creation in the system. The literature observing the association between risk-taking and bank equity has mixed results. One side of the literature reveals a positive relation amid risk-taking and bank equity implying that banks with high equity ratios are encouraged by supervisory bodies to take on more risk known as “regulatory hypothesis” (Altunbas et al., 2007; Ugwuanyi, 2015). On the other side, the “moral hazard hypothesis” predicts the negative association amid bank equity and risk, when banks benefit from deposit insurance arrangements (Agoraki et al., 2011; Lee & Chih, 2013; Lee & Hsieh, 2013; Rahman et al., 2018).

The “moral hazard hypothesis” is especially important in case when risk and leverage positions in the banking sector are previously higher. The literature also reveals bi-directional causality amid bank equity and risk-taking.

The present academic literature reveals the causal linkage that moves from bank equity to liquidity generation and it presents two opposite observations regarding the relationship. Berger & Bouwman (2009) discuss, in the first argument, bank equity is inclined to hinder liquidity formation by two divergent views: the “financial-fragility structure” and “crowding-out of deposits” arguments. Under “financial-fragility structure”, higher equity is linked with reduced monitoring leading to lesser creation of liquidity (Diamond & Rajan, 2000, 2001), whereas the high equity ratios might crowd-out the deposits and hence lessen liquidity generation (Gorton & Winton, 2000).

In the second observation, higher equity improves the capability of financial institutes to further generate the liquidity as equity permits to absorb more risk that validates the “risk-absorption hypothesis” (Von Thadden, 2004; Bhattacharya & Thakor, 1993).

The current study contributes to prior studies in several ways. Firstly, we take the two measures of liquidity generation, one is Berger & Bouwman’s liquidity generation measure and the other is the “net-stable-funding ratio” measure suggested by the “Basel Committee on banking supervision” (BCBS). Second, we examine the impact of both the Basel equity requirements and liquidity formation measures on bank failure risk in the case of emerging Asian markets. Third, we also examine the indirect impact of liquidity formation, through its interaction with a change in equity ratios, on banking sector failure risk. Fourth, the current study focuses on the Asian emerging economies, as the Basel III is presented in the reaction of the 2007 global economic crunch that largely hits the western developed nations. But the Basel regulatory reforms are not only meant to tackle the reasons behind the crisis but also to synchronize the regulations worldwide.

The study results reveal a positive association amid bank equity ratios and z-score, which implies that a rise in equity is likely to decrease in banking failure risk. The result validates the

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Yasmeen Akhtar, Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani

point that bank equity functions as a remedy against future losses and reduces the prospect of failure risk in banks. The findings propose that with an incremental rise in bank equity ratio, the influence of liquidity generation on z-score is negative, which implies the increase in bank default risk.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW This study discusses the role of liquidity generation in effecting banking sector failure risk and also examines the moderating role of regulatory equity requirements in influencing the association amid liquidity generation and banking failure risk.

2.1 LIQUIDITY CREATION AND BANK EQUITY REQUIREMENTS The relation amid liquidity generation and bank capital can be explained based on two types of hypotheses i.e. “financial fragility/ crowding-out of deposits” and “risk-absorption hypothesis”. The “financial fragility/ crowding-out” theory predicts an inverse association amid bank equity and the formation of liquidity. The financial-fragility theory states that higher equity ratios make financial institutes less financially fragile leading to a reduction in depositor’s monitoring activity and hinder the role of banks as liquidity creators (Diamond & Rajan, 2000, 2001). The second view i.e. crowding-out theory predicts that high equity ratios may crowd-out the deposits, leading to a reduction in funds available for bank liquidity generation (Gorton & Winton, 2017). The second proposition i.e. “risk-absorption hypothesis” states there exists positive relation amid bank equity and liquidity creation as the higher equity ratios reduce the risks of illiquidity related to bank liquidity formation and improve the risk absorbing capability of banks (Allen & Gale, 2004; Von Thadden, 2004).

By using a dataset of the US banking sector for 1993-2003, Berger and Bowman (2009) explore the association between bank equity and liquidity generation. The findings of the study support both hypotheses. The “financial fragility” hypothesis is proved in small size banks, but in the case of big banks, the “risk-absorption” hypothesis holds. There also exist several studies that investigate the bi-directional relationship amid bank equity and liquidity generation. For instance, Horvath et al. (2014) examine the association between bank equity and liquidity generation by employing Czech banking sector data for 2000-2010. The study findings show that bank equity negatively impacts liquidity generation and liquidity generation also granger causes a reduction in bank equity. Casu et al. (2018) investigate the relationship amid Basel equity requirements and liquidity generation by employing a European countries’ sample for 1999-2013. The findings of the study show a bi-directional negative causality implying that liquidity generation is reduced when bank equity is increased, and bank capital is reduced when liquidity is generated. Le (2018) investigate the relationship amid bank equity and liquidity generation in the Vietnam banking industry for 2007-2015. The study findings imply a bi-directional negative relationship amid bank equity and liquidity generation. Tran et al. (2016) examine the link amid the bank’s equity requirements, liquidity generation, and profitability in the case of the US banking sector. The study findings reveal a bi-directional positive relation amid bank equity and liquidity generation by controlling the effect of profitability and the finding is significant in the case of small size banks and during periods of non-crisis. Umar et al. (2017) study the effect of bank equity on liquidity *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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generation by using Indian banks' data from 2000 to 2014. The study findings reveal that the “financial fragility/crowding-out” theory holds in the instance of a narrow liquidity measure, whereas the “risk-absorption” theory is proved significant in the case of broad liquidity measures in listed banks before crisis period.

2.2 EQUITY REQUIREMENTS AND BANK FAILURE RISK The role of regulatory equity in effecting bank failure risk is based on several sets of theories.

On one side, it is argued that bank equity functions as a remedy against future losses and reduces the prospect of bank failure risk (Von Thadden, 2004). The other side focuses the incentives effect of bank equity, in which equity either induces the better monitoring of borrowers which leads to a reduction in default probability (Holmstrom & Tirole, 1998) or it lessens the risk-taking enticements in banking sector (Acharya et al., 2016). On the whole, the above theories suggest an inverse association amid bank equity and failure risk. Recent studies examining the factors of bank failure risk reveal bank equity as an essential factor of failure risk especially during the recent 2007 global crisis (Beltratti & Stulz, 2012; Cole & White, 2012). Especially, banks with high equity ratios have more prospects to react against these shocks and have little failure risk.

2.3 BANK FAILURE RISK AND LIQUIDITY CREATION There exist many views regarding the relationship between bank failure risk and liquidity generation. Liquidity is generated by financing long-term, illiquid investments with liquid short-term obligations. Hence, liquidity generation function exposes the banking industry towards the risk of illiquidity i.e. the disposal of premature illiquid investments to cope client’s liquidity needs in case of sudden withdrawals by depositors and use of a line of credit facilities by borrowers (Diamond & Rajan, 2011). This side of the argument foresees that liquidity generation leads banks towards vulnerability. The other side of arguments predicts an inverse relationship amid liquidity generation and bank failure risk based on two arguments. According to the first argument, liquidity generation is the primary function of banks and it provides information about the banking institutions' ability to support the economy by providing funds to the rest of the economy through its risk transformation function. Hence, the failure of the banking system to perform its basic function of liquidity generation leads to the vulnerability of the economic system (Fungacova et al.

2015). Chatterjee (2018), in line with the same argument, shows that low liquidity generation leads to a downturn in the US. In the second argument, Berger et al. (2008) argue that financial institutes maintain their ratios of capital in line with future risk exposure. Particularly, banking institutions improve their equity ratios in reaction to the risk of bank illiquidity created by liquidity generation (Distinguin et al. 2013). From this perspective, liquidity generation is recognized as a risky activity and is inversely related to the failure risk of banks. Based on prior literature, we formulate the succeeding hypotheses: H1: there exists a significant relationship between bank equity and failure risk.

H2: there exists a significant relationship between liquidity generation and failure risk.

H3: the association amid bank failure risk and liquidity generation is contingent on bank equity.

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Yasmeen Akhtar, Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani

3. DATA AND VARIABLES 3.1 DATA The present study examines the impact of equity requirements and liquidity creation measures on bank failure risk. The sample of study ranges from 2004 to 2017 and encompasses the emerging Asian economies that are included in both emerging markets indexes i.e. Financial Times Stock Exchange (FTSE) index and Morgan Stanley Capital Index (MSCI). The Basel III is introduced in response to the 2007 subprime mortgage crisis, but most of the prior literature on Basel regulatory requirements and financial crisis has focused the western economies with little emphasis on Asian economies. Hence, we study the effect of these Basel equities and liquidity reforms on banking sector failure risk in Asian economies. The selected sample comprises the seven emerging Asian economies including Pakistan, India, China, Indonesia, Philippines, Malaysia, and Thailand.

3.2 DESCRIPTION OF VARIABLES The explained variable examined in the study is the failure risk of banks and is constructed by z-score that is extensively employed in prior literature to measure insolvency risk in the banking sector. The z-score is defined as by taking a fraction of the sum of “return-on-assets and equity-to-assets” ratios to the standard error of the return-on-assets. A high value of z-score characterizes the low-level bank failure and insolvency risks. As the literature indicates that the z-score values are extremely skewed, thus we use the z-scores natural logarithm as a construct of bank failure risk (Laeven & Levine, 2009).

In the case of independent variables, liquidity formation is defined as liquidity creation measure (LCM) given by Berger & Bouwman (2009) and given as LCM = “(0.5 * illiquid assets + 0 * semiliquid assets - 0.5 * liquid assets+ 0.5 * liquid liabilities + 0 * semiliquid liabilities - 0.5 * illiquid liabilities) / Total Assets” To calculate this measure, liabilities, and assets are first categorized as illiquid, semi-liquid and liquid, based on their maturity and type, then each item is weighted based on the above formula.

The second liquidity formation measure is based on Basel regulatory reforms proposed by BCBS because of severe disturbances in the financial system post the 2007 crisis period and known as “net-stable-funding ratio” (BIS, (2009). The higher measure of liquidity indicator represents high liquidity, as banks put more liquid obligations into less liquid investments. To confirm the Berger & Bouwman liquidity measure, we use the inverse of the Basel liquidity measure i.e. reciprocal of the “net-stable-funding ratio”. The formula used to compute the second liquidity indicator is given as follows: RNSFR = “Required amount of stable funding / Available amount of stable funding” = “0 * (cash + interbank assets + short-term marketable assets) + 0.5 * (long-term marketable assets + customer acceptances) + 0.85 * consumer loans + 1 * (commercial loans + other loans + other assets + fixed assets) / 0.7 * (demand deposits + saving deposits) + 0 * (short-term market debt + other short-term liabilities) + 1 * (long-term liabilities + equity)” The description of the remaining variables is given in Table 1. *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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Table 1: Variables Definition Classification Bank Failure Risk (BFR) Liquidity Generation Indicators (LIQ)

Capital (CAP)

Variables Z-score Liquidity creation measure (LCM) Reciprocal of net stable funding ratio (RNSFR) Regulatory capital (CAP)

Bank Specific Control Variables (BANK)

Description Constructed by the natural log of Z-score Given by Berger & Bouwman (2009) Introduced by BCBS (BIS, 2009) Tier 1 Capital ratio (T1R) Total Capital ratio (TCR) The ratio of Net income to total equity Measured by the natural log of total assets Market (Price) value to book value ratio The ratio of bank equity to total assets

Profitability (ROE) Bank Size (SIZE) Price to book ratio (PBR) Bank capital structure (BCS) Macroeconomic Variables Inflation (INF) Measured by the Consumer Price Index (MACRO) Economic Growth (GDP) GDP growth rate Domestic credit to the Private Sector Domestic credit private sector (DCPS) Monetary policy measure The interest rate as given by a countryâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s central bank as a (MP) policy rate between the banks and other financial institutions Regulatory Pressure Bank Market Power (BMP) The ratio of bank i total assets in country j to total banking Variables (RP) system assets in country j

4. MODEL AND METHODOLOGY The present study uses the Arellano & Bond (1991) panel data, a two-step dynamic GMM methodology, known as difference GMM and which uses the instruments in form of lags differences, to overcome the endogeneity issue.

The following set of equations is specified to study the influence of liquidity formation and equity requirements on banking sector failure risk in a dataset of emerging Asia economies during 2004-2017. đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; = đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝0 + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝1 đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ąâ&#x2C6;&#x2019;1 + đ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;=1 đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; đ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;=1 đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + â&#x2026;&#x201E;đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + đ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;

(1)

The second model is specified to observe the effect of liquidity formation on banking sector failure risk depending on equity requirements. To check the effect of equity requirements, we take the tier one and total capital ratios as a measure of regulatory equity. We specify the equity ratios both in level form and also the change in capital ratios. đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; = đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝0 + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝1 đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ąâ&#x2C6;&#x2019;1 + đ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + đ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ??żđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą â&#x2C6;&#x2014; đ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ??śđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą đ?&#x2018; đ?&#x2018; + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC; đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;=1 đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014;đ?&#x2018;&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + â&#x2C6;&#x2018;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;=1 đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2DC; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + â&#x2026;&#x201E;đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą + đ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;

(2)

The bank-specific variable (BSV) are those which are derived from earlier literature and includes the bank size (SIZE), price to book ratio (PBR), profitability (ROE) and bank capital structure (BCS). The macroeconomic variables include economic growth (GDP), monitory policy measure (MP), inflation (INF) and domestic credit to private sector ratio (DCPS). The regulatory pressure measure incorporates the bank market power and a higher market power represents the low competition in the market.

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Yasmeen Akhtar, Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani

5. DISCUSSION The present study investigates the influence of liquidity generation and equity requirements on bank’s failure risk by using a sample of emerging Asian economies for 2004-2017. The descriptive statistics are given in Table 2 and report the total observations, average values, standard errors, highest and lowest values of variables employed in this study. The average of the bank’s failure risk (BFR) is 2.90 and the standard error of 1.21. The liquidity creation measure (LCM) has an average of 0.230 and a standard error of 1.58, while the average of the reciprocal of the “net-stable-funding ratio” is 0.648 with a standard error of 0.866. The tier one ratio has a mean of 0.131 with a standard error of 0.123, while the total capital proportion has a mean of 0.159. The bank-specific and macroeconomic variables also don’t show large variations.

Table 2: Descriptive Statistics Variable BFR RNSFR LCM T1R TCR ROE PBR BCS BMP SIZE GDP MP INF DCPS

# of Obs. 2124 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137 2137

Average 2.90 0.648 0.230 0.131 0.159 0.126 1.93 0.096 0.327 13.4 6.52 8.78 5.23 68.2

SD 1.21 0.866 1.58 0.123 0.122 0.232 6.38 0.085 0.529 2.26 2.41 3.10 3.46 43.4

Minimum -4.67 -8.45 -4.70 -1.67 -1.59 -6.50 -99.2 -0.137 0.00 3.97 -1.51 4.33 -0.90 15.4

Maximum 4.73 19.63 47.70 1.56 1.56 2.44 96.3 0.997 3.92 20.8 14.2 16.0 20.3 156.8

The regression model findings are given in Tables 3 and 4. The findings of the regression model show a positive relation amid bank equity ratios and z-score, which implies that a rise in equity measure is likely to decrease in banking sector failure risk (as the higher z-score implies the reduced failure risk). The findings are consistent with the Von Thadden (2004), arguing that bank equity functions as a remedial against future losses and reduces the prospect of bank failure risk.

The findings also validate the incentives effect of bank equity, in which equity either induces the better monitoring of borrowers which leads to a reduction in default probability (Holmstrom & Tirole, 1998) or lessens the risk-taking enticements in banking sector (Acharya et al., 2016).

However, when we make the change in equity ratio as a measure of capital requirements, it has a negative and insignificant relation with bank failure risk except in one case where it proves to be significant. The impact of liquidity generation, whether it is measured by Berger & Bouwman (2009) “liquidity creation measure” (LCM) or Basel accord III “net-stable-funding ratio” (RNSFR), on bank failure is not significant in any case.

The indirect impact of liquidity generation on banking failure risk, through its interaction with a change in equity ratios, is negative and significant in the case of both capital ratios (i.e. T1R and TCR). The findings propose that with incremental growth in the bank equity ratio, the impact of liquidity generation on z-score is negative, which implies a rise in bank default risk. The result *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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validates the argument of Diamond & Rajan (2011), that liquidity generation function exposes banking industry towards the risk of illiquidity i.e. the disposal of premature illiquid investments to cope client’s liquidity needs in case of sudden withdrawals by depositors and use of a line of credit facilities by borrowers. This side of argument foresees that liquidity generation leads banks towards vulnerability i.e. further the liquidity is generated, greater is the prospect of bank failures.

In the case of bank internal control variables, profitability and bank size, both impact bank failure risk measure i.e. z-score positively. The results imply that a rise in bank profitability is expected to improve the z-score which results in the reduction of bank failure risk. Also the bank size effects z-score positively that implies the reduction in bank failure risk. Bank capital structure is proxied by the “equity to assets ratio” and the result shows the positive effect of bank equity structure on z-score. The finding implies that a surge of equity in capital structure is likely to reduce bank failure risk. In the case of macroeconomic indicators, the interest rate (i.e. monitory policy indicator) has a significant negative impact on z-score, implying the higher bank failure risk. The result suggests that an increase in interest rates reduces the economic activity and hence increase the bank failure risk.

Table 3: Regression Model Results Bank Failure Risk Model 1 Model 1 Model 1 (BFR) Coef.

P Value Coef.

P Value Coef.

P Value Cons.

1.737*** 0.000 1.736*** 0.000 2.644*** 0.000 BFR(t-1) 0.031 0.662 0.028 0.692 0.047 0.530 CAP 2.444*** 0.000 2.453*** 0.000 ΔCAP -0.558*** 0.003 LIQ -0.003 0.684 0.011 0.571 ROE 1.555*** 0.000 1.553*** 0.000 1.648*** 0.000 PBR -.001 0.826 -0.001 0.802 -0.001 0.867 SIZE 0.047** 0.028 0.047** 0.027 -0.017 0.629 BMP 0.138* 0.099 INF 0.096 0.544 0.096 0.545 MP -1.55* 0.056 -1.543* 0.056 -0.598 0.614 DCPS 0.212 0.137 AR1, AR2, (p value) 0.178 0.367 0.180 0.371 0.212 0.404 Wald chi2 (Prob) 41.93*** 0.000 42.48*** 0.000 46.37*** 0.000 No. of banks 160 160 No. of Obs. 1789 1789 The level of significance i.e. 1%, 5% and 10% is represented by ***, ** and * respectively.

Table 3 shows the base model results. The explained variable is bank failure risk (BFR), liquidity formation is proxied by liquidity creation indicator in the first model and reciprocal of net-stable-funding ratio in the second model. Profitability (PROF) is given by return-on-equity and CAP represents the total capital ratio and ΔCAP represents the change in capital ratio. The Arellano & Bond autocorrelation test is employed to test the presence of serial correlation.

Table 4 shows the regression model 2 results. The explained variable is bank failure risk (BFR) and is measured by the natural log of z-score. Liquidity formation is proxied by liquidity creation indicator and reciprocal of net-stable-funding ratio. Capital (CAP) is measured by taking the change in T1R and TCR ratios, profitability (PROF) is given by return-on-equity (ROE). The Arellano &

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Yasmeen Akhtar, Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani

Bond autocorrelation test is employed to test the presence of serial correlation.

Table 4: Regression Model Results BFR Const.

BFR(t-1) ΔCAP (TCR) ΔCAP (TIR) LIQ ROE BMP SIZE BCS GDP MP LIQ* ΔCAP (TCR) LIQ* ΔCAP (T1R) AR1, AR2, (prob) Wald chi(2) (Prob) No. of banks No. of Obs.

Model (LCM) Coef.

P-value 1.291*** 0.000 0.014 0.803 -0.095 0.403

0.010 1.634*** -0.001 0.064*** 5.885*** 0.044 -0.534 -0.480**

0.473 0.000 0.977 0.000 0.000 0.819 0.493 0.040

Model (RNSFR) Coef.

P-value 1.381*** 0.000 0.012 0.844 -0.011 0.940

0.006 1.645*** 0.010 0.058*** 5.849*** 0.052 -0.518 -0.121

0.506 0.000 0.794 0.001 0.000 0.802 0.524 0.415

Model (LCM) Coef.

P-value 1.258*** 0.000 0.013 0.820

Model (RNSFR) Coef.

P-value 1.373*** 0.000 0.012 0.842

-0.088

0.464

-0.017

0.902

0.005 1.638*** 0.003 0.066*** 5.900*** 0.070 -0.557

0.665 0.000 0.945 0.000 0.000 0.717 0.534

0.006 1.649*** 0.011 0.058*** 5.850*** 0.050 -0.529

0.475 0.000 0.780 0.000 0.000 0.812 0.539

-0.598**

0.021

-0.106

0.436

0.201

0.347

0.192

0.372

0.201

0.342

0.192

0.371

217.35***

0.000

144.30***

0.000

348.30***

0.000

160.83***

0.000

160 160 160 160 1789 1789 1789 1789 The level of significance i.e. 1%, 5% and 10% is represented by ***, ** and * respectively.

The robustness of the findings is tested in several ways. First, we construct the liquidity generation in two ways, i.e. “liquidity creation measure” suggested by Berger & Bouwman (2009) and “net-stable-funding ratio” given by BCBS (2009). Second, the regulatory equity ratio is measured by two proxies i.e. total capital and tier one capital ratios. However, the findings of the study prove the robustness of alternative measures.

6. CONCLUSION The present study investigates the influence of liquidity generation and equity requirements on bank’s failure risk by using a sample of emerging Asian economies for 2004-2017. We employ the Arellano & Bond (1991) panel data, two-step dynamic GMM methodology, known as difference GMM and which uses the instruments in form of lags differences, to avoid the problem of endogeneity.

The regression results show a positive relation amid bank equity ratios and z-score, which implies that a rise in equity measure is likely to decrease in banking sector failure risk (as the higher z-score implies the reduced failure risk). The findings are consistent with the Von Thadden (2004) arguing that bank equity functions as a remedy against future losses and reduces the prospect of bank’s failure risk. The indirect impact of liquidity generation on the bank’s failure risk, through its interaction with a change in equity ratios, is negative and significant in the case of both the total *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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capital and tier one capital ratios. The findings propose that with an incremental rise in bank equity ratio, the effect of liquidity creation on z-score is negative, which implies the increase in bank default risk. The finding validates the argument of Diamond & Rajan (2011), that liquidity generation function exposes the banking industry towards the risk of illiquidity.

In the case of bank internal control variables, profitability and bank size, both impact bank failure risk measure i.e. z-score positively. The results imply that a rise in profitability and bank size is expected to improve the z-score which results in the reduction of bank failure risk. In the case of macroeconomic indicators, the interest rate (i.e. monitory policy indicator) has a significant negative impact on z-score, implying the higher bank failure risk. The result suggests that an increase in interest rates reduces economic activity and hence increases the bank failure risk.

7. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL All relevant data are already included in this article.

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B.I.S. (2009). International Framework for Liquidity Risk, Measurement and Monitoring. Consultative Document. Bank of International Settlements.

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Casu, B., di Pietro, F., & Trujillo-Ponce, A. (2018). Liquidity Creation and Bank Capital. Journal of Financial Services Research, 1-34.

Chatterjee, U. K. (2018). Bank liquidity creation and recessions. Journal of Banking & Finance, 90, 64-75.

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Díaz, V., & Huang, Y. (2017). The role of governance on bank liquidity creation. Journal of Banking & Finance, 77, 137-156.

Distinguin, I., Roulet, C., & Tarazi, A. (2013). Bank regulatory capital and liquidity: Evidence from US and European publicly traded banks. Journal of Banking & Finance, 37(9), 3295-3317.

Duqi, A., & Al-Tamimi, H. A. H. (2018). The Impact of Owner’s Identity on Banks’ Capital Adequacy and Liquidity Risk. Emerging Markets Finance and Trade, 54(2), 468-488.

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Journal of Financial Services Research, 51(1), 97-123.

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Holmström, B., & Tirole, J. (1998). Private and public supply of liquidity. Journal of political Economy, 106(1), 1-40.

Horváth, R., Seidler, J., & Weill, L. (2014). Bank capital and liquidity creation: Granger-causality evidence. Journal of Financial Services Research, 45(3), 341-361.

Kashyap, A. K., Rajan, R., & Stein, J. C. (2002). Banks as liquidity providers: An explanation for the coexistence of lending and deposit‐taking. The Journal of finance, 57(1), 33-73.

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Evidence from China's commercial banks. The North American Journal of Economics and Finance, 26, 705-724.

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Rahman, M. M., Chowdhury, A. A., & Mouri, D. E. Y. (2018). Relationship between Risk-taking, Capital Regulation and Bank Performance: Empirical Evidence from Bangladesh. Eurasian Journal of Business and Economics, 11(22), 29-57. *Corresponding author (Ghulam M. Kayani). Tel: +923365573637 Email: mujtaba.kayani786@gmail.com ©2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8F http://TUENGR.COM/V10A/11A8F.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.147

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Thakor, A. V. (2005). Do loan commitments cause overlending?. Journal of Money, Credit and Banking, 1067-1099.

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Yasmeen Akhtar is a PhD student at COMSATS University Islamabad, in Finance. She is also a Lecturer at University of Sargodha Pakistan. Her areas of research are Banking Regulations and Performance, Capital Markets and Risk Management.

Dr.Ghulam M. Kayani is an Assistant Professor at COMSATS University Islamabad. His areas of research include Stock Markets Efficiency, Capital Markets and Risk Management.

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Yasmeen Akhtar, Ghulam Mujtaba Kayani

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8G

TECHNOLOGICAL AND TECHNICAL IMPROVEMENT OF CROP CULTIVATION PROCESSES Gennady Maslov

1*

1

1

, Nikolai Rinas , Elena Yudina , Nikolai Malashikhin

1

1

Department of Operation Machine and Tractor Park, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 04 October 2019 Received in revised form 05 February 2020 Accepted 24 February 2020 Available online 03 March 2020

This article presents the technological and technical principles for improving the technology of cultivating field crops by optimizing them.

New technological principles significantly improve technology by combining operations on tillage, sowing, fertilizing, harvesting, and technical - reducing the list of machines, the use of universal energy tools, multifunctional units that qualitatively implement the technology.

The novelty of the research consists in the rational acquisition of machine units in accordance with the inventions of the authors. This will help to obtain improved results of technical and economic efficiency, such as labor productivity, energy intensity of processes and the cost of investing in the mechanization of technological processes.

Keywords:

Field technology; Mechanization; Crop machinery; Combination of operations; Technical equipment efficiency; Spiral screw roller; Sowing unit.

Disciplinary: Crop Science, Agricultural Machinery and Technology. ©2019 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION The technologies of cultivating field crops and agricultural machinery for their implementation determine not only the crop, but also the technical and economic efficiency of the grown products [1], labor productivity and competitiveness. Unfortunately, the applied technology in the form of single-operation machines does not allow using the potentialities of even high technologies for cultivating field crops, achieving the highest labor productivity and minimizing production costs [2, 3]. However, even from modern serial technology it is possible to obtain high efficiency using the technological and technical principles that we offer to improve field crop cultivation processes based on scientifically based farming systems and manning machine assemblies based on our inventions [4, 5, 6, 7, 8]. Thus, the goal of our article is to provide increased labor productivity and lower costs when cultivating crops by streamlining the technology system and serial machines, taking into account our inventions. *Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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2. METHOD In this work, we used the method of analysis and synthesis of research results, computer programs for optimizing the parameters and operating modes of machine units [1, 3, 9], field experience technique of B. A. Dospekhov [9] and GOST R 53053-2008 on the economic evaluation of machines and technologies.

Small plot experiments on aggregates were laid down in triplicate according to the procedure [9] with a systematic arrangement of plots. In addition to the control, measurements of the working speed of the soil, the structurally aggregate composition of the soil, the depth of cultivation with the determination of its uniformity, as well as the determination of the traction resistance of the working bodies with the help of dynamometry were measured for each experiment. The results of checking the uniformity of the depth of soil cultivation by various working bodies on the harrowing of winter wheat crops are given in Table 1.

Also, according to the specified method [9], a multi-functional unit for sowing wheat was studied with the simultaneous introduction of the main, sowing fertilizer and rolling [7] and a multi-functional harvesting unit with the simultaneous pressing of straw [2, 4]. In comparison with the original domestic combine with a rotating deck TORUM-740, the quality indicators of grain threshed with heavy threshing and separating devices were compared.

The technological principles for improving the processes of cultivating field crops (Figure 1) are formed in four blocks (a – d): a - technology optimization; b - resource, energy saving; c - soil improvement; d - innovative technology. All these principles are based on serial technology with its completion in multifunctional units (MFU), capable of fundamentally improving the technology: eliminating heavy equipment from machine complexes, streamlining the list and sequence of operations, nomenclature list of machines, combining several technological operations in one pass of the unit field, reduce crop losses, costs and improve the quality of work.

Consider the structure and content of each of the four blocks of directions. In the first of them: technology optimization strictly stipulates the rotation of crops in crop rotation and selects the best technology option taking into account the predecessor. It provides continuous execution of all planned work in precisely defined terms and with careful observance of agrotechnical requirements at each technological operation with a minimum number of tillages. Of course, such optimization is expected to significantly increase labor productivity, reduce costs, cost of production and increase its competitiveness. The optimized technology includes a set of high-performance multifunctional equipment, the use of highly effective herbicides in a complex to protect plants from weeds, the use of a set of highly productive and reliably ripening varieties of different maturity, the use of full doses of organic and mineral fertilizers, and strict adherence to technological discipline. All of the above will make it possible to achieve 2–2.5 times savings in fuel and lubricants, labor costs - up to three times, and ensure yield growth by 30 percent. In addition, the number of machine brands will be reduced, for example, for grain production from 20–30 to 5–6 items, while capital investments in mechanization are reduced by a factor of 1.5–2.

When optimizing, for example, the technology of harvesting cereal crops, they must take into account the full range of operations of the post-harvest complex: on what area is stubble peeling

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

carried out, on which sowing of intermediate crops or chiseling, what and how much fertilizer is applied. Optimization criterion - minimum cash costs or total energy costs. When optimizing grain harvesting, they plan to use multifunctional units that collect grain at the same time and perform a number of post-harvest complex operations. The composition of the MFU can be formed on the basis of.

The second block (b) of resource and energy conservation presents directions for improving grain production, including the problems of combining technological operations, improving technologies based on the new universal mobile energy facility UES-450 (PO Gomselmash), using ultra- and low-volume spraying with an effective plant protection system saving energy resources by optimizing them for the planned crop and optimizing the selection of the best option for grain harvesting technology taking into account the emerging environmental bottom climatic conditions.

Figure 1: Principles of technological improvement of crop cultivation processes

*Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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3. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The combination of technological operations in one machine-tractor units (MTU) is very widely used in both domestic and foreign technologies. This is especially noticeable on machines for tillage, sowing, fertilizing [4]. Even when harvesting cereal crops, it is proposed to combine harvesting with other works: stubble cultivation, sowing of intermediate crops, pressing straw.

Combination of operations on the new powerful mobile energy facility U-450 (Gomselmash Production Association) is especially effective. This universal power vehicle of a 5 t traction class can create a fundamentally new direction in scientific research and technology [7]. We performed a study to determine the effectiveness of a system of machines for mechanizing crop production in a typical economy of our region with an energy facility of U-450 and a system of machines based on serial equipment without U-450 (Table 1).

Table 1: Performance indicators of a system of machines for plant growing with energy U-450 Indicators 1 2 3

The number of conventional reference tractors (150 l. From.), Pcs. Number of physical tractors Arable land load, ha: on a physical tractor on conditional tractor

Actual fleet of a typical farm

Settlement Park without U-450 with U-450

12.74

10.94

10.08

14

12

9

184.3 202.5

215.0 235.8

286.7 255.9

As follows from the results obtained, the use of the U-450 power tool with a set of machines fundamentally improves technology and ensures high efficiency: the range of technical equipment, the number of conventional reference tractors (Table 1) are significantly reduced from 12.74 to 10.8 pcs., Number of physical tractors - from 12 to 9, or by 25%, the optimal annual load of a conventional tractor increases from 202.5 ha to 255.9, which means that the cost of the work performed will decrease and the efficiency of technologies will increase.

Improving technology is achieved by combining technological operations, saving soil moisture and releasing the tractor.

The third block of technological improvement (Figure 1) includes mainly agricultural areas (restoration of natural soil formation, introduction of defecate, use of crop residues, strict observance of crop rotation, where a field for perennial grasses is mandatory).

A very significant and important technological direction of increasing the production of cereals and other crops in modern conditions is the improvement of the soil from various mushrooms and pathogens, which should increase the crop yield and give a high economic effect without the use of large doses of mineral fertilizers and chemicals. Some research teams are already finding ways to restore soil fertility through natural soil formation processes through the introduction of microbiological preparations that enhance the intensity of biological processes in the soil, support and restore these processes, bind, for example, air nitrogen, and provide plants with the necessary amount of nitrogen compounds, multiplying the crop . A proven drug for soil improvement is Geostim (LLC Biotehagro, Russia, Krasnodar Territory, Timashevsk). The technology of its application gives the best effect in complex processing: pre-sowing treatment of seeds of agricultural crops + treatment of

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

vegetative plants + post-harvest treatment of plant residues. Thanks to this technology, infections are suppressed in the soil, and agronomically valuable organisms and their metabolic products are decompressed and accumulated. To increase productivity, seeds are treated with the same preparation with a mixture of chemical preparations, mineral composts and biological products, due to which the plant is protected from seedling to vegetative maturity. Further, throughout the entire growing season, Geostim, settling on the surface of the root system of plants, provides free access to mineral nutrition elements, performs protective functions, releases biologically active substances, stimulates plant growth and development. And, finally, post-harvest stubble cultivation (spraying) immediately before the first or second disking, or before cultivation using a sprayer with large-droplet sprays using complex microbial starter cultures, the crop residues are effectively decomposed, infections are suppressed in the soil, and its healing takes place (density decreases, accumulate agronomically valuable organisms, etc.).

There are two drawbacks to the technologically unsolved problems in this useful innovation.

Firstly, it is necessary to fulfill the requirements for a minimum time gap between spraying and tillage, and the second requirement is to provide a small drop spray of biological products on vegetating plants. The first of them is solved with the help of our multifunctional unit [8], which can be equipped with a sprayer, and the second - with the use of ejection-slot nozzles [9].

Consider the principles of technical improvement of technologies for sowing crops (Figure 2), which solve the problem of industry efficiency. As you can see, this is, first of all, a radical renewal of the fleet of machines and machine technologies that reduce the need for equipment, labor, fuel and lubricants and at times increase labor productivity.

The principles of technological technological improvement are proposed: effective multifunctional units (MFU) for mechanization of crop production, ensuring the production of competitive agricultural products; more advanced designs of machines and working bodies that improve the quality of mechanized work; issues of updating the fleet of vehicles, improving the efficiency of their use; complexity of work; continuity and flow of work; environmental safety of products. A high level of integrated work execution is based on combining several technological operations carried out in a single MFU pass, which radically improve the basic technology options.

Obviously, a significant advantage of the proposed technology compared to the use of serial single-operation machines. The combination of several technological operations in one pass MFU is guaranteed to provide agrotechnical, environmental, energy and economic efficiency. Figure 2 presents the principles of technical improvement of crop cultivation processes.

In total, the technical principles of technology improvement (Figure 2) include 18 items included in four blocks (I â&#x20AC;&#x2019; IV, Figure 2) I - optimization of the fleet; II - organization of work performed; III improving the quality of work; IV - environmental safety. In block I, the main directions are the optimization of the composition of machine-tractor units (MTU), which should ensure the complexity of the work (II. 4) using multifunctional units (MFU) I. 2 with a minimum range of technical equipment (paragraph I. 3).

In the second block - the organization of the performance of work required threading II. 6 and *Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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rhythm II. 7 processes and maintaining constant availability of machines II. 9 (Figure 2).

The third block - improving the quality of work is provided by optimizing the timing of their implementation (III. 12), reducing crop losses (III. 13) during harvesting, new working bodies of machines (III. 11), inextricably performing operations on time (III. 10).

The last IV block (Figure 2) - environmental safety provides for the preservation of soil fertility (IV. 14), reducing the number of passes of cars across the field and reducing soil spray by heavy equipment, reducing environmental pollution (IV. 18) and crop production (IV. 15) ), the widespread use of precision farming elements (IV. 16) and mechanization of tillage (IV. 17), where NOU TiL is possible [10].

Figure 2: Principles of technical improvement of crop cultivation processes.

Our experimental samples of multifunctional machine units for harrowing the soil with simultaneous top dressing of crops are presented in Figure 3.

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

a) general view of the experimental unit with a b) general view of the unit for harrowing crops spring harrow: 1-tractor; 2 - fertilizer hopper; 3 - with a rotary hoe with simultaneous top dressing fan; 4 - dispenser; 5 - harrow Figure 3: Experimental samples of multifunctional units for harrowing crops with simultaneous feeding

When studying an aggregate with a rotary harrow (Figure 3b), we studied the uniformity of the depth of tillage (Table 3) in comparison with other harrowing machines: the ZBP-0.6 tooth harrow and the Klen-1.5 grain seeder for radical top dressing of winter crops.

From Table 3 it can be seen that, according to the experimental variants, the error of the sample average did not exceed 4.7%, the smallest depth of processing was at the seed drill ZBP-0.6, which amounted to 17.1 mm, then the passive arrangement of the discs of the rotary harrow was 27.5 mm, then the openers of the Klen-1.5 grain seeder are 32.6 and the discs of the rotary harrow with an active arrangement are 45.9 mm. Moreover, the unevenness of the processing depth, according to the coefficient of variation V, has a good and satisfactory value (11.2 - 21.1), except for the sowing harrow.

Table 2: Uniformity of the depth of tillage when harrowing crops options * Experience Options 1. Rotary hoe with active tooth positioning 2. Rotary hoe with passive tooth arrangement 3. Tooth sowing harrow ZBP-0,6 4. Grain seeder "Klen-1,5" *

Mathematical expectation, Mav, mm 45.9 27.5 17.1 32.6

± σ, mm 5.13 4.6 5.7 6.9

V, %

Р, %

11.2 16.7 33.3 21.1

1.6 2.4 4.7 3.0

σ – standard deviation; V – coefficient of variation; P – relative error of the mean.

Thus, according to the data of Table 2, the proposed multifunctional unit with a rotary hoe with an active tooth position provides a high-quality uniform depth of soil cultivation and incorporation of mineral fertilizers.

The method of modeling determined the optimal parameters and operating modes of the proposed multifunctional aggregates (MA) for harrowing with top dressing with a spring harrow and with a rotary hoe (Table 3). *Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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Due to its high performance, a multifunctional unit with a spring harrow is more preferable (Table 4) compared to a rotary hoe MA. However, on heavy merged soils, a rotational hoe provides a more even depth of tillage and better quality of crumbling.

According to the results of our research, a multifunctional sowing unit for sowing wheat with simultaneous application of the main, starting fertilizer and rational rolling of the crops with a spiral-helical roller was also effective (Figure 4).

Table 3: Optimal parameters and operation mode of MA Name of parameters Tractor engine power kW The carrying value of the tractor, thousand rubles Width of capture of the unit, m Fertilizer hopper capacity, m3 Working speed, km / h Soil resistivity coefficient Productivity, ha / h Utilization factor shift time Cycle time during operation, h The number of cycles per shift, pcs Optimum headland, km Specific operating costs for MA work, rub / ha Specific reduced costs, rub / ha Specific capital investments, rub / ha

MA with spring harrow 145.8 5640.7 26 1.0 12 0.4 25 0.8 0.54 12 1.5 183.1 247.8 430.9

MA with a rotary hoe 59.0 1800.0 6.7 1.0 12 1.0 3.6 0.79 1.5 1700 876.0 228.0

Figure 4: Multipurpose (a) sowing unit and (b) spiral screw roller with ballast weight It was experimentally established that the unit provides high-quality sowing of winter wheat with a norm of 200 kg/ha, introduction of a starting dose of (phosphorus) fertilizer (50 kg/ha in physical mass), basic fertilizer N30P30K30 (363 kg/ha in physical mass) and rolling crops in a spiral screw roller. Compared with the control, an increase in grain yield of 1.73 kg/ha was obtained with the smallest significant difference (НСР0.05 = 1.5 kg/ha).

The packer roller creates a loose soil layer with destroyed capillaries above the packer layer to eliminate soil moisture losses; removal of crop residues and weeds absorbing nitrogen for fiber decomposition from the seed bed with spirals of the roller.

KKSh-6A ring-spur rollers used in basic technologies do not provide such conditions for wheat

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

seeds. They leave not rolled up to 60-70% of the sown area, do not create a loose layer above the rolled layer that prevents the evaporation of moisture.

The proposed unit can be used for sowing all cereal crops, thereby eliminating the negative violations of agricultural requirements in the basic technology.

Our studies confirm the positive effect of multifunctional aggregates on winter wheat grain yield (Table 4). A yield increase is provided by a unit based on a rotational hoe with simultaneous top dressing of winter wheat crops in addition to reducing operating costs by 6.9 percent, metal consumption by 19.4 percent and energy consumption by 4.2.

According to the results of the experiment, it was concluded that the combination of harrowing operations of winter wheat crops with simultaneous fertilizing with nitrogen fertilizers provided a significant increase in grain yield of 1.77 c/ha compared to control plots with the same dose of fertilizers, but without harrowing. In this case, the smallest significant difference (NDS) in the experiment was 0.71 kg/ha with a confidence level of 0.05. (1 c/ha = 100 kg/ha).

Table 4: Effect of multifunctional aggregates on winter wheat grain yield Experience Options Control Experience Control Experience

Grain yield, kg/ha in replicates Yield increase, c/ha 1 2 3 MA for top dressing 59.3 59.1 58.6 61.2 60.8 60.3 1.77 MA with the introduction of basic fertilizer and rolling 72.4 72.0 72.8 74.0 73.8 74.03 1.78

НСР0,05 0.71 1.5

In the experiment with the use of a multifunctional unit for sowing winter wheat with the simultaneous introduction of the main, starting fertilizer and rolling, an increase in grain yield of 1.8 c/ha was also obtained in relation to the control plots of the experiment with the separate application of the main, starting fertilizer and rolling the sowing with ring-spur rollers ZKKSh-6 with НСР0.05 = 1.5 c/ha. The yield increase in the second experiment is explained by the better distribution of the main fertilizer in the soil to a given depth of 16-18 cm compared to their distribution over the entire plowed layer by the plow after application by spreading machines. In addition, rolling the crops with a spiral-helical roller is better than ZKKSh-6 ring-spur rollers, when up to 70 percent of the area remains unpacked to the desired density [4].

In the second block - the organization of the performance of work required threading II. 5 and rhythm II. 6 processes and maintenance of constant readiness of machines II. 9 [2] (Figure 2).

The third block - improving the quality of work is provided by optimizing the timing of their implementation (III. 12), reducing crop losses (III. 13) during harvesting, new working bodies of machines (III. 11), inextricably performing operations on time (III. 10).

The optimal duration of wheat harvesting is justified using the cost and loss function: the cost of harvesting grain and straw with the proposed multifunctional harvesting unit (Figure 5a) and losses the cost of crop losses (Figure 5b) associated with a possible excess of the harvesting time over the optimum. *Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru ©2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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Figure 5: General view of the multifunctional harvesting unit with the simultaneous pressing of straw (a) and a graph of the dependence of the cost function CC and loss Cl (b)

For the conditions of the Krasnodar Territory, when modeling the cost and loss function, the optimal harvesting time of 5 days was obtained at the minimum value of the cost and loss function Ccl (Ccl = 5931 rubles) at the cost of costs (Cc = 3162 rubles) and losses (C l 2768 rubles).

As an energy source for a multifunctional harvesting unit (Fig. 5a), the domestic TORUM-740 combine harvester with a rotary threshing and separating device (MCU) has been substantiated, which has great advantages compared to the powerful MCU (Figure 6).

As follows from the analysis of Figure 6, rotary LSG has an advantage in all quality indicators of threshing: grain crushing compares to 10 times by 10%, micro-damage by 10-12%, total grain losses decreased from 2.5% on the LSU to 1.8% - on the rotary.

Figure 6: Diagram of quality indicators of threshing wheat of Olkhon variety with different designs of LSG

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

The quality of the threshing for crushing grain affected the germination and its technological properties (Table 5).

Table 5: Qualitative indicators of winter wheat grain of Olkhon variety when threshing with various MSU Indicator Grain crushing,% Microdamage to grain,% Loss of crop spray% The protein content in the grain,% Gluten content,% Grain Class Seed germination energy,% Seed germination,%

Value for MSU rotary beating 0,38 4,5 17,5 24,0 0,04 0,45 17,0 14,0 27,0 23,5 2 3 55 49 96 91

Judging by the data in Table 5, severe trauma to the grain by the beating LSGs and an increase in yield losses in comparison with rotary combines are confirmed. In addition, grain quality is significantly improved when threshing with rotary MSU: the protein content in the strong Olkhon variety increased by 3 percent, the gluten content by 3.5. The energy of seed germination also increased from 49 to 55% and laboratory germination from 91 to 96%. After harvest ripening and cleaning, the grain class after rotary MSU increased from the third to the second, which did not happen after a bitter MSU due to a violation of the secondary synthesis in the caryopsis due to increased injury to the machines.

The last IV block (Figure 2) - environmental safety provides for the preservation of soil fertility (IV. 14), reducing the number of passes of cars across the field and reducing soil spray by heavy equipment, reducing environmental pollution (IV. 18) and crop production (IV. 15) ), the widespread use of precision farming elements (IV. 16) and mechanization of tillage (IV. 17), where Splitting up No-Till is possible [10].

Thus, on the basis of the study, it is possible to form the following areas of technical improvement of crop production technology (Figure 2): - updating equipment with a minimum range of technical equipment based on the optimization of the composition of the ICC; - compliance with the continuity, flow and complexity of the production processes based on the use of MFU, combining several technological operations in one pass; - technical update is inextricably linked with the organization of the efficient use of machines based on operating technologies and equipment service; - improving the quality of mechanized work by improving the design of the working bodies of machines; - observance of environmental safety of technical means to increase soil fertility, reduce pollution of agricultural products, minimize cultivation and precision farming.

The application of all the listed principles of technical improvement (Figure 2) using the proposed MFUs in production with completing them according to our inventions [4â&#x20AC;&#x201C;8] and others. *Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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All of the listed MFUs provide comprehensive field work, improved quality, productivity, lower costs and environmental pollution.

4. CONCLUSION Thus, the work proposes technological and technical improvement of the processes of cultivating field crops by optimizing them, saving resources, adhering to the farming system, using multifunctional machine aggregates according to the inventions of the authors of the article, which contribute to the introduction of new agricultural methods that preserve and enhance soil fertility and ensure environmental protection. In the technical improvement of crop cultivation processes, universal energy facilities of the U-450 type (Republic of Belarus) provide high efficiency, which reduce the need for tractors by 25 percent compared to the actual fleet without U-450 and by the same amount improve the annual loading of tractors, reducing operating costs . The proposed technological and technical principles will help to organize production more efficiently and obtain competitive crop production.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6. REFERENCES [1] Maslov G.G., Trubilin E.I., Yudina E.M., Rinas N.A. (2018). Concept Of Creating Energy-Resource-Saving Technologies For Harvesting Grain With Multifunctional Aggregates.

Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences. 9(4), 623-630.

[2] Maslov G.G., Tsybulevskiy V. V., Rinas N.A., Yudina E.M. (2019). Optimization Of Flow And Rhythm Of Work Of The Harvest-Transport Link. Indo American Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 6(4), 7053â&#x20AC;&#x201C;7059.

[3] Trubilin E.I., Maslov G.G., Evglevsky R.O., Lavrentyev V.P. (2018). Grain Harvesting Mechanization: Disadvantages and Prospects. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences. 9(2), 563-570.

[4] Maslov G.G., Mechkalo A.L., Borisova S.M., Trubilin E.I., Bogus Sh.N. Device for seed treatment with protective stimulating substances. Patent for invention RU 2250589 C1, 04/27/2005. Application No. 2003138231/12 dated 12.31.2003.

[5] Maslov G.G., Borisova S.M., Mechkalo A.L. The sprayer is ultra-small. Patent for invention RU 2227455 C1, 04/27/2004. Application No. 2003104089/12 of 02.11.2003.

[6] Maslov G.G., Tsybulevsky V.N., Taran A.D., Voloshin N.I. Low-volume boom sprayer for processing field crops. Patent for invention RU 2060661 C1, 05.27.1996. Application No. 93054694/15 dated 12.07.1993.

[7] Borisova S. M., Maslov G. G., Mechkalo A. L., Trubilin E.I. Seed Treater. Patent for invention RU 2246195 C2, 02.20.2005. Application No. 2003109126/12 of 03.31.2003.

[8] Maslov G.G., Yudina E.M., Serguntsov A.S., Evglevsky R.O. (2018). Rational System of Multifunctional Aggregates for Mechanization of Plant Growing. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences.9(5), 1177-1185.

[9] Maslov G.G., Borisova S.M., Yudina E.M., Tsybulevsky V.V., Njomon Nda Đ&#x153;. (2019).

Development parameters of pneumatic slotted sprayers for treatment potato tubers. International

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Gennady Maslov, Nikolai Rinas, Elena Yudina, Nikolai Malashikhin

Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering. 9(2), 1200-1203.

[10] Maslov G.G., Nebavsky V.A. (2004). Zero processing - cost savings. Rural machine operator. Vol. 3, 34-35.

Professor Dr. Gennady Maslov is Professor, Department of Operation Machine and Tractor Park, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin. He holds a Doctor of Technical Sciences.

Nikolai Rinas is an Associate Professor, Department of Operation Machine and Tractor Park, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin. He is a Candidate of Technical Sciences

Elena Yudina is an Associate Professor, Department of Operation Machine and Tractor Park, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin. She is a Candidate of Technical Sciences

Nikolai Malashikhin is a Researcher, Department of Operation Machine and Tractor Park, Kuban State Agrarian University named after I.T. Trubilin.

*Corresponding author (Gennady Maslov). Email: eksp-mtp@kubsau.ru Š2020 International Transaction Journal of

Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8G http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8G.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.148

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A8H

AN EXPERIMENTAL BATHYMETRY SURVEY USING A SMART IoT PONTOON IN THAILAND 1

1*

2

Passapong Tanpaibool , Kritsada Anantakarn , Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri , 1 3* Wunchock Kroehong , Boonsap Witchayangkoon 1

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Uthenthawai Campus.

Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, THAILAND. 2 Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Business and Information Technology, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, THAILAND. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat School of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 23 January 2020 Received in revised form 26 February 2020 Accepted 02 March 2020 Available online 04 March 2020

Water resource management is a very important matter from several points of view such as water availability, quality monitoring, and distribution. The traditional bathymetric method with man on-board operation makes it difficult to collect bathymetric data in polluted water and bad weather condition. To produce the bathymetric and topographic map of the river, the research works use a pontoon made by polyethylene (PE) with echo-sounder equipment and high-end Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) device. Wireless communication such as local mobile 4G/3G is employed to collect geographic positioning and bathymetric data from the Thachin rivers. The integrated smart IoT pontoon system is developed and an accuracy test is conducted in this research. The advantage of this system is an unmanned on-board operated boat that can safely work in polluted water and all-weather conditions. Geographic positioning coordinate is measured by using GNSS Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) networks from the Department of Land (DOL) of Thailand and bathymetric data is collected with echo sounder. The research result, the bathymetric and topographic map of the river has Root Mean Square Error (RMS) 22cm. The outcome of an accuracy assessment of the Smart IoT Pontoon can become an effective tool for a bathymetric survey for water resource management.

Keywords: Smart river; Smart pontoon; Smart water currents; IoT pontoon; Internet of Thing (IoT); Hydrological survey; Bathymetry survey; Echo-sounder; GNSS; RTK; DOL.

Disciplinary: Multidisciplinary (River Engineering, Engineering, Civil Engineering, Information Technology).

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1. INTRODUCTION Water resource management is a very important matter from several points of view such as water availability, quality monitoring, and distribution. Water resource systems have profited both *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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living conditions and social economies all the time. Lack of water supply systems causes drought and expose failures in planning, management, and decision-making. In reverse, the water supply causes floods and natural disasters. Water resources management, planning, and development to ensure adequate, effective, and balanced supplies and demand. The bathymetric map of river water depth for both agricultural crop and environmental management can be achieved by the integrated GNSS system and echo-sounder for collect environmental data and process socio-economic data.

The objectives of the project are two main parts as followings: This study develops an unman-operated device for hydrological surveying in dangerous and polluted conditions with 24 hours of operation. This solution contributes many benefits to hydrological surveyors who work on river and ocean in bad weather and water polluted sites.

To provide an IoT Smart technology for hydrological surveying by Real-time data monitoring.

This objective will bring great profit for all hydrological surveyors who use pontoon for natural disaster monitoring such as flood warning systems or hydro-power dam risk monitoring.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Many kinds of research in hydrological surveys require bathymetrical data and geographic coordinate for topographic mapping. Water depth, river profile and features distributed in the reverbed are measured and recorded in the form of latitude (North), longitude (East), water surface (Height) and water depth (-Z) (Jawak et. al., 2015). For the hydrographic river model, it is required a smooth Digital Elevation Model (DEM) at the connection land and water area by using an integration of terrain elevation and bathymetric data (Karim et. Al, 2017). Echo sounders with a single beam generate a single line of depth points, directly beneath the equipment. The measurements are made when a vessel moves to give riverbed or seafloor patterns.

The riverboat carrying out the echo-sounder bathymetric survey has limited capacity in working under dangerous and harmful conditions such as polluted water and strong wind or storm.

An aqua bulb is suitable in shallow water with safety conditions because it is not required humans to operate or control it. In some sharp curves of rivers or streams, a survey boat is too large to pass and makes the survey impossible. Water volume and bathymetry information are applied for the river, reservoir monitoring (Hassan et al., 2012). The data collection also required for water resource management such as agricultural crop and industrial water demand area (Romano et al., 2012).

Digital elevation models (DEMs) are one of the popular sources for topographic mapping, land survey and rural-urban development (Debella-Gilo and Kaab 2011), Nowadays, there are some free sources data of DEM can be provided as free-of-charge from the Internet. Therefore, there is an increase in the need for information about its quality and improvement of the accuracy of the DEM for various modeling and mapping applications (Mukherjee et al. 2013). Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation data produced from a C-band (at 5.6cm wavelength) interferometric ScanSAR is available from USGS website at, 1 arc-second (or 1sec Ă&#x2014; 1sec) resolution that is 30m x 30m on earth.

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) provides a positioning location for land surveying and navigation technology (Witchayangkoon, 2000). With the purpose to achieve high accuracy, Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) differential correction method is mainly applied for

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Passapong Tanpaibool, Kritsada Anantakarn, Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri, Wunchock Kroehong, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

Differential GNSS measurement. Department of Land (DOL) and Royal Thai Survey Department (RTSD) have established many local Continuously Operating Reference Station (CORS) is a form of RTK differential correction that is done through the use of mobile internet connection to these local CORS (Anantakarn et al., 2019).

3. METHODOLOGY The study methodology includes the system integration of pontoon design with echo-sounder and GNSS receiver. The survey data were collected from the echo-sounder and the GNSS RTK in synchronization with elevation data from SRTM data. GIS software for the topographic and bathymetric map was generated with accuracy assessment as presented in Figure 1.

Hydrological Data sampling

UTM Zone 47 N map projection data point

Correction and adjustment of SRTM

Synchronizing Hydrologic data and GIS

Field data collection with GNSS RTK and Measurement Tape

Bathymetric and topographic map

Accuracy assessment Figure 1: Methodology for data collection and processing

3.1 SYSTEM INTEGRATION The research provides a system integration that is an alternative way to replace the traditional hydrographic survey. This work is associated with the report of Sripakorn et al. (2020). *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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3.1.1 FLOATING SURVEY TANK DESIGN A high-quality thermoplastic is an excellent physical and chemical strike resistance.

Polyethylene (PE) has toughness and good chemical resistance to a wide range of wet and dry products, depending on wall thickness and type with ultraviolet light stabilizers. This study applies the bulb-shape rigid plastic PE tank with 50 cm diameter and height 80 cm, see Figure 2.

3.1.2 ECHO SOUNDER EQUIPMENT Echo-sounding accuracy is Âą (0.02 m + 0.1% D) where D is the water depth). The device has 0.3-200m in the detection range. It is perfect for shallow and deep-water surveying by the minimum 0.3 m range. The modular user-friendly design of the echo-sounder makes it easy to use, repair and upgrade while it can operate in all-weather condition.

The hydrological software has advanced water depth analysis and automatically filters out the secondary echo. The main parameters as gain, power, and range are adjusted manually and automatically. The software provides a professional depth-keeping configuration ensuring accurate results by removing interference noise.

3.1.3 GPS EQUIPMENT This study uses a palm-sized cheap GNSS receiver designed for land and water surveying applications (Anantakarn and Witchayangkoon, 2019). Using an external GNSS antenna, the free Land Survey App and post-processing software, it is possible to conduct a real-time kinematic (RTK) positioning (Witchayangkoon, 2000; Anantakarn et al., 2019).

3.1.4 EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION Echosounder and GPS equipment is integrated and install as in Figure 2. Sounder equipment and RTCM via Internet Protocol (NTRIP) Modem and GNSS receiver are integrated and installed in the pontoon. In order to make the pontoon floating properly for movement, the weighting material is filled and adjusted for optimal surface movement conditions.

3.2 THE STUDY AREA Thachin river has a record of poor to very poor water quality for a prolonged period (Pollution Control Department, 2015), where the river water flows into the upper Gulf of Thailand The report indicated the Thachin estuary contains bacteria and nutrient pollution from phosphates, phosphorus, and nitrogen. Nutrient pollution harms water quality, food resources for aquatic animals, marine habitats, and algae to grow faster than ecosystems can handle. Some study findings stated that large amounts of wastewater discharged into the river are from households as well as industry, and agriculture sectors. Thachin river area is selected in Nakhon Pathom province for this study. The site is located about 40 km West of Bangkok on the Thachin river as shown in Figure 3.

The survey area is estimated at 15,484,304 square meters that defined by a buffer zone with 500 meters from the river centerline. This zone shows a black line in Figure 3 with dynamic land use as residential, aquaculture farm, agricultural crop, fruit garden, and industrial zone.

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Passapong Tanpaibool, Kritsada Anantakarn, Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri, Wunchock Kroehong, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

Figure 2: A description of Smart IoT Pontoon *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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3.3 DATA COLLECTION AND DATA PROCESSING The field survey has been conducted during 09-12 January 2020 and the point data collection of river depth data is estimated at 21,814 surveyed points. The surveyed data has been processed by using open source free GIS software Quantum GIS Ver. 3.10 as presented in Figure 3.

3.3.1 ECHO-SOUNDER DATA COLLECTION The Smart IoT pontoon was towed by a simple boat at the average speed of 2.5 km/h along the river with approximately 13 kilometers. In order to get better bathymetric data, the data collection is arranged for the three paths such as center, right side and left side of the river and showed as pink color points in Figure 3. The echo-sounder measured point was recorded in 2 meters interval as water depth. Each point of water depth measurement was stamped with a geographic coordinate and time of data measurement.

3.3.2 GNSS RTK DATA COLLECTION The GNSS receiver with dual-frequency L1/L2 was set in RTK mode in connection with DOL Virtual Reference Station (VRS) service. The fixed mode with horizontal and vertical Root Mean Square (RSM) error at 3cm and5cm respectively. The map data projection is selected as WGS 1984/UTM zone 47N with the elevation model of EGM 96. The geographic coordinate was synchronized with the river depth measurement point in the standard text comma-separated values (CSV) format for further processing and analysis.

3.3.3 SRTM ELEVATION DATA PROCESSING Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) elevation data is available at a resolution approximately 30m x 30m was downloaded from the USGS website in raster geo-TIFF format. Ten Ground Control Points (GCP) were collected by using GNSS RTK during the field survey that was applied for SRTD data correction and adjustment. The correlation was conducted and the strength of an association between two variables and is completely symmetrical (Li et al., 2013).

The SRTM data was filtered by median-filtered digital value and extracted from the coregistered with ten GNSS surveyed points for correction and adjustment SRTM data (Anantakarn et al., 2019). The adjusted SRTM data for land elevation information was then combined with river water depth data collected by echo-sounder to produce the bathymetric and topographic map of the river.

3.3.4 FIELD SURVEY DATA FOR GCP AND CHECKPOINT The land survey data was conducted for the collection of ten Ground Control Points (GCP) by using the GNSS receiver with dual-frequency L1/L2 was set in RTK mode in connection with DOL Virtual Reference Station (VRS) service. These GCPs were applied for correction and adjustment of the SRTM data for improving the quality of land elevation data.

The water surveyed data was applied for the collection of 27 Checkpoints (CP) by using the measurement tape for river water depth. These CPs were selected for every 500m distance and were then compared with the bathymetric and topographic map results for accuracy assessment.

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Passapong Tanpaibool, Kritsada Anantakarn, Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri, Wunchock Kroehong, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

Figure 3: Survey data collection on the Thachin river, Nakhon Pathom province. *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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Figure 4: Analysis of bathymetric data by using GIS (Courtesy of GoogleÂŽ).

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Passapong Tanpaibool, Kritsada Anantakarn, Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri, Wunchock Kroehong, Boonsap Witchayangkoon

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Topographic map was generated from the echo-sounder data and SRTM data for land and water area respectively, Figure 4. The bathymetric and topographic map with the elevation contour lines were also produced in 20 centimeters interval for the purpose of accuracy assessment.

There are 10 checkpoints collected during the field survey by using the GNSS RTK system.

These points are then used to compare with the topographic map result for accuracy assessment.

The results of accuracy inland area were compared between the GNSS RTK system and DEM from the SRTM data as shown in Figure 5.

There are 27 checkpoints using measurement tape and the GNSS RTK system, to compare with the topographic map result for accuracy assessment. The results of accuracy inland area were compared between the GNSS RTK system and water elevation from the echo-sounder data, Table 1.

Figure 5: Results of comparison elevation from GNSS RTK measurement and SRTM data.

Table 1: Results of comparison elevation from tape measurement and echo-sounder data.

ID

UTM North

UTM East

Height measured

by Tape (m)

Height measured by Echo Sounder (m)

Different height from Tape and Echo-sounder (m)

PT10 PT12 PT14 PT16 PT18 PT19 PT2 PT21 PT24 PT25 PT28 PT29 PT3 PT32 PT34 PT37 PT38 PT41 PT42 PT44 PT46 PT49 PT50 PT52 PT54 PT6 PT7

1532200.357 1531720.424 1531192.387 1530712.664 1530251.299 1529781.063 1533810.374 1529278.713 1528788.139 1528283.722 1527781.693 1527279.928 1533315.554 1527015.539 1527107.409 1527058.481 1527067.628 1527198.118 1527585.815 1527982.991 1527846.728 1527574.836 1527194.401 1526700.040 1526218.789 1532843.477 1532454.816

632060.564 632220.430 632084.563 632113.172 632081.017 632232.205 631101.314 632377.421 632359.410 632335.610 632321.162 632306.982 631172.515 631913.860 631429.465 630932.107 630411.926 629912.502 629656.128 629410.954 628934.773 628543.428 628264.069 628145.744 628370.854 631241.185 631680.688

-1.94 -3.54 -5.11 -4.18 -3.87 -3.30 -0.76 -2.78 -4.28 -3.89 -2.14 -5.26 -4.18 -7.11 -4.06 -4.91 -6.00 -8.20 -4.45 -8.56 -3.78 -4.15 -2.06 -5.82 -5.11 -2.48 -2.88

-2.17 -3.65 -5.19 -4.00 -3.51 -3.06 -0.98 -2.57 -3.82 -3.75 -1.97 -5.29 -3.97 -6.66 -3.98 -5.14 -5.78 -8.26 -4.51 -8.32 -3.45 -3.66 -1.81 -5.62 -4.79 -2.59 -3.02 RMS

0.23 0.11 0.08 0.18 0.36 0.24 0.22 0.21 0.46 0.14 0.17 0.03 0.21 0.45 0.08 0.23 0.22 0.06 0.06 0.24 0.33 0.49 0.25 0.20 0.32 0.11 0.14 0.22

*Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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Geographic positioning coordinates are measured by using GNSS Real-Time Kinematic (RTK) networks from the Department of Land (DOL) of Thailand and bathymetric data is employed Echo Sounder. The research result shows that the RMS error of water depth is the average of 22cm.

5. CONCLUSION Surface water can be affected by land use, agricultural practices, pollution, and climate change.

Monitoring and treatment of surface water require significant investments in time and money. The study provides a new integrated system as a Smart IoT pontoon for bathymetric and topographic mapping. The accuracy test was conducted in the Thachin river at the length about 13 km with GNSS measurement in RTK mode in combining with echo-sounder and intensive field surveying for accuracy assessment. The GCP and Checkpoints are applied to evaluate the mapping result that shows the RMS error of water depth is the average of 22cm. The system provides an IoT Smart technology for hydrological surveying by Real-time data monitoring. This objective will bring great profit for all hydrological surveyors who use pontoon for natural disaster monitoring such as flood warning systems or hydro-power dam risk monitoring.

The built system and instruments work to provide continuous quantity and quality water records. The efficient instruments provide reliable data you need at reduced costs.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data in this study can be provided upon contacting the corresponding author.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors thank the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, the Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok for financial supports.

8. REFERENCES Anantakarn, K., Sornchomkaew, P., Phothong, T. (2019). Improve Quality of Global DEM for Topographic Mapping: Case Study of Petchaburi Province, Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10(9), 10A09H, 1-9.

Anantakarn, K., & Witchayangkoon, B. (2019). Accuracy assessment of L-band Atlas GNSS system in Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 10(1), 91-98.

Debella-Gilo M, Kaab A. 2011: Sub-pixel precision image matching for measuring surface displacements on mass movements using normalized cross-correlation. Remote Sens Environ.

115:130–142.

Hassan S.R., Zakaria M., Arshad M.R., Aziz Z.A., 2012. Evaluation of Propulsion System used in URRG-Autonomous Surface Vessel (ASV). Proceeding Eng. 2012, 41, 607–613.

Jawak S.D., Vadlamani S.S., Luis A.J., 2015. Models, Methods and Comparisons. Adv. Remote Sens: A Synoptic Review on Deriving Bathymetry Information using Remote Sensing Technologies.

2015, 4, 147–162.

Karim, H., M.G. Hashim, and M. Salleh M.R., 2017. A Blending Technique for Topographic and Hydrographic DEMs. Geomatics and Geospatial Technology (GGT) 2017. 03-04 October 2017.

Kuala Lumpur. ISPRS Archived.

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Li P, Shi C, Li Z, Muller J-P., Drummond J., Li X., Li T., Li Y. & Liu J. 2013: Evaluation of ASTER GDEM using GPS benchmarks and SRTM in China. International Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 34, No. 5, 10 March 2013, 1744–1771.

Mukherjee S, Joshi PK, Mukherjee S, Ghosh A, Garg RD, Mukhopadhyay A. 2013: Evaluation of vertical accuracy of open source Digital Elevation Model (DEM). Int J Appl Earth Obs Geoinf.

21:205–217.

Pollution Control Department. (2015). Thailand State of Pollution Report 2015. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, PCD. No. 06-062, ISN 978-616-316-327-1.

Romano A., Duranti, P. (2012). Autonomous Unmanned Surface Vessels for Hydrographic Measurement and Environmental Monitoring. In Proceedings of the FIG Working Week 2012, Knowing to Manage the Territory, Protect the Environment, Evaluate the Cultural Heritage, Rome, Italy, 1-15.

Sripakorn, P., Anantakarn, K., Fooprateepsiri, R., Kroehong, W., Witchayangkoon, B. (2020). Smart IoT Pontoon Maneuvering Along River Currents. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 11(8), 11A8K, 1-11.

Witchayangkoon, B. (2000). Elements of GPS Precise Point Positioning. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maine, USA. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3282.6402 PassapongTanpaibool is an M. Eng. Candidate at Department of Civil Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok. He is self-employed in Construction Business. He earned his Diploma in Construction Technology from Rajamangala Institute of Technology, Salaya Campus and a Bachelor of Engineering degree in Civil Engineering from the South-East Asia University. He is interested in Hydrology and Construction.

Dr. Kritsada Anantakarn is a Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architectures, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, Uthenthawai Campus, Thailand. He earned his Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) from Faculty of Engineering Rajamangala Institute of Engineering, and a Master’s degree in Urban and Environmental Planning from King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, and his PhD from Thammasat University. He is interested in GPS/GNSS and Spatial Technology.

Dr. Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri is an Associate Professor and President of Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok. He got his Master’s degree in Computer Engineering. He earned his PhD in Information Technology both from Mahanakorn University of Technology. His research focuses on the Area of Computer Engineering, Computer Vision and Data Analysis.

Dr. Wunchock Kroehong is a Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architectures, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, Uthenthawai Campus, Thailand. He earned his Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) from Faculty of Engineering Rajamangala Institute of Engineering, and a Master’s degree from the school of Civil Engineering at the Mahanakorn University of Technology, and his Ph.D. from the Suranaree University of Technology. He is interested in Concrete, Geopolymer, and Durability.

Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon is an Associate Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat University. He received his B.Eng. from the King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi with Honors in 1991.

He continued his Ph.D. study at the University of Maine, USA, where he obtained his Ph.D. in Spatial Information Science & Engineering. His research encompasses Emerging Technology to Civil Engineering Applications.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

*Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8H http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8H.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.149

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PAPER ID: 11A8I

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NEW MEDIA LITERACY AND MOTIVATION IN SOLVING FAKE NEWS PROBLEM Hasmah Zanuddin 1

1*

, Chin Ying Shin

1

Department of Media and Communication Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, MALAYSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 30 July 2019 Received in revised form 11 February 2020 Accepted 25 February 2020 Available online 05 March 2020

Fake news affects individuals and society in many countries including Malaysia. To stop fake news from being widespread, apart from the government’s effort, the role of the public and their new media literacy in dealing with this problematic situation should be given attention. Hence, this study was initiated to measure the level of new media literacy among the respondents and to examine the relationship Keywords: between new media literacy and motivation in solving fake news Stopping fake news; problem. Data were collected through a survey among university Media literacy level; students in Malaysia. The findings showed that only critical prosumption Fake online news; Critical thinking in media significantly contributed to motivation in solving fake news problem, creation; Misinformation; and this dimension was also found to be the lowest level among the Curbing false news; respondents. The findings shed light upon the need to train the public on Untruthful online story; critical thinking in media creation as another necessary effort in tackling Critical presumption; fake news problem.

Functional presumption; Critical consumption; Functional consumption.

Disciplinary: Media and Communication Technology, Social Engineering.

Science,

Information

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Fake news has always caught the attention of worldwide researchers due to its impacts on society, locally and globally. According to a study by Newman et al. (2018), the truthfulness of online news has brought concerns to many countries, Brazil (85%) appears as the country that expressed the highest concern, followed by Portugal (71%) and Spain (69%), whereas Malaysia (63%) is in the top 10. In the digital era society, many people spend a lot of time searching for news and information online (Lee et al., 2017; Shahar, 2017; Pozveh et al., 2019), the digital social networks also enhance the information sharing process, both positively and negatively (Wok et al., 2012), when the platform opens for all to create and share information, misinformation, and disinformation that may cause undesirable outcomes can also be widespread. In India, a child kidnapping rumour gone viral over WhatsApp misled a large number of people to attack three *Corresponding author (Zanuddin) Tel+603-79675621 hasmahz@um.edu.my hasmahmedia@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8I http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.150

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innocent men to injuries and death last year (Satish, 2018). A similar case occurred in Malaysia where an elderly Chinese woman was accused of being involved in abducting children during Chinese New Year, the news, which was later proven as fake news, had feared her from going out from her house throughout the festive season (Chong, 2017).

Fake news undermines national security particularly when it is jeopardizing the peace and order of a nation-state, there have been many studies on detecting and measuring fake news (Rubin et al., 2015; Waszak et al., 2018). Therefore many countries initiated approaches such as fact-checking to fight fake news (Haciyakupoglu et al., 2018). The United States used ClaimBuster, a fact-checking system, during the presidential election in 2016 (Hassan et al., 2017), Qatar created a website namely “Lift the Blockade” to debunk false information (Scott, 2017), and Malaysia has launched sebenarnya.com as an information verification portal to counter fake news (Shahar, 2017). Media literacy and critical thinking are also emphasised in the efforts of tackling fake news, Finland government hired consultants from the United States to train their government servants to identify and counter fake news, the school also educated students to be critical in reading news (Haciyakupoglu et al., 2018). The Italian government also collaborated with social media providers, Facebook, for instance, to teach students in recognizing false information (Horowitz, 2017).

Based on the abovementioned facts, the efforts to combat fake news have been placed in the hand of the government and education. It is good to have media literacy incorporated into education and training, especially for the younger generation in developing skills to question, analyse and judge all messages received from the media. However, what is the role of the public in stopping the widespread negative influences of fake news? Will the public be more motivated to tackle fake news when they are more media literate? The purposes of this study were to measure the level of each dimension of new media literacy as well as examine the relationship between new media literacy and motivation in solving fake news problem.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 FAKE NEWS Fake news is a topic that has been discussed by many researchers with different definitions.

Gelfert (2018) defines fake news as the intended presentation of false claims as news. Rochlin (2017) explains the term as a purposefully untruthful online story that apparently looks authentic and is viral on social media. He further expounds that the situation of fake news will be worse when most of the social media users do not read information other than headlines. There are two similar components across different definitions of fake news: first, intentional falseness, second, misleading news consumers.

Allcott and Gentzkow (2017) identified six “cousins of fake news”, they are reports with unintended fault, politicians’ misleading statements, conspiracy theories, misleading but not totally untrue reports, a satire that is not usually to be considered as truth, and rumours that are not derived from any news article. Tandoc et al. (2018) found another five that are associated with fake news, namely advertising, news parody, propaganda, manipulation, and fabrication. The impacts of fake news can be found across different fields, such as tourism (Fedeli, 2019), health (Waszak et al., 2018), marketing (Visentin et al., 2019), and more prevalent in politics (Allcott & Gentzkow, 2017).

Although people are having doubts or do not fully rely on online news and information, the

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Hasmah Zanuddin, Chin Ying Shin

influences on them still exist and are unavoidable (Kanoh, 2018).

Many people like to use social media as they expedite the process of information sharing and exchange, nonetheless, the incorrect information especially fake news can also be viral (Tandoc et al., 2018; Watimin & Zanuddin, 2018) which may leave negative sentiments to people (Zanuddin & Watimin, 2018). People create fake news intending to acquire as many likes and shares as possible from other users, consequently generate money by earning people’s clicks (Rochlin, 2017). Apart from personal gain, another motive to create fake news is to propagate a certain ideology (Tandoc et al., 2018). Media literacy has always been discussed with fake news, it is worth having a deeper understanding of it in this study.

2.2 MEDIA LITERACY With the proliferation of the Internet and digital communication technologies, people nowadays are not only media consumers, they can also be active media producers as long as they have the skills that enable them to participate fully in this new communication environment. Therefore media literacy is of importance to ensure they consume media critically and produce media responsibly (Literat, 2014). Media literacy is regarded as the capability of people to access, understand and create communications in different circumstances (Buckingham, 2005). It is multi-dimensional (Potter, 2010) and applicable in both traditional and new media (Literat, 2014). Due to the increased usage of social media nowadays, new media literacy becomes a subject of study for many scholars.

One of the remarkable frameworks that sheds light upon new media literacy was developed by Chen et al. (2011), Based on two continuums: functional media literacy to critical media literacy; and consuming media literacy to prosuming media literacy, new dimensions of media literacy were unpacked. Functional media literacy covers the capability to not only understand but also create the media content and messages, whereas critical media literacy includes the capability to analyse, evaluate, critique, and create media messages and content (Chen et al., 2011).

The four dimensions of new media literacy are revealed in the frameworks by Chen et al.

(2011). First, functional consumption, individuals who can access and understand media content.

Second, critical consumption, individuals who not only understand the message but interpret and judge critically. Third, functional prosumption, individuals can create media content using new media. Fourth, critical prosumption, individuals know their position in media participation, construction, and publication. They can create media content that reflects their critical thinking.

Thus, this study proposed the first research question.

RQ1: What is the level of each dimension of new media literacy in Malaysia?

2.3 MOTIVATION IN SOLVING FAKE NEWS PROBLEM The motivation in solving fake news problems in this study is grounded on the situational theory of problem-solving (STOPS), which is useful in understanding the public’s communicative actions when they are facing problems (Kim & Grunig, 2011). Situational motivation in problemsolving is one of the variables in the theory, defined as a state where people are epistemically and cognitively ready to resolve a problem (Kim & Grunig, 2011). This motivational variable helps the public identify something to be done instead of thinking about what to do (Kim & Grunig, 2011).

Critical thinking has been associated with problem-solving in past studies of different contexts (Fero et al., 2009). Toharudin (2015) also supported the fact that critical thinking can assist in *Corresponding author (Zanuddin) Tel+603-79675621 hasmahz@um.edu.my hasmahmedia@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8I http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.150

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problem-solving. In the current study, people who are media literate tend to be able to think critically and perceive false information such as fake news as a problem in society. When they feel uneasy about the problem identified, they are inclined to know more about the problem in order to solve the problem (Choi & Kim, 2015). With that said, critical media literacy plays a key role in motivating media users to solve the problem of fake news.

Media literacy in relation to fake news had been widely discussed in past studies. El Rayess et al. (2018) suggested that media literacy is imperative to educate the students on the skills to evaluate the authenticity of the information. A long-term solution to fake news is also recommended to include the community to help tackle fake news and expand policies on media literacy and critical thinking, the public needs to be encouraged to verify information (Haciyakupoglu et al., 2018) as literacy encourages the analysis of hidden ideas behind the text (Pangrazio, 2018). However, the question of whether people with higher media literacy will be more motivated to take initiative to counter fake news remains unresearched. Therefore, this study proposed the following research question and hypotheses: RQ2: What is the relationship between new media literacy and motivation in solving fake news problem?

H1: New media literacy is positively related to motivation in solving fake news problem.

H2: Critical consumption is more positively related to motivation in solving fake news problem than functional consumption.

H3: Critical prosumption is more positively related to motivation in solving fake news problem than functional prosumption.

3. METHODOLOGY 3.1 PARTICIPANTS A total of 164 questionnaires collected from students who are 18-25 years old from a private university in Malaysia using a convenience sampling method. In this study, there were four independent variables (new media literacy dimensions) to be measured, a minimum of 129 sample size was suggested by G Power to conduct regression analysis. With that said, the sample size in this study has met the minimum requirement. The sample consisted of 68 males (41.5%) and 96 females (58.5%). In terms of age, there were 101 (61.6%) respondents from the age group of 18-21, whereas 63 (38.4%) respondents aged 22-25.

3.2 MEASURES There were three sections in the questionnaire. Demographic information was collected in the first section. The second was new media literacy, where the scale was adopted from Koc and Barut (2016). There were four sub-scales which represent different dimensions of new media literacy, namely functional consumption, critical consumption, functional prosumption, and critical prosumption. All scales were measured using a 5-point Likert-type scale. The last section asked about the motivation in solving fake news problem, the scale, extracted and adapted from the situational theory of problem-solving scale (Kim & Grunig, 2011), comprised six items (e.g. I am determined to solve fake news problem as soon as possible), 5-point Likert-type scale was utilised to measure the items.

3.3 ANALYSIS IBM SPSS Statistics 21 software was used to analyse the collected data. Factor analysis was

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Hasmah Zanuddin, Chin Ying Shin

first conducted to identify the new media literacy dimensions. Means scores were used to answer RQ1. Pearson correlation and regression analysis were utilised to answer RQ2 by testing H1 to H3.

4. RESULTS AND FINDINGS 4.1 FACTOR ANALYSIS AND RELIABILITY Exploratory factor analysis by using Varimax rotation was employed to examine the items and dimensions of new media literacy. The Kaiser-Meyer-Oklin values were .872, exceeding the threshold value of .6 (Kaiser, 1974). There were four factors with eigenvalues above 1 identified in the analysis, after removing items that were having factor loadings less than .5, cross-loadings or communality lower than .4, or not loaded on any factor. The results Table 1 showed that, based on the original scale, F1 with most items retained belonged to critical prosumption, which explained 35.8% of the variance.

Table 1: Factor loadings of new media literacy Factors Critical Prosumption (CP) CP1: Produce opposite or alternative media contents.

CP2: Design media contents that reflect critical thinking of certain matters.

CP3: Influence others’ opinions by participating in social media environments.

CP4: Make a contribution to media by reviewing current matters from different perspectives (social, economic, ideological, etc.).

CP5: Make discussions and comments to inform or direct people in the media.

CP6: Construct online identity consistent with real personal characteristics.

CP7: Collaborate and interact with diverse media users towards a common purpose.

CP8: Produce media contents respectful to people’s different ideas and private lives.

CP9: Develop original visual and textual media contents (video clips, web page, etc.).

Functional Prosumption (FP) FP1: Use hardware necessary for developing media contents (text, image, video, etc.).

FP2: Create user accounts and profiles in media environments.

FP3: Use software necessary for developing media contents (text, image, video, etc.).

Functional Consumption (FC) FC1: Perceive different opinions and thoughts in the media.

FC2: Notice media contents containing mobbing and violence.

FC3: Realise explicit and implicit media messages.

Critical Consumption (CC) CC1: Make a decision about the accuracy of media messages.

CC2: Evaluate media in terms of legal and ethical rules (copyright, human rights, etc.).

CC3: Analyse the positive and negative effects of media content on individuals.

Eigenvalue % of variance explained Reliability

F1

F2

F3

F4

Communality

.803 .773

.722 .640

.742

.618

.741

.571

.690

.536

.677

.598

.636

.515

.629

.462

.584

.464

6.441 35.781 .891

.828

.740

.824

.718

.821

.759

2.171 12.060 .820

.748 .723

.613 .599

.643

.598

1.443 8.018 .701

.810 .808

.743 .753

.661

.557

1.151 6.393 .745

*Corresponding author (Zanuddin) Tel+603-79675621 hasmahz@um.edu.my hasmahmedia@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8I http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.150

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As for the other three factors, namely functional prosumption, functional consumption, and critical consumption, explained 12.1%, 8%, and 6.4% of the variance and retained three items respectively. In the current study, the sub-scales have a good internal consistency with a Cronbach’s alpha coefficient reported at .701 (Functional Consumption), .745 (Critical Consumption), .820 (Functional Prosumption), and .891 (Critical Prosumption) fulfilling the minimum value of Cronbach’s alpha coefficient as all are more than 0.7.

4.2 MEANS SCORES OF NEW MEDIA LITERACY DIMENSIONS Table 2 showed that functional media literacy than critical media literacy. Of the four dimensions, respondents showed the highest score in functional prosumption, whereas critical prosumption is the lowest.

Table 2: Means scores of new media literacy dimensions.

New media literacy dimensions Functional Consumption Critical Consumption Functional Prosumption Critical Prosumption

M 3.89 3.71 4.01 3.29

SD .62 .70 .75 .75

4.3 CORRELATION BETWEEN NEW MEDIA LITERACY AND MOTIVATION IN SOLVING FAKE NEWS PROBLEM The correlation between new media literacy (independent variable) and motivation in solving fake news problem (dependent variable) was examined using Pearson correlation. The result showed that there was a medium, positive correlation between the two variables [r=.384, n = 164, p<.001], with high levels of new media literacy associated with greater motivation in solving fake news problem. The result supported H1.

The contribution of each dimension of the independent variable to the dependent variable was then measured using regression analysis. According to Table 3, the results showed that the dimensions explained 18.6% of the variance [F(4, 159)=9.073, p<.001]. However, only critical prosumption showed a significantly positive contribution [β=.397, p<.001] to motivation in solving fake news problem, functional consumption [β=.108, p>.05], critical consumption [β=-.011, p>.05] and functional prosumption [β=-.079, p>.05] did not have a significant contribution. Therefore, H2 was rejected, but H3 was supported.

Table 3: Regression analysis on the relationship between new media literacy dimensions and motivation in solving fake news problem Dimensions Functional Consumption Critical Consumption Functional Prosumption Critical Prosumption R Square F p

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Hasmah Zanuddin, Chin Ying Shin

β .108 -.011 -.079 .397 .186 9.073 .000

t 1.232 -.131 -.977 4.671

p .220 .896 .330 .000

5. CONCLUSION This study examined the level of each new media literacy dimensions among the respondents.

Functional prosumption achieved the highest mean score, this showed that the respondents were more competent in producing and sharing media content (e.g. image, video, and text) as compared to other dimensions. However, the ability to create media content critically (critical prosumption) was shown the lowest. This showed that respondents were less capable to produce media content or give comments that express their opinions over current issues from different perspectives as compared to the contents that show their lifestyle, entertainment, and interest which do not reflect their critical thinking.

Apart from that, the study further examined the relationship between new media literacy and motivation in solving fake news problem. The result indicated that new media literacy was positively related to motivation in solving fake news problem, however critical prosumption was found to be the only significant factor that contributes to the positive relationship. The findings suggested that the ability to understand the media content (functional consumption), evaluate the accuracy of media messages (critical consumption), or create media content (functional consumption) did not contribute significantly to the motivation in solving fake news problems.

According to the new media literacy frameworks by Chen et al. (2011), criticality and prosumption are crucial. The current findings suggested that critical thinking, media content production and online discussion participation such as commenting on the issue and influencing others are the complete set of key abilities and skills that are essential to be a motivated problem solver. People who have different opinions about the media messages and write articles or posts that show different views of a certain topic in the media to influence othersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; opinions are more likely to perceive fake news as a serious problem and be more determined to solve the problem. With that said, critical prosumption plays a key role in motivating people to counter fake news, this can be done by leaving a comment on the fake news post on social media to claim or prove the post is incorrect.

Kim and Grunig (2011) explained that when people are motivated in problem-solving, they will take communicative actions such as select, seek and share information with others. When applied in this context, the motivation to resolve fake news problems exists when people are motivated to seek and share the truth of the news or information to avoid others from being fake news victims.

Unfortunately, the respondents in this study showed the lowest level of critical prosumption. It is suggested that media literacy education should focus more on critical prosumption instead of merely teaching the younger generation how to use media.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information in this study can be provided upon contacting the corresponding author.

7. REFERENCES Allcott, H., & Gentzkow, M. (2017). Social media and fake news in the 2016 Election. Journal of Economic Perspectives, 31(2), 211-236. DOI: 10.1257/jep.31.2.211 *Corresponding author (Zanuddin) Tel+603-79675621 hasmahz@um.edu.my hasmahmedia@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8I http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.150

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Buckingham, D. (2005). The media literacy of children and young people: A review of the research literature. Ofcom.

Chen, D.-T., Wu, J., & Wang, Y.-M. (2011). Unpacking new media literacy. Journal of Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics, 9(2), 84-88.

Choi, S.-H., & Kim, J.-N. (2015). The power of contextual talking: On stimulation, incorporation, and situational motivation that lead to communicational chain. Travel and Tourism Research Association: Advancing Tourism Research Globally, 22.

Chong, L. T. (2017, 11 May). The negative impact of fake news. The Star Online. http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2017/05/11/the-negative-impact-of-fake-newsboth-individuals-and-institutions-find-it-difficult-to-clear-themse/ El Rayess, M., Chebl, C., Mhanna, J., & Hage, R.-M. (2018). Fake news judgement: The case of undergraduate students at Notre Dame University-Louaize, Lebanon. Reference Services Review, 46(1), 146-149. DOI: doi:10.1108/RSR-07-2017-0027 Fedeli, G. (2019). â&#x20AC;&#x2DC;Fake newsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; meets tourism: A proposed research agenda. Annals of Tourism Research. DOI: 10.1016/j.annals.2019.02.002 Fero, L. J., Witsberger, C. M., Wesmiller, S. W., Zullo, T. G., & Hoffman, L. A. (2009). Critical thinking ability of new graduate and experienced nurses. Journal of advanced nursing, 65(1), 139-148. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2648.2008.04834.x Gelfert, A. (2018). Fake news: A definition. Informal Logic, 38(1), 84-117.

Haciyakupoglu, G., Yang, J. H., Suguna, V. S., Leong, D., & Rahman, M. F. B. A. (2018).

Countering fake news: A survey of recent global initiatives. http://www.rsis.edu.sg/rsispublication/cens/countering-fake-news-a-survey-of-recent-globalinitiatives/#.XKRKFKRS_IU Hassan, N., Nayak, A., Sable, V., Li, C., Tremayne, M., Zhang, G., Arslan, F., Caraballo, J., Jimenez, D., Gawsane, S., Hasan, S., Joseph, M., & Kulkarni, A. (2017). ClaimBuster: the first-ever end-to-end fact-checking system. Proceedings of the VLDB Endowment, 10, 19451948. DOI: 10.14778/3137765.3137815 Horowitz, J. (2017, 18 October). In Italian schools, reading, writing and recognizing fake news. The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2017/10/18/world/europe/italy-fake-news.html Kaiser, H. F. (1974, March 01). An index of factorial simplicity. Psychometrika, 39(1), 31-36. DOI: 10.1007/bf02291575 Kanoh, H. (2018). Why do people believe in fake news over the Internet? An understanding from the perspective of existence of the habit of eating and drinking. Procedia Computer Science, 126, 1704-1709. DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2018.08.107 Kim, J.-N., & Grunig, J. E. (2011). Problem solving and communicative action: A situational theory of problem solving. Journal of Communication, 61(1), 120-149. DOI: 10.1111/j.14602466.2010.01529.x Koc, M., & Barut, E. (2016). Development and validation of New Media Literacy Scale (NMLS) for university students. Computers in Human Behavior, 63, 834-843. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2016.06.035 Lee, S. K., Lindsey, N. J., & Kim, K. S. (2017). The effects of news consumption via social media and news information overload on perceptions of journalistic norms and practices.

Computers in Human Behavior, 75, 254-263. DOI: 10.1016/j.chb.2017.05.007

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Literat, I. (2014). Measuring new media literacies: Towards the development of a comprehensive assessment tool. Journal of Media Literacy Education, 6(1), 15-27.

Newman, N., Fletcher, R., Kalogeropoulos, A., Levy, D. A. L., & Nielsen, R. K. (2018). Reuters institute digital news report 2018. http://www.digitalnewsreport.org/ Pangrazio, L. (2018). What’s new about ‘fake news’? Critical digital literacies in an era of fake news, post-truth and clickbait. Páginas de Educación, 11, 6. DOI: 10.22235/pe.v11i1.1551 Potter, W. J. (2010). The state of media literacy. Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media, 54(4), 675-696. DOI: 10.1080/08838151.2011.521462 Pozveh, M.Z., Taghipour, F., Khorasgani, A.E. (2019). An investigation on the consequences of using virtual social networks in promoting the social capital. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10(9), 10A09K: 1-12.

Rochlin, N. (2017). Fake news: Belief in post-truth. Library Hi Tech, 35(3), 386-392. DOI: 10.1108/LHT-03-2017-0062 Rubin, V. L., Chen, Y., & Conroy, N. (2015). Deception detection for news: Three types of fakes.

Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, 52, 1-4. DOI: 10.1002/pra2.2015.145052010083 Satish, B. (2018, 19 July). How WhatsApp helped turn an Indian village into a lynch mob. BBC News. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-india-44856910 Scott, V. (2017, 19 September). Qatar launches new website to counter 'fake news'. Doha News. http://dohanews.co/qatar-launches-new-website-to-counter-fake-news/ Shahar, F. M. (2017, March 14). Communications Ministry launches sebenarnya.my to quash fake news, information. News Straits Times. http://www.nst.com.my/news/2017/03/220604/communications-ministry-launchessebenarnyamy-quash-fake-news-information Tandoc, E. C., Lim, Z. W., & Ling, R. (2018). Defining “fake news”. Digital Journalism, 6(2), 137153. DOI: 10.1080/21670811.2017.1360143 Toharudin, U. (2015). Critical thinking and problem solving skills: How these skills are needed in Educational Psychology? International Journal of Science and Research 6(3). DOI: 10.21275/ART20171836 Visentin, M., Pizzi, G., & Pichierri, M. (2019). Fake news, real problems for brands: The impact of content truthfulness and source credibility on consumers' behavioral intentions toward the advertised brands. Journal of Interactive Marketing, 45, 99-112. DOI: 10.1016/j.intmar.2018.09.001 Waszak, P. M., Kasprzycka-Waszak, W., & Kubanek, A. (2018). The spread of medical fake news in social media – The pilot quantitative study. Health Policy and Technology, 7(2), 115-118.

DOI: 10.1016/j.hlpt.2018.03.002 Watimin, N. H., & Zanuddin, H. (2018). Public opinion formation: The role of independent media portal during crisis. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioral Sciences XL, 706717. DOI: 10.15405/epsbs.2018.05.58 Wok, S., Idid, S., & Misman, E. (2012). Social media use for information-sharing activities among youth in Malaysia. Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly, 2(11), 1029-1047.

DOI: 10.13140/2.1.2299.4560 *Corresponding author (Zanuddin) Tel+603-79675621 hasmahz@um.edu.my hasmahmedia@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8I http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8I.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.150

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Zanuddin, H., & Watimin, N. H. (2018). Managing crisis and response time analysis: Effectiveness of online monitoring strategy analysis. The European Proceedings of Social & Behavioral Sciences, XL, 157-177. DOI: 10.15405/epsbs.2018.05.15 Dr.Hasmah Zanuddin is an Associate Professor at the Department of Media Studies, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. She got a PhD from University of Westminster, London. Her expertise includes Public Relations, Media & Communication Policy & Management, Research Method, Content Studies and Audience Research. She has vast experience in research collaborations such as the Korean-Australian Research Center, University of New South Wales, Australia.

Chin Ying Shin is a PhD student at University of Malaya. . He is also a Lecturer at the Department of Public Relations, Faculty of Arts and Social Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kampar Campus, Perak, Malaysia.

He got a Bachelor of Communication in Persuasive Communication from Universiti Sains Malaysia and a Master of Arts in Communications from Universiti Malaysia Sabah. His research interests include media and communication studies, cultivation analysis, fake news, and situational theory of problem-solving (STOPS).

Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarksâ&#x201E;˘ or registeredÂŽ trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Hasmah Zanuddin, Chin Ying Shin

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PAPER ID: 11A8J

AN ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF CROPS PRODUCTION USING A TRICKLE IRRIGATION SYSTEM Walid M. A. Khalifa 1 2

1,2*

Department of Civil Engineering, University of Hail, SAUDI ARABIA. Department of Civil Engineering, University of Fayoum, EGYPT.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 29 November 2019 Received in revised form 12 February 2020 Accepted 02 March 2020 Available online 09 March 2020

Rising water scarcity in many parts over the world especially in Arab countries needs increased water productivity to support the current agricultural production levels. Trickle irrigation system introduced relatively recently in Arab countries such as Egypt has proved to save substantial water and boost crops’ productivity. This study performs the economic analysis on seven crops and nine vegetables using the Keywords: trickle irrigation system in a hypothetical field in Egypt based on the Save water; Irrigation physical and economic conditions. Economic analysis measures of water management; Trickle irrigation, Field benefit-cost ratio (B/C) and net return values (B − C) were estimated. crops, Crops rotations; The crops considered in the study were: sugar beet, lupine, lentil, chickpea, soybean, sesame, and peanuts. Besides, the concerning Crop productivity; vegetables were: tomato, onion, garlic, peas, cabbage, eggplant, Economics; watermelon, cantaloupe, and cowpea. The study presented some Benefit-cost ratio suitable growing rotations among the crops and vegetables. This study (B/C). results showed that higher values of net returns were attained for most crop rotations. Further, most of B/C for crop rotations have been ranged between 1.5 and up to more than 2.0. These estimated results corroborated that investment in trickle irrigation is economically highly viable for arable lands such as Arab countries.

Disciplinary: Civil Engineering (Irrigation Engineering), Agricultural Sciences (Crop Science). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Most irrigation development projects seek a maximum economic return. For economic efficiency, a project may focus on their maximum return on investment (B/C ratio) or maximum net benefits from the development (B − C). The difference between these goals is shown in Keller et al.

(1988). The economic data required for economic analysis fall into two general categories, site-dependent and system-dependent (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). Site-dependent economic *Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

1

parameters include; interest rate; labor costs; energy costs; energy inflation factor; general inflation factor; property taxes (on equipment); water costs; the land value; and the return to irrigation for each crop. Interest rates are categorized as real or nominal. The nominal rate is the current rate of interest charged by the lending institution that will provide the credit and includes an inflationary component and risk, management, and profit component. The real rate (inflation-free and ranges from 5 to 7 %) is used to determine the annualized cost of capital expenditures that tend to appreciate, such as land values and permanent improvement to the land, like land-leveling. The nominal rate is used to determine the annualized cost of capital expenditures that depreciate or reach technical obsolescence with little or no salvage value. The energy inflation factor is the expected inflation rate for energy over the systemâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s economic life and is important for balancing capital and operating costs. Inflation factors should be included for other input costs, such as labor and water. System-dependent parameters include system component costs; system component lives; and labor, energy and maintenance costs. The physical life of some components may be longer than the expected technical life due to the obsolescence of irrigation technology. In such cases, it is practical to use an expected economic life equal to the technical life rather than the full physical life.

Theoretical and applied investigations were carried out by Uzunov and Birkov (1994) to assess economic parameters and performance of trickle emitters, by analyzing different systems, and over 1000 layouts, in terms of flow-pressure relationship, coefficient of variation of manufacturing tolerances, and crop coefficient.

A computer model was developed by Narayanan et al. (1998) for the design, optimization, and economic analysis of drip systems for efficient irrigation of high profitable crops (carrots, cabbages, onions, and maize) in northern USA. Optimization of distribution lines reduced the total costs of the system by 10-50% compared to other possible design alternatives analyzed. The cost per acre was highest for a 1-acre system with four irrigation zones, and least for a 10-acre system with four zones.

DRIPCAD was developed by Reddy et al. (2000), to design a trickle system based on emission uniformity and the annual cost of the system as criteria for selection of the design. The design problem was illustrated through an example for a banana crop grown on a 6 ha area in India. The design optimizes for better economical design with varying main lines pipe sizes instead of design with uniform pipe size or higher uniformity.

Tiwari and Reddy (1997) studied planting geometry pattern effects on yield, capital cost, operating cost and net return for banana crop irrigated using a trickle irrigation system in the one-hectare area. The net return analysis was established to be maximally for one plant at a place of 2-m spacing. The length to width ratio of planting has a large correlation with the initial capital cost and the total annual cost. The highest return was acquired at 4-m spacing with two plants per point.

Luhach et al. (2004) examined the water-use efficiency and economic investment worth in sprinkler, drip, and surface irrigation systems in Haryana, India. The results have indicated significant water savings from sprinkler and drip irrigation methods. The sprinkler irrigation method has been obtained to reduce operational costs as well as labor requirements.

A field study of installation subsurface drip irrigation (SDI) systems was conducted at Texas, the USA by Wilde et al. (2009) to observe six-year agronomic impacts of distribution uniformities on cotton production. Net present values (NPV) were estimated for each uniformity level and irrigation level. The lower irrigation level, the least uniform design provided a higher NPV. Also, the length of

2

Walid M. A. Khalifa

the planning horizon affected NPV with the more uniform system having a better NPV at the longer planning horizon because of the cumulative effect of small improvements in net income over a longer time. The producer's risk aversion (RA) level affected the choice of design uniformities. A more RA producer preferred a more uniform design and was willing to pay a higher installation cost for a more uniform system. A less RA producer preferred a less uniform system design with a lower initial cost.

The study of Gravity drum kit drip (GDKD) irrigation system was evaluated by Mali and Kumar (2009) on economic water productivity, water, and labor-saving for cabbage and cauliflower cultivation. The results obtained were compared with the traditional furrow irrigation system. The GDKD irrigation system reduced the labor usage by an average value of 40.25% in cabbage and cauliflower cultivation as compared to the furrow system. In the GDKD system, the application of estimated amounts of water on a daily basis reduced the water usage to the extent of 36.4 % and 33.5 % in cabbage and cauliflower, respectively. The yields under the GDKD system were 42.86 % and 50.45 % higher than the furrow system of irrigation for cabbage and cauliflower respectively. Based on net income, GDKDâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s average economic water productivity was 152.45 RS/m3 while that for the furrow system was 46.60 RS/m3.

Kumar and Palanisami (2010) studied impacts of drip irrigation on the farming system in terms of cropping patterns, resources use and yield.. Using drip irrigation helps in the regions where scarcity of water and labor is scanty, as well as cultivation cost, crop yield, and farm profitability.

Narayanamoorthy and Devika (2017) studied the economic and resource impacts of drip irrigation including its benefit-cost pattern using crops survey data like okra in India. Using drip irrigation can reduce cultivation cost 15%, save water resources and electrical energy 47%, and productivity of okra increase 49% over the same crop cultivated under conventional flood method of irrigation. Okra farmers using the drip irrigation showed more farm business income of RS 72,711 per acre over the non-drip adopters.

Razzaq et al. (2018) conducted the economic analysis of high-efficiency irrigation systems in Pakistan, by measurement and comparison of the water productivity of modern and conventional-irrigated farms. The sprinkler irrigation system was mainly installed on the wheat crop while the drip irrigation systems were installed on mango orchards. The benefit-cost ratio (BCR) and net present value (NPV) showed that sprinkler and drip irrigation systems were an economically feasible option, as water productivity at modern farms was higher than those of conventional farms.

Montazar et al. (2019) explored the viability of drip irrigation for organic spinach production and the management of spinach downy mildew disease in California. Many combinations of dripline spacing and installation depths were assessed and compared with sprinkler irrigation as a control treatment and found that drip irrigation has the potential for producing organic spinach, conserve water, increase the efficiency of water use, and manage downy mildew.

In this study, the model of trickle irrigation system design (TISD) which was developed by Khalifa (2020) is used to conduct the economic analysis on seven crops and nine vegetables in a hypothetical field in Egypt based on the physical and economic conditions. The used economic analyses are the net returns and B/C ratio. The crops considered are sugar beet, lupine, lentil, chickpea, soybean, sesame, and peanuts. The concerning vegetables are tomato, onion, garlic, peas, cabbage, eggplant, watermelon, cantaloupe, and cowpea. The considered crops and vegetables use *Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

3

two rotations of growing in winter and summer.

2. METHODOLOGY The economic analysis is most easily completed on an annualized basis. Therefore, total annual costs for the trickle irrigation system and its configurations and the returns for the grown crops should be computed. If the system of irrigation has markedly water-application uniformities, the yield impact should be estimated by Hill and Keller methods (1980). If yield expectations are not markedly, only the anticipated net return from each crop is required. This study used the model (TISD) which was developed by Khalifa (2020) to design the trickle irrigation system and can be extended to evaluate the economic analysis of irrigation.

2.1 ECONOMIC ANALYSIS 2.1.1 TOTAL ANNUAL COSTS Total annual costs of trickle system (TAC), are the sum of annual costsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; components due to capital, maintenance, energy, labor, production, and water and taxes (if any). The annual capital cost component is the sum of annual costs due to trickle system construction elements and raw land.

Construction elements of the trickle system include outlets, regulators, laterals, manifolds, mainlines, fittings, and pumps. Initial capital cost for each element is estimated by multiplying the required quantity by its price per unit. Annual capital costs (ACC) are computed based on the capital recovery factor (CRF) (Pearson, 1974) for the life of the trickle irrigation system element (Bliesner and Merriam, 1988) and the nominal interest rate.

ACC = â&#x2C6;&#x2018;[CRF đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Initial Equipment (Land) Cost]

(1).

AEC = EAE đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Unit Energy Cost đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Annual Energy Use

(2).

In season time = Irrigation times/year đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Required (man. hr/ha) đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Area

(3),

The average annual maintenance costs (AMC) over the trickle system componentâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s life should be considered in the analysis. The maintained system elements are pump, lateral, manifolds, and mainline. The typical list of maintenance costs expressed as a percentage of the original capital costs for major system components is included in (Bliesner and Merriam, 1988). The annual energy costs (AEC) could be obtained from the annual required energy and local energy price for the used power source. When the energy costs over the project life are annualized, they should be adjusted to account the expected inflation. The equivalent annual energy cost factor (EAE) can be computed as (Pearson, 1974)

Annual operating labor could be obtained from (Keller and Bliesner, 1990). The values reported are expected in man-hours per irrigation per hectare for in-season, and pre- and postseason for operation only without maintenance. Annual labor costs (ALC) are computed by using the listed time and local hour-cost. When comparing the large differences in labor needs, the expected inflation in labor costs should be accounted for. The equivalent annual labor cost (EAL) over the project life can be computed by Pearson (1974) with the expected labor inflation rate. Annual labor time is the sum of in-season and pre-and postseason times as

4

Pre season and postseason time = 2 đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Required (man. hr/ha) đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Farm Area

Walid M. A. Khalifa

(4),

ALC = EAL đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Total Required (man. hr/year) đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Labor Hour Cost

(5).

AWC = EAW đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Unit water cost đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Gross water use/year

(6).

Other annual costs include taxes on equipment and water costs. The annual water cost (AWC) is computed as a function of the equivalent annualized water cost factor of inflation energy (EAW) as

2.1.2 NET RETURNS Net returns are computed by subtracting the above estimated average annual costs (C) from the average annual gross returns (B). If the economic goal is to maximize net return, then the system with the largest net return (B â&#x2C6;&#x2019; C) best meets the goal based on the economic analysis. The B/C ratio is also computed by dividing the annual benefits by the annual costs. If the goal is to maximize the return on investment, then the system that yields the highest B/C ratio best meets the goal based on the economic analysis. It is possible, even common, to have one system yield the largest net return and another has the highest B/C ratio.

Gross return (B) = Crop yield (ton/fed) đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Area (fed) đ?&#x2014;&#x2018;đ?&#x2014;&#x2018; Price (L. E./ton) Net return (B â&#x2C6;&#x2019; C) = Gross returns â&#x2C6;&#x2019; Total annual costs B/C ratio = Gross return/Total annual costs

(7)

(8) (9)

Final selection of the trickle irrigation system, usually, reduces the system and configuration that either returns the greatest net benefits (B â&#x2C6;&#x2019; C) or provides the best return on investment (B/C) depending upon the goal selected. After the system and configuration have been selected and designed, the project should be presented by preparing plans, schedules, and instructions for proper layout. Plans must show the pump position, network alignment, lateralsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; position and strips and roadsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; dimension. The schedules should list the necessary information about crops, weather, soil, irrigation, system components, costs, and expected benefits from the project. Generally, final selection should not be made by the designer alone but presented to the owner and operator and the decision made jointly.

2.2 DEVELOPMENT OF TRICKLE IRRIGATION MODEL The model of trickle irrigation system design (TISD) which was developed by Khalifa (2020) is used to estimate the net return of planting the concerned crops. In this regard, one subroutine, namely (ECONOMIC) can be added to TISD to consider the most economic size for different pipe reaches of laterals, manifolds, and main pipe. The most economical pipe size is that gives the minimum sum of fixed cost (material) and energy cost (power). The used pipe material depends on the landowner's needs and used system. For manifolds and main pipe networks of the trickle irrigation system; PVC plastic material is usually used. Generally, the used pipe material must satisfy the installation and operating conditions. The most economic pipe size could be selected based on the following parameters: Desired rate of interest by the developer; Pipe material and its life cycle; Equivalent annual rate of energy escalation; Pump efficiency; Fuel cost per unit of brake power output (Bliesner and Keller, 1982); Pipe price; and The system capacity. *Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

5

2.3 CASE STUDY A hypothetical farm in Egypt as shown in Figure 1 was studied by the developed model (Khalifa, 2020) to show the physical and economic conditions (see Table 1).

Figure 1: Farm shape and topography of the case study.

Table 1: Site physical and economic data of the case study Soil type: Climate conditions: Water source:

Raw land value: Real interest rate: Nominal interest rate: Electric energy: Labor:

Construction elements:

Physical Conditions Coarse texture (coarse or fine or loamy sands) Hot climate (Middle Egypt), Wind speed = 3.0 mph Surface water, Suction head = 6.0 m, Electrical Conductivity = 640.0 ppm = 1.0 dS/cm, Water price = 0.0 US$/m3 Economic Conditions RAW = 1000 US$/ha RIR = 6.0% NIR = 10.0% Energy cost = 0.10 US$/kW-hr. (for 2018 prices) Energy escalation rate = 7.0% (assumed) Labor cost = 4.5 US$/man-hr. (for 2018 prices) Labor escalation rate = 4.0%. (assumed) Available for trickle irrigation system Available maintenance supports PVC specification = DIN (Germany) PVC price = 15 US$/kg of PVC (for 2018) Aluminum and steel pipe = Keller and Bliesner, 1990 Outletsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; prices = Rain Bird (2018)

3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Based on the above physical site conditions, the developed model (TISD; Khalifa, 2020), including ECONOMIC subroutine, proposes the suitable field crops and vegetables. These suitable plants are listed in Table 2. In this table, there are many crop rotations that could be composed. Some of these crop rotations are lupine-soybean or lupine-peanuts; lupine-sesame or lupine-eggplant or lupine-watermelon; sugar beet-soybean or sugar beet-sesame or sugar beet-peanuts or sugar beet-cantaloupe or sugar beet-cowpea; lentil-soybean or lentil-sesame or lentil-peanuts or lentil-eggplant or lentil-cantaloupe or lentil-cowpea; chickpea-soybean or chickpea-sesame or chickpea-peanuts or chickpea-eggplant or chickpea-watermelon or chickpea-cantaloupe; garlic-soybean or garlic-sesame or garlic-peanuts or garlic-eggplant or garlic-watermelon or garlic-cantaloupe or garlic-cowpea; peas-soybean or peas-sesame or peas-peanuts or peas-eggplant;

6

Walid M. A. Khalifa

cabbage-soybean or cabbage-sesame or cabbage-peanuts; tomato-sesame; onion-sesame or onion-eggplant or onion-cantaloupe or onion-cowpeas.

Table 2: Proposed suitable crops based site conditions Season

Winter

Summer

Field crops 1.

2.

3.

4.

Sugar beet.

Lupine.

Lentil.

Chickpea.

1. Soybean.

2. Sesame.

3. Peanuts.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Vegetables Tomato.

Onion.

Garlic.

Peas.

Cabbage.

Tomato.

Onion.

Eggplant.

Watermelon.

Cantaloupe.

Cowpea.

The suitable irrigation system for these crops is the line-source of the trickle irrigation system with the two configurations shown in (Khalifa 2020). Based on the agricultural statistics in Egypt (FAOSTAT, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en), the required information of the concerned crop rotations in 2018 are listed in Table 3.

Table 3: Economic information of concerned crops for a case study (FAOSTAT, 2018) Crop Expected average Average crop production crop production price cost (US$/ha) (ton/ha) (US$/ton) Sugar beet 2068.47 51.2251 30 (40.38)* Lupine 1026.86 2.0488 501.2 Lentil 1463.69 2.2546 649.2 Chickpea 373.1 2.187 170.6 Soybean 964.16 3.2 301.3 Sesame 1183.84 1.2941 914.8 Peanuts 4309.69 3.19** 1351*** Tomato 4064.11 40.9689 99.2 Onion 3952.09 36.291 108.9 Garlic 3739.48 22.3921 167 Peas 572.55 1.8772 305 Cabbage 2281.36 30.4587 74.9 Eggplant 3284.68 30.0795 109.2 Watermelon 3122.21 32.2876 96.7 Cantaloupe 2012.96 27.1288 74.2 Cowpea 2187.96 9.8468 222.2 * Abdi et al. (2019), **Barghash et al. (2014), ***http://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanuts Crop

According to the site's physical and economic data, TISD was run for all the former mentioned crop rotations under the line-source trickle irrigation system with the two configurations shown in (Khalifa 2020). Table 4 lists the summary of the model designs for the concerned field crops and their rotations. After completing the system design trails and their economic analysis, TISD selects the most economic design based on the maximum B/C ratio. The expected system costs and returns were also calculated by the model. The listed parameters in Table 4 are as follow: 1. The present worth capital (fixed) cost per unit area of the farm, (US$/ha); *Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

7

2.

3.

4.

5.

The total annual costs per unit area of the farm, (US$/ha), which include: annual capital system cost (US$/ha); annual capital raw land cost (US$/ha); annual labor cost (US$/ha); annual energy cost (US$/ha); annual maintenance cost (US$/ha); annual crop production cost (US$/ha).

The net cultivated area under line-source trickle irrigation system; The expected annual net return per unit area of the farm, (US$/ha); and The expected B/C ratio from the project.

Table 4: Design summary for field crops and their rotations in Egypt

8

9870 11230

1374 1451

66 66

34 34

1 2

9870 11230

1374 1451

66 66

34 34

1 2

15574 14984

1315 1279

66 66

34 34

1 2

16233 15618

1315 1279

66 66

34 34

1 2

12894 12405

1315 1279

66 66

34 34

1 2

4211 5040

606 652

66 66

23 23

1 2

4522 5419

606 652

66 66

23 23

1 2

2592 3102

606 652

66 66

23 23

1 2

5280 6320

606 652

66 66

23 23

1 2

9870 1374 11230 1451

66 66

34 34

1 2

9870 11230

1374 1451

66 66

34 34

1 2

9870 11230

1374 1451

66 66

34 34

Walid M. A. Khalifa

B/C

1 2

Sugar beet-soybean 748 233 3014 702 240 2979 Lentil-soybean 551 233 2413 517 240 2385 Chickpea-soybean 560 233 1329 526 240 1314 Sugar beet-peanuts 952 228 5737 949 224 5737 Lentil-peanuts 732 228 5737 732 224 5737 Chickpea-peanuts 743 228 4654 741 224 4654 Lupine-sesame 549 103 2197 437 108 2180 Lentil-sesame 533 103 2631 426 107 2611 Chickpea-sesame 549 103 1547 437 107 1536 Sugar beet-sesame 743 103 3232 593 107 3208 Garlic-soybean 624 233 4674 588 240 4621 Peas-soybean 613 233 1527 576 240 1510 Cabbage-soybean 613 233 3225 576 240 3188

Net return (US$/ha)

34 34

Net area (ha)

Labor

66 66

5469 5472

52.6 52

2068 1977

1.38 1.36

4671 4693

52.6 52

687 614

1.15 1.13

3596 3631

52.6 52

803 759

1.22 1.21

8332 8290

52.6 52.6

7884 7954

1.95 1.96

8112 8073

52.6 52.6

6041 6114

1.74 1.76

7040 6998

52.6 52.6

6148 6148

1.87 1.88

3544 3465

52.6 52.2

3941 3958

2.11 2.14

3962 3884

52.6 52.2

3588 3608

1.91 1.93

2894 2820

52.6 52.2

2604 2610

1.90 1.93

4773 4648

52.6 52.2

5635 5688

2.18 2.22

7006 7000

52.6 52

3824 3709

1.55 1.53

3847 3877

52.6 52

769 731

1.20 1.19

5545 5556

52.6 52

3159 3062

1.57 1.55

Total

Land

1374 1451

Production

System

9870 11230

Maintenance

Fixed cost (US$/ha)

1 2

Energy

Configuration no.

Total annual costs (US$/ha)

66 66

1 2

9175 8493

1315 1278

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

5450 5498

658 663

66 66

1 2

4665 4455

597 574

66 66

1 2

4665 4455

597 574

66 66

1 2

10872 NA

1417 NA

66 NA

1 2

10872 NA

1417 NA

66 NA

1 2

10872 NA

1417 NA

66 NA

*Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

B/C

1315 1278

Net return (US$/ha)

9175 8493

Garlic-peanuts 814 228 7999 10456 812 224 7999 10413 Peas-peanuts 34 803 228 4852 7298 34 801 224 4852 7254 Cabbage-peanuts 34 803 228 6550 8996 34 801 224 6550 8953 Lupine-eggplant 19 380 107 4211 5442 19 366 107 4211 5433 Lentil-eggplant 19 364 107 4638 5853 19 350 107 4638 5844 Chickpea-eggplant 19 380 107 3573 4803 19 366 107 3573 4794 Lupine-watermelon 19 396 107 4053 5299 19 382 107 4053 5290 Lentil-cantaloupe 19 368 107 3396 4615 19 355 107 3396 4606 Lentil-cowpea 19 323 107 3567 4740 19 311 107 3567 4733 Chickpea-watermelon 19 396 107 3414 4661 19 382 107 3414 4652 Chickpea-cantaloupe 19 384 107 2331 3566 19 371 107 2331 3557 Sugar beet-cantaloupe 21 528 101 4071 5384 21 551 101 4071 5384 Sugar beet-cowpea 21 487 101 4246 5518 21 508 101 4246 5515 Garlic-sesame 32 615 235 4829 7195 NA NA NA NA NA Cabbage-sesame 34 604 235 3398 5755 NA NA NA NA NA Tomato-sesame 40 689 235 5248 7696 NA NA NA NA NA 34 34

Net area (ha)

1 2

Total

66 66

Production

Land

1315 1278

Maintenance

System

9175 8493

Energy

Fixed cost (US$/ha)

1 2

Labor

Configuration no.

Total annual costs (US$/ha)

52.6 52.6

10139 10203

1.97 1.98

52.6 52.6

5197 5245

1.71 1.72

52.6 52.6

9844 9907

2.09 2.11

51.7 51.7

5736 5745

2.05 2.06

51.7 51.7

5293 5300

1.90 1.91

51.7 51.7

4748 4755

1.99 1.99

51.7 51.7

6028 6035

2.14 2.14

51.7 51.7

2437 2440

1.53 1.53

51.7 51.7

3763 3769

1.79 1.80

51.7 51.7

4962 4968

2.06 2.07

51.7 51.7

1889 1891

1.53 1.53

52.8 52.8

3452 3453

1.64 1.64

52.8 52.8

5700 5702

2.03 2.03

52 NA

6079 NA

1.85 NA

52 NA

5202 NA

1.90 NA

52 NA

10624 NA

2.38 NA

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

9

9433 9461

1253 1255

66 66

1 2

7512 7540

940 942

66 66

1 2

9433 9461

1253 1255

66 66

1 2

7512 7540

940 942

66 66

1 2

9433 9461

1253 1255

66 66

1 2

9433 9461

1253 1255

66 66

1 2

7512 7540

940 942

66 66

1 2

10872 NA

1417 NA

66 NA

B/C

1 2

Onion-sesame 654 235 5037 NA NA NA Garlic-eggplant 28 490 219 6928 28 405 219 6928 Garlic-watermelon 26 515 162 6767 26 428 162 6767 Garlic-cantaloupe 26 519 219 5673 26 430 219 5673 Garlic-cowpea 26 462 162 5846 26 382 162 5846 Onion-eggplant 32 533 219 7137 32 442 219 7137 Onion-cantaloupe 30 563 219 5883 30 467 219 5883 Onion-cowpea 30 506 162 6055 30 419 162 6055 Peas-sesame 34 604 235 1723 NA NA NA NA

Net return (US$/ha)

38 NA

Net area (ha)

Labor

66 NA

7448 NA

52 NA

3551 NA

1.48 NA

8983 8901

52.2 52.2

8102 8188

1.90 1.92

8475 8390

52.2 52.2

9030 9109

2.07 2.09

7756 7669

52.2 52.2

4534 4577

1.58 1.60

7501 7423

52.2 52.2

6850 6926

1.91 1.93

9240 9151

52.2 52.2

5597 5697

1.61 1.62

8013 7920

52.2 52.5

3431 3479

1.43 1.44

7758 7674

52.2 52.2

4588 4675

1.59 1.61

4079 NA

52 NA

1771 NA

1.43 NA

Total

Land

1417 NA

Production

System

10872 NA

Maintenance

Fixed cost (US$/ha)

1 2

Energy

Configuration no.

Total annual costs (US$/ha)

Applying the trickle irrigation system with its configurations to the case study may attain the desired economic goal based on physical and economic parameters of costs and returns. For the trickle system configuration, the laterals’ direction may be parallel to the farm width (configuration 1) or the farm length (configuration 2). It is shown from Table 4 that the net return and B/C ratio don’t depend on the configuration type but can depend on the crop rotations as shown in Figure 2. In this figure, it is revealed that the very high amounts of net return of the rotations are garlic-peanuts, eggplant-peanuts, tomato-sesame, garlic-eggplant, and watermelon, respectively. This renders that the garlic, peanuts, eggplant, tomato, and watermelon are the highest average crop prices over the remaining crops. In addition, most B/C of crop rotations lie between 1.5 and 2.0 and some exceed 2.0 due to high net returns. Some rotations have got B/C in the range of 1.0∼1.5. Such rotations are sugar beet-soybean, lentil-soybean, chickpea-soybean, peas-soybean, onion-sesame, onion-cantaloupe, and peas-cantaloupe. These rotations have got net returns ranges from less than 1000 US$/ha to nearly 2000 US$/ha. Some exceptions occurred such as onion-sesame and onion-cantaloupe referring to high total costs for both rotations. From the previous analysis, it showed that investment in crops using a trickle irrigation system was economically viable. Furthermore, higher ratios of B/C of crop rotations indicated that more investment should be encouraged.

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Walid M. A. Khalifa

10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

Sugar beet-soybean Lentil-soybean Chickpea-soybean Sugar beet-peanuts Lentil-peanuts Chickpea-peanuts Lupine-sesame Lentil-sesame Chickpea-sesame Sugar beet-sesame Garlic-soybean Peas-soybean Cabbage-soybean Garlic-peanuts Peas-peanuts Cabbage-peanuts Lupine-eggplant Lentil-eggplant Chickpea-eggplant Lupine-watermelon Lentil-cantaloupe Lentil-cowpea Chickpea-watermelon Chickpea-cantaloupe Sugar beet-cantaloupe Sugar beet-cowpea Garlic-sesame Cabbage-sesame Tomato-sesame Onion-sesame Garlic-eggplant Garlic-watermelon Garlic-cantaloupe Garlic-cowpea Onion-eggplant Onion-cantaloupe Onion-cowpea Peas-sesame

Net return (US$/ha)

12000

2.50

B/C

2.00 1.50 1.00

0.00

Sugar beet-soybean Lentil-soybean Chickpea-soybean Sugar beet-peanuts Lentil-peanuts Chickpea-peanuts Lupine-sesame Lentil-sesame Chickpea-sesame Sugar beet-sesame Garlic-soybean Peas-soybean Cabbage-soybean Garlic-peanuts Peas-peanuts Cabbage-peanuts Lupine-eggplant Lentil-eggplant Chickpea-eggplant Lupine-watermelon Lentil-cantaloupe Lentil-cowpea Chickpea-watermelon Chickpea-cantaloupe Sugar beet-cantaloupe Sugar beet-cowpea Garlic-sesame Cabbage-sesame Tomato-sesame Onion-sesame Garlic-eggplant Garlic-watermelon Garlic-cantaloupe Garlic-cowpea Onion-eggplant Onion-cantaloupe Onion-cowpea Peas-sesame

0.50

Figure 2: Comparison of the amount of return for the field crop rotations in Egypt (2018)

4. CONCLUSION Arab countries such as Egypt are water-scarce countries, and their agriculture sectors require irrigation water to feed the hastily rising population. For developing countries, agricultural water demands are estimated to escalate more than before. Therefore, a shift to water-saving technologies such as a trickle irrigation system is necessary to keep using the balance of this valuable resource under competitive uses. This study was designed to analyze the economic perspective of growing crops and vegetables in a hypothetical field in Egypt based on the physical and economic conditions using the developed model of trickle irrigation system design (TISD). The economic analysis measures in the study used the net return values (B â&#x2C6;&#x2019; C) and benefit-cost ratio (B/C). The crops and vegetables considered in the study were sugar beet, lupine, lentil, chickpea, soybean, sesame, peanuts, tomato, onion, garlic, peas, cabbage, eggplant, watermelon, cantaloupe, and cowpea, respectively. The study presented some suitable growing rotations among the crops and vegetables.

From this study's findings, it was concluded that high values of net returns were attained for most crop rotations. Further, most of B/C for crop rotations have been ranged between 1.5 and up to more than 2.0. The higher values of net returns and the B/C ratio indicated better economic viability of the trickle irrigation system in the study area. *Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

11

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL All relevant data are already included in this article.

6. REFERENCES Abdi, A., Omar, S. R., Tate, B. (2019). Egypt Sugar Annual Increasing Sugar Supply on Expanded Beet Production. USDA Foreign Agricultural Service, Global Agricultural Information Network, EG-19006.

Barghash, R. M., Othman, A. Z., Youssef, R. A. (2014). Economic study of main oilseeds production and consumption indicators in Egypt. Life Science Journal. 11(10), 984-993.

Bliesner, R. D., Keller, J. (1982). Diesel powered pumping for irrigation. 2nd edition Detroit, Michigan: Detroit Diesel Allison Division of General Motors Crop.

Bliesner, R. D., Merriam, J. (1988). Selection of irrigation methods for agriculture. Report submitted by the On-Farm Irrigation Committee of ASCE, December 22.

FAOSTAT, http://www.fao.org/faostat/en.

Hill, R. W., Keller, J. (1980). Irrigation system selection or maximum crop profit. ASAE Transactions.

23(SW-2), 366-372.

Information on https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=peanuts.

Keller, J., Bliesner, R. D. (1990). Sprinkle and trickle irrigation. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold Book Co. Keller, J., Keller, A., Bliesner, D. (1988). Irrigation project simulation model for planting and design.

Proceeding Sixth International Water Resources Association Congress on Water Resources, May 29 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; June5, Ottawa, Canada. III, 127-136.

Khalifa, W. M. A. (2020). A computer model for trickle irrigation system design. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 11(7), 11A07U, 1-17.

Kumar, D. S., Palanisami, K. (2010). Impact of drip irrigation on farming system: evidence from southern India. Agricultural Economics Research Review. 23. 265-272.

Luhach, M.S., Khatkar, R.K., Singh, V.K., Khatry, R.S. (2004). Economic analysis of sprinkler and drip irrigation technology in Haryana. Agricultural Economics Research Review. 17 (Conference No.). 107-113.

Mali, S. S., Kumar, S. (2009). Economic water productivity of drum kit drip irrigation systems for vegetable production. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305617585.

Montazar, A., Cahn, M., Putman, A. (2019). Research advances in adopting drip irrigation for California organic spinach: preliminary findings. Agriculture. 9, 177.

Narayanamoorthy, A., Devika, N. (2017). Economic and resource impacts of drip method of irrigation on okra cultivation: an analysis of field survey data. Journal of Land and Rural Studies. 6(1), 15â&#x20AC;&#x201C;33.

Narayanan, R., Steele, D., Scherer, T. (1998). Optimization of Drip Irrigation Systems for Alternative Crops in North Dakota. American Society of Agricultural Engineers (ASAE). St. Joseph, Paper No. 982042, 28.

Pearson, G. F. (1974). Life-cycle costing in a crisis era. Professional Engineer, 26-29.

Rain Bird. (2018). Landscape Irrigation Price List. https://www.rainbird.com.

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Walid M. A. Khalifa

Razzaq, A., Rehman, A., Qureshi, A. H., Javed, I., Saqib, R., Iqbal, M. N. (2018). An economic analysis of high efficiency irrigation systems in Punjab, Pakistan. Sarhad Journal of Agriculture, 34(4), 818-826.

Reddy, K. Y., Tiwari, K. N., Ravindra, V. (2000). Hydraulic Analysis of Trickle Irrigation System for Economic Design. International Agricultural Engineering Journal. 9(2), 81-95.

Tiwari, K. N., , K. Y. (1997). Economic analysis of trickle irrigation system considering planting geometry. Agricultural Water Management. 34(2), 195-206.

Uzunov, N., Birkov, M. (1994). Economic approach in the selection of trickle emitters. 17th ICID European Regional Conference on Irrigation and Drainage, Vena, Bulgaria, 16-22 May. Vol. 2: modification of irrigation schedule of crops due to scarcity of water. 309-315.

Wilde, C., Johnson, J., Bordovsky, J. P. (2009). Economic analysis of subsurface drip irrigation system uniformity. Applied Engineering in Agriculture. 25(3), 1-5.

Dr. Walid M. A. Khalifa is an Assistant Professor at Hail University, Saudi Arabia, and Fayoum University, Egypt. He received his BSc in Civil Engineering from Cairo University of Egypt, the PhD in Water Resources and Environmental Hydrology from Cairo University. His research interests include Predictive Water Quality and Hydrodynamics in Surface Water Bodies and also in Reinforced Concrete Water Structures.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

*Corresponding author (W.M.A.Khalifa)

Tel: +966-504322771 khalifawalid@yahoo.com w.khalifa@uoh.edu.sa, wmk01@fayoum.edu.eg

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8J http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8J.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.151

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8K

SMART IOT PONTOON MANEUVERING ALONG RIVER CURRENTS 1

1*

2

Piya Sripakorn , Kritsada Anantakarn , Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri , 1 3* Wunchock Kroehong , Boonsap Witchayangkoon 1

Division of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Uthenthawai Campus.

Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, THAILAND. 2 Department of Information Technology, Faculty of Business and Information Technology, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, THAILAND. 3 Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat School of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 22 January 2020 Received in revised form 28 February 2020 Accepted 12 March 2020 Available online 16 March 2020

Maneuver river currents are very helpful in understanding environmental and eutrophication conditions as well as fishery activities in the river estuary. The study aims to invent and develop the smart IoT pontoon for hydrological surveying in polluted and dangerous conditions with non-stop operation. the study uses a bulb made by polyethylene (PE) with echo-sounder equipment and high-end Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) device. Wireless communication such as local mobile 4G/3G is employed to collect geographic positioning and bathymetric data from rivers. The integrated system is called the smart IoT pontoon is developed and identify maneuver river currents. The study was conducted in the Thachin river in Nakhon Pathom province in Thailand. The depth of the river was collected from the echo-sounder single beam and the speed of movement was calculated from the high accuracy position that was collected from the RTK GNSS system. The results found that the speed of the pontoon movement has a negative correlation of different angle directions. This solution brings many benefits to bathymetric surveyors who work on river and ocean in bad weather and water polluted areas. The results of the study provide an IoT Smart technology for river currents behavior such as environmental monitoring and flood warning systems.

Keywords: Smart river; Smart water currents; IoT pontoon; Internet of Thing (IoT); Hydrological survey; Bathymetry survey; Echo-sounder; Smart pontoon; GNSS; RTK; DOL.

Disciplinary: Multidisciplinary (River Engineering, Engineering, Civil Engineering, Information Technology).

Navigation

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION River flows and its characteristics play an important in the evolution of terrigenous aquatic substance and a better understanding of river currents for its temporal and spatial modification is *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

1

important to improve knowledge of environmental such as problems of eutrophication, aquacultural activities, and conditions problems in river and waterway (Rabouille et al., 2008). The currents of the Thachin river estuary are mostly influent by diluted wastewater from the industrial and urban areas of Nakhon Pathom province. The Thachin river and its surrounding area is the main region for several large industrial estates, which concentration is on heavy industries such as chemical and petroleum factories, in Nakhon Pathom province. In 2005, the agricultural, industrial, and domestic consumption sectors suffer a conflict in water resource allocation caused by a severe drought in the region. At that time, it was so severe that the region had to transport water by truck from surrounding areas to the industrial and residential areas in the area. The importance of water level measurement for water security included the Thachin river and Nakhon Pathom province. By conducting a water assessment for the Thachin river and Nakhon Pathom province. using the water balance and scenario analysis (Pollution Control Department, 2015.) that was able to create flood and drought risk areas.

The study aims two objectives, the first objective is to develop and integrate the Unmanoperated pontoon for hydrological surveying in polluted and dangerous conditions with non-stop operation. The second objective is to identify the maneuver river current as speed current and angle of flow behavior. Therefore, the objectives of the study will bring great profit for all hydrological surveyors who use pontoon for river currents behavior such as environmental monitoring and flood warning systems.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Water discharge from the river is often high and different levels from season to season (Dai et al., 2008, 2011a). Therefore, its developmental characteristics are formed by the large kinetic movements between seasons of the year (Lie et al., 2003). This process greatly influences the flow of the ecological environment on the river, the sea and fishery productivity (Chang et al., 2014; Wu et al., 2014). Due to the complicated evolution of this fluctuating environment, many studies have been based on temperature and alum data or simulation of environmental data to diagnose the flow speed in unmeasurable river sections. (Chang et al., 2006). The use of remote sensing technology has allowed the study of flow patterns in the direction and currents speed of monthly and seasonal river flows and stated the disadvantage of the method used on the various spatial level of satellite data (Kim et al. 2009). However, almost all numerical flow characteristics results from short-term observation and remote sensing data do not meet the demands of hydrodynamic observations. These are necessary data in the region as long-term, continuous observation data, at multiple fixed points.

In this study, we conducted a continuous observation of the flow properties in a longitudinal section of the area of the Thachin river by using smart IoT pontoon to obtain a better understanding of the river currents data in real-time.

The study concentrates on the river basin of the Thachin river, which is identified by semiregular and regular tides. The river in this region changes from alternating current to a clockwise flow. In the rainy season, the strong wind often affects the flow of small flux and the flow begins to move south along the coast immediately after it merges into the sea. In addition to the diluted Thachin River, the flow of Thachin estuary also includes river currents and coastal currents. The diluted Thachin River creates tidal currents, both spatial and seasonal changes that are crucial to

2

P.Sripakorn, K.Anantakarn, R.Fooprateepsiri, W.Kroehong, B.Witchayangkoon

coastal currents due to monsoon winds and residual currents (Zhu et al., 2004a, b). The Gulf of Thailand located on the East direction of the Thachin river is the main flow system that influents coastal currents. Floating Survey Tank with water monitoring is needed. A bulb-shape tank with a selection of material is an aggressive corrosive chemical. Polyethylene PE with rotationally molded products and engineering design will provide the highest quality rotationally floating tanks for water environment monitoring.

3. METHODOLOGY Bathymetry is referred to as water topography and related to underwater area as oceans, rivers, and reservoir. It studies the underwater landscape depths measurements and creates river current behavior such as river depth, speed of pontoon and azimuth angle change of surveyed areas. The bathymetric measures can create maps or charts that show the bottom topography, and with the information from the river and seafloor, characterization can create waterways navigation channel charts. The main methodology for identifying currents behavior that has applied in this study is described in Figure 1.

System intergration GNSS reciver

Echo-sounder

Geographic position data

Bathymetric data

River depth (m)

Flow speed (m/s)

Direction angle (deg.)

Statistic Analysis

Identify currents behavior Figure 1: Methodology for identifying currents behavior

3.1 SYSTEM INTEGRATION The research provides Software integration that is an alternative way to replace the traditional hydrographic survey. This work is in association with the report of Tanpaibool et al. (2020). *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

3

3.1.1 FLOATING SURVEY TANK DESIGN A high-quality thermoplastic that has excellent physical and chemical attack resistance. High tensile ability, ability to shape in a mold, high strength, puncture and tear resistance, with good hot weld strength, UV resistance, chemical resistance, environment, and toughness. Polyethylene is perfectly befitting for containers and tanks because of its general strength and excellent chemical resistance to a wide range of humidity and temperature products.

Figure 2: A side view and top view of the floating survey tank.

Polyethylene is for use in outdoor applications build upon on its thickness of the wall and material type with UV light stabilizers. The bulb-shape tank made by PE will be designed with Diameter 50 cm and Height 80 cm as described in Figure 2. Polyethylene is a high resistance plastic that has an operating in a very hot condition with a limit than Polyethylene 100°C. Because of its good chemical obstruction, the tank made by Polyethylene has a strong material to protect from broken and crack. Polyethylene pontoon is recommended for applications in hot temperatures or where high collision and strength are required. The pontoon with a rough, irregular interior surface is suitable for river and ocean surveys in all weather conditions.

3.1.2 ECHO SOUNDER EQUIPMENT The accuracy of the Echo-sounder is Âą 0.02 m + 0.1% x D (where D means the depth of the water). The device has 0.3m to 200m in the detection range. It is perfect for shallow and deep-water surveying by the minimum 0.3 m range. The modular design of the echo-sounder has a userfriendly interface for upgrade and upgrade while the user-friendly operation makes it simple to operate in any weather condition.

The hydrological software has advanced analysis for water depth and automatically filters the secondary echo data. The main parameters as gain, power, and range are adjusted manually and automatically. The software provides hydrological parameters and its configuration that make users get high-quality results by limitation noise error data.

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P.Sripakorn, K.Anantakarn, R.Fooprateepsiri, W.Kroehong, B.Witchayangkoon

3.1.3 GPS EQUIPMENT The GNSS receiver is a low-cost, hand-held GNSS receiver operated for land and water surveying applications (Anantakarn and Witchayangkoon, 2019). Applying a GNSS receiver (Witchayangkoon, 2000), the users have the free App for Land Survey and post-processing software also provided. All survey applications, including real-time RTK positioning and data collection for PPK, can be achieved by a low-cost solution with the GNSS receiver (Anantakarn et al., 2019; Witchayangkoon, 2000).

3.1.4 EQUIPMENT INSTALLATION Echosounder and GPS equipment is integrated and install as in Figure 3. Sounder Equipment and NTRIP Modem and GNSS receiver are integrated and installed in the Tank, see Figure 3. To make the tank floating properly for movement, the weighting material is filled and adjusted for optimal surface movement conditions.

Figure 3: Echo sounder and GNSS system integration *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

5

3.2 THE STUDY AREA The Thachin river has been recorded for poor to very poor water quality for a prolonged period.

(Pollution Control Department, 2015). A large amount of wastewater has been discharged into the river from agriculture, industry, and households. Thailand's environment qualities of rivers upper part have been severely reduced and pollution goes with water into rivers. The Thachin estuary has been warned of bacteria and nutrient contamination from nitrogen, phosphorus, and phosphates.

Nutrient pollution damages food sources for aquatic animals, reduces water quality, destroys river habitats and algae grow faster than the ecosystem can recover Thachin river area is selected in Nakhon Pathom province for this study. The site is located about 40 km West of Bangkok on the Thachin river as shown in Figure 4 (UTM north and east coordinates).

Figure 4: Experimental river route along the Thachin river estuary of Thailand.

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P.Sripakorn, K.Anantakarn, R.Fooprateepsiri, W.Kroehong, B.Witchayangkoon

3.3 SURVEY AND FIELD DATA COLLECTION The pontoon collected the data in the river as a length of 11 km with 3 repeated paths, total length is about 33 km. It is naturally floating and self-movement by river current flowing. The surveyed data includes bathymetric and geo-coordinate data that were recorded in the 5-second interval. The detailed of surveyed data collection is illustrated in Figure 5. The field survey has been conducted during 15-18 January 2020 with 10,814 data surveyed points.

River depth data in m can be measured directly from Echo-sounder equipment.

Pontoon speed data in m/s can be calculated from distance and time that extract from the GNSS RTK system. The distance between the 2 Distance between two coordinate points of survey P(x1, y1) and Q(x2, y2) is D (P,Q) = ďż˝(đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľ2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľ1 )2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; (đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;Ś2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;Ś1 )2

(1).

The azimuth angle of the pontoon movement as the cartograph the coordinates of the two known points in the flat map coordinates compute the map azimuth (in decimal degrees) is

Îą =

180 đ?&#x153;&#x2039;đ?&#x153;&#x2039;

đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;đ?&#x2018;&#x17D;2 (đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľ2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Ľđ?&#x2018;Ľ1 , đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;Ś2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x2018;Śđ?&#x2018;Ś1)

(2).

Figure 5: Bathymetric and geo-coordinate data recorded at a 5-second interval.

The different angle is detained from

â&#x2C6;&#x2020;Îą

= ďż˝(đ?&#x203A;źđ?&#x203A;ź2 â&#x2C6;&#x2019; đ?&#x203A;źđ?&#x203A;ź1)2

(3).

*Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

7

4. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The surveyed data has been processed by using open source free GIS software Quantum GIS Ver. 3.10 as presented in Figure 4. The result of the data description includes river depth, pontoon movement speed, and different azimuth angles. The river water depth data was measured by the Echo-sounder ranges from 2 meters to 12 meters with 6 meters to 9 meters of water depth as the main level depth as described in Figure 6. The river current speed as the pontoon movement measured by GNSS mode RTK gives the average speed as 0.5 meters per second (m/s) with a minimum at 0.2 m/s to a maximum at 0.9 m/s as displaying in a statistical histogram in Figure 7.

The different angle detected by the pontoon azimuth angle of movement direction is identified in Figure 8 as 0.9 degrees to 1 degree and the highest frequency at 1600 occurring for 1 degree as mostly changing all the time.

Figure 6: Collection of river depth data.

Figure 7: Collection of pontoon speed data

Figure 8: Histogram of pontoon different angles Based on the histograms, the river depth data mostly range from 6m to 9m and the deepest we can get is about 11m. Pontoon moving speed is average at 0.5 m/s and the different angles mostly are 0. 9deg to 1deg. The three variables of river depth, pontoon movement speed, and different azimuth angles are also plotted in Figure 9.

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P.Sripakorn, K.Anantakarn, R.Fooprateepsiri, W.Kroehong, B.Witchayangkoon

Figure 9: Data collection From the Correlation Matrix shows correlation coefficients between variables, it is found that current speed and different current angles are negative correlation as the coefficient of -0.7575 while there is no correlation between river depth and current speed or current angle different as in Table 1.

Table 1: Correlation coefficients between variables Variables River depth (m) Current speed (m/s) Current different angle (deg)

River depth (m) 1 -0.109 -0.010

Current speed (m/s)

Current different angle (deg)

1 -0.758

1

For identifying the correlation from the two variables of the river current speed and different angles, the regression is generated from these data that plotted in Figure 10.

Figure 10: Relationship between river current speed and different angles.

The results found that the speed of the pontoon movement has a negative correlation of different angle directions and the correlation coefficients (R square) in non-linear regression is 0.6768.

5. CONCLUSION The unmanned pontoon recommended in this study can be used to solve the challenges of working in natural environments especially in the polluted water area. Maneuver river currents *Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

9

characteristics such as water depth, current speed and angle of flow can be collected as 2-meter distance interval of measurement for the river length about 13 kilometers. The statistic description shows the detailed data variables as the main river depth at 6m to 9m, the average current speed is at 0.5 m/s and the different angles mostly are 0. 9 deg to 1 deg. The depth of the river was collected from the echo-sounder single beam and the speed of movement was calculated from the high accuracy position that was collected from the RTK GNSS system.

The objectives of the study were achieved. Firstly, it demonstrates that the smart IoT pontoon can operate for collecting maneuver rive currents with the main information of river water depth, current speed and angle of flow. Secondly, statistic analysis results that the current speed has a negative correlation of angle of flow and the correlation coefficients (R square) in non-linear regression is 0.6768. The study plays a key role in river current characteristic and in improving the methodology for hydrological surveying and equipment operate to provide a stable and better measurement of water quantity and quality.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data in this study can be provided upon contacting the corresponding author.

7. ACKNOWLEDGMENT Authors thank the Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, the Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok for financial supports.

8. REFERENCES Anantakarn, K., Sornchomkaew, P., Phothong, T. (2019). Improve Quality of Global DEM for Topographic Mapping: Case Study of Petchaburi Province, Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10(9), 10A09H: 1-9.

Anantakarn, K., & Witchayangkoon, B. (2019). Accuracy assessment of L-band Atlas GNSS system in Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 10(1), 91-98.

Chang, H., Isobe, A., Kang, K. (2014). Summer behavior of the Changjiang diluted water to the East/Japan Sea: a modeling study in 2003. Continental Shelf Research, 81: 7–18 Chen, X., Wang, X., Guo, J. (2006). Seasonal variability of the sea surface salinity in the East China Sea during 1990–2002. Journal of Geophysical Research, 111(C5): C05008, DOI: 10.1029/2005jc003078 Dai, Z., Du, J., Li, J. (2008). Runoff characteristics of the Changjiang River during 2006: effect of extreme drought and the impounding of the Three Gorges Dam. Geophysical Research Letters, 35(7): L07406, DOI: 10.1029/2008GL033456.

Dai, Z., Du. J., Zhang, X., (2010). Variation of riverine material loads and environmental consequences on the Changjiang (Yangtze) estuary in recent decades (1955–2008). Environmental Science & Technology, 45(1): 223–227.

Kim, H., Yamaguch, H., Yoo, S., (2009). Distribution of Changjiang diluted water detected by satellite chlorophyll-a and its interannual variation during 1998–2007. Journal of Oceanography, 65(1): 129–135.

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P.Sripakorn, K.Anantakarn, R.Fooprateepsiri, W.Kroehong, B.Witchayangkoon

Lie, H., Cho, C., Lee, J. (2003). Structure and eastward extension of the Changjiang River plume in the East China Sea. Journal of Geophysical Research, 108(C3): 3077.

Pollution Control Department, 2015. Thailand State of Pollution Report 2015. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment, PCD. No. 06-062.

Rabouille, C., Conley, D., Dai, M. (2008). Comparison of hypoxia among four river-dominated ocean margins: the Changjiang (Yangtze), Mississippi, Pearl, and Rhône rivers. Continental Shelf Research, 28(12): 1527–1537.

Tanpaibool, P., Anantakarn, K., Fooprateepsiri, R., Kroehong, W., Witchayangkoon, B. (2020). An Experimental Bathymetry Survey Using A Smart IoT Pontoon in Thailand. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies, 11(8), 11A8H, 1-11.

Witchayangkoon, B. (2000). Elements of GPS Precise Point Positioning. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Maine, USA. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.3282.6402 Wu, H., Shen, J., Zhu, J. (2014). Characteristics of the Changjiang plume and its extension along the Jiangsu coast. Continental Shelf Research, 76: 108–123.

Zhu, J., Hu, D., Xiao, C. (2004a). Observed residual currents off the Changjiang (Yangtze) River mouth in winter-time of 1959 and 1982. Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 22(3): 244– 249.

Zhu, J., Qi, D., Xiao C. (2004b). Observed residual currents off the Changjiang (Yangtze) River mouth in summer-time of 1959 and 1982. Chinese Journal of Oceanology and Limnology, 22(3): 250– 255.

Piya Sripakorn is a Master of Engineering Candidate at Department of Civil Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok. He is self-employed in the construction business. He earned his Diploma in Construction Technology from Rajamangala Institute of Technology, Uthentawai Campus and a Bachelor of Construction Engineering and Industrial Technology. He is interested in Hydrology and Construction Technology.

Dr. Kritsada Anantakarn is a Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Architectures, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, Uthenthawai Campus, Thailand. He earned his Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) from Faculty of Engineering Rajamangala Institute of Engineering, and a Master’s degree in Urban and Environmental Planning from King Mongkut's Institute of Technology Ladkrabang, and his PhD from Thammasat University. He is interested in GPS/GNSS and Spatial Technology.

Dr. Rerkchai Fooprateepsiri is an Associate Professor and President of Rajamangala University of Technology Tawan-ok. He got his Master’s degree in Computer Engineering. He earned his PhD in Information Technology both from Mahanakorn University of Technology. His research focuses on the Area of Computer Engineering, Computer Vision and Data Analysis.

Dr. Wunchock Kroehong is a Lecturer at the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Architectures, Rajamongala University of Technology Tawan-ok, Uthenthawai Campus, Thailand. He earned his Bachelor of Engineering (Civil Engineering) from Faculty of Engineering Rajamangala Institute of Engineering, and a Master’s degree from the school of Civil Engineering at the Mahanakorn University of Technology, and his Ph.D. from the Suranaree University of Technology. He is interested in Concrete, Geopolymer, and Durability.

Dr. Boonsap Witchayangkoon is an Associate Professor at the Department of Civil Engineering, Thammasat University. He received his B.Eng. from the King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi with Honors. He continued his Ph.D. study at the University of Maine, USA, where he obtained his Ph.D. in Spatial Information Science & Engineering. His research encompasses Emerging Technology to Civil Engineering Applications.

*Corresponding author (Kritsada Annatakarn). Email: singut51@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8K http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8K.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.153

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8L

ROLES OF HUMAN RESOURCE PRACTICES IN ENHANCING EMPLOYEES RETENTION: EVIDENCE FROM BANKING SECTOR OF SHAHEED BENAZIRABAD, PAKISTAN 1,2*

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1,2

Muhammad Hafeez , Irum Jamali , Altaf Hussain , Ida Md. Yasin 2 1 2 3 Maeenuddin , Naveed Wahid , Ashfaq Ahmad , Zuhair Abbas

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Department of Business Administration, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Shaheed Benazirabad, PAKISTAN. 2 Putra Business School, University of Putra Malaysia, MALAYSIA. 3 Faculty of Management and Economics, Tomas Bata University Zlin, CZECH REPUBLIC. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 04 December 2019 Received in revised form 21 February 2020 Accepted 09 March 2020 Available online 18 March 2020

The research objective focuses on the roles of human resource practices in enhancing employee retention. A sample consisting of 199 employees based on a simple random sampling method was selected from the banking sector of Shaheed Benazirabad. A questionnaire was adopted to collect data. This study applied regression and correlation for data analysis. The empirical findings show a strong relationship between employees’ retention and human resource practices. Besides that, this study illustrates that human resource practices may enhance strong employee ownership in an organization which may reduce employees’ turnover. We can presume that human resource practices may play a constructive and beneficial role to enhance employees’ retention in the banking sector of Shaheed Benazirabad.

Keywords: Training and development; Rewards and compensation; Working environment; Employee Retention; Human resource management.

Disciplinary: Management Science (HRM). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION In the 1970s-1980s, employees’ retention affairs were observed after the state amongst managers and employees that required a propitious foundation. Today’s employees are more creative and enthusiastic. They are not the ones with empty-handed knowledge who do not have sumptuous/eminent desires. If the employees feel unsatisfied with the present management or activity, they may change their profession or organization. One of the important reasons for employee turnover is the inadequacy of managerial interest. It is indispensable for an organization to get through their chance in proceeding with employee’s disappointments [1].

Employees’ retention method may excite the employees to endure/persist with an organization for so long. Nowadays most organizations are trying to keep employees by investing efforts and *Corresponding author (M.Hafeez) Tel: +92-3324413597 mhafeez@sbbusba.edu.pk, pbs19104111@grad.putrabs.edu.my

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8L http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.152

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resources. The organizations are at annoyance/dispiritedness situations when employees deny to work accordingly as they are well prepared and trained as well. We know that employees play a pivotal role as assets in an organization to achieve the desired goals. According to Fitz-enz (1980), various factors exert influence on employees’ retention, whereas reward and compensation, training and development, and work environment have great significance in this aspect [2].

According to Eisen (2005), training and development empower individuals to gather attainments that can be profitable to strengthen their achievement and perfection related to their jobs [3]. Training and development renovate and establish knowledge and skills of employees which boost their passions for performing their jobs, and thus their loyalty expands, which may enhance the employees’ retention [4]. Training intensifies the competency and potential of employees that may help them to perform well for so long to achieve the desired targets which eventually reduce employees’ retention [5].

Many organizations cannot achieve desired goals until they can provide training practices to retain employees. It concludes that training and development programs are associated with employee retention [6].

Employee retention, reward, and compensation are strongly interconnected with each other.

They may lead to higher earnings and greater chances to promote employees by following exact knowledge and development plans. When employees are promoted to the desired position and being rewarded and compensated, they can lead an organization to a higher competitive environment for future development. This may enhance the loyalty and honesty of employees with the organization and its workforce for so long. Creating a trustable environment in an organization helps employees to show more creative ideas to achieve expected goals and targets. It is beneficial for performance development as well as for employees to fulfill their desired demands [7] Job satisfaction and security help employees to work with different tasks in a growing environment [8]. Cole (2000) illustrated that providing good salary packages, timely rewards and compensation are the basic needs of today’s employers. Those organizations which provide multiple compensation plans with regards to higher salary packages, medical insurance, house rents, and different beneficial allowances may lead themselves in a growing environment as compared to their opponents or competitors [9].

Organizations must create strategies related to the working environment that encourage and support employees to perform their jobs accordingly. Workers only work and improve their performance in an organization when their skills and performance are appreciated. Rewards and compensation programs motivate employees to perform their duties in a way, which help them to be promoted and rewarded for their good performance. Sincerity and loyalty from workers can only be achieved if employees are rewarded according to the level of their performances. Rewards and compensation are major factors to keep employees motivated towards organizations’ targets and play a vital role to attract talented and experienced workers to perform their tasks confidently [10, 12].

An organization becomes successful when its employees are being promoted according to their preferred department with their desired designation, where an employee wants to perform well and achieve those targets assigned by management in a given period. Such an active and experienced worker can lead an organization to the higher ranks compared to its rivals. Simultaneously, if management does not keep its employees with rewards and incentives timely, it is quite difficult to maintain experienced workers for future growth. Losing employees may lead an organization to hire

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M. Hafeez, I.Jamali, A.Hussain, I.Md. Yasin, Maeenuddin, N. Wahid, A. Ahmad, Z. Abbas

new workers with higher demands and management has to spend its budget to maintain its position with competitors. Employee retention is a major problem for future growth management. In recent researches, it is declared that most renowned and leading organizations are those that maintain the efforts of neutralism within the organization, where firmness and accomplishment of the organization are determined by creativeness and flexibility [11].

The scarcity of trained and experienced workers who have potency and competency to perform at an advanced level cannot maintain the performance of an organization with a comparison of its competitors for a longer period. Furthermore, to sustain employees’ retention for management is a great challenge within the period of the uncertain situation [13].

Most researches have described different perspectives on employees’ retention previously.

Despite that, our research work is primarily focusing on human resource practices and how it instigates employees’ retention. To ascertain the employees’ retention, we have preferred three human resource practices as “training and development, reward and compensation and working environment.”

2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Human resource practices play a productive role in enhancing employees’ performance and satisfaction etc., as interconnected with training and development, reward and compensation, working environment, and employee retention. Figure 1 shows employee retention as the dependent variable whereas training and development, reward and compensation, and working environment are the independent variables. Gathered information determines the influence of human resource practices on employees’ retention.

Figure 1: Research Framework.

2.1 POPULATION AND SAMPLING The employees of the banking sector of Shaheed Benazirabad were selected for this research as the population. Using a simple random sampling technique with the help of MS Excel, we have determined 199 workers from different banks.

2.2 DATA COLLECTION To get primary data, we used the survey method to collect information from a sample of individuals in a systematic way. A designed questionnaire [14] was tested and used to gather information from selected employees. *Corresponding author (M.Hafeez) Tel: +92-3324413597 mhafeez@sbbusba.edu.pk, pbs19104111@grad.putrabs.edu.my

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8L http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.152

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3. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS This study used SPSS®22 as a tool to analyze the collected data, to test the reliability of all the variables and used Kolmogorov-Simonov and Shapiro-Wilk tests to determine the normality of data, before determining the level of relationship between dependent and independent variables.

3.1 RELIABILITY TEST Alpha reliability instrument which shows the result of more than 0.70 is considered as convenient for indicating reliability. The values of Cronbach’s alpha of the questions of different variables are given in Table 1, providing Cronbach’s alpha values more than 0.80, which are remarkably reliable.

Table 1: Reliability Statistics Variables Training and Development Rewards and Compensation Work Environment Employee Retention

No. of Items.

6 5 4 4

Cronbach’s Alpha 0.827 0.854 0.871 0.833

3.2 REGRESSION ANALYSIS In this survey, we analyzed the cooperative link between employees and organizations with respect of HR practices and employee retention.

Table 2: Model Summary Model 1

No. of Items.

6

R .92

R.Square .857

Adjusted R.Square .854

Std. Error of the Estimate .337

Durbin Watson 2.873

From the results of Table 2, R-Square is .857 for training and development, reward and compensation and work environment, providing an incredible influence on employee retention. The adjusted R-Square value is 0.854 indicates that the independent variables have an 85.4% effect on the dependent variable. Durban Watson's value is 2.873, which is less than 3, and specifies that the results we acquired are considerable/significant.

Table 3: Coefficients Model

1

Unstandardized Coefficients

Β Constant TnD RnC W_E

.738 .403 .333 .403

Standardized Coefficients Std. Error .117 .609 .033 .051

.305 .301 .500

T Beta

Sig.

6.298 5.854 2.489 7.971

.080 <.001 .021 <.001

As depicted in Table 3, it is observed how the regression coefficient (β) creates an influence of independent variables over dependent variables. As for training and development, the regression coefficient is 0.403. This determines that, if it has been changed by 1, then the dependent variable will increase by 0.403. Correspondingly for rewards and compensation, the regression coefficient (β) is 0.33 which specifies that when independent variable reward and compensation switch to 1 then dependent variable employees’ retention will get variations of about 33%. In the same way, β related to the work environment is 0.403. This determines that suppose the independent variable work environment is increased by 1 then the dependent variable would be varied at about 40%.

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M. Hafeez, I.Jamali, A.Hussain, I.Md. Yasin, Maeenuddin, N. Wahid, A. Ahmad, Z. Abbas

Furthermore, we found that the coefficient value is greater than 0.03 for each variable in this given test. This indicates that all the independent variables have a significant effect on the dependent variable. Besides that, we can see sig. value is less than 0.05, which describes that our results are sufficiently great related to our desired work.

Table 4: ANOVA Model Regression Residual Total

Sum of squares 132.277 22.162 154.439

Df 3 195 198

Mean Square

F

Sig:

44.092 114

387.692

<.001

As shown in Table 4, F=387.929 and the significant level is 0.000 which is less than 0.05. We can say that our model or research project is certainly effective.

3.3 NORMALITY ANALYSIS This test analyzes whether the data we have collected in this survey is normal. For this sample, K-S analysis passes through the collected data. We found that by showing results after the application of the Kolmogorov–Smirnov test, the value of P<0.05 which indicates the non-normality of data. We can see the results in Table 5, the sig. value of all constructs is less than 0.05 which reveals non-normal data. So, for further analysis, we applied the Spearman correlation test.

Table 5: Test of Normality Variable TnD RnC W_E ER

Kolmogorov-Smirnova Statistic Df Sig. .260 199 .001 .272 199 .001 .202 199 .001 .296 199 .001

Shapiro-Wilk Statistic Df Sig. .829 199 .001 .829 199 .001 .821 199 .001 .792 199 .001

Table 6: Non-parametric Spearman’s rho correlation test TnD

RnC

W_E

ER

Variable Correlation Coefficient Sig- (2 - tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig-(2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig-(2-tailed) N Correlation Coefficient Sig-(2-tailed) N

TnD 1.000 199 .767++ <.001 199 .856++ <.001 199 .924++ <.001 199

RnC .767++ <.001 199 1.000 199 .770++ <.001 199 .792++ <.001 199

W_E .856++ <.001 199 .770++ <.001 199 1.000 199 .886++ <.001 199

ER .924++ <.001 199 .792++ <.001 199 .886++ <.001 199 1.000 199

The Spearman Correlation test was applied to check the mutual relationship among all variables.

Table 6 shows that there is a high correlation among all variables and all the results are significant because p-value <0.001 which is less than 0.05.

4. FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS Based on the analysis and collection of results related to the survey from the banking sector of *Corresponding author (M.Hafeez) Tel: +92-3324413597 mhafeez@sbbusba.edu.pk, pbs19104111@grad.putrabs.edu.my

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8L http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.152

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Shaheed Benazirabad, the authors believe that the importance of human resource practices and its impact on employeeâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s performance increases the cost/revenue of the organization. Research shows that human resource practices play a vital role to reinforce employee retention by imparting strategies for training & development, reward & compensation, and work environment in the banking sector/organization. Providing training can strengthen the skills that may lead to the development of related projects or goals. Rewards and compensation may encourage employees to work with every difficult situation to achieve targets and to prove themselves as the most important pillars for the organization as well as to maintain employeesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; retention. The work environment is the most important factor for all organizations. Mostly we see this issue increases day by day due to worse conditions of the working environment, which is not suitable according to the assigned duties to employees. This may result in losing such competent workers without finishing their targets. In the past, employees did their jobs for years without looking for promotions. But today as the businesses are running at their higher pace, everyone wants to be appreciated and promoted towards their desired designations. Employees want to work with those organizations that encourage their workers to keep their skills high for what they will do in the near future.

The survey provides a brief review of human resource practices' effectiveness and how it contributes to enhancing employee retention. Skilled, trained and knowledgeable workers become a competitive advantage for all organizations in this global market. Employees who go through a suitable work environment tend to keep their jobs longer than those who do not.

Human resource practices play an important role in the retention of skilled and talented employees. Retaining talented employees will support the long-term development of an organization.

When workers are treated injustice concerning any specific result, it affects the workers' feelings like guilt, sadness and anger. When workers are treated fairly, the workers feel satisfaction and their sincerity increase and they will stay with the organization. Empower the workers with training and offer them the control to get things done, make them recognize that they are the most precious asset of the organization. This can be done through impressive communication and constant interaction between management. The management must have faith in the workers, give respect and trust employees, keep providing them with rewards and compensation for their best performance, provide them a great working environment. Management should maintain good relationships with workers.

Create an environment where workers want to stay and perform their work or have a great time with a long period. Those organizations that are unsuccessful to make retention of employees a priority are in danger of losing their experienced workers.

Training and development should be provided to potential employees and those are the best ways of keeping important employees. Training and development enhance the performance of the employees on work. Essentially, employees know that they are in an organization where they get training and development programs to increase their skills and abilities to perform their work in a better way. It is also important that the employees know they get career development chances so that they can get advantages from these opportunities. The researcher found rewards and compensation act as an important part in motivating individuals which advantage to employee retention in an organization. The pleasant work environment is important in the retention of employees. This study also found that employees stay with or leave the organization due to the work environment.

Rewards should be granted on merit and promotion, which advantage in enhancing the retention of employees. The earning of the workers should be increased, which will not only hold the current

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M. Hafeez, I.Jamali, A.Hussain, I.Md. Yasin, Maeenuddin, N. Wahid, A. Ahmad, Z. Abbas

workers but will attract workers in other organizations as well. The organization should further improve its working environment to enhance the retention of employees. If workers are comfortable and happy their performance will increase. It is recommended that employees want fair treatment so the organization should carry fair procedures and communicate with their workers. The relationship between workers and management should be improved where workers should be able to feel that management values their opinions and views. Attracting and retaining employees is always a challenge, the organizations that directly attract and retain their key employees by offering high compensation packages and good working environments can motivate their employees to work with them for a long period. Research shows that there is a positive relationship between human resource practices (training and development, rewards and compensation, and working environment) and in enhancing employee retention in the banking sector of Shaheed Benazirabad.

5. CONCLUSION This research’s findings show that there is a positive relationship between human resources practices (training and development, rewards and compensation, and working environment) and employee retention in the banking sector of Shaheed Benazirabad. Human resources practices are the most important methods being used by the banking sector. Training and development rewards and compensation and work environment are leading the main contribution to employees’ retention in the banking sector. It reveals that rewards and compensation programs should be executed to secure quality and fairness to the banks. Experts and talented employees can easily get a good job in any other organization. So the good and impressive way of holding these gifted employees is to provide a pleasant and good working environment, provide them rewards and compensation to motivate them where employees can stay loyal with the organization for a long time. No organizations should lose their loyal and experienced employees who perform their work with extra efforts. It is very important to facilitate them and provide them with opportunities that can benefit them in their career growth and make them great workers. Also, workers who are prepared with extra added abilities and knowledge feel more motivated and satisfied when they feel valued in their present job and work environment.

With this condition, they may continue working longer in their organization.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL All relevant data is already included in this article.

7. REFERENCES [1] Robbins, S., & Robbins, S. (2005). Fundamentals of management. Toronto: Pearson Prentice Hall.

[2] Fitz-enz, J. (1990). Getting and keeping good employees. In personnel. 67(8): 25-29.

[3] Eisen P. et al (2005). Skills gap report -A survey of the American manufacturing workforce. Retrieved from: http://www.deloitte.com.

[4] Amble B. (2006).

Baby boomers look to a working http://www.management-issues.coml2006/8/24/research. Retrieved October, 2012

retirement.

[5] Huselid, M.A. (1995), The impact of human resource management practices on turnover, productivity, and corporate financial performance. The Academy of Management Journal, 38(3), 635-672 [6] Birmingham, J., Berry, M., Bussey, M. (1996), Certification for child protective services staff members: The Texas initiative. Child Welfare, 6(75), 727-740.

[7] Echols, M.E. (2007), “Learning’s role in talent management”, Chief Learning Officer, 6(10), 36-40. *Corresponding author (M.Hafeez) Tel: +92-3324413597 mhafeez@sbbusba.edu.pk, pbs19104111@grad.putrabs.edu.my

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8L http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8L.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.152

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[8] Snell, S. and Youndt, M. (1995). Human resource management and firm performance. Int. Journal of Management. 21(71):1-738.

[9] Cole, C. L. (2000, August). Building loyalty. Workforce, 79, 42-47. Available EBSCOhost full display.

Cunningham, S. (2002). Attracting and retaining employees in a competitive world. Retrieved November1,2009from: [10] Freyermuth. (2007). Retaining Employees in a Tightening Labor Market, RSM McGladrey. Website: www.cfo.com/ whitepapers/index.cfm/ display white paper /10308654?topic id=10240327 [11] Rappaport et al (2003).The aging workforce raises new talent management issues for employers.

Journal of organization excellence, 23,55-66.

[12] Rasool, et al. (2019). Relationship between modern human resource management practices and organizational innovation: empirical investigation from banking sector of China. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10(19), 10A19H: 1-13.

[13] Mitchell, T.R et al (2001) How to Keep Your Best Employees: Developing an Effective Retention Policy. Academy of Management Executive, 15 (4):96107.

[14] Kyi, K. M. (2011). Factor affecting employee retention in non-profit organizations. Dissertation.

Adventist International Institute of Advanced Studies, Philippine.

Muhammad Hafeez is a PhD Scholar at Putra Business School, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.

Currently, He is a Lecturer at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Shaheed Benazirabad, Pakistan. His research interests include Organizational Sustainability, Leadership, E-Recruitment, Workplace Spirituality, and Employee Performance and Retention etc.

Irum Jamali holds an MBA degree from Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Shaheed Benazirabad, Pakistan.

Her research interest is Employee Retention, Employees Relations, and Organizational Development.

Altaf Hussain is a PhD Scholar at Putra Business School, University of Putra Malaysia. He is a Lecturer at the School of Business Administration, Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University, Shaheed Benazirabad. His research area of interest is Green Consumption, Employee Retention.

Dr. Ida Yasin is a registered expert with the Asian Productivity Organization (APO) in Tokyo. Ida obtained her bachelor’s and master’s degrees in Economics and a Doctoral degree in Quality and Productivity Improvement.

Her research is Knowledge Management, Productivity and Business Excellence, Cross-cultural Management, Micro-finance and Social enterprise.

Maeenuddin is a PhD student at Putra Business School, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia. His areas of interest are Finance, Consumption, Employee Retention.

Ashfaq Ahmad is a senior management at the Pakistan Audit and Accounts Academy and studies PhD in Management at Putra Business School, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Malaysia.

Dr. Naveed Wahid is an Assistant Professor at Shaheed Benazir Bhutto University Shaheed Benazirabad, Pakistan. He holds a doctoral degree in Economics from University of Karachi, Pakistan. His research areas are Economics and Finance, Climate Change and Employee Retention.

Zuhair Abbas is a PhD Scholar at Tomas Bata University Zlin, Czech Republic Europe. His research interests include Organizational Sustainability, Leadership and Employee Performance and Retention.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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M. Hafeez, I.Jamali, A.Hussain, I.Md. Yasin, Maeenuddin, N. Wahid, A. Ahmad, Z. Abbas

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8M

3D DOCUMENTATION OF CULTURAL HERITAGE SITES USING DRONE AND PHOTOGRAMMETRY: A CASE STUDY OF PHILIPPINE UNESCO-RECOGNIZED BAROQUE CHURCHES January D. Febro 1

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Department of Information Technology, MSU-Iligan Institute of Technology, PHILIPPINES.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 12 December 2019 Received in revised form 24 February 2020 Accepted 05 March 2020 Available online 19 March 2020

Cultural heritage sites are legacies that must be preserved.

However, anytime it can be ruined, no one can guarantee its continuance. For this reason, one should ensure that they are well-documented. In this study, a photogrammetry technique was used to generate 3D replicas of the Philippine Baroque churches that can be viewed online. A drone was used to acquire data images to test its feasibility as a practical and viable inexpensive tool for digital cultural heritage site documentation. The conclusion of this study greatly benefits the nation considering that digital documentation of cultural heritage sites like the Baroque churches was possible to accomplished by simply using a low-cost, non-intrusive technique, ideal for documenting cultural heritage sites with a high level of accuracy.

Furthermore, key factors to be considered for outdoor, large-sites photogrammetry using drones were presented.

Keywords: Drone photogrammetry; Cultural Heritage 3D Documentation; Photogrammetry workflow; Drone survey; Church 3D model; Digital cultural heritage site documentation.

Disciplinary: Information Technology, Spatial/Geomatics Engineering. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Cultural heritage sites are legacies from our past generations that must be preserved to sustain cultural identity and continuity for future generations. However, a substantial number of cultural heritage sites across many countries are ruined by several factors such as natural hazards, human conflicts, as well as aging and neglect that cannot be restored. Like the 2013 earthquake in the Philippines that struck and damaged the Loboc church and other historic churches in Bohol alone.

Cultural heritage documentation using photogrammetry is essential for cultural heritage preservation, restoration, and conservation. Photogrammetry is defined as “the art, science, and technology of obtaining reliable information about physical objects and the environment through processes of recording, measuring, and interpreting photographic images and patterns of recorded radiant electromagnetic energy and other phenomena” [1]. Studies in the literature review indicate *Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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that 3D modelling using photogrammetry technique is valuable in conservation and preservation as it can create a realistic digital copy [2][3]. In fact, the use of 3D models has gained attention lately for cultural heritage site conservation and management [3][4].

Back then, 3D digitization requires expensive and specialized equipment and software but today, the advent of low-cost technology and techniques like drones and photogrammetry offers us an alternative and affordable options. However, there is a dearth of studies involving 3D digitization for digital cultural heritage preservation in the Philippines.

The 3D model development of the Baroque churches in this study was rendered using data images obtained from the drone through the photogrammetry technique. The drone photogrammetric survey creates a 3D model from snapshots that is almost alike to the physical geometry, the reason it is considered to be representative of documentation technology [2][5].

Drones are ideal for capturing high subjects like the roof of a building and tall trees since it has a “higher planar data acquisition rate in upper zones” [6]. Such a method provides low-cost and easy technique of producing relatively accurate 3D models with high accuracy and with the visual completeness of the exterior façade of the Baroque churches. Moreover, 3D digital replication can be easily stored and uploaded on the web for preservation.

This study presents the practicality and usability of drone survey and photogrammetry technique for cultural heritage documentation in the Philippines by digitizing the four (4) Philippine Baroque Churches recognized by UNESCO as one of the World Heritage Structures – namely the Santa Maria Chuch, the Paoay Church, the Miag-ao and the San Augustin Church. In doing so, this also answers the “call for preservation and promotion of the Philippine Cultural Heritage Act 10066”. More importantly, the general workflow of 3D photogrammetry is discussed. The support and realization of this study instigate digital documentation of cultural heritage sites to combat potential loss and for the sustainability of our cultural identity for future generations.

2. CONCEPTS AND RELATED WORK Cultural heritage is not limited to monuments, buildings [24], or collection of things, but it also includes traditions, culture, events, or other non-physical things that are connected to it [7]. The focus of this study is the process of how to digitally preserved the tangible heritage, such as monuments, places, artifacts, and among others that are considered important and worthy where it should be digitally preserved to be passed down for the future generation.

Despite the different approaches in preserving cultural heritage in the world, there are unforeseen factors that will happen that can bring destruction to these treasures. Some of these factors are ongoing deterioration, natural disasters, and human conflict, and wars. Accordingly, the conflict in Central Asia and in parts of the Middle East and West Africa increases the destruction of historical sites. Some of the ruined cultural heritages are the Temple of Bel in Palmyra, destroyed by ISIS jihadist; the ancient city in the Syrian desert, destroyed by the ISL; the two world’s largest Buddhas of Bamiyan, destroyed by the Taliban; the 3,000-year-old statues in Mosul museum, destroyed by ISL fighters; and lastly, the ancient city of Nimrud in Iraq.

So, the question then is, how can we preserve all of these cultural structures? Agosto and Bornaz [8] suggested that 3D digitization is the most applicable method to preserve cultural heritage.

According to them, this method can be applied from the largest buildings to the smallest we can imagine. Remondino [9], also stated that 3D modelling of heritage and other archaeological objects

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are in demand since there are a lot of factors that will lead to the destruction of these things. He also mentioned the benefits of 3D documentation and modelling such as for digital preservation and conservation and historical documentation.

There have been ways to generate a virtual 3D replica model, in this case, the use of photogrammetry techniques. This approach may use different input data sources, from simple two-dimensional images to a laser scanned data.

2.1 PHOTOGRAMMETRY Photogrammetry is taken from â&#x20AC;&#x153;Greek words Photo, Gram and metry which translated in English literally means, light, drawing and measurement respectively; defined as the science of obtaining reliable information about objects and of measuring and interpreting this informationâ&#x20AC;? [10].

A good discussion of this approach is delineated in the study of Aicardi, Chiabrando, Lingua, and Noardo [11]: In photogrammetry, central projection is the widely accepted model. It is a spatial method that modifies a three-dimensional entity into a two-dimensional reality, and it arises when â&#x20AC;&#x153;there is an object, a projection center and a projection plane oriented in any way with respect to the projected objectâ&#x20AC;?. This projection is generated over a projecting ray, adjoining the points of the object by means of â&#x20AC;&#x153;the projection center, and crossing the projection plane to create the image points which are the points projectionsâ&#x20AC;?. Acquiring a frame:â&#x20AC;? the object point P, the projection center O, and the image point P lie on the same straight lineâ&#x20AC;?. The mathematical illustration that shows the collinearity conditions depicting the alignment connecting the points in the image and in the object system can be presented in Equation 1: (1)

where â&#x20AC;&#x153;Ξ, Ρ, Îś, (Îś = 0, for the image points and Îś = ϲ for the projection center) shows the imaging system and đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;, đ?&#x2018;&#x152;đ?&#x2018;&#x152;, đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;? the object systemâ&#x20AC;?.

The â&#x20AC;&#x153;coordinates đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x2039; â&#x20AC;˛ , đ?&#x2018;&#x152;đ?&#x2018;&#x152; â&#x20AC;˛ , đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;?â&#x20AC;˛ of the point P and the coordinates đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;0â&#x20AC;˛ , đ?&#x2018;&#x152;đ?&#x2018;&#x152;0â&#x20AC;˛ , đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;?0â&#x20AC;˛ of the projection center may be executed in the system đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;đ?&#x2018;&#x2039;, đ?&#x2018;&#x152;đ?&#x2018;&#x152;, đ?&#x2018;?đ?&#x2018;? by the spatial rotation matrix R shownâ&#x20AC;? in Equation 2: (2)

A collinearity equation can be obtained if the matrix Equation (2) is multiplied for the matrix RT= Râ&#x2C6;&#x2019;1, and substitute in the equations precisely to the image coordinates, as shown in Equation (3): (3)

*Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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The relations presented are closely correlated to the generated image in camera utilizing the central projection geometry concept.

2.1.1 DOCUMENTATION TECHNIQUES IN PHOTOGRAMMETRY The primary goal of photogrammetry is “for mapping purposes; consequently, the technique was linked to the achievement of the best reachable metric accuracy” [12]. Consequently, it is used to measure the physical of a certain object using photography and is regarded as a great practical method for transforming 2D images into a 3D model and that images can be obtained from satellites, aerial or terrestrial sensors [13]. Accordingly, there are four (4) categories of photogrammetry techniques: Aerial, the Close Range, Terrestrial, and Space Photogrammetry.

• Aerial Photogrammetry: Photos are taken from a height of more than 300 meters. This method is one of the alternatives in technology which gives more detailed, real-time, fast and cheaper. The use of a drone is one of the deals in aerial photogrammetry [14].

•

Terrestrial Photogrammetry: Photos are taken near the ground. Laser Scanning (LS) is widely used in terrestrial photogrammetry, and offers an accurate result but costly. It uses active sensors that transmit and receive light rays of range measurements and can be categorized in two classes: Triangulation and Time-of-flight (TOF).

•

Close Range Photogrammetry (CPR): Photos are obtained from a height of fewer than 300 meters. According to Luhmann [15], the application of CPR gives an exceptionally high-precision output. Another common advanced technology used is the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV), wherein you can obtain data without needing a pilot but is remotely controlled.

•

Space Photogrammetry: These are photos that are taken from space. 3D construction from satellite images is also possible and a precise 3D model calculated from same-date images [16].

There are three categories of what photogrammetric products are according to Schenk [10], namely: photogrammetric products, computational results, and maps. He stated that the derivatives of single photographs or overlapping photographs are called photogrammetric products, while computational results are the one product in computational form like aerial triangulation that can be calculated on photographs. Lastly, maps are the dominant product given that they are developed with a high degree of accuracies at various scales. Examples are Planimetric maps and Topographic maps where the former includes only the horizontal position of ground features and the latter also includes elevation data.

2.2 RELATED WORK Traditionally, digitization for storing images was in 2D form for the reason that it is cheaper and easy to do. Fabrizio et al. [13] presented an experiment with an objective to understand how different 2D and 3D provide the perception and understanding of the digital replica artifacts. The result points out that the 3D model of artifacts was more an effective way of digitally preserving tangible cultural

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heritage because it “augments the perception of physical characteristics of the artifacts allowing a more embodied experience with these objects or the sense of 3D multi-visualization”. In the Philippines, there is a dearth of study regarding preserving cultural heritage in 3D form.

There have been many studies conducted on ways how to digitize cultural heritage such as high definition laser, structured light scanners, and other techniques. Moreover, some studies are concentrated on a comparative assessment of the benefits of structured light, laser scanning, and photogrammetry. Arif & Essa [17] presented a case study on the conservation of Mughal heritage site tabulating the progress of documentation techniques in the Pakistani setting. They discovered the full potential used 3D-laser scanning technology used in heritage conservation. However, according to Steinicke and Feller [18] research, aerial images in photogrammetry is the most common way to make a model since it represents the geometry of the whole surface directly unlike data from laser scanner where according to them suffered a low density of measured points and costly.

Another case study presented by Themistocleous, Ioannides, Agapiou, and Hadjimitsis [19] to document and 3D print the Asinou Church (in fig. 1, a cultural heritage site in Cyprus. A different technique was used – UAV and photogrammetry. In their study, they used “Phantom 2 Quadcopter with GoPro Hero 3 camera” to capture around1000 images during the field survey of the church. A 3D model was rendered through Agi-Photoscan Professional software. Such simple methods gave a practical and low-cost-effective solution. In the study of Themistocleous, Agapiou, & Hadjimitsis [20], they used a ‘DJI F550 hex copter with attached 12-megapixel GoPro HERO+’ for the aerial survey of the Foinikaria church. More than a thousand images were taken and post-processed through Agisoft Photoscan Professional software to render an accurate 3D model of the church. It was then exported to generate a BIM model of the church using CAD drawing software. The purpose of documenting the structure was for future potential restoration and/or expansion work. The output is shown in Figure 1.

(a) 3D model of the church

(b) Point cloud with the BIM (c) The BIM model of the model church Figure 1: 3D model of the Church.

In this study, photogrammetry will be used for the reason that this technique offers a simple, low-cost yet accurate-effective method of documenting the Philippine Baroque Churches in generating a digital 3D model. Furthermore, there is a dearth in the utilization of 3D digitization in preserving cultural heritage in the Philippines. Back then, 3D digitization required expensive, specialist equipment and software, but with the advent of low-cost technology and techniques like photogrammetry provides an affordable option.

*Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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3. STUDY AREA The use of drone and photogrammetry techniques as an aid to digital 3D documentation efforts highlighted the practicability of this digital technology as an important tool in digital preservation and documentation of Philippine Cultural Heritage sites. A case study is presented through the four Baroque churches situated in Iloilo, Manila, Ilocos Sur, and Ilocos Norte in the Philippines. The details of the Baroque churches are shown in Table 1 and Figure 2. Accordingly, these four churches “have a unique architectural style, which is a reinterpretation of European Baroque by Chinese and Philippine craftsmen” [21].

Table 1: Baroque churches of the Philippines.

The San Agustin Church was built in 1571 and located within the historic-walled-city of Intramuros, Manila. It was named “a National Historic Landmark by the Philippine government in 1976” and the mother church of the Augustinian order (UNESCO). The Santa Maria Chuch (“Nuestra Señora de la Asunción”) was built in 1765 and the archdiocese of the Santa Maria municipality in Ilocos Sur province. The Paoay Church is built in 1710 and located in the Municipality of Paoay, Ilocos Norte. It is renowned for its unique architecture, which is emphasized by its massive buttresses on both sides of the building. The Miag-ao Church (“Church of Santo Tomas de Villanueva”) is built during 1787-1797 and located in the town of Miagao, Iloilo.

(a) San Agustin Church in Intramuros

(b) Santa Maria Church

(c) Church of San Agustin in Paoay (d) Miag-ao Church Figure 2: The Baroque Churches of the Philippines.

(Courtesy of Google Earth and Google Maps).

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4. METHODS To digitally preserve the cultural heritage sites in 3D form, requires data acquisition, data processing, and data representation. The workflow process for this study is shown in Figure 3.

The data acquisition should be done with careful planning. In this study, a low-cost drone is used to obtain data images that will be used for the 3D numerical data of the church facade. Surveying the area where the drone took off is essential during the data collection. Flight ranges and paths need to be established properly.

Figure 3: The Workflow process.

Normally, a single drone can achieve its objective using only a simple flight pattern depicted in Figure 4. The coverage mission for this study were simple geometric patterns, a combination of back-and-forth and the spiral illustrated in Figure 4a and 4b, organized into parallel and creeping line [22]. Square flight pattern follows an ellipse shape that will begin at the middle points then stretches towards its perimeters depicted in Figure 4c.

Figure 4: Simple flight patterns in rectangular areas with no decomposition: (a) Parallel; (b) Creeping Line; (c) Square. (after [22]).

The Boustrophedon Cellular Decomposition (BCD) [22] method was used in this study since the baroque churches are with obstacles and are depicted in Figure 5. This was already evaluated in real flights with 10% more efficient in performing the total coverage thus saving time.

*Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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Figure 5: BCD area of interest.

In this study, a DJI Spark drone is used. This is a good choice since it is economical but with excellent specifications such as a flight autonomy system with vision positioning system assistance, a 3D sensing system that can sense obstacles up to 5 meters away, dual-band GPS, with a great-precision inertial measurement unit, and robust computing cores.

Precision and the right quantity of photos are key for generating a 3d realistic model. In acquiring data, multiple overlapped images of the Baroque churches are taken from various angles. It should be noted that the â&#x20AC;&#x153;overlapping degree of drone aerial imageryâ&#x20AC;? is a critical factor in evaluating the quality of output [23]. Figure 10 shows the schematic diagram and equation in solving the overlapping degree of images. The formula to compute the result for the overlapping degree is defined in Equation 4. The image overlap area width and height are đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;ďż˝đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;¤ , đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;ďż˝â&#x201E;&#x17D; , while the width and height of the image are đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;¤ , đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;â&#x201E;&#x17D; [23]. đ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇđ??ˇ đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153; đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153;đ?&#x2018;&#x153; =

đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;ďż˝đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;¤ Ă&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;ďż˝â&#x201E;&#x17D; đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;¤đ?&#x2018;¤ Ă&#x2014; đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;â&#x201E;&#x17D;

(4)

Figure 6: Overlap calculation schematic diagram.

The data processing is done after extracting images from the drone. It takes considerable time to render a 3D model and includes the following tasks: 1) arrangement of distinct local point clouds into a corresponding coordinate system, 2) photogrammetric clouds building, and 3) texture wrapping.

For photogrammetric processing and data cleaning, RealityCapture (RC) and MeshLab software are used. The data images are incorporated by a procedure into a unique coordinate system through RC software. Two different steps are followed, set alignment and set reconstruction. In alignment, ground-control points, and matching image-points are added, and the distance between two control points are defined. In reconstruction, defining the ground plane and setting the reconstruction region are needed to estimate the position and alignment of the integrated 2D images. Camera angles and calibrations are computed automatically during the alignment while the reconstruction region can be set automatically or manually. Elements depicted in the point cloud are automatically drawn, but to modify the existing model it should be manually inspected and removed before creating the mesh.

Decimate the mesh if needed. Further, select what maximal texture resolution of the model to produce the UV map and compute a 3D triangular mesh in the desired quality. From this data, a point cloud is derived.

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The model rendered in data processing has OBJ, JPG, and MPL files. It is estimated to have 5 hundred thousand to 1 million triangles for better simple scene quality, while 2 to 3 million for more complex scenes. It should be noted that rendering a lesser number of triangles means reduced file sizes and loads faster but reduced the quality. The final results involve a decision between 3D realistic model and web-friendly size model but taking into consideration the intended goal hereof, which is to upload the 3D replica models on the web for it to be accessible.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION This study created 3D replica models of the UNESCO-declared Philippine Baroque churches by using only a drone and photogrammetry as a way of digitally preserving cultural heritage sites. The workflow for the process of obtaining point cloud data with the 3D modelling method using photogrammetry tool can be summarized in Figure 7. We faced obstacles and setbacks like the weather, and environmental constraints, and field conditions during field experiments to acquire good data. Planning a flight is very important prior to actual field flight especially in the challenging environment with vast-size subjects. The quality of captured image data is important in photogrammetry, capturing images using right a drone needs to be considered properly. Once data images were acquired, you can now process your data to render the model. For wider dissemination upload your model on the web.

5.1 DATA ACQUISITION: THE SURVEY OF THE BAROQUE CHURCHES The Baroque churches sites located in Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, Manila and Iloilo were surveyed to capture data images for the use of cultural heritage documentation using the photogrammetry technique. The location and extreme conditions of the study area presented a challenge to field research in general. Figure 7 shows how the drone covered the church.

Figure 7: Drone coverage.

An easy-to-fly DJI drone with 1/2.3" CMOS sensor (12 MP) was used to obtain the 3D numerical data to capture the church facade. The image size is 3968Ă&#x2014;2976 pixels taken from 70 to 120 feet with an overlap of 75-90 degrees of the adjacent images. Figure 8 shows the thumbnail 90-degree overlap of the Miag-ao Church. *Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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Figure 8: Image overlap.

Surveying the area and planning where the drones took off is essential during the data collection, and flight ranges and paths were established. The drone's flight is manually controlled due to trees or buildings around the area.

(a) harsh light

(b) with shadows Figure 9: Shooting considerations.

(c) ideal image

Ideally, shooting conditions of the subject for good quality photogrammetry must be evenly lit, it can be achieved in an overcast or cloudy day. However, this is hard when shooting outdoor shots, wherein you cannot control the weather and you must pay attention to the changing clouds and sunlight conditions that might create harsh shadows. Dark shadows produced holes in the mesh which are visible during processing. This is what happens to the captured photos shown in some of the thumbnails in Figure 9. The technique of producing good quality 3D model lies in taking good photos wherein weather has a big factor. Facing with reality, the time spent in the field to document each church was limited with rain and the changing weather was an enemy aside from the environmental constraints like trees and tall buildings that surround the church. Really, efforts were made to ensure adequate survey coverage.

5.2 3D MODELLING Image processing involved aligning images, building point-clouds as well as mapping the textures. These are all done prior to reconstructing the model. Firstly, the 2D images extracted from the drone are aligned based on image feature points and more importantly following shooting sequences. Figure 10 shows the point cloud of San Agustin after defining the ground plane and setting the reconstruction region of the aligned image.

Figure 10: The point cloud visualization of the San Agustin Church.

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About 1.9 million triangle count with 1 million vertices is generated to produce the San Agustin Church model, see Table 2.

Table 2: The Triangle and the Vertex count of the Church Church San Agustin Church Sta. Maria Church San Martin Church Paoay Church

Vertex Count 1004321 941214 727222 904266

Triangle Count 1999999 1878381 1463163 1800000

The reconstruction region is manually set. Once it is set, the model is then recalculated in the defined space to colorize. Figure 11 shows the output of colorizing and texturizing and the 3D mesh sample of the San Agustin Church.

Figure 11: The 3D process of the San Agustin Church.

5.3 DISPLAY AND DISSEMINATION There are considerations for the file size if 3D models are to be uploaded on the web that you may have to sacrifice the quality. Normally, it should be less than 20 MB in web-supported 3D format (like .OBJ, .BLEND, .FBX or .GLTF and .GLB). Taken for example, the Paoay object, it needs to be decimated thus reducing its vertex count from 8 billion to only 2 million. The output of this project is accessible in “philippinebaroquechurches.site” and shown in Figures 12 and 13.

Figure 12: Web interface accessible at http://philippinebaroquechurches.site *Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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Figure 13: Web interface when the Baroque churches of the Philippines are navigated.

6. CONCLUSION The study highlighted the use of affordable innovative technologies such as UAVs that will provide high resolution and accuracy images of a cultural site and photogrammetry technology that is an easy and low-cost method in producing 3D replica models from 2D images. Thereby, providing an effective and viable method to be used in digital cultural heritage preservation, and as a tool for cultural heritage experts in the Philippines. Unlike other studies that combined digital technologies, this study has achieved its goal by using only the UAV photogrammetry in constructing the 3D models of the Philippine Baroque churches viewable via a web browser.

This study presented workflow to digitally document cultural heritage sites. In photogrammetry, taking good quality digital images is of utmost importance in producing good output that it is necessary to have a clear idea of the area to be surveyed. These are key factors to be considered for outdoor, large-sites photogrammetry using drones o

o o o o o

Flight map or layout of the area to know the directions of flight – to reduce distance or flight time in order to lessen flight time hours of drones and to know the dimension of the subject and obstacles around the subject such as trees.

Time schedule (date and time) to know the weather condition – minimize shadows 11 am to 1 pm is the ideal time.

Cloud conditions – good cloud cover with adequate light.

Flight alignment – flight lines should be parallel, this is important in 3D mapping.

Types of drones used - make sure the drone is suitable for the project intended. usually, drones fly low with limited flight time, having an extra battery is necessary.

Image overlaps - 75-degree image overlap is ideal for 3D photogrammetry.

Further, this study successfully demonstrated the suitability and practicability of the photogrammetry technique for digital cultural heritage documentation and preservation for which the country can make use of in preserving valuable cultural identity for future generations.

7. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This project was funded by the National Commission for Cultural and the Arts approved through Board Resolution No. 2019-225.

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8. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL All relevant data are already included in this article.

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[13] Fabrizio, G., Di Franco, P., & Matthews, J. (2015). Comparing 2D pictures with 3D replicas for the digital preservation and analysis of tangible heritage. Museum Management and Curatorship Journal.

30(5). DOI: 10.1080/09647775.2015.1042515 [14] Anurogo, W., et.al. (2017). A Simple Aerial Photogrammetric Mapping System Overview and Image Acquisition Using Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). Journal of Applied Geospatial Information, 1(1).

[15] Lumann, T. (2010). Close range photogrammetry for industrial applications. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 65(6):558-569. DOI: 10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2010.06.003 [16] [16] Facciolo, G., Franchis, D., & Meinhardt-Llopis, E. (2017). Automatic 3D Reconstruction from Multi-Date Satellite Images. The IEEE Conference on Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition (CVPR) Workshops, 57-66. *Corresponding author (J.Febro) Email: January.febro@g.msuiit.edu.ph ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8M http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8M.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.154

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[17] Arif, R & Essa, K. (2017). Evolving Techniques of Documentation of a World Heritage Site in Lahore.

The International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLII-2/W5.

[18] Steinicke, F & Feller, T. (2008). A Field Report on the Modeling of 3D Landmarks in Scholar Projects.

Visualization and Computer Graphics (VisCG) Research Group, Department of Computer Science, Westfalische Wilhelms-University at Munster, Germany.

[19] Themistocleous, K., Agapiou, A., & Hadjimitsis, D. (2016). 3D documentation and BIM modeling of cultural heritage structures using UAVS: the case of the Foinikaria church. International Archives of the Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, XLII-2/W2.

DOI: 10.5194/isprs-archives-XLII-2-W2-45-2016 [20] Themistocleous, K., Ioannides, M., Agapiou, A., & Hadjimitsis, D. The Methodology of Documenting Cultural Heritage Sites Using Photogrammetry, UAV and 3D Printing Techniques: The Case Study Of Asinou Church In Cyprus. SPIE Proceedings, The International Society for Optical Engineering. DOI: 10.1117/12.2195626 [21] UNESCO. (2019 January) Baroque churches of the Philippines. World Heritage List. UNESCO. https://whc.unesco.org/ [22] Cabreira, T., Brisolara, L., & Ferreira, P. (2019). Survey on Coverage Path Planning with Unmanned Aerial Vehicles. MDPI. [23] Li, J., Huang, D., & Yang, P. (2018). Inspection method of imagesâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; overlap of UAV photogrammetry based on features matching. MATEC Web of Conferences 173. DOI: 10.1051/matecconf/2018173 [24] Prawesthi D, A., and Prasidha, N.T. (2013). Planning Model of Religious Cultural Heritage Buildings as a Concept to Intensify the Image of the Region. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 4(3), 225-240.

J. Febro is an Assistant Professor of Department of Information Technology at Mindanao State University â&#x20AC;&#x201C; Iligan Institute of Technology, Philippines. J. Febro interests involve applications for Sustainable Development, ICT4D, Computing in Social Science, Health and Humanities.

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January D. Febro

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8N

MEDIATING EFFECTS OF ICT ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN STUDENTS' ATTITUDE AND ANXIETY TOWARDS SCIENCE 1

2

Abdul Sattar Ghaffari , Saima Javed , Tariq Mehmood Bhuttah

2*

, Hakim Ullah

2*

1

Zhongtai Securities, Institute for Financial Studies, School of Mathematics, Shandong University, Jinan, CHINA. 2 School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, No. 199, South Chang’an Road, Xi’an, 710062,CHINA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 14 November 2019 Received in revised form 21 February 2020 Accepted 10 March 2020 Available online 19 March 2020

This study analyzes the impacts of technology on the relationship between students’ anxiety and their attitude towards science through the mediating analysis. This method was based on 350 questionnaires filled by only science students in Lahore, Pakistan. The study showed that students’ attitudes towards technology for learning mediate the relationship between their students’ anxiety and attitudes towards science completely. Moreover, male students are more inclined towards science as well as technology learning as compared to female students. however, anxiety towards science is higher in female students as compared to male students.

Keywords: Attitude towards science; Science learning; Students’ anxiety; Science students; Technology attitude learning; ICT in Education.

Disciplinary: Education).

Education

Sciences

(Information

Technology

in

©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Education is a process that develops all those capabilities in an individual that a person needs to fulfill one's responsibilities in society. Investment in the educational system leads to higher economic growth (Bridsall, 1999). The standards of education system build a better quality of human resources and thus leads to the development of a nation (Khalid & Khan, 2006). Governments, schools, and teachers altogether set these standards. For a higher quality of education, everyone needs skills, professionalism, and educational expertise. It will not only assist the educational department, facing the challenges of upcoming new technologies but also it will be helpful in the teaching and learning process for different subjects of science.

In Pakistan’s educational system, science is a compulsory discipline from grade one to eight; after that, students may choose between science and arts. At the secondary level, students are opting for science subjects like physics, chemistry, and biology. The choice between arts and science at the *Corresponding author (T.M.Bhuttah, H.Ullah) tariqmehmoodbhuttah@outlook.com, hakimullahkhan14@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8N http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.155

1

level of secondary education leads to further education and training decisions. There is no need to emphasize the necessity of science subjects in the current technological era but the proportion choosing the science option is only 35%, which is lower than the government estimated target.

The existing research on school students’ attitude towards science has been showing a continuous decline of interest in science worldwide (Anderhag et al., 2016; Barmby et al., 2008; Dawson, 2000; Jonathan et al., 2003; Potvin & Hasni, 2014; Simon, 2021). According to students, after primary school, they feel more detached with science and find it more challenging to relate to practical life (Tytler et al., 2008). This negative attitude for science is prominent in the starting of the elementary level of schooling (Kerr & Murphy, 2012; Pell & Jarvis, 2001) or secondary schools (Anderhag et al., 2016; Barmby et al., 2008; Häussler & Hoffmann, 2002; Osborne et al., 2003).

A secondary level of education is a crucial stage of the education system, which is traditionally academic and evaluated by an exam (Olssen & O’Neil, 2004). Students’ attitudes toward science are mainly determined by the teachers, students, and the learning environment (Haladyna & Shaughnessy, 1982). Students’ feelings and habits (Haste, 2004; Lemke, 2001; Roberts, 2002), teachers related factors such as teaching practices, teacher support, feedback, innovative teaching and learning strategies (Anderhag et al., 2016; Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992; Myers III & Fouts, 1992) and teachers’ confidence in teaching science (Tytler et al., 2008) also significantly affect the students’ attitude for science learning. Learning environment factors including school, classroom activities, the science curricula, or lab, students’ relations with each other determine students’ attitude towards science (Myers III & Fouts, 1992; Osborne et al., 2003).

Education is an activity of learning and teaching (Curzon, 2003), so teachers and students need to be involved equally. However, Students’ knowledge not only depends on the environment, curriculum, and teacher, but it is also very much dependent on their academic engagement, feeling, and perception about the subject they study. Students' and teachers’ attitudes toward science both are equally crucial in a given learning environment. If students’ perspectives are negative, they may perform poorly because of lacking interest in science causes difficulties in learning science as it affects the focus of a student in learning. Whereas positive attitudes toward science can build a strong foundation of science (Bae, 2002).

Students’ attitudes toward science are mainly determined by the teachers, students, and the learning environment (Haladyna & Shaughnessy, 1982). Students’ feelings and habits (Haste, 2004; Lemke, 2001; Roberts, 2002), teachers related factors such as teaching practices, teacher support, feedback, innovative teaching and learning strategies (Anderhag et al., 2016; Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992; Myers III & Fouts, 1992) and teachers’ confidence in teaching science (Tytler et al., 2008) also significantly affect the students’ attitude for science learning. Learning environment factors including school, classroom activities, the science curricula, or lab, students’ relations with each other determine students’ attitude towards science (Myers III & Fouts, 1992; Osborne et al., 2003).

Some studies have highlighted about gender that boys have positive attitude than girls (Abbas et al., 2011; Weinburgh, 1995) (Beauchamp & Parkinson, 2008; Dawson, 2000; Hill et al., 2010; Jones et al., 2000; Osborne & Simon, 2009; Schibeci, 2008; Weinburgh, 1995). Teachers’ confidence in teaching science also leads to effective teaching of science subjects (Tytler et al., 2008). Further cultural, ethnicity, parental, religious have also been found to be critical influences on attitudes toward science (Anderhag et al., 2016; Breakwell & Beardsell, 1992; Christidou, 2006; Dawson, 2000; Khishfe & BouJaoude, 2016; Kidman, 2010; Logan & Skamp, 2008; Lyons, 2006; Osborne et

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Abdul Sattar Ghaffari, Saima Javed, Tariq M. Bhuttah, Hakim Ullah

al., 2003). Few studies have also reported that students’ knowledge about science at the primary level and Parental involvement also plays a crucial role in the development of scientific attitudes of students in later years of schooling for science (Abbas et al., 2011; Tytler et al., 2008; Wang & Wildman, 1995). Parents' education, profession, and students’ residence influence students’ attitudes for science (Anwar & Bhutta, 2014).

A few studies have also verified and found a significant negative correlation between students' anxiety and attitude towards science (Fraser & Fisher, 1982; Kaya & Yildirim, 2014). Students develop science anxiety at a very young age, and girls have been found more prone to science anxiety than boys (Mallow & McDermott, 1988). Previous negative experiences in science classrooms also cause science anxiety among students. Further, the attitudes and beliefs of teachers about science, as well as the method of teaching, can also build students’ perception of science (M. Jones, 2006).

Different methods like cooperative learning, the responsive classroom, teachers’ support have been found helpful for reducing the level of anxiety among students (Bensoussan, 2012; Griggs et al., 2013; Oludipe & Awokoya, 2010). The use of ICT in students’ learning environment has also been considered as an essential factor for students’ attitudes (Avgerinou, 2015). ICT as a fundamental component of general education provides opportunities for students to develop important skills like problem-solving, creativity, and collaborating, which are all very important for working 21st-century workplaces (Cisco, 2011). These all skills can be acquired through re-organized educational spaces, new curriculum as well as delivery methods. Thus, the application of innovative ICT facilitate educators in teaching and students in learning (Wilson & Boldeman, 2012).

Studies have shown that ICT makes significant transformations in students’ learning, and Students using ICT facilities have higher learning gains. The use of ICT is frequent in the young generation as a source of information, entertainment, and social communication through blogs, wikis, podcasting, and social networking, etc. Although information and communication technologies (ICT) have the power to engage disengaged students (Wilson & Boldeman, 2012). However, there is very little use of ICT in classroom learning.

The education system of Pakistan has several barriers for integrating information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) at the secondary level in Punjab, Pakistan (Hassan & Sajid, 2012; Bhuttah et al., 2020). Abbas et al. (2011) and Shah et al. (2013) showed that in Pakistan, there was an increasing trend in students’ attitudes towards science with the change in grade, and girls were more inclined towards science than boys. Students need to be actively engaged in science learning that their positive attitude can be sustained and further enhanced as they grow older (Anwar & Bhutta, 2014).

The substantial effect of ICT integration on the students, teachers, learning environments, and educational policies can improve student learning, through developing ICT competences, academic engagement and thus can lead to higher learning outcomes (Newhouse, 2002). The use of computers and the internet makes students more motivated and attentive in class (Balanskat, 2006). Personal use of technology at home help students to use in school in a better way more recurrently and with more confidence as compared to those students who don’t use a computer or internet at home. (Underwood, 2009).

ICT can enhance the students’ interests in science learning (Osborne et al., 2003) by reducing the anxiety among students for science subjects. There is a need to emphasize on the infrastructure, *Corresponding author (T.M.Bhuttah, H.Ullah) tariqmehmoodbhuttah@outlook.com, hakimullahkhan14@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8N http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.155

3

curriculum up-gradation, and teachers’ training for better ICT integration in education at the secondary level (Hassan & Sajid, 2012). Few studies have addressed the importance of ICT as a mediator (Javed et al., 2020); however, the importance of technology between the relationship between students anxiety, students’ attitudes towards science among Pakistani students have not been addressed yet.

None of the studies has explained the role of ICT as a mediator between students’ attitudes towards science and students' anxiety. This paper fills an identified research gap by providing a mediating role of ICT in science learning for engaging diverse young students in science class at the secondary level. The effect of students’ anxiety towards science on students’ attitudes has forced to investigate the usage of technology for learning science.

2. METHODOLOGY The present quantitative study is an effort to assess the mediating role of technology between students’ attitudes and anxiety towards science at its best. The data for this study is based on the three questionnaires adopted from different studies.

2.1 THE STUDY POPULATION: The population of the study is exclusively science students of twenty-five secondary schools in Lahore city of Punjab, Pakistan. Random sampling was done to choose schools as well as students.

A total of 350 boys and girls fully completed the questionnaires and returned within two days. All the students were secondary students SSC (SSCI/ SSCII). This study was only focused on science students, so it helped to uncover the general attitude of science students in given anxiety and technological assistance in the Pakistani government educational scenario.

In this study, we used students’ attitudes towards science as a dependent, student anxiety as an independent, and students’ attitude towards technology as mediators. The mediating analysis in the SPSS21 extension of Preacher and Hayes was done to examine the potential of technology or ICT as a mediator. The following instruments were used in this study: a) Students’ Attitude scale towards science

The data for students’ attitudes towards science was measured through Simpson – Troost Attitude Questionnaire (STAQ) (Liaghatdar, Soltani, & Abedi, 2011). This questionnaire has 44 items determining the attitude of science students at the secondary level. Each statement was scaled according to 5-point Likert-type scales (Always, Frequently, Usually, Rarely, and Never). b) Anxiety towards science scale

The anxiety of students towards science questionnaire was adopted from (Sağir, 2012)’s measure of anxiety. Each item was scaled according to the Likert style questionnaire as strongly agree, agree, I am not sure, disagree, strongly disagree for all 27 questions. c) Technology attitude scale for learning

Technology attitude scale for learning as a mediator of this study measured the access, perceptions, and learning with technology. The Items 1-11 of the survey are related to the students’ access to ICT tools. The access to technological tools was measured through a three-point Likert scale as 1, 2, and 3 for no access, limited access, and full access, respectively. The eight Items as 12-19 measure students’ perceptions for learning with Information and Communication Technology on a 5-point Likert scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=neutral, 4=agree, 5=strongly agree). The

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Abdul Sattar Ghaffari, Saima Javed, Tariq M. Bhuttah, Hakim Ullah

students’ attitude towards the use of technology for learning was measured through the Items 20-28 on a 5-point Likert scale as well (Chenoby, 2014).

3. RESULTS 3.1 CORRELATION ANALYSIS For the descriptive statistics and correlation results, Pearson’s correlation coefficients were used.

Table 1 is showing the correlation between students’ attitude, anxiety towards science, and technology attitude for learning. From the results, we can conclude that students’ attitudes and anxiety towards science are significantly negatively correlated with each other while significantly positively correlated with technology attitude for learning. Similarly, anxiety towards science is significantly negatively correlated technology attitude for learning.

Table 1: Descriptive statistics and correlations between students attitude, anxiety towards science and technology attitude for learning. (Listwise N=350) Scales Mean ± SD 1 2 Students’ Attitude 131.95±9.32 1 Anxiety towards Science 90.54±7.51 -.460** 1 Technology Attitude for Learning 69.14±6.71 .138** -.559** *, ** Correlations are significant at the 0.05, 0.01 level (2-tailed), respectively.

3 1

3.2 MEDIATION ANALYSIS: The mediating analysis was conducted with the help of the SPSS21 extension of Preacher and Hayes to capture the mediating part of technology attitude for learning between students’ perspectives as dependent and students’ anxiety towards science as an independent.

TAL -0.500***

.239*** Total effect= -0.570***

ATS

SA Direct effect= -0.690

Figure 1: Mediating analysis, Students’ attitude as an outcome, Students anxiety towards science as Independent variable and technology Attitude for Learning as Mediator The result in Figure 1 showed that technology attitude as a mediator for learning mediates the relationship between anxiety towards science (Independent) and students’ attitude (Dependent) completely where TAL = Technology attitude scale for learning ATS

= Anxiety towards science

SA

= Students’ attitude

*Corresponding author (T.M.Bhuttah, H.Ullah) tariqmehmoodbhuttah@outlook.com, hakimullahkhan14@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8N http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.155

5

3.3 INDEPENDENT SAMPLES T-TEST The independent samples t-test tests were used to compare the differences among Students’ Attitude, Anxiety towards Science and Technology Attitude for Learning at gender as well as class level.

Table 2: Gender-based differences among students’ attitude, anxiety towards science and technology attitude for learning Variables Students’ Attitude Anxiety towards Science Technology Attitude for Learning

Male (n=179) M SD 133.775 9.88 89.551 7.38 69.933 5.68

Female (n=171) M SD 130.064 8.31 91.564 7.53 69.326 7.57

t

p-value

3.796 -2.526 2.252

.000*** .006** .013*

Table 3: Class-based differences among students’ attitude, anxiety towards science and technology attitude for Learning Variables Students’ Attitude Anxiety towards Science Technology Attitude for Learning

9th Class (n=177) M SD 130.848 9.77 89.629 7.76 69.168 7.15

10th class (n=173) M SD 133.373 8.52 91.712 7.04 69.111 6.13

t

p-value

-2.534 -2.595 0.242

.006** .005** .469

Tables 2 and 3 depict the results of independent samples t-test tests to compare the differences in the levels of students’ attitude, anxiety towards science and technology attitude for learning between gender as well as class. The results show higher levels of students’ attitude and technology attitude toward learning in male students as compared to female students. At the same time, anxiety towards science is higher in female students as compared to male students. Similarly, the level of students’ attitude and anxiety towards science are significantly higher in the students of class 10th as compared to students of class 9th. In contrast, the technology attitude for learning is not significantly different between students of class 9th and 10th.

4. CONCLUSION This study was an effort to enhance the interest of students in science by reducing the level of anxiety through technology usage. The level of Students’ anxiety related to science subjects can be best understood by asking students. Thus, they can help in identifying what in which ways anxiety can be reduced. To understand it in a better way this study, solely asked students about their attitudes and level of anxiety for science subjects and how much they feel that technology helps them to reduce the level of anxiety towards science.

Besides technology integration in teaching methods and learning environment, science subjects’ curriculum is also needed to be more appealing to students, through adding engaging, practical experience. Pakistan has difficulties in the implementation of learning management systems in schools, but also there is no proper access to technology for students in schools. Fortunately, Pakistani students have not yet faced a lack of interest in science as it is happening worldwide, but they suffer from science anxiety.

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Abdul Sattar Ghaffari, Saima Javed, Tariq M. Bhuttah, Hakim Ullah

This study highlights the importance of technology usage in teaching science subjects so that the students’ anxiety towards science can be reduced and enhance students’ interest in science. This research is an effort to get an insight from students regarding science subjects. The questionnaires helped to get to know about students’ attitudes towards science, technology, and anxiety related to science as well. The finding showed that students’ attitude towards technology has the potential to completely mediate the relationship between attitude and anxiety in science students. Thus the technology can reduce science anxiety among students, can enhance their engagement in science by making science more interesting and practical.

Pakistan, as a developing country, is not capable of providing technical assistance to every classroom, but with proper management, it can be delivered to every school. In this technological era, we should not ignore the importance of technology-assisted class and teaching methods. Most of the students have access to different technological devices and the Internet outside of school, and they are learning better. There is also a need to find less expensive modes to integrate science subjects with technology. ICT integration policies should be seriously implemented so that Pakistan can achieve the goal set by Millilium development.

5. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

6. CONTRIBUTION In this work, Abdul Sattar Ghaffari and Tariq Mehmood Bhuttah are equal contributors.

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Tytler, R., Osborne, J. F., Williams, G., Tytler, K., Clark, J. C., & Tomei, A. (2008). Opening up pathways: Engagement in STEM across the Primary-Secondary school transition. A review of the literature concerning supports and barriers to Science, Technology, Engineering and Mathematics engagement at Primary Secondary transition. Retrieved from Melbourne: Deakin University.

Sağir, Ş.U. (2012). The primary school students' attitude and anxiety towards science. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 11, 127-140.

Underwood, J. D. M. (2009). The impact of digital technology: a review of the evidence of the impact of digital technologies on formal education.

Wang, J., & Wildman, L. (1995). An empirical examination of the effects of family commitment in education on student achievement in seventh grade science. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(8), 833-837.

*Corresponding author (T.M.Bhuttah, H.Ullah) tariqmehmoodbhuttah@outlook.com, hakimullahkhan14@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8N http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8N.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.155

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Weinburgh, M. (1995). Gender differences in student attitudes toward science: A meta-analysis of the literature from 1970 to 1991. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 32(4), 387-398. doi:10.1002/tea.3660320407 Wilson, K. L., & Boldeman, S. U. (2012). Exploring ICT Integration as a Tool to Engage Young People at a Flexible Learning Centre. Journal of Science Education and Technology, 21(6), 661-668. doi:10.1007/s10956-011-9355-7 Abdul Sattar Ghaffari is a Ph.D. Scholar, Zhongtai Securities, Institutes for Financial Studies, School of Mathematics, Shandong University, Jinan, China. He holds a Master of Philosophy in Statistics. His research interests are Statistics and Educational Psychology.

Saima Javed is a Ph.D. Scholar at the School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xian, China. She holds a Master of Philosophy in Economics. Her research interests include Curriculum & Teaching Methodology, Educational Psychology, English Language Learning, Technology, Policy Analysis.

Tariq Mehmood Bhuttah is a Ph.D. Scholar, School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University, Xian, China.

He holds a Master’s degree in Education, a Master’s degree in Philosophy, and an MSC in Sociology, LLB & a PGD (IT). His research interests are Curriculum & Teaching Methodology, Educational Psychology, Comparative Theories and Philosophy.

Dr.Hakim Ullah is a Research Assistant, School of Education, Shaanxi Normal University No. 199, South Chang’an Road Xi’an, China. He got a Master of Education and a Doctorate of Philosophy degree in Curriculum & Teaching Methodology. He is interested in Curriculum & Teaching Methodology, Educational Psychology.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Abdul Sattar Ghaffari, Saima Javed, Tariq M. Bhuttah, Hakim Ullah

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8O

DETERMINATION OF STOCK RETURNS USING FIVE-FACTOR CAPM: EVIDENCE FROM PSX 1

Saira Munir , Muhammad Sajjad 1

1*

, Asad Afzal Humayon 1, Muhammad Irfan Chani 1

Department of Management Sciences, COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus, PAKISTAN.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 10 September 2019 Received in revised form 27 January 2020 Accepted 12 February 2020 Available online 20 March 2020

Stock returns indicate variations in future economic activity but literature is inconclusive in defining this relationship. To elucidate this relationship, the study empirically analyzes the impact of stock returns using the Capita Pricing Model (CAPM). Data is accessed from the Pakistan Stock Exchange (PSX) monetary sector for 2002-2017.

Premium, Book-to-Market value (BMV), investment, size, and market value were taken as the predictors of Stock Returns. Panel regression analyses were used to estimate the relationship between the observed variables. For further analysis, the random and fixed model analysis was applied. In comparison with random and fixed models, it was observed that the fixed model has the least preference over the random model, so the fixed model analysis was opted to estimate the stock returns. It was observed that the fixed effect model should be preferred over the random effect model to estimate the stock returns. Empirical results revealed that there was a progressive and statistically significant relation among premium, size, investment, and profitability on stocks while BMV had positive but inconsequential relation with stocks. This study also clinched that Fama and French five factors are the best predictors of stock returns of financial firms in the Pakistani context.

Keywords:

Capital Assets Pricing Model (CAPM); Below market value; Premium; Firm Size; Financial Sector; Investment; Profitability; Book-to-Market value (BMV).

Disciplinary: Management and Financial Science. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION In recent years, there are apparent new stock markets that are big and globally diversified. From time to time returns offered by these markets attract the investors/ shareholders and the researchers of the finance around the world. Many models are explained by the researchers to select the portfolio for minimizing the risk of returns. The capital asset pricing modal (CAPM) which is based on asset pricing theory (apt) developed by Linter (1965), Sharpe (1964) and Mossin (1966). Although, this model was developed many decades ago, but with the new modifications, the CAPM is still widely used. Fama and French (2004) use the CAPM because it gives the intuitions about the risk and return *Corresponding author (M.Sajjad). Tel: +92-3131441333. Email: geosajjad@ciitvehari.edu.pk

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8O http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.156

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of emerging/new stock markets. Fama and French (2004) contribute the two factors size and Book-to-Market Value (BMV) to improve the deficiency of the single CAPM. But there was still incomplete information/knowledge related to returns on the stock market.

Different models were pioneered by different authors. These models were divided into a dynamic and static model. The latter model includes CAPM models as discussed by Sharpe Lintner model (1964), Black Zero beta model (1972), Mayers model (1974), Breeden model (1979), International model by Solnik (1974), Adler and Dumas (1983), APT by Ross (1976), three-factor model of Fama and French (1993) and three moment model by Rubinsten (1973). The five-factor model was discussed by Fang and Lai (1997) and DIttmar (1999). The dynamic model includes the International model (Merton 1973), the Consumption model by Breedan (1979), production-based model by Lucas (1978) and Brock (1979) Investment based model by Cochrame (1991), Liquidity based model by Acharya and Pedersan (2005), Conditional model by Jagannathan and Wang (1996) while Fama and French (1993;1997) Momentum model of three factors.

A new model of CAPM was devised by Fama and French in (1993). The traditionally CAPM model has used only a single variable to mention the return on stocks. Also, Fama and French in 1993 introduced a three-factor model by including two more factors in the standard CAPM. These two factors included for the two classes small-cap and stock with low B/P.

Rit − R f = β 0 + B1 ( Rm − R f )it + β 2 SMBit + β3 HMLit + ε it

(1).

Equation (1), β2 is associated with small minus bing and β3 is associated with high minus low for stock returns of the CAPM model. Both β2 and β3 have been determined for the regression line and can have positive or negative values. Griffin (2002) challenged the model of CAPM proposed by Fama and French in (1993) and concluded that these factors should be specific to at country level, as there are a lot of local factors that required more explanation to estimate the stock returns through CAPM model.

But the three-factor model was just only the improvement in the three-factor model and it did not explain the anomalies nor the cross-sectional variation in stock returns (Fama and French 2004). To overcome this problem Fama and French (2014) devised a new model with 5 factors with the contribution of 2 more factors in the existing 3-factor model. These new factors are Premium, Size, BMV, Investment, and Profitability which are used to manipulate the risk on return for financial firms. Does this study check whether the components of the CAPM 5 Factor Model determine the returns on stock for financial firms in Pakistan or not?

The core purpose of this study is to measure the determinants of returns of stock for financial firms listed in the Pakistan Stock Exchange (PSX) using five-factor CAPM consisting of Premium, Size, BMV, Investment, and Profitability.

This study null hypotheses are o o o o o

2

H#1: Premium and Stock returns have no relationship.

H#2: Size and Stock returns have no relationship.

H#3: BMV and Stock returns have no relationship.

H#4: Investment and Stock returns have no relationship.

H#5: Profitability and Stock returns have no relationship.

Saira Munir, Muhammad Sajjad, Asad Afzal Humayon, Muhammad Irfan Chani

2. LITURATURE REVIEW Chen and Kawaguchi (2018) suggested the multifactor Asset Pricing Model (APM) in the context of the Chinese Stock Exchange market and devised under the regime of Markov. Chinese stock exchange market had two regimes; in its 1st regime, the risk premium was higher as the author considered for aversion level with the condition of high risk. Fama and French (1993) 3-factor model provided a positive risk-return while on the other side in 2 nd regime the premium with low returns was detected having low BMV and large size of the firm. The results showed that the best and value stocks were much uncertain in a bull market.

Agarwal (2014) proved how to obtain a higher return with low volatility with the background of the Bombay Stock Exchange (BSE), using risk-weighted alpha (RWA) to show the sTable increasing return with a low level of volatility. Top 30 stocks by market capitalization were taken to test the volatility. Increasing return and lower volatility showed by stock like Hindustan. RWA and BSE index maintaining the beta the same as in the BSE Sensex Index.

The relationship between stock returns and beta portfolios for the Turkish Stock Exchange was anticipated by Terregrossa and Eraslan (2016). This was the first study as in history and literature of financial firms, no one described the relation between beta and portfolio returns. These researchers found a systematic relationship between betas and portfolio returns and name them as a security market plan. This notion was termed as SMP. Later it was proved that SMP was a successful model that accurately measured the stock returns and provided new insights to avail opportunities and to make decisions for portfolio investments.

Kim (2016) proposed a J-shaped relationship between dividend and value of the firm. Top dividend payersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; firms also had higher value on the contra-side non-dividend payer firms had lower value. But by using the j-shaped relationship, it found significant results for 1962-2010, after controlling the characteristics of firms such as profitability, growth and size. Dividend theories such as free cash flow, catering is inadequate to explain the j-shaped relation (Afzal, 2020).

Jiang (2016) observed the dividend payments and liquidity of listed firms from 2000-2014 in the Chinese Stock Exchange and found a significant relationship among stock dividend payments and liquidity of stocks. But stock liquidity only showed the liquidity information and increase incentives to pay a dividend to shareholders. The author found a positive relationship between stock liquidity and dividend payout but only when the environment opaque. The dividend payout was favorable for those who had low stock liquidity. It was concluded that there were several conditions such as government, non-controlling block holders, and manager-shareholders agency conflict that lead to stock liquidity.

Banerjee et al. (2014) checked the four-factor model in the context of the Indian Stock Exchange market. In the Fama and French 3 factor model, the 4th-factor momentum was added to see the impact on returns of the stock market. In their study, Firm Size, BMV, Premium, and Momentum were used as independent variables. The findings expressed that the 3-factor model of Fama and French had a significant impact but the fourth-factor momentum used by researchers was negligible because it had no significant impact on the study.

Agarwalla et al. (2014) checked the effect of the Fama and French 3 factor model and Momentum factor on the Stock Returns in the context of the Indian Equities Market. Data collected *Corresponding author (M.Sajjad). Tel: +92-3131441333. Email: geosajjad@ciitvehari.edu.pk

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8O http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.156

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from the online data library for 1994-2014. The Average Returns on the base of the momentum factor was 21.9 %. A portfolio can make on the percentage of B/M, Size, and Premium. The B/M percentage was 15.3%, the size was 0% and the premium was 11.5%.

Shaker and Eligiziry (2014) compared the asset pricing model in the stock of Egyptian. GRS test applied to compare the five different models of asset pricing. Data collected from the EGX100. The CAPM, FF3F, CFF, liquidity 4-factor model, 5-factor model (liquidity and momentum included in the three-factor). On the base of the given 2003-2007 data from six portfolios were made. The size and BE/ME ratio considered best for the portfolio. The findings confirmed that the FF3F model best for average returns from 2003-2007. Fama and French three-factor model has superiority over the CAPM. The Cahart 4 factor model did not apply to the Egyptian market. The liquidity model also had a deficiency due to turnover. Results of FF3F more appropriate compared to all other models.

Maxim (2014) evaluated the CAPM three-factor model and APT at the Romanian capital market.

The sample was taken for 2006-2013 of 25 companies listed on the Bucharest Stock Exchange. Six models were investigated to select the best for the Romanian Capital Market. The CAPM two factors, downside-CAPM, 3- and 5-factor models of Fama and French where the theory of Arbitrage pricing was used. The results concluded that for the Romanian capital market Fama and French 5 factor model was the best performing model because it better explained the returns.

Blanco (2012) used the CAPM and Fama and French 3 factor model for the portfolio selection.

The study used data of the American NYSE market. The selection of portfolio depends on the size and BMV, using 1926-2006 data with Cross Section Regression and Time Series Regression. Sample data based on two factors expected returns and Fama and French model factors. The results disclosed the significance of statistics and R square value.

Mwall and Karasneh (2011) used the Fama and French 3 factor model in the context of an emerging market to explain the variation in stocks for 1999-2010. The study checked the assurance of size and BMV. The procedure made at two stages firstly selects the independent variable and then dependent variables (portfolios). OLS was used in the study to show the relationship between variables. The results showed that size has a strong positive impact on ASE. The 3-factor model of Fama and French provides better results as compared to the single factor model of CAPM. Hou et al, (2011) investigated the Global Stock Returns and identified the important factors, using monthly returns for 27000 stocks from 49 countries. The multifactor model includes momentum, cash flow to price, and two variables of CAPM size and BMV. Findings showed that local and international descriptions of these observations have a lower price as compared to a global and emerging market. Market, consumer prices, and factor for momentum gave the lowest pricing error and least chance for rejection of model. But there were many firmsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; characteristics that have not been considered such as liquidity, issues in stock investment, and growth in assets. The studied authors reject the characteristics and find reliable results related to global cash flow to price.

Johnson at al., (2010) examined the endogenous leverage and expected stock returns. This paper described under which conditions leverage had a negative relationship with anticipated stock returns.

This paper investigates the previous model of George and Hwang (2009) asserts the structure of capital by firms in different default risk cases. Variation cannot control the book-to-market ratio but may lead to desired relations expected excess return, market debt, and book equity examined.

Variation in taxes and firms' duration negatively associated with stock returns. Asset characteristics

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Saira Munir, Muhammad Sajjad, Asad Afzal Humayon, Muhammad Irfan Chani

also considered while making expectations about the expected stock return. There was a negative relationship between risk and profitability and expected return with leverage and a positive relationship with Book-to-Market.

3. METHOD This study model is đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;đ?&#x2018;&#x2026;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; = đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝0 + đ??ľđ??ľ1 đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ??¸đ??¸đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝2 đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ?&#x2018;&#x2020;đ??¸đ??¸đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝3 đ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ??ľđ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ?&#x2018;&#x2030;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝4 đ??źđ??źđ??źđ??źđ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;Łđ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; + đ?&#x203A;˝đ?&#x203A;˝5 đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x192;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; + đ?&#x153;&#x20AC;đ?&#x153;&#x20AC;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;

(2),

where đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; denotes the firm (đ?&#x2018;&#x2013;đ?&#x2018;&#x2013; = 1,2. . . đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;đ?&#x2018;&#x203A;) and đ?&#x2018;Ąđ?&#x2018;Ą denotes time PREit= Premium (Rm-Rf) of ith firm in tth year

SIZEit= Show the Market Capitalization of ith firm in tth year BMVit= Book-to-Market Value of ith firm in tth year Invit= Investment of ith firm in tth year Pit= Profitability of ith firm in tth year

Îľ

it

th th = Error term of â&#x20AC;&#x153;i â&#x20AC;&#x153;firm in t year

Rit = stock returns of ith firm in tth year BMV Investment

Size

Premium

Stock Returns

Profitability

Figure 1: Study Framework The stock return is the dependent variable while Premium, Size, Investment, Profitability, and BMV are the independent variables of this study (Figure 1). For the calculation of stock returns yearly amount of dividend value is used. To calculate the value of premium (PRE), the risk-free return is subtracted from the stocks of the market. T bills value is used to measure the risk-free return. Firm size (market capitalization) was calculated by multiplying the market price per share with outstanding shares. BMV was calculated by dividing the share price and book value per share. Investment (Inv) was the total number of assets held at the end of that specific year. Profitability (P) value gets by the value of earning per share (EPS).

Panel data with cross-sectional surveys were used in the study. Panel data has the advantage that there is space as well as dimension. Hausman test with a fixed effect is used in this study for measurement and to verify the assumptions. Panel data can be related to the firms, states, countries, or individuals. The procedure for selecting panel data depends on the individual-specific variables of interest. Panel data in a combination of time series was utilized. This cross-sectional is more informative, more reliable, and more effective. Panel data can better perceive the effect of variables that are not correctly measured as a single unit in cross-sectional and time-series data. Based on the *Corresponding author (M.Sajjad). Tel: +92-3131441333. Email: geosajjad@ciitvehari.edu.pk

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8O http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.156

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above advantages, this study utilizes panel data.

The study uses the determinants of stock returns by considering the variables of premium, size, book market value, investment, and profitability in the Pakistan Stock Exchange (PSX) using annual data for 2002-2017. Four hundred and twenty-eight financial firms listed in PSX are selected as a sample in this study. Firms are selected under the sector of commercial and investment banks, modaraba, leasing, and insurance companies. Data is retrieved from the official website of State Bank of Pakistan (SBP).

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION This study finds the determinants of stock returns by adopting the capital asset pricing model in the context of Pakistan. To solve the purpose, the study utilized the Panel Regression Analysis to check the data. For analysis, Descriptive statistics, fixed effect model, Hausman test, and random effect model are used.

4.1 DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS Descriptive statistics summarize and quantify all the coefficients of the data for given values in the data. The prime aim of such statistics is to measure the central tendency and the level of dispersion in the data. Table 1 measures the central tendency through Mean and Median while dispersion is measured with SD. Table 1: Descriptive Statistics Measure Central Tendency Middle Value Highest Lowest SD Jarque-bera p-value

RETURNS 1.55 0.84 16.00 0.00 2.21 1945.20 <0.01

RISK(PRE) -15.62 -0.22 155.07 -7310.21 353.96 3182242 <0.01

SIZE 22.03 5.76 341.69 0.00 45.00 5440.33 <0.01

BMV 55.12 24.48 620.32 -139.74 84.51 3282.86 <0.01

INV 157.42 20.19 1867.00 0.00 284.71 2132.68 <0.01

PROF 4.02 2.12 104.48 -4.27 8.43 75169.33 <0.01

Table 1 shows the Descriptive statistics of stock returns, premium, size, BMV, investment and profitability. The calculated value of the central tendency for returns on the stock is 1.5. This shows a huge difference between the highest and lowest values of stock and it is concluded that firms are giving low profits in the forms of dividends to the investors. The central value can be easily affected by extreme values so it is good to judge the results from medians or the middlemost values. The median or middlemost value of returns on the stock is 0.85 which confirms our stance that the investors are being given low dividends. The median value has more worth because it is not affected by the extreme values but the problem is that it does not count all the values from stock returns. For premium or risk, the value of the central tendency is -15.619. By ignoring the negative sign, it is concluded that all financial firms are operating under high risk. However, the lower value of the median shows that these risks are moderate and can be handled. The size of firms has values ranging from 22 to 10 with a central value of 15. It shows that firms have low variations in their sizes with more than 50 percent of the firms comes under the heading of smaller firms while other comes under the heading of larger firms. However, the trends in data showed the skewness in firm size. Values of BMV for mean and median are 55 and 24 respectively. Both of these values are not close to the highest and lowest values and SD is also high. The values of BMV also show a high level of skewness

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Saira Munir, Muhammad Sajjad, Asad Afzal Humayon, Muhammad Irfan Chani

in the data. The values of investment are 157 and 20 for the central and middlemost values. The difference between both values also confirms the skewness in the data. Form these values it can be concluded that investment patterns are not normal and investors invest in the stocks seasonally. In the last, the values of profitability are 4 and 2 respectively. These values show that financial firms are not earning good profits. This is because of the variations in firm size, operating in a high-risk environment, and haphazard investment patterns. Thus, it is concluded that financial firms operating in the listing of PSX are not earning reasonable profits which ultimately affect the returns on stock values.

4.2 CORRELATED RANDOM EFFECT-HAUSMAN TEST The simple regression model is assumed between the dependent and independent variables. For the analysis, the models of random effect and fixed effect were used. The results of the random effect model given in Table 2, it can be observed that the calculated value of the Hausman test for chi-square is 56.15 while the p-value is <0.01 which is less than the alpha value set as 0.05. So, the model of the fixed test is more suitable for analysis.

Table 2: Model of Random Effect TEST SUMMARY Cross Section Random

CHI.SQUARE 56.15

CHI.SQ D.F 5

p-value <0.01

4.3 FIXED EFFECT MODEL Results of the model of fixed effect are given in Tables 3 and 4. Table 3 shows that the value of R is 0.76, it means seventy-six percent variation in the dependent variable i.e. returns on the stock has been explained by the independent variables of investment, size, BMV, premium, and profitability while remaining 24% of the variation is due to those factors which have not been considered in this study. F-statistic and its p-value indicate that the suggested model is significant for returns on the stock with predictors of investment, size, BMV, Risk or premium, and profitability.

2

Table 3: Analysis of variance 2

R Adjusted R2 Standard Error Residuals Log F Value P Value

0.76 0.73 1.14 498.79 -640.06 26.46 <0.01

Central Tendency SD Akaike info criterion Schwarz criterion Hannan-Quinn criterion Durbin-Watson

1.55 2.22 3.21 3.66 3.39 1.10

Table 4: Panel Regression Analysis VARIABLES COEFFICIENT STD.ERROR T-STATISTICS PREMIUM -0.01 0.12 0.60 SIZE 0.02 0.01 7.06 BMV 0.00 0.01 0.62 INVESTMENT 0.01 0.01 9.94 PROFITABILITY 0.02 0.01 2.45 C 0.07 0.12 0.60 **, *** show the 5% and 1% level of significance respectively

PROB 0.04** 0.00*** 0.54 0.00*** 0.02** 0.55

Table 4 shows the results of the panel regression analysis. The value of t-statistics and p values *Corresponding author (M.Sajjad). Tel: +92-3131441333. Email: geosajjad@ciitvehari.edu.pk

Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8O http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.156

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for premium, size, investment, and profitability indicates that these variables are significant and BMV is non-significant as its p-value is greater than 5% (0.54). Based on the calculated values, it is concluded that stock returns have a substantial and positive relationship with premium, size, investment and profitability. Contrary, based on t-static and the value of probability for the coefficient of BMV, it is concluded that there is a positive and insignificant relationship between stock returns and BMV. This study was aimed to measure the causes of the increase in stock returns in the context of Pakistan stock exchange. Panel data with Regression analysis was used to analyze the returns on a stock by using a five-factor model of Fama and French (2014) including premium, size, book market value, investment, and profitability using data for 2002-2017 and forty-two financial firms annual data. Based on the Hausman test statistic value which is less than ten percent, it was concluded that fixed models are preferable to measure the stock returns in Pakistan. Based on the t-statistic coefficient value in Table 4, H#1 was rejected and decided that stock returns and premium have positive and significant relationships with each other. The value of probability for the coefficient of firm size is less than one percent. Based on this value, we rejected H#2 and decided that stock returns and size have positive and significant relationships with each other. The value of probability for the coefficient of BMV is not less than the one percent so we accept H#3 and decided that stock returns and BMV have positive but insignificant relationships with each other. The p-value for investment is less than the one percent in Table 4, so based on this value, we reject H#4 and that stock returns and investment have positive and significant relationships with each other. The p-value for profitability is also less than the one percent in Table 4, so we reject H#5 and concluded stock returns and profitability have a positive and significant relationship with each other.

5. CONCLUSION With five-factor CAPM, the results indicated that size, premiums, investment, and profitability are the major determinants of the stock returns in Pakistan. Seventy-six percent variations in the stock returns in Pakistan are due to premium, size, book market value, profitability, investment. Our results also confirm that Fama and French (2014) model factors are the major contributing factors of stock returns in Pakistan.

6. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7. REFERENCES Afzal, F, Haiying, P., Afzal, F., Shah, I.A. (2020). Measuring J-curve effect using exchange rate instability and trade imbalances: a quantitative 3SLS approach. International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 11(4), 11A04N: 1-12.

Agarwal, N. (2014). How to obtain high returns with lower volatility in emerging markets?. Cogent Economics & Finance, 2(1), 890060.

Agarwalla, S. K., Jacob, J., & Varma, J. R. (2014). Four factor model in Indian equities market. Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad Working Paper, (2013-09), 05.

Banerjee, A., Bandyopadhyay, G., De, A., & Ramani, L. (2014, January). A Study on Carhart four-factor model in the perspective of Indian market. In Business and Information Management (ICBIM), 2014 2nd International Conference on (pp. 141-143). IEEE.

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Saira Munir, Muhammad Sajjad, Asad Afzal Humayon, Muhammad Irfan Chani

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Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8O http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8O.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.156

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Saira Munir is a Research Assistant, at COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus. She holds an MS in Management Sciences.

Dr. Muhammad Sajjad is an Assistant Professor at COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus. He holds a PhD in Management Sciences.

Dr. Asad Afzal Humayon is a Principal Research Officer at COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari Campus. He got a PhD in Management Sciences.

Dr. Muhammad Irfan Chani is an Assistant Professor at COMSATS University Islamabad, Vehari. He got a PhD in Economics.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All products names including trademarksâ&#x201E;˘ or registeredÂŽ trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. Use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Saira Munir, Muhammad Sajjad, Asad Afzal Humayon, Muhammad Irfan Chani

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8P

SUSTAINABILITY OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING: A REVIEW OF ASSESSMENT TOOLS 1

Hillary Tan Yee Qin , Lim Poh Im

1*

, and Olanrewaju AbdulLateef

2

1

Department of Architecture & Sustainable Design, Lee Kong Chian Faculty of Engineering and Science, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, MALAYSIA. 2 Faculty of Engineering and Green Technology, Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman, MALAYSIA. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 28 May 2019 Received in revised form 21 February 2020 Accepted 04 March 2020 Available online 20 March 2020

This paper aims to examine the current sustainability assessments of affordable housing in Malaysia by reviewing existing tools used in project development. In line with global concerns on sustainable development and advancement in the development of tools accessing sustainability, Malaysia has also implemented similar green assessment systems such as Green Building Initiative (GBI), Green Real Estate (GreenRE), the Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), Low Carbon Building Assessment, etc. The scope and focus of each are somewhat different, with each of these targeting specific types of building or development sectors; but none has been developed to suit the requirements of high-rise low-income or affordable housing. Indeed, this is a special sector considering its circumstances of low budget and thus limiting itself in resource utilization and construction implementation. This paper argues that there are inadequacies in the existing sustainable assessment systems with regard to the special requirements of the high-rise affordable housing sector. In this paper, we will discuss these issues and highlight some of the inadequacies.

Data derived mainly from a content analysis of policy documents and news reports. Examples and data focusing on Penang state are featured.

The findings are part of a study in developing a framework of sustainability assessment for high-rise affordable housing in Malaysia.

Keywords:

Housing sustainable assessment; High-rise affordable housing; High-rise building; Social Impact Assessment (SIA); Framework of sustainability assessment.

Disciplinary: Architectural Science (Sustainable Housing and Policy). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Rapid development and concentration of population in cities pose high demands for housing with the construction sector accounted as a key sector contributing to sustainable challenges. As such, sustainability in providing adequate housing is a subject that demands critical attention. Sustainable housing takes into account economic, environmental, and social issues and must equally satisfy the *Corresponding author (Lim Poh Im). Email: limpi@utar.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8P http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.157

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long-term sustainable outcomes (Brandon & Lombardi, 2011). However, integrating sustainability into affordable housing are challenging due to time and financial constraints (Gan et al., 2017) Affordability would disappear if households spend more than 30% of their income on housing as this leaves little for other non-housing necessities such as food, clothing, medical, education, and utility bills (Feldman, 2002). Besides the life-cycles of buildings, sitting and location of the buildings are some other contentious issues. Providing affordable housing in locations away from the city means longer commuting distance and higher energy consumptions, with the lower-income group, tend to be less likely to move than those from higher levels (Wahi et al., 2018). It can pose substantial threats to natural resources, in the instances of opening up land in hill slopes and coastal seafront causing degradation of environmental features. Presently, there are already in place various screening and evaluation processes before a project development can be implemented. But none has specifically focused on the high-rise affordable housing sector. This paper aims to provide a review on the implementation of project evaluation tools related to sustainable assessment and highlight to what extent they are adequate for integrating sustainability features in the assessment of high-rise affordable housing. The focus will be on Penang state with its highly urbanized setting and the manifestation of issues challenging the notions of sustainable affordable housing (Abujrad, 2018).

2. METHODOLOGY This paper is mainly based on secondary resources using the content analysis method in reviewing policy documents and news reports. A large amount of text of existing documents is reviewed and transformed into organized and summarized information. Cases of news reports involving impacts of housing developments and the related commentaries are organized and the issues analyzed. These are supplemented with existing literature and past studies related to the topic.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW 3.1 AFFORDABLE HOUSING POLICIES In Malaysia, affordable housing is offered by three-tiers of governments, i.e. federal, states. as well as local authorities with each playing different roles and responsibilities. The federal government formulates policies and guidelines for development and planning on affordable housing; state governments provide appropriate locations while the local governments are responsible for the approval of plans and development applications (Ebekozien et al., 2017). Over the years various housing policies have been implemented. Policies such as National Housing Policy, National Five-Year Plan, New Economic Policy; and proposal of One Million Affordable Homes (RMN) 2018-2020, show the efforts of governments towards achieving affordable housing targets. Tables 1 and 2 present the list of current affordable housing schemes and the associated financial assistance.

Apart from the federal government, state governments such as those from Penang and Selangor, have taken pro-active steps contributing to affordable homes. In 1982, the Penang state government implemented a 30% quota requirement for low-cost housing that was imposed in private sectors to stimulate them in supplying low-cost housing. In 2014, it was revised to 20% low-cost and 20% low-medium-cost housing (FMT, 2018b). In January 2019, the Penang State government decided to allow some of the affordable housing units to be sold in the open market instead of restricted to only

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Hillary Tan Yee Qin, Lim Poh Im, and Olanrewaju AbdulLateef

first-time home-buyers; it has also raised household income cap to encourage more take-up rates and counter the high cases on bank loan rejections (Malay Mail, 2019).

Table 1: Affordable Housing Schemes in Malaysia.

(Source: Authors’ compilation from various sources) Affordable Housing Schemes Objectives 1 Malaysia People’s Housing To build affordable housing in urban areas for (PR1MA) middle-income Malaysians Private Ownership Housing Scheme To encourage more affordable homes development (MyHome) by private sectors Perumahan Penjawat Awam To provide an affordable and quality house for Malaysia (PPAM) government servants

Program Perumahan Rakyat (PPR) Rumah Idaman Rakyat (RIR)

To improve the standard and living cost of the low-income group To provide affordable houses for the middle-income group

Wilayah Residensi (RUMAWIP) Formerly known as Rumah Mampu Milik Wilayah Persekutuan

To provide affordable homes form middle-income Malaysian who stays and works in Wilayah Persekutuan

Rumah Selangorku

To provide affordable houses to a middle low-income group within the vicinity of the Selangor region To provide affordable housing to low and middle-income group

Rumah Mampu Milik

Targeted Income RM2,500-15,000 RM3,000-6,000 Entitled for all grades of government servants < RM2,500 Household: ≤ RM10,000 Individual: ≤ RM7,500 Household: ≤ RM15,000 Individual: ≤ RM10,000 ≤ RM10,000 Varied among states

Table 2: Financial Affordable Housing Schemes of homeownership in Malaysia.

Source: Authors’ compilation from various sources Financial Assistant Schemes Description FundMyHome Scheme A crowdfunding initiative in which buyers pay for 20% of property prices and investors pay for the balance.

Rent-to-Own Schemes Buyers need not pay for the 10% down payment Reside-and-Purchase Program Buyers need to pay for 5% down payment and have to pay the balance within 36 months with no interests My Deposit Scheme 10% of the sale price or a maximum of RM30,000 (whichever is lower) is provided by the government for first-time home-buyers and need not return

3.2 SUSTAINABILITY ISSUES IN CURRENT DEVELOPMENT OF AFFORDABLE HOUSING IN PENANG Indeed, quality housing promotes high design standards in construction, accessibility, takes care of the environment, and provides adequate amenities, infrastructure, and facilities to the communities. However, at times, this may not entirely be the case. In a highly urbanized situation such as Penang Island, the limited resources need to be distributed fairly across geography and in different sectors. The competing land use in cities made it expensive to build cheap houses as the land price is one key factor that contributes to high costs in housing (Kamal et al., 2016). Hence, finding new land or creating more land for development could mean jostling between the social, human, and natural capital, in fulfilling the three pillars of sustainability. In other words, it is about finding the right balance by looking at the opportunity cost, between providing housing and sacrificing environmental resources. *Corresponding author (Lim Poh Im). Email: limpi@utar.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8P http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.157

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In Penang, the development of high-rise high-density affordable housing has frequently caught controversies with its ‘boldness’ in the implementation, such issues include raising the housing density to an unprecedented level, allow encroachment into environmentally sensitive areas, lack of concerns to other side effects such as safety and congestions, etc. On the housing density issues, in 2016 it was increased to 128 units per acre from 87 units per acre previously. The reason given was that the smaller the unit size, the lower the price for affordable housing (The Sun, 2016). The reason for doing so was said to due to limited land resources on the island. This amendment of guideline seems to be valid given that some researchers support for high-density developments. Winston and Eastaway (2008) suggested that higher density development is more sustainable than low-density development where lesser land is required; and that higher density development tends to reduce energy consumption (Towers, 2010). However, Ng (2013) argued that higher density development can only sustainable if it is well-planned and well-designed. The Consumers’ Association of Penang (CAP) argued that with such high-density development it would bring adverse effects to the environment, quality of life of the occupants, and residents in the surrounding areas (FMT, 2016).

On the issue of building on environmentally sensitive areas, there have been several housing projects built on hill slopes which were criticized as violating the guidelines. Referring to the Penang Structure Plan 2020 which was gazette in 2007, “development projects above a gradient of 25 degrees and/or 250 feet above sea level” shall be prohibited. However, in the latest Penang Structure Plan 2030 tabled in 2018, it has changed to “development projects above a gradient of 25 degrees and 250 feet above sea level” shall be prohibited. The amended guideline has raised concerns and worries of citizens that the development projects will only get disapproval if both criteria are fulfilled.

In less than three years, a spate of unfortunate disasters involving the construction of high-density housing development has occurred. In 2017, a site accident happened in a high-rise affordable housing project in Tanjung Tokong resulting in the loss of eleven lives after heavy rain and landslide (Malaysiakini, 2017). Another similar housing project, Pine Sanctuary, which is a high-density apartment consisting of three blocks of forty-seven stories luxury apartments and a forty-one story affordable housing received criticisms as it is constructed on a steep hill slope (Asia One, 2017). Also in 2018, a mixed development project was approved to construct on a Class Four Hill. (As according to Safety Guidelines for Hill Slope Development 2012, Class Four Hill has slope gradient of more than 35 degrees and classified as Environmental Sensitive Areas with Disaster Risk.) It includes five blocks of twenty-nine stories of tower blocks, two blocks of thirty-four stories serviced apartment and one block of affordable apartments (FMT, 2018a).

Apart from the environmental issues, economic issues such as the realities of demand and supply are factors to be considered in the sustainability equation. The current seemingly over-supply of the affordable housing situation in the State of Penang has prompted the state government to do a major overhaul to the policies. Previously, affordable housing was strictly controlled only to be sold to Penang residents. In January 2019, the terms and conditions of purchasing affordable housing were revised and relaxed, with 40% of the listed affordable housing units to be sold in the normal open market following market rate, of which 20% are opened to residents from other states (The Star, 2019).

3.3 CURRENT ASSESSMENT OF SUSTAINABILITY IN AFFORDABLE HOUSING Clearly, from the issues above, the sustainability of the current development of affordable

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housing is questionable. A review of related assessment systems has found that sustainable development schemes in Malaysia employ several approaches. Generally, sustainable performance of housing can be evaluated by rating tools, policies, indicators and frameworks. Most of these approaches apply to all types of buildings – residential and non-residential.

Aside from the indicators, which are considered as non-legal binding and voluntary-based, an assessment used to control project development is carried out through development planning systems.

All development projects on land, including housing, shall apply for planning permission from local authorities. The local authorities will carry out the procedure to inspect and assess the proposed development project by reviewing items, criteria and restrictions as formulated. Below are the current approach used, that are related to the evaluation of the sustainable performance of housing:3.3.1 TOWN AND COUNTRY PLANNING SYSTEM Town and Country Planning Act (TCPA) is a legal tool for control and regulation of town and country development. It was enacted in 1976 and has since undergone four amendments from 1993 to 2017. A development plan must be submitted before the commencement of any development projects. According to subsection 19 (1), Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172), proposed development projects shall obtain permission and approval from the Local Planning Authority before carrying out on site. Under Act 172, there are four types of development plans, which are – National Physical Plan (RFN), State Structure Plan (RSN), District Tour Plan (RTD), and Special Area Plan (RKK).

Table 3: Development Plans under the Town and Country Planning Act 1976 (Act 172).

(Source: Pulau Pinang Town and Country Planning Development) Development Plan Functions National Physical Plan Used as a physical planning guide and implemented at Federal and state levels throughout Peninsular Malaysia.

State Structure Plan Consists of State’s policies and strategic regard to the development and land use which to streamline existing development plan policies District Tour Plan Defines general policies in State Structure Plan to a more detailed and more physical form Special Area Plan A specific action plan for an area identified by the authorities which is a more detailed proposal plan than District Tour Plan

Apart from this, the Development Proposal Report (LCP) shall also be submitted to the authorities for planning permission (Section 21A(1)) along with Layout Plan (Section 21B, Act 172).

LCP is a technical report to explain and justify the development’s concept. It consists of the location map, key plan, site plan, contour plan; description of land including physical environment, topography, landscape, geology, drainage and natural feature; land use analysis; and survey of existing trees, vegetation and building affected by the development.

3.3.2 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (EIA) Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is one of the mandatory requirements for developments that exceed a certain scale and pose threats to the environment. It identifies the positive and negative effects of the environment caused by a proposed development (Hamid and Long, 2017). The EIA provides an understanding of existing environmental issues and potential environmental impacts. It is *Corresponding author (Lim Poh Im). Email: limpi@utar.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8P http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.157

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considered as a technique to improve environmental performance and ultimately achieving sustainable development.

Under the EIA, public participation is an essential element to be incorporated. However, the effectiveness of public participation in EIA is questionable. Feedbacks and perceptions of the public often seem meaningless and disregarded although they concern very much of environmental issues (Rahman, 2011). According to Makmor and Ismail (2015), EIA should address the cumulative impacts of the proposed development. It is because a single development project might only bring a little impact to the environment, but a significant effect may result when integrating other activities.

3.3.3 SOCIAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT (SIA) Before Town and Country Planning (Amendment), Act 2017 (Act A152) came into effect, Social Impact Assessment was only a report or a part of the EIA report. However, since 2017, developers have to carry out SIA as a mandatory process for developments. SIA is a tool to assess human needs and social impacts affected by the proposed developments. Besides, the SIA acts as a framework for dialogue on development priorities among social groups, civil society, grassroots organizations, different levels of government, and other stakeholders (Hassan, 2018).

Similar to EIA, SIA requires public participation during the scoping stage. Malaysia is a multi-cultural nation whereby to carry out SIA is to ensure concerns and benefits of all ethnicities are taken into account in development. Presently, SIA is still not as widely accepted and essential as compared to EIA in project developments. The concern of implementation of SIA was raised in a recent seminar in Penang (KPB, 2019). As a stand-alone report, the developers must, therefore, evaluate and access positive and negative social impacts brought by the proposed developments.

Taking Penang South Reclamation (PSR) project as an example, the SIA was viewed to be important to ensure the welfares of the local citizens are uplifted and secured.

3.3.4 GREEN RATING TOOLS Other tools related to sustainability assessment are referring to green building assessment systems implemented in Malaysia since the 1990s. There are several types of rating tools available in Malaysia to evaluate the sustainable performance of buildings. The green rating tools were designed according to the country’s weather, social and cultural needs, political and development contexts.

The first green rating tool was the Green Building Index (GBI), developed by Pertubuhan Arkitek Malaysia (PAM) in 2009. It evaluates buildings’ performance in six criteria: energy efficiency (EE), indoor environment quality (EQ), sustainable site planning and management (SM), materials and resources (MR), water efficiency (WE), and innovation (IN). Until January 2019, a total number of forty-four buildings were certified by GBI in Penang. Among these, The Light Collection 2 was one of the more well-known green certified residential buildings.

Another similar green building rating tool is Green Real Estate (GreenRE) initiated by Real Estate and Housing Development’s Association (REHDA) in 2013. It accesses a building’s performance in terms of water and energy efficiency, indoor air quality, and environmental protection and carbon emissions of the development. Building performance is evaluated by qualified GreenRE managers: comprised mostly of architects, engineers and developers (GreenRE, 2018). Until January 2019, there was a total of thirty-seven certified (fully and provisional) residential buildings with GreenRE.

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Hillary Tan Yee Qin, Lim Poh Im, and Olanrewaju AbdulLateef

Another green rating tool used is Green Mark from Singapore. It covers several types of buildings, including residential buildings, non-residential buildings and infrastructures (Building and Construction Authority, 2018). Its rating criteria include energy efficiency, water efficiency, environmental protection, indoor environmental quality and other green features and innovation.

Priced at more than half a million, the River Tropics was a first green high-rise residential project to receive Green Mark certification in Penang.

4. ISSUES IN CURRENT SUSTAINABILITY ASSESSMENT At present, there are various incentives and recognitions provided by agencies and governments on the sustainable performance of buildings, to encourage the construction of green buildings.

However, it is observed that residential buildings certified with current green rating tools all fall within the category of middle to high costs categories. Table 4 displays the market price of certified green residential buildings in Penang. As indicated, all of the green-certified buildings cost above half a million ringgit, which are way beyond the affordable levels of the general public.

Table 4: Residential buildings certified with current green rating tools in Penang and the market values of each property (retrieved data on 15 January 2019 Source: Authors’ compilation from various sources) Property Value Project Name Certification Classification (propertyguru.com.my).

The Light Collection 2 GBI Certified RM580,000 onwards Olive Tree Residences GBI Certified RM720,000 onwards The Tamarind GreenRE Bronze RM800,000 onwards Preston Oaks GreenRE Gold RM6,250,000 River Tropics Green Mark Gold RM500,000 onwards

Indeed, affordable housing is a critical category of housing that needs higher, if not an equal emphasis in green ratings. This mass housing sector is essentially satisfying the sustainability agenda with its efficient use of resources in providing essential shelter, forming the core elements of sustainable habitat to provide human ‘needs’, rather than ‘wants’. Why then, is there a lack of initiative in getting affordable housing to be certified and rated as a green building? Does it mean in the process to provide housing with the cheapest means, environmental concerns such as using green and energy-saving materials, pollution and traffic congestions are secondary?

One of the critiques on existing green building assessment such as the GBI was that it has become a commercial trick by some property developers (Abidin, 2010). Sustainability is thus perceived as a method to enhance an organization’s public image and promote a positive impression in endorsing Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), as can be seen from the experiences of AECOM and ARUP. Research has also shown that green certifications help to increase property value (Abdullah et al., 2016). In Malaysia, there tends to be an emphasis by developers on “visible aspects” of sustainable design, such as green facades and externally placed renewal energy technologies.

According to Charoenkit & Kumar (2014), the sustainability framework and tools are developed by governmental agencies or professionals and experts and focuses only on their narrow sectorial concerns. Another deficiency in existing sustainability assessment tools is that it does not address *Corresponding author (Lim Poh Im). Email: limpi@utar.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8P http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.157

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potential vulnerability and resilience to disasters. Studies have shown that income level as one of the factors when confronting disasters (Baker, 2011; King, 2001; Pajooh, 2014). For the low-income group, they are often deemed as vulnerable groups to climate threats (Laukkonen et al., 2009).

Another fact is that the current sustainability framework seems to place a higher emphasis on physical environment aspects, i.e. site selection, design features, building materials compared to social sustainability aspects. According to Rapaport (2015), “culture” cannot be seen or observed; it can only be expressed in terms of its effects and products. Research also pointed out that cultural elements in housing do affect occupants’ satisfaction level. With a higher satisfaction level, occupants tend to appreciate, and thus the quality of life would be enhanced (Sultan Sidi, 2011).

Other factors that are left out in the existing assessment tools are levels of acceptance of affordable housing schemes by surrounding communities, local governance and improper social relations (Winston & Eastaway, 2008). Indeed socio-cultural integration of different occupants within the affordable housing schemes involves issues that are seldom addressed. In addition, community participation and empowerment (Ross et al., 2010); security of tenure and effective management of properties in creating a sense of belonging and community stability (Azevedo & Silva, 2010) are other elements to be considered in a holistic sustainable assessment of affordable housing.

5. CONCLUSION The construction industry brings significant impacts on the economy, environment and society (Kucukvar and Tatari, 2013). Thus, sustainability in the construction sector plays an important role across the whole life cycle, from planning to disposal (Kibert, 2008). Sustainability in the building is not about the day it is completed but only revealed through long-term performance. Housing represents multiple attributes, including shelter, personal status, self-satisfaction and financial asset.

It is permanently fixed in space, cannot be moved from places to places and have a very long life cycle. Therefore, a sustainability framework is essential to evaluate the performance of affordable housing. As discussed, there may be several assessments and evaluation tools in place in Malaysia.

However, it is lacking a proper sustainability framework for the affordable housing sector, especially for the high-rise high-density affordable or low-income housing. To integrate sustainability into affordable housing, economic, social context and natural resources must be taken into consideration.

It is also essential to include concerns and input all stakeholders in developing an appropriate sustainability framework for affordable housing.

6. DATA AND MATERIAL AVAILABILITY Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Makmor, M. and Ismail, Z. (2015) ‘Improving Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Process in Malaysia’, Jurnal Teknologi.

Penerbit UTM Press, 78(1).

Available at: http://jurnalteknologi.utm.my/index.php/jurnalteknologi/article/view/4489/4631 (Accessed: January 2019).

Malaysiakini (2017) All 11 victims in Tg Bungah landslide accounted for, Malaysiakini. Available at: http://www.malaysiakini.com/news/399170 (Accessed: February 2019).

Penang introduces steps to spur housing industry | Malaysia | Malay Mail (2019) Malay Mail. Available at: http://www.malaymail.com/news/malaysia/2019/01/28/penang-introduces-steps-to-spur-housing -industry/1717208 (Accessed: January 2019).

Rahman, H. A. (2011) ‘Public Involvement on Environmental Issues in Malaysia with Refernce to Alor Star, Kedah’, in 2011 International Conference on Environmental, Biomedical and *Corresponding author (Lim Poh Im). Email: limpi@utar.edu.my ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8P http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8P.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.157

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Biotechnology, 90-93. Available at: http://www.thegef.org/gef/public_involvement (Accessed: February 2019).

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Star (2019) Penang’s overhang addressed – Nation.

The Star Online. http://www.thestar.com.my/news/nation/2019/01/29/penangs-overhang-addressed/ (Accessed: February 2019).

The Sun (2016) Development density guidelines in Penang to take effect next year, the Sun. Available at: http://www.thesundaily.my/archive/2054913-YTARCH407125 (Accessed: February 2019).

Wahi, N. et al. (2018) ‘Problems and Issues of High Rise Low Cost Housing in Malaysia’, IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering.

341(1). doi: 10.1088/1757-899X/341/1/012027.

Winston, N. and Pareja Eastaway, M. (2008). Sustainable Housing in the Urban Context: International Sustainable Development Indicator Sets and Housing. Social Indicators Research. 87(2), 211-221. doi: 10.1007/s11205-007-9165-8.

Hillary Tan Yee Qin is a Research Assistant in the Master of Science Programme at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR), Sg Long. She received her Bachelor of Science from the same university. She focuses on Affordable Housing and Sustainability.

Dr.Lim Poh Im is an Assistant Professor in Architecture Programme and Chairperson of Centre for Sustainable Architecture at Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman (UTAR) Sungai Long campus. She has a Bachelor and a Master of Planning degrees from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM), Penang, and a Master of Arts in Environmental Impact Assessment and Management from University of Manchester, UK. She obtained her PhD degree in Housing & Spatial Behavior from the National University of Singapore. Her fields of interest are Urban Planning, Housing and Sustainability, and Environmental Behavior.

Olanrewaju was an undergraduate at Kaduna Polytechnic, Nigeria and graduate at International Islamic University Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS. His research is grounded in data because he is an Empiricist Researcher that likes to explain relationship from the obtained data. He is with Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman Malaysia. His interests vary from Construction Delay, Value Engineering/Management, Construction Procurement, Building Maintenance, Affordable Housing, and Sustainable Affordable Housing and Quantity Surveying.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Hillary Tan Yee Qin, Lim Poh Im, and Olanrewaju AbdulLateef

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

Paper ID: 11A8Q

EFFECTS OF PHASE CHANGE MATERIALS ON REDUCING ENERGY CONSUMPTION IN RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS: CASE STUDY OF PARK VIEW APARTMENTS IN ERBIL CITY 1

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Husein Ali Husein , Azad Hama , Younis Sarhang Jalal 1

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Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Salahaddin University, Erbil, IRAQ. Department of Architecture, College of Engineering, Tishk International University, Erbil, IRAQ.

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ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 07 January 2020 Received in revised form 02 March 2020.

Accepted 12 Available online1 23 March 2020

Smart construction materials have, over the years, received significant attention due to their inherent properties to respond to changes in their environments, for instance, temperature, light, pressure, and electric voltage. Phase Changing Materials (PCM) is a type of smart material that responds to changes in temperature conditions in their environment. As a result, they absorb and store large energy amounts during hot conditions and release it by melting at a predictable temperature. Based on this functionality, they are popularly employed in the thermal regulation of indoor environments in buildings. This research investigates the performance of phase-changing material (PCM) on reducing the energy consumption of Park View Apartments in Erbil, Iraq. Data was collected by simulating energy usage of the modeled apartment building in the Design-Builder application. Five different PCMs were used – Q21, Q23, Q25, Q27, and Q29 that were distinguished by their melting temperature indicated by their values (e.g. Q21 melted at 21°C). Four different thicknesses were also used, (M182 – 74.2mm, M91 – 37.1mm, M51 – 20.8mm, and M27 – 11.2mm). The obtained results showed that PCM with thickness 0.0742m and a melting temperature of 25°C generated the highest energy savings of 2.07%. Additionally, the material generated the most optimal results in heating applications while PCM M182 Q23 demonstrated better results in cooling applications. Directly, the findings suggest that the adoption of PCM is a tentative solution to reduce energy consumption levels in residential buildings in Iraq such as the Park View Apartments in Erbil where a hot and dry climate is experienced. In turn, this promotes the development of sustainable buildings.

Keywords: Phase change materials (PCM); Indoor Thermal Comfort; Residential Structures; Design Builder; Simulation; Total HVAC; Energy saving.

Disciplinary: Architectural Sciences and Engineering. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

* Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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1. INTRODUCTION In the current age, technology plays a fundamental role in leading innovation in nearly all sectors of the economy. One key application regards the development of new smart construction materials which unlike their predecessors, such as concrete, stone, and wood, are embedded with the ability to respond to changes in their environment in a beneficial manner (Mohamed, 2017). The researcher observes that smart materials can respond to changes in weather, such as winter or summer, temperature fluctuation in the environment or external pressure, and, as a result, ensure the needs of building occupants are met. A study by Abdullah and Al-Alwan (2019) has effectively categorized smart materials into three main categories: property-exchange, energy-exchange, and material-exchange.

As a result of their unique qualities, Borden and Meredith (2012) postulate that smart materials have been widely adopted in interior architecture due to the improved convenience they afford to the building occupants. Further, Mohamed (2017) reveals that smart materials used in buildings have immense potential in enhancing their designs as well as improving energy efficiency in terms of heating and cooling applications. This led to improving thermal comfort for building occupants.

Phase change materials (PCM) are a class of smart materials that are widely adopted as thermal regulators in buildings as they bridge the gap between the availability of energy and when it is needed for heating, cooling and improving the quality and comfort of both residential and commercial spaces (Harland, Mackay, & Vale, 2010). Further, Al-Baldawi (2015) reveals that PCM is effectively used in interior architecture as a thermal regulator through phase change wallboards. The researcher observes that PCM absorb, store, and release large amounts of energy through latent heat at predictable temperatures. As a result, they have been employed in walls and floors of buildings in different climates to help regulate internal temperature through the release of latent energy.

Figure 1: Erbil Citadel (UNESCO, 2014) Ivarsson (2010) has observed that although Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning (HVAC) systems are highly valuable in enhancing thermal comfort within buildings, they are, however, disadvantageous as they are attributed to 50% of the total energy consumed within buildings.

Therefore, novel approaches to minimize energy consumption are highly sought to meet both the thermal comfort requirements in buildings and decrease energy usage (Addington & Schodek, 2012).

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Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

In the Middle East, in particular, HVAC systems are a necessity given the high temperatures experienced during summer conditions and low temperatures in winter. Subsequently, the use of PCM is investigated as a solution to the challenge.

Erbil or Arbil is the capital of the Iraqi Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) in Northern Iraq and one of the largest cities in the country (Gunter, 2019). As one of the oldest cities in the world, dating back to 2300 B.C., the Erbil Citadel has already been designated as one of UNESCO’s world heritage sites (UNESCO, 2014). Figure 1 displays the Erbil Citadel.

Gunter (2019) also observes that Erbil city serves as an important trade center due to its high population of 1.5 to 2 million individuals. The city has also morphed into an Arabian tourism center, over the years, with contemporary architecture such as modern malls and shopping centers and many residential projects in different parts of the city. One of the contemporary buildings in Erbil is the Park View apartments illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Park View Apartments in Erbil (Baghy Shaqlawa, 2020) This research focuses specifically on the Park View apartments in Erbil and the impact of utilizing phase change materials on the indoor comfort in the building. In, particular, the RT25HC type of PCM from Rubitherm GmbH is investigated. Features of the RTH25C material include high latent heat capacity levels at narrow ranges of temperature, unlimited lifetime, and supercooling effect. The material melts at 25°C, releasing 210 kJ/kg of heat.

Several researchers have examined the use of PCM RT25HC in enhancing the thermal comfort of indoor environments. Thus, this study is not unique but seeks to compare the findings obtained against similar studies. For instance, Meyer (2016) conducted an experiment where an air rig was encapsulated with RT25HC PCM plates and air blown from a fan through the duct. The ambient air temperature was recorded thereafter. Findings showed that the use of the PCM lowered the air temperature within the rig significantly. Chen at al. (2014) had also set up a similar experiment where an air rig was encapsulated with different aluminum plates, and the flow rate of the air was controlled within the rig. Results showed that setting the flow rate to 0.027, 0.061, and 0.075kg/sec led to the fluctuation of temperature by 2.9°C, 2.4°C, and 1.4°C respectively. The implication was that lower airflow rates led to higher cooling effects, respectively. Based on the positive findings, this research * Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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aims to compare the performance of the RT25HC PCM in the context of the Middle Eastern region.

2. RESEARCH NOVELTY The novelty of the research stems from its focus on the use of Phase Change Materials (PCM) to save the energy consumption of Park View apartment buildings located in Iraq. Therefore, the study is unique in two ways; first, it investigates how the use of phase changing smart materials in the building can help improve the quality and comfort of indoor environments in Iraq given its long hot and dry summers and short winter climate. Second, the research is significant in that it demonstrates, through software simulation, how using smart materials can be an effective solution to promote energy efficiency in building apartments. The efficiency emerges from the release of energy during winter and the absorption of excess heat during the long and hot summers. To the best of the researcherâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s knowledge, this is the first study in Iraq that evaluates the use of PCM materials in apartment buildings to enhance their internal comfort as well as ensuring energy consumption remains at an affordable level.

3. LITERATURE REVIEW The adoption of phase changing smart materials for thermal regulation applications in buildings has been examined by diverse researchers in various parts of the world. To begin with, Stropnik et al.

(2019) observe that in the European Union, there is an urgent need to reduce energy use in the building sector as 40% of total energy use is attributed to buildings. To minimize energy consumption, the researchers advocated for the integration of retrofit with existing interconnected technological systems, particularly, implementing PCM materials into a buildingâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s storage tank. The research aimed to investigate whether PCM materials impacted the thermal energy storage of the tanks. Findings obtained showed that where the storage tank was fitted with PCM material, water at the desired temperature level could be supplied for a longer period. Directly, the study showed that PCM was effective in thermal energy storage applications where narrow temperature ranges when supplying and storing the thermal energy were preferred.

Da Cunha and de Aguiar (2019) further carried out a review examining the use of phase change materials in enhancing the energy efficiency of buildings. From the review article, findings showed that PCM materials operated on a principle whereby, they absorbed and stored energy when environmental temperatures increased by changing their state from solid to liquid.

On the contrary, however, a decrease in temperature led to the release of previously stored energy, leading to a change in state from liquid to solid. The review article further revealed that PCM materials are categorized into three based on their melting temperatures; the organic type that is either paraffinic or non-paraffinic, the inorganic type that includes hydrated and metal salts and the eutectic types that are comprised of a combination of the two. Key features of the PCM materials and their problems such as supercooling, low fire resistance, and phase separation were also outlined. Finally, approaches to integrate PCM materials in buildings such as encapsulation, immersion, shape stabilization, and direct incorporation were discussed.

The two relevant studies, Stropnik et al. (2019) demonstrated the practical use of PCM in enhancing the thermal properties of an underground water tank while Da Cunha and de Aguiar (2019)

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Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

outlined the operational principles of PCM materials and other important concepts to better understand their performance. A separate study by Lee, Medina, Sun, and Jin (2018) further revealed that outfitting building walls with PCM materials improved their potential in saving energy and as a result, the thermal comfort of the buildings. However, an imminent challenge facing their adoption was that they required extra construction time to integrate the various layers involved. To tackle the challenge, Lee et al. (2018) advocated for the mixing of PCM with the insulation directly during the manufacturing process. Experimental tests conducted on walls enhanced with PCM showed that thermal performance improved significantly both in terms of daily and hourly peak heat flux reduction temperatures.

Chen et al. (2014) also examined the influence of embedding PCMs in metal foam to enhance their low thermal conductivity. The underlying argument for the research was that the low thermal conductivity of PCMs decreased their heat transfer rates and as a result, caused low energy utilization.

Conversely, the metal foam was praised for its high thermal conductivity, strong mixing capabilities, and high porosity. The researchers embedded PCM onto aluminum, nickel, and copper foam and thereafter, examined the performance experimentally. Findings obtained showed that the embedding of the metal foam improved the heat transfer performance of PCM through suppressing natural convection and reducing convective heat transfer performance.

The analysis of the two studies (Chen et al., 2014; Lee et al., 2018) reveals that PCM qualities can be enhanced further by embedding them with metal foam or directly mixing them insulation materials during construction. In the two instances, the overall thermal performance of the PCM materials is observed to increase significantly. Eddhahak-Ouni, Drissi, Colin, Neji, and Care (2014) also investigated the impact of embedding Portland cement concretes with microencapsulated PCM materials. After performing several experimental tests, findings obtained showed that the heat storage capacity of the cement material was enhanced by adding PCM material.

Researchers Saxena, Rakshit, and Kaushik (2020) also investigated the impact of embedding bricks with PCM materials in an attempt to improve the passive conditioning of buildings.

Experimental testing was thereafter undertaken during peak summer conditions when temperatures reached beyond 40°C during the day. Findings showed that a reduction of temperature ranging between 4 to 9.5°C was reported across the bricks that were embedded with PCM material in contrast to the ordinary bricks. Further heat reduction ranging between 40% and 60% during the day was also reported for the enhanced bricks. The findings resonated with previous research by Eddhahak-Ouni et al. (2014) which had shown that PCM in cementitious materials enhanced their thermal qualities.

However, in the research by Saxena et al. (2020), bricks were considered as opposed to cement.

Based on the positive correlation observed between embedding PCM materials in construction materials and improving thermal performance, other researchers focused on identifying new methods to modify conventional materials with PCM. For instance, Ryms and Klugmann-Radziemska (2019) investigated three different approaches; adding microcapsule powder Micronal DS 5040X, adding it in liquid form as Rubitherm RT22, and as a porous aggregate using Rubitherm RT22. Findings obtained showed that incorporating PCM as an aggregate was the most advantageous approach as only a minimal amount of the material was incorporated into the construction materials to enhance * Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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their cooling abilities.

Yoo et al. (2019) further examined the thermal performance of biocomposites developed by combining PCM materials with coffee wastes. Findings showed that the use of bio-compatible PCM by-products not only led to enhanced thermal qualities but also, was environmentally friendly and sufficient for building applications. Jingchen et al. (2020) also evaluated the thermal qualities of biocomposites developed by combining PCM materials with fatty acids or wood flour. Findings obtained using thermogravimetric analysis, revealed that the composite material depicted excellent thermal characteristics.

3.1 LITERATURE GAP From the analysis of the different studies reviewed in the previous section, it was apparent that PCM materials improve the thermal performance of buildings by absorbing heat during hot conditions and releasing it when temperatures fell. Da Cunha and de Aguiar (2019) argued that the inherent characteristics of the PCM materials were explained by the change in their states, whereby, they changed from liquid to solid during low temperatures and solid to liquid in hot conditions.

Nonetheless, the various studies showed that adopting PCM materials in buildings improved the thermal performance of buildings by reducing heat loss during hot conditions and prolonging high temperatures in cold conditions.

The performance of the PCM materials could be improved by either embedding them to metal foam (Chen et al., 2014), building bricks (Saxena et al., 2020), Portland cement (Eddhahak-Ouni et al., 2014) and organic waste (Yoo et al., 2019; Jingchen et al., 2020). However, what emerges from the analysis of the different studies is that very few studies are undertaken in the Middle Eastern region where climatic conditions lead to hot dry summers and cold winters. Therefore, this research aims to bridge this gap by investigating the performance of PCM materials on indoor thermal comfort in buildings in Iraq. Secondly, the analysis of the studies also showed that none of the researchers adopted software simulation methodology to investigate PCM materials. This study also utilizes Revit and SketchUp to model the buildings and Design-Builder to simulate energy flow both with and without the integration of PCM materials. This insight will be highly beneficial to both building owners in Iraq as well as stakeholders in the construction industry in the country. This research will spark more conversations on the need to integrate PCM in Iraqi buildings thereby, improving thermal comfort and saving more energy at a more affordable cost.

4. METHODOLOGY This research is guided by a positivist philosophy and a deductive approach to theory development. Based on the positivist philosophy, the researcher aims to collect quantitative data through observation of phenomena in the real world using scientific techniques (Saunders, Lewis, & Thornhill, 2009). Likewise, the deductive approach implies that empirical observations will be collected to test the various prediction statements or hypotheses (Collins, 2010). The tested hypotheses are H1: Integration of PCM materials in Park View Apartments lowers the energy costs of cooling the building during the day.

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Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

H2: Integration of PCM materials in Park View Apartments lowers energy costs of heating the building during the night and in the winter season.

To collect data, a case study research strategy will be adopted, whereby, the researcher seeks to gain an in-depth understanding of the impact of PCM on the quality of indoor thermal quality in the selected Park View apartments (Yin, 2014). With the case study approach, data will be collected through software simulation in two key processes.

The first process involves modeling a flat in the apartment buildings using SketchUp and Autodesk Revit software. The researcher selected the SketchUp application in the project based on its ease of use and handling, as well as its availability as it also includes a free version (SketchUp, 2020).

Autodesk Revit was also adopted due to its advanced features and comprehensive workflows that suit the conceptualization of real-world building models (Autodesk, 2020). The two applications are also robust and provide a comprehensive database of models that can be reused in other related projects. In effect, this enabled the researcher to develop the 3D models of the apartments within a short time.

The second process involves the integration of the developed 3D models into Design Builder software in order to generate the technical data regarding the effect of PCM materials on the energy consumption levels in the buildings. The underlying factors motivating the adoption of the software application stem from its advanced features which facilitate the simulation of aspects such as energy and comfort (Design Builder, 2020). Additionally, the researcher is motivated to adopt the Design-Builder application due to its wide adoption by numerous researchers in assessing the impact of smart materials on building performance (Curpek & Hraska, 2016; Beltrán & Martínez, 2019).

Once the data is generated in the DesignBuilder application, the analysis will be conducted thereafter. The researcher will generate visual diagrams of the technical data to evaluate how the various variables interact with each other – the use of PCM materials and energy consumption levels in the building. The whole building was modeled in DesignBuilder v.6.1.4. A screenshot of the model of the building is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Design builder model of Park View Apartments * Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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Considering that each floor of the building has the same distribution, building materials, surface floor area, and the activity is the same on each floor, only one floor was selected for analysis. The model of the floor that was used to obtain the results of the study is shown in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Model of the floor that was used to obtain the results of the simulations.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Five different PCMs were used in the simulations, each one with different melting temperatures (Q21, Q23, Q25, Q27, Q29 – the melting temperature of 21°C, 23°C, 25°C, 27°C, and 29°C, respectively). For each case, four different thicknesses were considered (M182 – thickness of 74.2mm, M91 – thickness of 37.1 mm, M51 – thickness of 20.8 mm, and M27 – thickness of 11.2mm). The combination of the previous parameters resulted in 20 different variations of PCM walls that are summarized in Table 1. For comparison, the heating and cooling energy consumption of the building without PCM is also included. As can be seen from the results, the use of an M182Q25 PCM resulted in the highest energy savings of 2.07%. The reason for the relatively low energy savings could be related to the fact that strategies for completing the melting/freezing cycles of the PCM were not implemented. This type of strategy could include the opening of windows at night to use night cool air to solidify the PCM, the circulation of mechanical ventilation air, or the circulation of cool water through the PCM. Table 1 shows the simulation data with different variations.

Table 1: Energy consumption comparison M182Q23 M182Q25 M182Q21 M182Q27 M91Q25 M91Q23 M182Q29 M91Q21 M91Q27 M51Q25 M51Q23 M51Q21 M91Q29 M51Q27 M27Q25 M27Q23 M27Q21 M51Q29 M27Q27 M27Q29 Baseline (no PCM)

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Cooling [kWh] 43864.6494 43675.09 43912.17 43901.6 43986.48 44107.84 44113.18 44132.14 44132.4 44212.95 44295.24 44308.18 44309.88 44304.48 44392.31 44444.93 44451.61 44460.92 44439.27 44543.26 44677.02

Heating [kWh] 29350.79 29461.21 29420.98 29705.12 29736.23 29650.46 29689.46 29726.93 29888.01 29847.83 29773.42 29833.56 29877.25 29952.57 29915.44 29862.94 29900.91 29944.86 29982.06 29977.36 30007.47

Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

Total HVAC [kWh] 73215.4394 73136.3 73333.15 73606.72 73722.71 73758.3 73802.64 73859.07 74020.41 74060.78 74068.66 74141.74 74187.13 74257.05 74307.75 74307.87 74352.52 74405.78 74421.33 74520.62 74684.49

Total Energy Savings [%] 1.97% 2.07% 1.81% 1.44% 1.29% 1.24% 1.18% 1.11% 0.89% 0.84% 0.82% 0.73% 0.67% 0.57% 0.50% 0.50% 0.44% 0.37% 0.35% 0.22% 0.00%

An important aspect to notice from the results that the optimum PCM for reducing cooling energy consumption is not the same as the PCM that is optimum for reducing heating energy consumption. For cooling, an M182Q25 PCM is the optimum solution while for heating, an M182Q25 PCM is the optimum solution.

The main reason for the reduction of heating and cooling energy is related to the reduction of heating and cooling loads as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The peak heating load of the building without PCM is 5060.623 W, while the peak heating load of the building with PCM is 4973.929 W. Similarly, the peak cooling load of the building without PCM is 48065.33 W, while the peak cooling load of the building with PCM is 23494.94 W. This is an indication that the walls of the PCM building can absorb some of the heat gains during the occupancy period and release them during unoccupied periods, which is evidenced in Figure 7 that shows that during occupied periods, the temperature of the exterior walls with PCM is lower than the baseline case, while during unoccupied periods, the walls with PCM are higher.

Cooling load [W] M187Q23

NO PCM

6.00E+04 5.00E+04 4.00E+04 3.00E+04 2.00E+04 1.00E+04 1 31 61 91 121 151 181 211 241 271 301 331 361 391 421 451 481 511 541 571 601 631 661 691

0.00E+00

Figure 5. Comparison of the cooling load of the building with (M182Q23) and without PCM.

Heating load [W] M187Q23

NO PCM

1 29 57 85 113 141 169 197 225 253 281 309 337 365 393 421 449 477 505 533 561 589 617 645 673 701

5.08E+03 5.06E+03 5.04E+03 5.02E+03 5.00E+03 4.98E+03 4.96E+03 4.94E+03 4.92E+03 4.90E+03

Figure 6. Comparison of the heating load of the building with (M182Q23) and without PCM. * Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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Temperature (C)

Wall surface temperature (C) 39 37 35 33 31 29 27 25

1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

0

Time of the day BASELINE

BASELINE

BASELINE

M187q23

M187q23

M187q23

Occupation

Figure 7. Comparison of the temperature of the inside face of exterior walls of the bedrooms of the building (simulation during the summer design day).

As shown in Figure 8, the temperature of the analyzed zone in the building during occupied periods is the same in both cases, which is expected as the cooling system maintains the desired thermal conditions (cooling setpoint of 26°C) regardless of the presence of the PCM.

Temperature

Operative temperature (C) 40 35 30 25 20

1.5 1 0.5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24

0

Time of the day BASELINE

M187q23

Occupation

Figure 8. Comparison of operative temperatures inside the bedrooms of the building (simulation during the summer design day).

6. CONCLUSION This research aimed to investigate the impact of using PCM materials in a reduction of energy consumption in the selected case study residential building – Park View Apartments in Erbil, Iraq.

Based on the evaluation of the simulation results, findings showed that the PCM M182 (0.0742m thickness) and a melting temperature of 25°C led to the highest energy cost savings on cooling while PCM M182 with a melting temperature of 23°C generated the optimal results in heating. For two cases, the results showed that PCM material outperformed baseline scenarios.

Subsequently, based on the positive performance of PCM in both heating and cooling applications, the research recommends its adoption as a strategy to minimize energy consumption in residential buildings in Erbil, Iraq. Given the hot and dry climate experienced in Iraq, PCM usage is

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Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

anticipated to improve thermal comfort in residential buildings through cooling hot temperatures during the day and enhancing heating at night when cooler temperatures are experienced. Directly, this leads to savings on energy costs incurred in heating and cooling buildings and as a result, contributes to the development of more economically and socially sustainable buildings.

7. DATA AND MATERIAL AVAILABILITY Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8. REFERENCES Abdullah, Y., & Al-Alwan, H. (2019). Smart material systems and adaptiveness in architecture. Ain Shams Engineering Journal. DOI: 10.1016/j.asej.2019.02.002 Addington, D., & Schodek, D. (2012). Smart materials and technologies in architecture. Burlington.

Al-Baldawi, M. (2015). Application of smart materials in the interior design of smart houses. Civil and Environmental Research, 7(2), 1-15.

Autodesk (2020).

Revit | BIM Software | Autodesk. https://www.autodesk.com/products/revit/overview [Accessed January 2020].

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Chen, J., Yang, D., Jiang, J., Ma, A., & Song, D. (2014). Research progress of phase change materials (PCMs) embedded with metal foam (a review). Procedia Materials Science, 4, 389-394. DOI: 10.1016/j.mspro.2014.07.579 Collins, H. (2010). Creative research. Lausanne, Switzerland: AVA Pub. SA. Curpek, J., & Hraska, J. (2016). Simulation study on thermal performance of a ventilated PV façade coupled with PCM. Applied Mechanics and Materials, 861, 167-174.

Da Cunha, S., & de Aguiar, J. (2019). Phase change materials and energy efficiency of buildings: A review of knowledge. Journal of Energy Storage, 27, 101083. DOI: 10.1016/j.est.2019.101083.

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Jingchen, X., Keyan, Y., Yucheng, Z., Yuxiang, Y., Jianmin, C., Liping, C., & Sheldon, S. (2020). Form-stable phase change material based on fatty acid/wood flour composite and PVC used for thermal energy storage. Energy And Buildings, 209, 109663. DOI: 10.1016/j.enbuild.2019.109663. * Corresponding author (H.A.Husein) Tel:+9647504539436 Email : husein.ali@su.edu.krd ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8Q http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8Q.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.158

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Lee, K., Medina, M., Sun, X., & Jin, X. (2018). Thermal performance of phase change materials (PCM)-enhanced cellulose insulation in passive solar residential building walls. Solar Energy, 163, 113-121. DOI: 10.1016/j.solener.2018.01.086.

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Dr. Husein Ali Husein is an Assistant Professor of Architectural Engineering and competence of Architectural Technology, Department of Architecture, Salahaddin University –Erbil. He gained a B.Sc. degree in Architectural Engineering from the University of Technology- Baghdad, an M.Sc. degree in Architectural Engineering and Public Building Design from TU-Berlin, and a Ph.D. degree in Architectural Technology from the University of Sulaimania.

Dr.Azad Hama Ahmed is an Assistant Professor, Architecture Engineering Department at the American University of Duhok in Kurdistan. He received his BA and a Master in Architecture and a PhD from the University IUAV of Venice, Italy, where he became a Lecturer during 1995-1998, whilst carrying out his post-doctoral research.

Younis Sarhang Jalal is an M.Sc. student in Interior Architecture Program at Tishk International University. He received a B.Sc. degree in Architecture Engineering from Cihan University. He is the owner and chief architect of Variable Architects Company.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Husein Ali Husein, Azad Hama, Younis Sarhang Jalal

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8R

CLASSIFICATION OF HOUSE LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS BY THE BUYERS’ NEEDS ACCORDING TO THE KANO MODEL 1*

2

Kongkoon Tochaiwat , Cuttaleeya Jiraprasertkun , Narissa Wanichwatunyou

1,3

1

Department of Innovative Real Estate Development, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, THAILAND. 2 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Kasetsart University, THAILAND. 3 Wealthproperty 24 Co., Ltd., THAILAND. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 23 December 2019 Received in revised form 24 February 2020 Accepted 16 March 2020 Available online 23 March 2020

This research studied an approach in the classification of house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region in order to better understand buyers’ needs. The Kano Model Classification was used to analyze 3 categories of house landscape elements: (1) must-be quality (2) one-dimensional and (3) attractive elements. In this quantitative research, 202 buyers selected through quota sampling were requested to answer a questionnaire. The research results enable property developers or designers to profoundly understand the buyers’ needs and to apply this understanding as a guideline in designing the house landscape elements to answer the buyers’ needs within limited budgets to ensure the housing projects’ success.

Keywords: Detached houses; Choices of residence; Needs of buyers; Customers’ satisfaction; Buyers’ budgets; Housing landscape design; Kano model classification.

Disciplinary: Multidisciplinary (Real Estate Business, Customer Behaviors, Landscape Architecture). ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Detached houses are desirable as family homes because they offer complete privacy, utility space, and outside space for activities such as gardening, outdoor activities, family entertainment, parking, etc. [1]. At present, the urban area has been greatly expanded, particularly in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region. Hence, despite the needs for detached houses, new housing projects are rare and most detached houses are expensive. It is, therefore, challenging for housing project entrepreneurs in the detached house market to develop their projects to respond to the needs within reasonable budgets, so that the houses are not too expensive.

For the reasons stated above, designing appropriate house elements, including landscape elements, to meet the buyers’ needs at various price ranges is used by various entrepreneurs as a *Corresponding author (K.Tochaiwat). Tel: +66-992893328. Email: kongkoon@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction

Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8R http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.159

1

strategy for creating selling points. Nowadays, house landscape design, especially garden design, is quite popular, requiring considerable budgets, to prevent possible mistakes, to ensure quality house landscape layout, and to enhance the residents’ quality of life, etc. Therefore, a study on consumers’ needs is required and the specification of details must be done appropriately and efficiently [2].

The Kano Model is an analysis method to determine appropriate qualities for products and qualities to suit different groups of consumers, based on the assumption that different groups of consumers desire different qualities in the same products they need. Certain qualities are essential; some will make the products attractive and remarkable and will persuade consumers’ decisions and ensure greater satisfaction. On the other hand, some elements may cause dissatisfaction [3, 4].

Therefore, this study focuses on the classification of house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects from the buyers’ perspectives according to the Kano Model to provide guidelines in designing house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects and creating greater satisfaction for the buyers.

2. OBJECTIVES AND SCOPE OF RESEARCH 2.1 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES The objectives of this research were to analyze the classification of house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects from the buyers’ perspectives according to the Kano Model and to present guidelines in designing house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects and creating greater satisfaction for the buyers.

2.2 SCOPE OF STUDY This research studies the classification approach and design specification of house landscape elements of detached houses in housing projects in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region in 4 price ranges: (1) under 3 million baht ($100,000) (2) 3.01-5.00 million baht ($100,000-166,500) (3) 5.01-10.00 million baht ($166,500-333,000) and (4) over 10.00 million baht ($333,000). (the currency exchange rate in March 2018 was about 31Baht/1 US dollar [5].

3. LITERATURE REVIEW The researcher has reviewed the literature on relevant theories and research studies, including theories related to factors in the choice of residence, house landscape elements, priority in the systematic product development according to the Kano Model, and concepts on the determination of price ranges of detached houses in housing projects.

3.1 FACTORS IN CHOICE OF RESIDENCE The literature review reveals that individuals’ choices of residents depend on two factors; that are, (1) internal factors such as the buyers’ or residents’ income, age and family size, etc. and (2) external factors or physical properties of the residence such as the surroundings, accessibility, and security. The two types of factors are related and both are taken into consideration. The internal factors that influence the choice of residence are the prices, types of residence, designs of residence, i.e. architectural design, interior design, and house landscape design. On the other hand, the external

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Kongkoon Tochaiwat, Cuttaleeya Jeeraprasertkun, Narissa Wanichwatunyou

factors that influence the choice of residence or physical properties of the residence are the positive surroundings (attractiveness and cleanliness, etc.), accessibility, good infrastructure, social and cultural conditions [6, 7, 8].

3.2 HOUSE LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS House landscape elements are a set of physical properties or external factors that influence the buyers’ choice of residence. House landscape elements are various and can be divided into two main categories: softscape and hardscape. The researcher has reviewed relevant academic papers, reports, and documents regarding landscape elements and can summarize important landscape elements in different contexts, as demonstrated in Table 1.

Table 1: Landscape Elements in the Garden.

Elements / Sources 1. Surrounding Elements 1.1 Fences 1.2 Entrance Gate, Porch 1.3 Shelter or Arbor 1.4 Partition 2. Surface and Paths 2.1 Terraces 2.2 Paths 2.3 Parking 2.4 Courtyard 3. Aquatic Elements 3.1 Ponds/Fish Ponds 3.2 Waterfalls/Waterfall Walls 3.3 Overflow Pots / Lily Pots 3.4 Fountains 3.5 Swimming Pool 4. Garden Furniture 4.1 Pavilions 4.2 Garden Set 4.3 Benches 4.4 Swings 4.5 Poolside Beds 4.6 Children’s Toys 4.7 Shelves 5. Lamps and Lighting Lamps and Lighting 6. Other Garden Decoration 6.1 Statues, Stuccos, Relief Sculptures 6.2 Bird Houses 6.3 Flower Pots, Plant Pots 6.4 Earthen Jars 6.5 Firepits 7. Plants 7.1 Trees 7.2 Bushes 7.3 Climbers 7.4 Ground Cover Plants 7.5 Aquatic Plants

[9]

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*Corresponding author (K.Tochaiwat). Tel: +66-992893328. Email: kongkoon@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction

Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8R http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.159

√ √

3

Based on the literature review summarized in Table 1, this research focuses on the relationship between the price ranges of detached houses and the physical properties of the residence, particularly in the aspect of designing house landscape elements to suit the residents’ needs. These elements are divided into 7 categories: surroundings, surface and paths, aquatic elements, garden furniture, lamps and lighting, plants, and other elements in the garden.

3.3 KANO MODEL The Kano Model was invented in 1984 by Dr. Noriaki Kano, a university lecturer, and consultant in an international organization. In 1997, he was awarded the Deming Prize for the concept of “Attractive Quality Creation”, referred to as the Kano Model. Dr. Kano’s concept challenges traditional ideas that consumers’ product satisfaction is based on the “more is better” approach, whereby certain qualities or elements of the products do not relate to customers’ satisfaction. That is, an increase in certain qualities may result in less satisfaction) [3, 4]. Kano puts product satisfaction into five categories: (1) attractive quality, (2) one-dimensional quality, (3) must-be quality, (4) reverse quality, and (5) indifferent of quality, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Five Categories of Customers’ Satisfaction (after [4]).

However, three important qualities are (1) attractive quality –This is a unique quality which customers may not explicitly desire if not stated in a questionnaire. Without this quality, they may feel neutral, but when fulfilled it will create great satisfaction; (2) one-dimensional quality – This is an extra attribute. Mostly they are qualities requested by customers such as colors and extra durability, without which the customers will be greatly dissatisfied; (3) must-be quality – Customers expect the products to have this quality, such as bedrooms in houses. Without this quality, the customers will be greatly dissatisfied, but feel neutral when it is present [18].

The Kano Model is useful in developing products and services, particularly in developing detached housing projects to have fulfilling properties and qualities that provide customers with deep satisfaction. The model can be applied to this research in order to determine one-dimensional house landscape elements and attractive elements in detached houses in housing projects at different price ranges, to serve as a further guideline for product development to appropriately respond to the customer’s needs.

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Kongkoon Tochaiwat, Cuttaleeya Jeeraprasertkun, Narissa Wanichwatunyou

4. METHOD 4.1 DATA COLLECTION This research collected data from a questionnaire survey among 202 respondents who are interested in buying and residing in detached houses in housing projects in the Bangkok Metropolitan Region (see Figure 2). The survey was done during February-April 2018. Quota sampling was employed and the survey results were analyzed using the Kano Model.

Figure 2: Bangkok Metropolitan Map Housing Projects (Modified Photo, Courtesy of Google Maps).

4.2 KANO MODEL ANALYSIS Based on Kanoâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s concept (Figure 1), the data obtained from the questionnaire survey on needs for various qualities of products and services, conducted with target customers, can be presented in Table 2. The satisfaction is divided into 5 levels: like, expect, neutral, accept, and dislike.

Table 2: Data from Questionnaire and Analysis. [19] Customer Requirement

Functional

Like Expect Neutral Accept Dislike

Like Q R R R R

Expect A I I I R

Dysfunctional Neutral Accept A A I I I I I I R R

Dislike O M M M Q

Whereby, A (Attractive) is a quality that attracts and impresses customers.

O (One-dimensional) is the quality that customers desire.

M (Must-be) is the quality that customers expect the project to have.

Q (Questionable) is a quality that needs to be questioned.

R (Reverse) is a quality that customers do not desire.

I (Indifferent) is the quality of which customers feel neutral.

*Corresponding author (K.Tochaiwat). Tel: +66-992893328. Email: kongkoon@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction

Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8R http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.159

5

The values (A, O, M, Q, R, and I) are obtained from each of the questionnaire items and analyzed for satisfaction (Satisfaction: CS+) and dissatisfaction (Dissatisfaction: CS-) coefficients using the Equations (1) and (2) [19]. The values obtained ranged from 0-1, where the dissatisfaction levels are in negative numbers.

Satisfaction (CS +) =

(A+O)

(A+O+M+I)

Dissatisfaction (CS −) =

(O+M)

(A+O+M+I) ∙ (−1)

(1), (2).

The calculated values are plotted in a graph and can be divided into five groups, see Figure 3.

Figure 3: A Kano Classification (after [20, 21]).

The results demonstrate which qualities or elements are desirable for buyers. Remarkable are 3 types of qualities: A (Attractive – a quality which attracts and impresses customers), O (One-dimensional – a quality which interests customers) and M (Must-be – a quality that customers expect) because they can be used to specify guidelines for house landscape element design for customers.

5. RESULT AND DISCUSSION The questionnaire data from the target group survey were divided into 4 groups according to the price ranges, and the satisfactory coefficients were calculated. Based on the Kano Model, the classification of house landscape elements can be presented as in Table 3.

From the survey of satisfaction with landscape elements in houses under three million baht ($100,000), the must-be element (M) that the buyers expect is a parking space. The reason may be that nowadays people own more cars and parking spaces in the residence are deemed essential.

Without this feature, the buyers will be dissatisfied while they will be neutral when it is present. The attractive elements (A) in houses in this price range are fish ponds, waterfalls, and fountains. These are superfluous to basic functions and can be placed in small spaces. Other elements are considered indifferent quality (I).

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Kongkoon Tochaiwat, Cuttaleeya Jeeraprasertkun, Narissa Wanichwatunyou

Table 3: House Landscape Elements according to the Kano Model.

House Landscape Elements 1. Surrounding Elements 1.1 Shelter or Arbor (A1) 1.2 Walls or Garden Partitions (A2) 2. Surface and Paths 2.1 Terraces (B1) 2.2 Paths (B2) 2.3 Parking (B3) 2.4 Courtyard (B4) 3. Aquatic Elements 3.1 Ponds/ Fish Ponds (C1) 3.2 Waterfalls/ Waterfall Walls (C2) 3.3 Overflow Pots / Lily Ponds (C3) 3.4 Fountains (C4) 3.5 Swimming Pool (C5) 4. Garden Furniture 4.1 Pavilions (D1) 4.2 Garden Set (D2) 4.3 Benches (D3) 4.4 Swings (D4) 4.5 Poolside Beds (D5) 4.6 Children’s Toys (D6) 4.7 Shelves (D7) 5. Lamps and Lighting 5.1 Lamps and Lighting (E1) 6. Other Garden Decoration 6.1 Statues, Stuccos, Relief Sculptures (F1) 6.2 Flower Pots, Plant Pots (F2) 7. Plants 7.1 Trees (G1) 7.2 Bushes (G2) 7.3 Climbers (G3) 7.4 Ground Cover Plants (G4) 7.5 Aquatic Plants (G5)

< 3.00 MB (<$100,000)

3.01-5.00 MB ($100,000-166,500)

5.01-10.00 MB ($166,500-333,000)

>10 MB (>$333,000)

(n=36)

(n=74)

(n=50)

(n=42)

I I

I I

I I

I I

I I M I

I O M I

I O M I

M O M A

A A

I I

I A

I I

I

I

A

I

A I

I I

A A

I I

I I I I I I I

I I I I I I I

A I I I I I I

A A A I I I I

I

M

M

M

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I

I I I I I

I I I I I

I I I I I

O M I M I

Note: The fences and doors are considered necessary elements as they are required for the sake of security.

For detached houses in the 3.01-5.00 million baht ($100,000-166,500) price range, the study shows that the must-be elements are parking, and lamps and lighting, generally required to fulfill the needs for security. Elements that can be omitted because they do not significantly influence the buyers’ decisions are garden furniture and plants, for instance.

In the 5.01-10.00 million baht ($166,500-333,000) price range, most houses have more space.

The must-be elements are parking, and lamps, and lighting. The attractive elements are aquatic elements such as waterfalls or waterfall walls, overflow pots or lily ponds, fountains, swimming *Corresponding author (K.Tochaiwat). Tel: +66-992893328. Email: kongkoon@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction

Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8R http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.159

7

pools, and garden furniture in the form of pavilions. Because of the extra space, more features to enhance comfort and aesthetics are required.

For houses over 10 million baht ($333,000), customers have higher expectations than other price ranges. Because of the higher price, attractive elements are unique and not present in the lower price ranges, and they tend to occupy a lot of space, such as a courtyard, pavilions, garden set, benches, etc.

Overall, in houses of all price ranges, most must-be elements (that deemed must-be in at least 3 price ranges) are parking space, lamp, and lightings. Attractive elements in detached houses in each price range differ significantly. For example, in houses in the over 5 million baht ($166,500) range garden furniture, particularly pavilions, garden sets, and benches can attract customers while garden furniture in other price ranges are considered indifferent quality or even reverse when functional.

Property developers or designers can apply this research to determine house landscape design for houses in each price range, choosing house landscape elements in each category (Table 3) based on the following guidelines.

1) First, choose all the must-be elements because customers expect them in the houses and will be dissatisfied if they are not functional. At this stage, elements necessary for security need to be considered although they do not affect the customers’ needs.

2) Choose some attractive elements to create selling points for the houses, but it is not necessary to choose all elements from this category because the customers do not expect them. But when present, they create a good impression and encourage customers’ buying decisions.

3) Choose one-dimensional elements based on the remaining budgets because these elements are related to the customers’ satisfaction.

As an example, in designing the landscape of detached houses in the 5.01-10.00 million baht ($166,500-330,000) price range, the designers should choose parking, lamps, and lighting system, which are must-be elements, including fences and doors which are required for security. After that, they should choose 1 or 2 attractive elements which may be pavilions or aquatic elements such as waterfalls, overflow pots, fountains, or swimming pools. Then, choose to construct paths to the elements in the garden, considering materials and lengths appropriate to functions and remaining budgets, along with aesthetics.

6. CONCLUSION The study shows that applying the Kano Model in the analysis and classification of landscape elements in detached houses reveals how detached houses in the same price range but with different house landscape elements affect the buyers’ decision. Moreover, for detached houses in different price ranges, customers have different expectations and attraction towards different house landscape elements. In designing detached house projects, these data can be used in determining product patterns to suit the buyers’ needs, apart from the consideration of projects’ concepts, price ranges, and budgets.

The researcher suggests expanding the study in other regions to obtain diverse data and analyses to determine whether and how the elements in different price ranges in each region differ. These data can support planning or designing detached housing projects in other regions of the country. Finally, some research limitations shall be discussed. Firstly, demographic factors theoretically affect the needs of the customers. However, because there may be more than one target group of customers for

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Kongkoon Tochaiwat, Cuttaleeya Jeeraprasertkun, Narissa Wanichwatunyou

a housing project. This research focused on the relationship between the housing projects’ main characteristics, e.g. the prices of houses in projects, and the landscape elements that satisfied the house buyers’ needs (in overall) to give developers the guidelines on how to effectively allocate their budgets in developing house landscape elements. Secondly, this study was done based on the projects with the general surrounding of Bangkok Metropolitan. For the projects affected with special surroundings, such as the projects located near a highway, or in the hilly terrain, or near river terrain, the results of the study shall be used with special concern.

7. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Canada: D.W. Friesen & Sons Ltd. [13] Davitt, K. (2003). Small Spaces Beautiful Gardens. United States: America by Rockport Publishers, Inc. [14] VanDerZanden, A.M. & Rodie, S. (2008). Landscape Design: Theory and Application. Canada: Thomson Corporation.

[15] Veesommai, E. (1984). Landscape Design. 3rd Edition. Bangkok: Akson Phitthaya Printing House.

[16] Siriwechdaruk, T. (2009). Garden details 4. Bangkok: Amarin Printing and Publishing. *Corresponding author (K.Tochaiwat). Tel: +66-992893328. Email: kongkoon@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction

Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8R http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8R.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.159

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[17] Sangthong, P. & Siriphanich, S. (2016). Malaysian Home Garden Styles and Elements during 2000 – 2014. Agricultural Science Journal, 47(2), 253 – 261.

[18] Chapavang, P. & Kaemkate, W. (2014). An Analysis of Student Satisfaction with the Advice of the Thesis Advisors Using Kano Model. An Online of Education, 9(2), 699 – 709.

[19] Ek, F.I. & Cıkıs, S. (2015), Integrating the Kano Model into Architectural Design: Quality Measurement in Mass-housing Units. Total Quality Management & Business Excellence, 26(3-4), 400 – 414.

[20] Jantest, S., Suwonsichon, T. & Suwonsichon, S. (2013). Application of Kano Model for Customer Need in Mango Tablets. Proceedings of the 51st Kasetsart’s Academic Conference, 5 – 7 February 2013, Bangkok.

[21] Xu, Q. et al. (2009). An Analytic Kano Model for Customer Need Analysis. Design Studies, 30(1), 87 – 110.

Dr.Kongkoon Tochaiwat is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. He received a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering (Construction, Engineering and Management) from Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. His research focuses on Real Estate Business and Development.

Dr.Cuttaleeya Jiraprasertkun is an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Architecture, Kasetsart University, Thailand. She received a Ph.D. in Architecture and Planning from the University of Melbourne, Australia. Her research focuses on the study of the Common Area, both in Condominium and Urban Community.

Narissa Wanichwatunyou is an Executive Sales of Wealthproperty24, Co.Ltd., Bangkok, Thailand. She got her Master’s degree in Innovative Real Estate Development from Thammasat University, Thailand.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

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Kongkoon Tochaiwat, Cuttaleeya Jeeraprasertkun, Narissa Wanichwatunyou

©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8S

ENTERPRISE RISK MANAGEMENT AND PERFORMANCE OF PAKISTAN MANUFACTURING FIRMS: DOES THE EQUITY OWNERSHIP MATTER? Saqib Muneer

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Department of Economics and Finance, College of Business Administration, University of Hail, Hail, SAUDI ARABIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 04 January 2020 Received in revised form 24 February 2020 Accepted 06 March 2020 Available online 20 March 2020

The increasing bankruptcies, around the world, have triggered a debate on the relationship between risk management practices and their impact on the performance of manufacturing firms listed in Pakistani stock exchange. The prime objective of this study is to explore the link between enterprise risk management (ERM) and the performance of manufacturing firms in Pakistan. This study has also examined the Keywords: mediating role of equity ownership in the relationship between Risk management enterprise risk management and the performance of manufacturing practices; PSE; Corporate’s performance; firms. The response rate is 64.1 percent. The SEM-PLS is used to Firm’s performance; analyze the data. The resource-based view and agency theory have used Enterprise risk to develop the conceptual model of this study. The findings have management (ERM); provided support to the hypothesized results. The findings offer an Risk management in-depth and valuable insight into the issues related to enterprise risk strategies; Corporate’s management and the performance of manufacturing firms. Moreover, risk challenges; Equity organizations become able to enhance their capabilities of operational market, Risk monitoring; and strategic decision-making. From a strategic perspective, the Risk culture; Risk performance of a firm is increased by ERM along with a reduction in compliance. the costly surprises.

Disciplinary: Management and Financial Science. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION Scholars have been triggered by a corporate failure to re-determine the relationship between organizational performance and initiatives of risk management. In the 21st century, the worst and significant collapse included WorldCom, Enron, and Lehman Brothers (Drausnick, 2012). Several complexities arise for corporate organizations along with the risk challenges in the environment.

Corporate organizations need the ability to manage risk for their survival (Ugwuanyi& Ibe., 2012).

Sharp instability is faced by business firms because of deregulations, globalization, and several other *Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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challenges (Ahmed & Manab, 2016). The performance of a firm becomes poor because of a lack of ability of firms to mitigate risk, control, and assess. Practically, the business performance can be improved through risk management skills, performance assessments, and change in expectations of customers, imperatives engagement, and competences. The significance of the risk management issue has increased because of these challenges (Rostami et al., 2015).

The importance of risk management strategies for the survival of firms has been emphasized by the 1997 financial crisis of Asia and the recent global financial crisis in 2008. It is reflected through the global economic recession that there is a need for increasing the capabilities of surveillance and monitoring by the regulatory agencies to ensure a reliable financial system across the globe (Brummer, 2015). The significant drivers of economic growth are financial institutions that enhance the individualâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s welfare through supporting the capability of transferring and holding business assets by the business entities and householders (Jacobs & Manzi, 2019). Irrespective of the role of this sector, monumental challenges are witnessed by the global financial institutions in carrying out efficient and effective intermediation (Chowdhury, 2016). There was a decline of 51% in the market capitalization of global markets of equity resulting in US21 trillion dollars from US51 trillion dollars in 2009. The performance of firms across the globe has been negatively influenced by these developments.

A risk management strategy, which takes into account the interrelations of various types of risks rather than the traditional risk management strategy is referred to as ERM (Bromiley et al., 2015).

The traditional risk management strategy includes physical mitigation, insurance buying, and reduction of liability. All the types of risks are considered by ERM along with the development mechanism to ensure the management of uncertainties and risks. Business organizations are enabled through ERM to recognize, control, use, finance, and overview the exposures from different sources to improve the performance of the firm. ERM has been described by the COSO as the initiative for the promotion of understanding of a range of risksâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; sources (Fraser & Simkins, 2016).

Organizations become able to enhance their capabilities of operational and strategic decision-making. From a strategic perspective, the performance of the firm is increased by ERM along with a reduction in costly surprises. Moreover, it positively adds to the development of the risk culture of the organization (Teece et al., 2016). The performance of the firm is improved through the accumulative influence by such decisions (Khanna et al., 2016). The empirical findings related to the expected ERM benefits on the performance of the firm are inconsistent (Hrovatin et al., 2016). It has been suggested by some studies in the literature to introduce specific organizational variables to deal with inconsistencies (Argyris, 2017). Managerial ownership has been identified, as the possible incentive to result in the alignment of interest between the owners and the firmâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s management.

The implementation of ERM is the decision of the board. Some studies argued that interest alignment between the owners and members of boards will improve the management decisions for risks. This can improve the performance of a firm. Baron and Kenny (1986) contended that when the relationship between a criterion variable and predictor is weak or no consistent, a moderating variable can be incorporated. Therefore, the board equity ownership is used as a moderating variable to improve the relationship between firm performance and ERM practices (Shatnawi et al., 2019).

Note that an effective process of risk management is ensured by the board of directors to be in place. The interest of shareholders and board members can be aligned through board equity ownership in line with several studies (Liu et al., 2014). Therefore, the capacity of board monitoring

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can be improved through interest alignment, which increases the performance of firms (Zona et al., 2018). Board equity ownership supports the success of implementing ERM. The ability of the board to monitor is improved through board equity ownership that can result in effective implementation of risk management (Hopkinson, 2017). Therefore, the study aims at analyzing the influence of ERM practices on firms’ performance in the financial industry of Pakistan.

2. HYPOTHESIS DEVELOPMENT 2.1 COMPLIANCE AND FIRM PERFORMANCE The 2003 global world survey based on 1400 CEO confirmed a positive association between firm performance and compliance with regulatory provisions (Sanchez & Baixauli, 2015). Therefore, compliance (Compl) is a crucial element of ERM to improve the performance of performance.

Similarly, Alves and Mendes (2001) indicated that financial institutions can improve positive abnormal returns of firms through compliance with provisions of the Portuguese Securities Market Commission. Ammann et al. (2011) investigated the influence of 64 individual attributes of governance such as compliance on the performance of firms. A positive relationship was established between ownership structure, compliance, and performance of firms. Similarly, the stakeholder’s opinion was examined on the relationship between mortgage firms’ performance and compliance with regulatory requirements of financial reporting of primary mortgage institutions.

A study revealed that positive influence is created by compliance with the performance of Pakistan’s primary mortgage institutions. Zandona (2017) asserted that organizations should go beyond compliance. The implementations of strategies and objectives of businesses are based on the management styles, value-laden, and preferences. The firms are encouraged to comply with the regulatory provisions through commitment that influences the performance of firms. Alternatively, the emphasis has been given by some scholars on the nature of provision because of the flexibility of some regulations and rigidity of others. Erkens et al. (2012) conducted a cross-country analysis, in which it was found that regulatory restrictions on financial institutions during 2007/2008 made them perform better in the global financial crisis. Alternatively, Moshirian (2011) contended that the financial crisis of 2006 was precipitated because of excessive compliance with policies of the financial sector. The collapse of the financial sector occurs because of laxity on regulatory agencies to control the financial institutions’ excessive behavior of risk-taking or promoting policies for system destabilization. Thus, the performance of financial institutions can be improved through sound regulatory provisions. Likewise, Schmidt et al. (2017) revealed that the performance of a firm can be improved through customer perception and regulatory compliance. It is concluded by the study that eco-innovation can be supported through sound regulatory provisions.

H1: The risk compliance has a significant impact on the firm performance

2.2 RISK CULTURE AND FIRM PERFORMANCE The influence of organizational culture on the success of firms has been examined by several studies. The organization is held by its culture and it improves the association between different business units. The norms are reflected through organizational culture and it promotes the success of firms (Ahmed, 2016). The business objectives and strategies involve a sound risk culture, which is a key challenge for the financial firm (Epstein, 2018). Likewise, Battistella et al. (2016) asserted that *Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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the most crucial competitive factor possessed by an organization is the corporate culture. There is hardly a successful company, which does not possess a visible and unique organizational culture.

It was indicated by Naranjo-Valencia et al. (2016) that the adoption of ERM and its speed is positively influenced by organizational culture. This view was supported by Agarwal and Ansell (2016) that without a sound and effective risk culture, the firms cannot succeed in implementing ERM. In a similar away, it was revealed by the findings of a joint survey conducted by Protiviti Inc and Risk Management Association that risk culture is an important challenge to improve the performance of the firm and its practices of risk management.

A similar study indicated that almost 55% of the respondents feel that risk culture is not a crucial part of business objectives and strategies rather an element of risk management only. Aksoy et al.

(2014) revealed a strong influence of organizational culture on the performance and efficiency of the organization. Therefore, using risk culture only focuses on the function of risk management, but it does not improve the performance of the business.

H2: The risk culture has a significant impact on firm performance.

2.3 RISK MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SYSTEM AND FIRM PERFORMANCE Florio and Leoni (2017) focused on financial services and found that organizations become able to appreciate the ERM value through a viable information management system for risk (RMIS). It is certain to have management information on risk to monitor and make decisions for informed risk management. It was contended by Serpella et al. (2014) contended that there is a need for an information management system for risk to make effective decisions about risk exposure. It was noted by Chee that the organization can avail the opportunity to conduct an in-depth analysis through good information management and formulate reports, which can fulfill various needs of stakeholders.

It was believed by Vieru and Rivard (2014) that standard procedures of workflow, operations, and organizational systems are required by the organization to possess a good information system.

Diverse information needs are possessed by organizations. Organizations work to get a competitive advantage through innovations in their information systems. Superior policies, processes, and methodologies for risk management are supported by the information system of ERM, which can improve the performance of the firm. The goals of ERM with the strategies of the organization are aligned. Descriptive analysis was used by Hashim et al. (2012) used to examine the relationship between the performance of firm and information system management in Pakistan. It was found by the study that there is a positive and significant relationship between organizational efficiency and information management system. Al-gharaibeh & Malkawi(2013) conducted a similar study in Jordan. They examined the influence of the Management Information System (MIS) on the governmental organizationsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; performance. it was found by the study that there is a positive and significant influence of MIS on the performance of the firm. A sample of 100 staff members was used

by Hashim et al. (2012) to determine the influence of MIS on the performance of the firm. It was found by the study that there is a positive influence of MIS on the municipalities in the Northern Jordan. The performance of the firm is directly or indirectly influenced by the information system (IS). Therefore, it is possible that it can improve the risk management effectiveness and efficiency of the organization.

H3: The Risk Management Information System has a significant impact on firm performance.

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2.4 INNOVATIVENESS OF ORGANIZATION AND FIRM PERFORMANCE In order to achieve a milestone in risk management practices, there is a need to develop innovative ideas by the organization (Hatak et al., 2014). The internal, as well as external commitments of the firms, are influenced through innovativeness. There was no significant difference found by Damanpour and Evan (1990) between the firms with different innovativeness level. Different influences can be created by innovativeness because of inertia. The researchers argued that the inertia effect could be created by innovativeness. When the risk related to innovation is higher, the novelty is greater. Similarly, the relationship between the performance of the firm and innovativeness was examined Damanpour and Evan (1990). A uni-dimensional constructed was used by the study to explain the association between the performance of firm and innovativeness. It was asserted that the performance of the firm is not improved by innovativeness. A sample of 877 firms was used by Hsu and Cheng (2012) to analyze the practices of innovation in Taiwan’s small enterprises. It was revealed by the study that there is a positive and insignificant relationship of innovation with the performance of the firm. A structural analysis was formulated by Hsu and Cheng (2012) to define the influence of innovativeness as a crucial success factor for technology-intensive firms. It was indicated by the findings that there is a significant influence of innovativeness on performance.

Similarly, the relationship between the sustainability of small firms and innovativeness was determined by Epstein,(2018) in the manufacturing sector. It was found by the results that firms could remain competitive because of innovativeness. The relationship between organizational innovations, styles, and performance was examined by Epstein (2018) in Thailand. It was found by the study that there is a significant influence of organizational innovation on the performance of the firm.

Moreover, a study was conducted by Aksoy et al. (2014) based on a survey of 127 senior level managers. It was found that there is a positive and significant relationship between the performance of the firm and innovativeness.

H4: Innovativeness has a significant impact on firm performance.

2.5 BOARD EQUITY OWNERSHIP AND FIRM PERFORMANCE A significant debate exists about the role of board members having an equity interest in improving the performance of the firm. Empirical evidence was provided byArouri et al. (2014) that formed a positive association between the performance of firm and ownership of board equity. It was contended by the Ribbon Committee (Chowdhury, 2016) that ownership of board equity can decrease the problem of agency and improve the monitoring of the board. This can ultimately improve the performance of the firm. Similarly, it was reported by Ammann et al. (2011) that there is a positive relationship between ownership of board equity and the performance of the firm. Similarly, it was argued that the organizational ability to discipline its management has a positive relationship with board equity ownership (BOE). The important policy decisions can be made and ratified by the board of directs about the issues of risk management and investment management.

It was argued that BEO could act as a proxy variable for good governance in the firms. This makes sense as the directors’ stock ownership can result in improved performance and good governance. It also promotes ERM implementation as an effective business strategy for improving the performance of the firm. Alternatively, it was argued by Ammann et al. (2011) that the *Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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performance of the firm is negatively linked with the number of board meetings, ownership of board stock, and ownership of managerial stock. Likely, Al-gharaibeh & Malkawi (2013) conducted a study on Vietnam and found that when the range of ownership board lies in 0-22%, the performance of the firm declines.

Similarly, the ownership of the board greater than 22% of the overall stock of a firm increases the performance of the firm. It has been reported by some studies that there is a non-linear association between inside ownership i.e. board equity and management with the performance of the firm. The influence of insider ownership was found by Al-gharaibeh&Malkawi (2013) on the performance of the firm through choices of capital-structure. The study used a sample of civilian-run firms in China listed on its stock market. It was indicated by the empirical findings that there is a non-linear relationship between the value of the firm and managerial ownership. The influence of two contradictory positions related to ownership of equity such as entrenchment effects and convergence of interest formed the curve-linear relationship regard to equity ownership.

H5: The board equity ownership has a significant impact on the firm performance

2.6 THE ROLE OF BOARD EQUITY OWNERSHIP AS MEDIATOR ON THE RELATIONSHIP OF ERM SUCCESS FACTORS, ERM FRAMEWORK AND PERFORMANCE OF FIRM There are several challenges linked with the implementation of ERM. These challenges have undermined their value. It has been suggested by studies that there is a need to develop new ideas by the organizations to improve their performance. Organizations should develop innovative ideas to maintain their competitive position and deal with the changing needs of customers. According to Togoket al. (2014), the subject of ERM is still important because of inconsistent findings in the literature review regarding the influence of ERM on the performance of the firm. To explain the association, researchers have suggested incorporating contingent variables in the study. It has been affirmed by the studies that effective risk management can result in proper monitoring initiative of the board. To deal with risk, the ERM scheme should be regarded as a strategic policy decision by the firms.

With the increase in shareholding by the top management, there can be improvements in the ability of a firm to take the risk. It has been assumed in this research that the increase in shareholdings of the board from a low to moderate level, the capability of the firm to take risks is improved.

Alternatively, with the decrease in the shareholding of the board to a considerable level, the risk-taking ability of the firm decreases as well. Based on the agency theory, actions can be taken by managers, which are not consistent with the interests of owners to maximize wealth. An obligation has been put on the agent to ensure efficient risk management in business.

H6: Risk compliance has a significant impact on board equity ownership.

H7: Risk culture has a significant impact on the board equity ownership H8: Risk management information system has a significant impact on board equity ownership.

H9: Innovativeness has a significant impact on board equity ownership.

H10: Board equity ownership mediates the relationship between risk compliance and firm performance.

H11: Board equity ownership mediates the relationship between risk culture and firm performance.

H12: Board equity ownership mediates the relationship between risk management information

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systems and firm performance.

H13: The board equity ownership mediates the relationship between innovativeness and firm performance.

3. METHODOLOGY AND MEASUREMENT The study has employed surveys based to achieve the research questions. The data is collected from the chosen listed manufacturing firms in Pakistan Stock Exchange (PSX). The adapted questionnaire has been sent to the managers of the manufacturing firms. The scale of equity ownership is chosen from Al-gharaibeh & Malkawi (2013), compliances, Risk management information system, innovativeness and firm performance. A total of 335 questionnaires were sent to the potential respondents, out of which 257 received as filled and 215 are found useful. Thus, the response rate is 64.1 percent. The SEM-PLS is used to analyze the data.

4. RESULTS The SEM-PLS is one of the robust techniques of data analysis and comprises two components namely the outer model and the inner model. The outer model determines the individual item reliability, composite reliability, and discriminant validity. The outer model of the current study is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Outer Loading The internal consistency of the item is shown in Table 1. The items with loading less than 0.7 are deleted from the analysis. The reliability of the model is shown in Table 2. The reliabilities of all the variables are above the threshold level.

*Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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Table 1: Outer loading Variable Compl EQO FRP InnF RC RMIS Compl 7 0.889 Compl 8 0.848 Compl1 0.885 Compl2 0.873 Compl3 0.887 Compl4 0.860 Compl5 0.901 Compl6 0.882 Compl9 0.884 EQO1 0.782 EQO2 0.755 EQO3 0.853 EQO5 0.867 EQO6 0.862 EQO7 0.876 FRP1 0.936 FRP10 0.893 FRP11 0.932 FRP2 0.901 FRP3 0.900 FRP4 0.857 FRP5 0.891 FRP6 0.884 FRP7 0.866 FRP9 0.907 InnF1 0.915 InnF3 0.913 InnF4 0.899 InnF5 0.848 RC1 0.816 RC10 0.815 RC11 0.800 RC12 0.815 RC13 0.750 RC2 0.842 RC3 0.812 RC4 0.770 RC5 0.839 RC6 0.863 RC7 0.818 RC9 0.811 RMIS1 0.893 RMIS2 0.867 RMIS4 0.913 RMIS5 0.931 Note: RC = Risk Culture, InnF= Innovativeness of Organization, RMIS= Risk Management Information System, EQO = Board Equity Ownership, Compl = Compliance, FRP = Firm Performance.

Table 2: Reliability Variable Compl EQO FRP InnF RC RMIS

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Cronbach's Alpha 0.963 0.911 0.973 0.916 0.953 0.923

rho_A 0.964 0.913 0.974 0.923 0.954 0.925

CR 0.968 0.932 0.976 0.941 0.959 0.945

(AVE) 0.772 0.695 0.805 0.799 0.661 0.812

The degree of success of measurement of the construct in comparison to the original construct is shown in Table 3.

Table 3: Validity Variable Compl EQO FRP InnF RC RMIS

Compl 0.879 0.695 0.713 0.686 0.703 0.684

EQO

FRP

InnF

RC

RMIS

0.884 0.723 0.783 0.807 0.806

0.897 0.705 0.770 0.724

0.894 0.858 0.872

0.893 0.880

0.901

The bootstrapping procedure is used to examine the direct and indirect relationship between and among the variables. The structural model is shown in Figure 2. The direct relationship between all the independent and dependent variables are shown in Table 4. Except, Compl  EQO, and Compl  FRP all direct hypothesis is accepted significantly at p<0.10.

Figure 2: Inner model Table 4: Direct relationship Relationship Compl  EQO Compl  FRP EQO  FRP InnF  EQO InnF  FRP RC  EQO RC  FRP RMIS  EQO RMIS  FRP

Measure of the dependent variable (O) 0.128 0.118 0.923 0.194 0.179 0.202 0.186 0.367 0.339

Mean 0.128 0.118 0.924 0.199 0.184 0.210 0.194 0.356 0.329

SD 0.112 0.103 0.011 0.121 0.111 0.144 0.134 0.124 0.115

t-statistics 1.144 1.145 82.354 1.608 1.609 1.400 1.395 2.958 2.939

p-value 0.126 0.126 0.000 0.054 0.054 0.081 0.081 0.002 0.002

*Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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The indirect relationship between the independent variables, dependent variables and mediation is shown in Table 5. Except the Compl  EQO  FRP all hypothesis is accepted significantly at p<0.100.

Table 5: Mediation Measure of the dependent variable (O) Mean SD t-statistics p-value Mediation Compl  EQO  FRP InnF  EQO  FRP RC  EQO  FRP RMIS  EQO  FRP

0.118 0.179 0.186 0.339

0.118 0.184 0.194 0.329

0.103 0.111 0.134 0.115

1.145 1.909 2.395 2.939

0.126 0.094 0.081 0.002

The R-Square value (Table 6) is above the threshold level. The Q-square value is above the threshold value of 0.00 (see Table 7). Based on the above-mentioned results, all the hypotheses (direct or indirect) of this study are accepted (Table 8).

Table 6: R-Square Variable EQO FRP

R Square 0.699 0.851

Table 7: Q-square Compl EQO FRP InnF RC RMIS

SSO 1,953.000 1,302.000 2,170.000 868.000 2,604.000 868.000

SSE 1,953.000 720.269 764.813 868.000 2,604.000 868.000

Q² (=1-SSE/SSO) 0.447 0.648

Table 8: Hypothesis Summary Hypothesis H1 H2 H3 H4 H5 H6 H7

Accepted √ √ √ √ √ √ √

Rejected

Hypothesis H8 H9 H10 H11 H12 H13

Accepted √ √ √ √ √ √

Rejected

5. DISCUSSION Many studies examined success multi-factors for risk management. Zhao et al. (2013) investigated 16 success factors of implementation of ERM in the construction firms of China in Singapore. The most significant success factors of ERM include risk ownership, the commitment of the board, risk-aware culture, identification of risk, sufficient resources, communication of risk, and integration of risk. The purpose of most of the studies was to determine the success factors to be the determinant of the implementation of ERM. The relationship between success factors of ERM as the determinant of the value of the firm has been examined by rare studies. Al-gharaibeh & Malkawi (2013) reported that the factors of success including compliance, corporate governance, cross-functional staffing have motivated the organizations for the implementation of ERM. The implementation of ERM improves the value of the

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firm. Vieru (2014) in an exploratory study based on Iraq analyzed the relationship between factors, which improve the performance of the firm and the effectiveness of risk management. It was believed by 48% out of 30 respondents that the firm’s performance is improved by the support of top management and training. About 30% of the respondents believed that the performance of the firm improves by a risk management factor, which is technological capabilities. Empirical evidence has been provided by the following section on the relationship of success factors of ERM and the performance of the firm.

It has been asserted by scholars that when substantial equity is owned by the board of directors, business performance is appraised by the board of directors along with controlling the business strategic ideas of operations. The incentive package of the firm to the board of directors determines the influence of the ownership of board equity on the performance of the firm. An arrangement, which allows the board of directors to possess a percentage of ownership in the corporate, is referred to as board equity.

6. CONCLUSION The aim of this study is to investigate the relationship between enterprise risk management and performance of the manufacturing firms. The study results show that risk culture, innovativeness and risk management information system are positively related to the firm performance. It was believed by 48% out of 30 respondents that firm’s performance is improved by the support of top management and training. About 30% of the respondents believed that the performance of firm improves by a risk management factor, which are technological capabilities. Moreover, board equity ownership moderates the relationship between enterprise risk management and firm performance. This study provided some important implication for theory, policy makers, investors and government and academia and researchers. The current research finding is also useful for the financial user around the world that give the investors’ confidence to invest in the esteemed organizations within a specific country.

7. AVAILABILITY OF DATA AND MATERIAL Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

8. REFERENCES Agarwal, R., & Ansell, J. (2016). Strategic change in enterprise risk management. Strategic Change, 25(4), 427-439.

Ahmed, I., &Manab, N. A. (2016). Influence of enterprise risk management framework implementation and board equity ownership on firm performance in Nigerian financial sector: An initial finding.

IOSR Journal of Business and Management (IOSR-JBM), 18(1), 61-68.

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International Journal of Business and Social Science, 4(17), 101-109. *Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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Saqib Muneer

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Dr. Saqib Muneer is an Assistant Professor Finance at the Department of Economics and Finance of the University of Hail, Saudi Arabia. He pursued his Ph.D. from the Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Malaysia. His research interest is in the field of Finance and Economics, with a special focus on Management of Financial Markets, the Role of Technology in Financial Institutions, and International Investment.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

*Corresponding author (S.Muneer). Tel: +966-509962870 Email: sa.muneer@uoh.edu.sa ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 Paper ID:11A8S http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8S.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.160

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

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PAPER ID: 11A8T

COMPARISON OF THE CONSTRUCTION COSTS OF LEED AND NON-LEED COFFEE SHOPS IN BANGKOK, THAILAND 2

Sopida Faengsomsri 1 , Sittichai Naksukskul , Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya 3 , 4,5* Damrongsak Rinchumphu 1

Innovative Real Estate Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, THAILAND. 2 PTT Innovation Institute, THAILAND. 3 Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, THAILAND. 4 Center of Excellence for Natural Disaster Management (CENDIM), Chiang Mai University, THAILAND. 5 Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, THAILAND. ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 29 November 2019 Received in revised form 26 February 2020 Accepted 10 March 2020 Available online 23 March 2020.

This study scrutinizes the construction costs difference between LEED and non-LEED of coffee shops in Bangkok, Thailand. This study provides an understanding of criteria that influence the construction cost of coffee shops those attached inside the buildings, such as shopping malls and department stores. This study is a quantitative research approach by collecting data from 24 coffee shops in several locations in Bangkok, Thailand. The results show that the overall project cost of projects with LEED certification is 5.20% higher than the non-LEED projects. Moreover, the cost per square meter of the air conditioning system of the LEED projects is significantly higher than non-LEED projects for 1.6 times, but other costs are not significantly different between those LEED and non-LEED projects. This can conclude that there are numbers of design items supporting LEED-certified achieving without extra cost. Such criteria are water efficiency, material and resources of interior decoration, and the quality and sanitary conditions in buildings. These criteria support the projects to satisfy the LEED requirement within competitive project cost.

Keywords:

Green building; LEED coffee shop; Interior design; Coffee shop construction; Construction cost; Green construction project; Sustainability

Disciplinary: Civil and Architectural Engineering. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION The food and beverage business is a business with a very high market value. Currently, this business keeps expanding continuously and results in higher competition, especially in Bangkok, the capital, and the center of the business sector in Thailand. This causes the entrepreneur, especially coffee shop owners, must make a difference for themselves in order to compete for market share *Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th ©2020 International

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(Ariyabuddhiphongs & Kahn, 2017; Gulasirimaa et al., 2019). Also, the current awareness about global warming and green business are issues that have made the business model of the coffee shop begin changing since urban consumers are more likely to use products and services that are environmentally friendly nowadays (Chou et al., 2012). Global warming is a trending topic that every society around the world is interested in due to the industries in the world that were developed in the past without awareness of the environment causing global warming by greenhouse gases (GHG).

This causes the world to become more interested in global warming as can be seen from the emergence of many green businesses because the young generation is going with the flow of green, environment, and quality of life. Therefore, the development of the current project construction is also matched up with the green trend. Green project proposals tend to be well received. Some projects even need to be awarded energy conservation buildings or green buildings to be a part of showing their corporate social responsibility (CSR). Restaurant operators are increasingly focusing on global warming (Lee & Heo, 2009; Santitham & Horayangkura, 2017).

According to the international definition, it can be said that green building is an environmentally friendly building, and it is a building that helps to reduce energy use in the building and provides better health and quality of life when living in. Currently, project owners, building owners, and various departments, both the public and private sectors, are very interested in dealing with the environment and energy use in buildings to help to solve global warming by conserving natural resources and reducing energy consumption to contribute to the sustainable development of the country. Therefore, engineers and architects need to adapt to meet the needs of customers in the green building, must follow various technologies that can be applied in the building, must increase and seek new knowledge in the design and construction of green buildings all the time. Although the green building does not always have to use high technology, there might be the use of technology such as automatic shut-off systems, project water re-use systems (Santitham & Horayangkura, 2017; Shen et al., 2017). However, among various green building measurement systems, the internationally popular system is the green building criteria developed by the United States Green Building Council (USGBC) and is used as a basis for modifying green building criteria to suit each country (Rinchumpoo et al., 2010; Zhang et al., 2017).

Nevertheless, the development of projects to satisfy the green building criteria mostly requires a higher cost than the original project development due to a large number of relevant regulations.

For example, in terms of energy consumption, it is necessary to use the higher-grade materials that save electricity and energy, sanitary ware that controls water consumption such as automatic tap, water-saving systems for the toilet. These materials or systems are more expensive than general materials or systems. Consequently, these reasons cause an increase in project costs (Thirakomen, 2013; Wu & Lo, 2018). Due to the inconsistency of costs and the LEED criteria, many project operators have neglected to develop their programs to satisfy the criteria because of the problem of bearing the higher cost making it not worth the investment. However, the LEED criteria consist of many components that cover from the design phase to the construction phase. some criteria can be applied without additional cost or a very small cost. The project owner can use these criteria in the project to develop their projects to satisfy the green building criteria at an appropriate cost (Chegut et al., 2015; Dwaikat & Ali, 2016). This is also including the development of food and beverage projects as well.

From the above explanation, this research aims to study the construction costs of LEED and non-LEED coffee shops in Bangkok, Thailand. The various LEED criteria have been studied on

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Sopida Faengsomsri, Sittichai Naksukskul, Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya, Damrongsak Rinchumphu

how much they will affect the cost of coffee shop construction and decoration projects. As a result, coffee shop business operators can choose to apply regulations that have a low-cost impact on their projects to help protect the environment and can demonstrate social responsibility in another way.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW To gain an overall understanding of the theories and principles used in the study, the literature review, therefore, consists of contents related to coffee shop businesses, the idea of green buildings of U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) and the cost of the coffee shops construction projects and interior decoration as following.

2.1 FOOD AND BEVERAGE BUSINESS Food and beverage business means the business operation of providing food and beverage services for travelers, tourists, or general people by preparing seats to customers in the service place or packing food for customers to take out (Ball & Roberts, 2003). However, Thai food markets are limited by intense competitive conditions. Fast food markets have been competing with each other by the price all the time. Thus, branding is an important strategy. Larger restaurants will have more advantages. There is a competition by creating an advantage with more investment and reducing the total operating cost as much as possible. Therefore, branch distribution is an element that needs to be considered more in business expansion. Besides, food businesses must create strengths, attract family-like customers, focus on more modern lifestyles, create more convenience, and improve the development of various organization management (Hnuchek et al., 2013). However, the type and size of the market can be divided into 4 categories: 1. Fast food restaurant :The market size is approximately 12,000 million Baht .Some marketeers have more than 300 branches of KFC and are the market owners who have annual sales of about 4,000 million Baht .Meanwhile, McDonald's has sales of 2,000 million Baht per year, and the pizza markets have earned over 2,000 million Baht annually .The remaining market share belongs to various small and medium-sized businesses.

2. Takeout restaurants or delivery :The market size is increasing rapidly and consists of a variety type of food. There is a market size forecast based on business estimates in this field .It is found that the market size of the takeout restaurant or delivery business was forecasted about 1,300 million Baht. Such markets must be more competitive .Self-service food markets are food courts .

3. Restaurants :This is considered a general restaurant with market size of up to 500, 000 million Baht per year . If the focus on the possibility, it can be observed from the types of restaurants .For example, Sukiyaki restaurants can build markets more than 2, 000 million Baht annually, or Thai restaurants with high standards could be operated well in the branch system and could generate more than 1, 000 million Baht per year .If many distributed restaurants are included, it is showing the potential of the Thai food business that is still growing and widely open for investment.

4. Coffee shops :The coffee shops, which are consumed through other sale systems such as wholesale markets, department stores, and supermarket, has a market size of about 900, 000 million Baht per year.

From the analysis of the outside consumption market of the population in the big city based on the consumption of food compared with the income per household, it is found that there is the amount of outside consumption about 1,800 million Baht per month, only the population of *Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th Š2020 International

Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8T http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8T.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.161

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Bangkok, which is considered only about 5% of the total household income, with a tendency to increase by more than 20% per year according to the changing of social behavior in the more popularity of eating out (Hnuchek et al., 2013).

However, this has shown the market size and the expansion of coffee shops of the largest market, which is Bangkok areas, so this leads to the creation of coffee shops located in other business areas such as shopping malls and department stores more. It is a style that is consistent with Thai consumer behavior who commonly use services from the areas of the shopping mall and department store for a variety of activities but centralized in action (Unapamnak, 2016). As there is more competition, entrepreneurs are trying to make a difference by creating an image of being an environmentally responsible person. The development of coffee shops in green buildings is one of them, but they still have concerns about the increase in construction costs. In the next part, the content describes the green building and the green building assessment form. Also, the principles of construction costs are in the next section.

2.2 CONCEPT OF GREEN BUILDING Green building is a term known as a building that has been designed and constructed to effectively reduce the use of resources such as energy, water, materials, or chemicals more than general buildings. The definition of a green building is the building that has the least environmental impact, saves energy, uses environmentally friendly materials, and applies technologies to the building for environment condition usage as much as possible (Chou et al., 2012; Santitham & Horayangkura, 2017). Meanwhile, the green building is a reflection of the movement of contemporary architecture which aims to create a building that is environmentally friendly, energy-saving, using resources most efficiently, and the use of solar energy and materials that do not damage the environment throughout the production process. The use and the degradation are the application of appropriate technology to help the building be able to usefully benefit from the natural environment with passive methods, which are ways for the development of buildings that are environmentally friendly, energy-saving and using resources most efficiently for sustainable development (Wu & Lo, 2018; Zhang et al., 2017).

The Pollution Control Department (2013) reported that alertness in green buildings emerged during the first energy crisis, causing many organizations in America to agree that there should be specific organizations to evaluate "green" for buildings. Therefore, the American Architects established the Committee for Environmental Quality in 1980 as a source of knowledge and finding ways to design buildings that would reduce the impact on the environment, and the organizations are gradually occurring widely in many countries around the world. This also results in green building criteria of the U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC) which is the standardization of green building called green building rating system (USGBC, 2019b). At present, the types of green building by USGBC are categorized as follows: 1. Building Design and Construction (BD+C) is the criterion for new buildings or full renovations 2. Building Operations and Maintenance (O+M) is the criterion for old buildings that are under management. The building must be practically and fully used.

3. Interior Design and Construction (ID+C) is the criteria used for buildings that need changes for the interior decoration or used for interior design and decoration.

4. Neighborhood Development (ND) is a criterion used for community development in the same area to be harmonized, revival and development plan for the community

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Sopida Faengsomsri, Sittichai Naksukskul, Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya, Damrongsak Rinchumphu

5. Homes are criteria for single-family homes, low-rise multi-family or mid-rise multi-family; includes homes and multifamily low-rise and mid-rise.

6. Cities and Communities are criteria for entire cities and sub-sections of a city. Using the performance platform, LEED for Cities projects can measure and manage their cityâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s water consumption, energy use, waste, transportation, and human experience.

Figure 1: Project checklist for LEED for Interior Design and Construction (USGBC, 2019a) Furthermore, there is also a LEED Recertification for special cases of existing buildings prior to the use of the LEED for evaluation and LEED Zero, which is for projects with the net-zero goal in carbon and/or resource, LEED standards in all systems will be the same contents in seven main categories: 1) Sustainable Site 2) Water Efficiency 3) Energy and Atmosphere 4) Material and Resources 5) Indoor Environmental Quality 6) Innovation in Design and 7) Regional priority Thailand has also developed the criteria from LEED by modifying or adding some criteria to suit the environment, topography, and the weather in the country including in Thailand, especially business *Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th Š2020 International

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owners that are foreign networks. Aside from focusing on the environment, they also conduct business for a global image. the evaluation is divided into 4 levels which are Certified, Silver, Gold, and Platinum (Santitham & Horayangkura, 2017; Shen et al., 2017).

However, coffee shop businesses located inside other buildings that want to assess for the green building are within the scope of the Interior Design and Construction (ID + C) or LEED-ID + C, which were developed specifically for interior decoration. The criteria will focus on the quality of life and the performance of the building users. The criteria will reduce sustainable importance, location, and energy use. These are choices for building users and designers who cannot design and construct the whole building to be a whole green building. The samples of the project checklist table are shown in Figure 1.

Since construction cost is another important factor in choosing the project development model; also, coffee shop projects which mainly focus on interior design are the main issues in this study, principles of fundraising for construction and interior decoration projects are shown in the next section.

2.3 CONSTRUCTION COST According to a literature review about the construction cost of the project and the interior decoration, there are unique characteristics such as construction work, construction cost estimation, and estimation of interior decoration cost. This can be described that the cost of construction can be calculated by calculating the cost of materials and equipment in the construction plan (drawing) and specification and cost for installation. Normally, it is called a bill of quantity (BOQ) according to the category of each item to submit to the auction or for the project owner to prepare construction costs at the specified value. It is like the reference number that the project owner actually invested when they agreed to the construction contract, but in practice, the cost of the project tends to increase or decrease as the project owner changes (Tas & Yaman, 2005; Xu et al., 2013). Figure 2 shows a sample of coffee shops in the scope of this study.

Figure 2: Sample of a coffee shop (Courtesy of PTT Oil and Retail Business (PLC), 2017).

Figure 2 shows that most coffee shops consist of construction work that is not the same as

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Sopida Faengsomsri, Sittichai Naksukskul, Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya, Damrongsak Rinchumphu

general building construction. According to the study of Wattanakamnerd & Tochaiwat (2014), it is found that most coffee shop constructions are located in shopping areas in Bangkok. Construction costs can be classified into 4 work categories. They are 1) Building and interior decoration costs such as floor work, walls, doors-windows, and ceiling-curtains 2) Electrical system costs such as electrical wiring, lighting, and heating. 3) Sanitation system costs such as plumbing, toilets and sanitary wares. and 4) Air conditioning system costs such as air conditioner and ventilation. This study is based on the guidelines of the construction cost classification of coffee shops according to the categories shown in Figure 1.

3. METHOD This study was mainly conducted with the quantitative method by collecting data from BOQ of coffee shops that are under construction during 2016, totaling 24 projects in the Bangkok area. These projects were evaluated by 11 LEED-ID+C in Certified projects and 13 general projects. After that, construction cost data were separated into 4 groups, which are 1) Building and interior decoration costs 2) Electrical system costs 3) Sanitation system costs and 4) Air conditioning system costs.

Then, the data were analyzed by descriptive statistic technique. They were frequency, mean, and standard deviation separated by each construction cost and total cost of the 2 project groups, and the differences of mean values between groups were tested by inferential statistic technique with an Independent t-test at 95% confidence interval. The results showed the influence of LEED-ID+C green building per project cost of coffee shops in Bangkok as detailed in the next section.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Regarding the data collected from BOQ of coffee shops in Bangkok of both the LEED-ID+C and general projects, totaling 24 projects, the results could be divided into 3 issues following:

4.1 DATA DESCRIPTIVE Preliminary data from a survey of 24 coffee shops in Bangkok to consider the overall data as information shown in Table 1.

Table 1: General data descriptive of samples List Interior space (m2 ) External space (m2 ) Total areas (m2 ) Number of inside chairs per interior space Number of outside chairs per external space Total number of chairs Total number of tables

Minimum 106 0 106 27 0 38 16

Maximum 426 172 426 126 70 160 75

Average 194 29 223 68 12 80 35

SD 74 38 79 25 15 29 14

Regarding Table 1, it is found that the average area of food and beverage restaurants is 194 m2, the standard deviation (SD) is 74 m2. The average of external space is 29 m2 with an SD of 38 m2 . The average number of chairs inside the shop is 68 with an SD of 25. The average number of chairs outside the shop is 12, which its SD is 15, and the average number of total tables is 35 with the SD of 14. All the information indicated that the size of coffee shops in Bangkok is equivalent to a single family-sized family home in Bangkok However since it is a semi-public area which uses more energy *Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th Š2020 International

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and resources than residence which is a private building, the design must be more prioritized in reducing energy and resources used in both during construction and throughout the long-term use.

4.2 PROJECT CONSTRUCTION COST The data on the construction cost, interior decoration, and system work of the sample units of coffee shops in Bangkok, totaling 24 projects, to consider an overview of all the data are shown in Table 2.

Table 2: Construction and interior decoration cost per square meter of sample units Average Cost (Baht/m2 ) Building and interior decoration Electric System Sanitary System Air Conditioning System Total Cost

Min

13 General Buildings Max Average

SD

Min

11 LEED-ID+C Buildings Max Average

SD

7,861

18,128

10,262

2,827

4,697

13,696

8,997

2,584

2,122 771

9,707 2,563

4,087 1,430

2,149 700

1,807 329

3,762 1,729

2,615 971

491 428

584

6,581

2,586

1,884

2,451

10,978

6,738

2,567

11,696

33,226

18,365

5,413

13,404

28,310

19,321

4,840

Table 2 indicated the construction, interior decoration, and work system costs of each 2 groups.

This showed that the group certified by LEED-ID+C had an overall average cost higher than the group without certification for 5.20%. Each category can be divided into the cost of building construction and interior decoration average per square meter, electric system costs per square meter, and sanitary costs per square meter. For the project groups certified by LEED-ID+C, the costs are lower than those groups that are not certified for 12.33%, 36.02%, and 32.05%, respectively. In addition, the air conditioning costs of the groups certified by LEED-ID+C are higher than those uncertified groups for 160.58%. Therefore, it is found that the most different cost is the air conditioning system group. When considering the details of the design conditions for the building to be LEED-ID+C certified, it is of the utmost importance. In the end, certified buildings will be energy-efficient and can reduce costs in the long run.

4.3 STATISTICAL TESTING The test of the influence of LEED-ID + C certification on the construction costs of coffee shops in Bangkok, which uses the Independent t-test statistic at a 95% significance level, shows test results as in Table 3.

Table 3: Statistical testing of differences, mean and construction costs Cost Average (Baht/m2 ) Building and interior decoration Electric System Sanitary System Air Conditioning System Total cost

General Group 10,262 4,087 1,430 2,586 18,365

LEED-ID+C Group 8,997 2,615 971 6,738 19,321

t 0.351 2.902 2.491 -5.052 0.452

2-tailed significant 0.268 0.037 0.013 <0.001 0.655

Hypothesis Testing Summary Not different different different different Not different

According to Table 3, it presented that group of LEED-ID+C certified projects has cost differences (costs per square meters) compared to non-LEED certified projects in electric system, sanitary system, and air conditioning system by a statistically significant difference at the 95% confidence level. The construction cost of electrical system and sanitary system of LEED ID+C certified projects are lower than those costs of non-LEED certified projects, while the construction

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cost of air conditioning system of LEED ID+C certified projects are higher than those of non-LEED certified projects. On the other hand, the construction cost of building and interior decoration has a statistical test showing that the mentioned difference is not statistically significant at the 95% confidence level .According to the construction costs differences, the total construction cost of the projects between LEED ID+C and non-LEED certified projects are not statistically different at the 95% confidence level as well. The results of this study show that to achieve LEED-ID+C certified projects, there is a little or non-impact to total construction cost, which conforms to previous researches about the study of the construction cost for LEED-certified projects (Mapp et al., 2011).

The electrical system, sanitary system, and air conditioning system have a significantly different average cost with the consistency of LEED-ID+C requirements, which give importance to all 3parts of the system work significantly to the design and construction of the project.

5. CONCLUSION Regarding the results of the construction costs of coffee shops in Bangkok, it is found that projects certified by LEED-ID+C have overall costs higher than general ones only 5.20% and there is no statistically significant difference. Only costs per square meter of air conditioning system certified

by LEED-ID+C are statistically significantly higher than general projects, with an average of 160.58% while the green building criteria LEED-ID+C will not increase the cost of other parts.

However, due to the LEED-ID+C green building criteria consisting of 7 main categories as mentioned above, in some categories, they are long-term useful investments such as the investment in water-saving toilets. Regardless of whether the project needs to be assessed for LEED-certified or not, project owners have needs in this area. At the same time, increasing costs in other parts is not very high while the investment in air conditioning systems is LEED in Category 3, which deals with energy and atmosphere. It is a criterion that requires investing in air conditioning systems that have a very high cost. Therefore, certified projects have significantly higher air conditioning costs than non-certified projects.

From the analysis of the influence of green building criteria LEED-ID+C on the cost of coffee shops construction projects, when considering the mean, it is found that the LEED-ID+C certified projects have the cost per square meter of electrical system work and sanitation system cost lower than uncertified projects. According to the study, it can be concluded that green building LEED-ID+C criteria will result in the low cost of electrical and sanitation systems while the cost of air conditioning systems gets higher. Nevertheless, the test results indicate that green building LEED-ID+C criteria do not result in the increase of costs in other parts. Therefore, the project development to satisfy green building criteria, project owners can choose the LEED-ID+C criteria in other categories that do not result in the increase of costs, which are the use of water efficiency reflecting the cost of working systems, materials and resources which are reflected by the cost of interior decoration and the cost of sanitary work of indoor environmental quality. These criteria will help project owners develop their own projects into green buildings while still having appropriate costs and being able to compete.

As a result, the results of the study can be used as a suggestion that the design to satisfy LEED-ID+C criteria can be used to select other issues in order not to incur higher costs such as sustainable site, water efficiency, material and resources, indoor environmental quality and innovation in design; these criteria will not result in the higher costs of the projects. Therefore, *Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th Š2020 International

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entrepreneurs or project owners should apply those criteria to their own projects for the benefit of the environment and can save energy in the long run as well.

6. DATA AND MATERIAL AVAILABILITY Information can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

7. REFERENCES Ariyabuddhiphongs, V., & Kahn, S. I. (2017). Transformational leadership and turnover intention: The mediating effects of trust and job performance on café employees in Thailand. Journal of Human Resources in Hospitality & Tourism, 16(2), 215-233.

Ball, S., & Roberts, L. (2003). Restaurants. In B. Brotherton (Ed.), The international hospitality industry: Structure, characteristics and issues. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Chegut, A., Eichholtz, P., & Kok, N. (2015). The price of innovation: An analysis of the marginal cost of green buildings. Center for Real Estate MIT Working Paper Series, 29(5), 34-67.

Chou, C.-J., Chen, K.-S., & Wang, Y.-Y. (2012). Green practices in the restaurant industry from an innovation adoption perspective: Evidence from Taiwan. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 31(3), 703-711.

Dwaikat, L. N., & Ali, K. N. (2016). Green buildings cost premium: A review of empirical evidence.

Energy and Buildings, 110, 396-403.

Gulasirimaa, R., Rasamipiboonb, N., Pichaiyongvongdeeb, S., Chantrarasanamb, C., & Yambunjongc, P. (2019). Developing potential of restaurant entrepreneurs in Pattaya using process of knowledge management of local wisdom on foods. Journal of Multidisciplinary in Social Sciences, 15(1), 32-42.

Hnuchek, K., Ismail, I., & Haron, H. (2013). Franchisors’ relationship marketing and perceived franchisor support on franchisors’ performance: A case of franchise food and beverage in Thailand. Journal of Economics, Business and Management, 1(1), 117-122.

Lee, S., & Heo, C. Y. (2009). Corporate social responsibility and customer satisfaction among us publicly traded hotels and restaurants. International Journal of Hospitality Management, 28(4), 635-637.

Mapp, C., Nobe, M., & Dunbar, B. (2011). The cost of leed—an analysis of the construction costs of leed and non-leed banks. Journal of Sustainable Real Estate, 3(1), 254-273.

Pollution Control Department. (2013). Assessment manual for gernment's green buildings (new construction). Retrieved. from http://infofile.pcd.go.th/ptech/GB_NBD_2556.pdf.

PTT Oil and Retail Business (PLC). (2017). News and update. Retrieved September 2019, from http://www.cafe-amazon.com/BackEnd/TempNews/3bd3faa24336405bba6ca04548ffb39d.jpg Rinchumpoo, D., Eves, C., & Susilawati, C. (2010). The comparison of international and local sustainable assessment tools of landscape design for housing estate developments: Case of Bangkok metropolitan region, Thailand. Paper presented at the 8th International Conference on Construction and Real Estate Management (2010), Royal on the Park Hotel, Brisbane, Queensland.

Santitham, K., & Horayangkura, V. (2017). Social benefits affecting sustainable real estate development: Leed platinum office building. Veridian E-Journal, Silpakorn University (Humanities, Social Sciences and Arts), 10(5), 63-79.

Shen, W., Tang, W., Siripanan, A., Lei, Z., Duffield, C. F., Wilson, D., Hui, F. K. P., & Wei, Y. (2017).

Critical success factors in Thailand′s green building industry. Journal of Asian Architecture and Building Engineering, 16(2), 317-324.

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Sopida Faengsomsri, Sittichai Naksukskul, Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya, Damrongsak Rinchumphu

Tas, E., & Yaman, H. (2005). A building cost estimation model based on cost significant work packages.

Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 12(3), 251-263.

Thirakomen, K. (2013). How's increased of green building cost? http://www.eec-academy.com/academy_article.html

Retrieved August 2014, from

Unapamnak, K. (2016). The study of servicescape on customer loyalty for shopping center in Bangkok.

Thammasat University, Bangkok USGBC. (2019a). Checklist: Leed v4 for interior design and construction. Retrieved 2nd June 2019, from https://www.usgbc.org/resources/leed-v4-interior-design-and-construction-checklist USGBC. (2019b). Green building leadership is leed. https://new.usgbc.org/leed

Retrieved 2nd June 2019, from

Wattanakamnerd, S., & Tochaiwat, K. (2014). Interior designer selection model for shops in comminity malls in Bangkok. Paper presented at the Built Environment Research Associates Conference (BERAC) 5, Thammasat University.

Wu, C.-Y., & Lo, S.-F. (2018). What makes a greener building? Lessons from Taiwan. Journal of Environmental Protection, 9(09), 957.

Xu, S., Liu, K., & Tang, L. C. M. (2013). Cost estimation in building information models. In Iccrem 2013: Construction and operation in the context of sustainability (pp. 555-566).

Zhang, Y., Wang, J., Hu, F., & Wang, Y. (2017). Comparison of evaluation standards for green buildings in China, Britain, United States. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 68, 262-271.

Sopida Faengsomsri was a Master’s Degree Student at Innovative Real Estate Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. She got her Bachelor’s Degree in Architecture from University of Northern Philippines, The Philippines. Her researches are in field of Construction Cost on several Green Building Projects.

Dr. Sittichai Naksukskul is a Researcher at PTT Innovation Institute, Thailand, and a special lecturer at Innovative Real Estate Development Program, Faculty of Architecture and Planning, Thammasat University, Thailand. He got his Doctoral Degree in Civil Engineering from Yokohama National University, Japan. His research focuses on Innovative Technology in Construction and Real Estate Development.

Thidarat Kridakorn Na Ayutthaya is a Doctoral Degree Student at Department of Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. She got her Master’s Degree in Innovative Real Estate Development from Thammasat University, Thailand. Her researches are in the field of Circular Economy in Urban and Real Estate Developments.

Dr. Damrongsak Rinchumphu is a Researcher at the Center of Excellence for Natural Disaster Management (CENDIM) and a Lecturer at Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. He got his Doctoral’s in Civil Engineering and Built Environment from Queensland University of Technology, Australia. His research focuses on Sustainable and Technology in Civil and Construction Management.

Trademarks Disclaimer: All product names including trademarks™ or registered® trademarks mentioned in this article are the property of their respective owners, using for identification and educational purposes only. The use of them does not imply any endorsement or affiliation.

*Corresponding author (Damrongsak Rinchumphu). Tel: +66-95-9959519. Email: damrongsak.r@cmu.ac.th ©2020 International

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©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies

International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies http://TuEngr.com

PAPER ID: 11A8U

KEY FACTORS FOR SMART HOUSE QUALITY ASSURANCE Alexander M. Martynov 1*, Kirill M. Levkin 1, Semen A. Kotov 1, Roman A. Kondratenko 1, Alexander S. Novikov 1, Maxim A. Nazarenko 1 1

Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA—Russian Technological University, RUSSIA.

ARTICLEINFO

A B S T RA C T

Article history: Received 10 January 2020 Received in revised form 02 March 2020 Accepted 16 March 2020 Available online 23 March 2020.

A smart house is one of up today technologies. Its quality is a very difficult question due to a variety of dimensions. This paper analyses current directions of smart house system technology improvement.

Current studies are mainly dedicated to the integration of Internet of things (IoT) into smart house systems; specification of older people needs; specifications of sensors in smart house system; management Keywords: and information management with the help of smart house systems; Shewhart control charts; estimation via life quality changings.

Smart house system Moreover, based on the Pareto chart and Shewhart control chart, technology; Pareto chart; Shewhart control chart; the paper studies quality of the systems. The main purpose of the paper Meeting users is to find out what is the main factor of quality assurance. The paper expectations; Smart home takes into account seven different parameters. According to the current sensors; Quality study results, it is the users’ classification. management.

Currently, the estimation of meeting users’ expectations is very contradictory. In other words, some users are excited by the system, whereas the others are disappointed. Users studying should be specified in future studies due to in other aspects of quality improvement there no such opposite intentions. This study shows that users can estimate the smart house system quite differently. As a result, users’ segmentation for the smart house is the main task for future studies. Providers of smart house systems have to take it into account either.

Disciplinary: Quality Management, Applied information Technology. ©2020 INT TRANS J ENG MANAG SCI TECH.

1. INTRODUCTION The smart house technology is quite popular nowadays. This system includes two main types of smart houses: personal and community. The system of the personal smart house can be integrated by any person in their house. It usually covers: o comfort, that assumes the realization of a specified program by the command; o security, including video surveillance systems, alarm systems, access control, remote *Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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access, fire safety systems, protection against water and gas leaks, etc.; o entertainment, including control of different multimedia devices, special programs for them, integration and restrictions; o climate control and heating systems that provide a healthy environment and life safety.

Thus, personal smart house systems are directed on quality of life increase. Whereas common smart house systems cover security, on the one hand, and processing, on the other. Security in these systems quite similar to personal ones, but includes more control options. It is determined by the object of control. For example, it is easier to reallocate resources in the house or even in the whole district, than in a separate flat due to control abilities. Processing for common smart house systems means process organization and optimization. It can include different aspects of control, such as gas and water, elevators, garbage disposal, etc.

Anyway, both smart house technologies include: •

system of sensors, detecting main parameters in the real-time mode;

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decision-making system, that covers: o possible decisions database; o explanation of what is the optimal solution, including its criterion; o algorithms of optimal solution selection; o algorithms of situation estimation that implies new data;

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regulation system;

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system of mechanic devices to realize regulation.

In this paper, the realization of personal smart house technology is analyzed with the help of quality assurance methods. The main purpose of the paper is to find out what is the main factor of quality assurance. As a result, the paper suggests some options for quality improvement.

2. LITERATURE REVIEW Literature dedicated to smart house quality can be divided into several groups. The first group involves integrations of the Internet of things (IoT), with different systems and devices into one system (Parkhomenko et al, 2019). They suppose interactions inside the system and with the external world via the Internet. Undoubtedly, IoT is an important part of the smart house system quality, whereas the issue of this paper does not limit by IoT. The subsection of the first group is data processing for IoT. Scientists try to find the best way to collect and analyze data to improve smart house systems (Lee, et al, 2016). Moreover, Big Data technology (Nazarenko and Khronusova, 2017; Nazarenko et al, 2019) is important in these studies. This technology allows summarizing data, including unstructured one, for analysis and prediction of users’ behavior (Tulenkov et al., 2019).

The second group dedicated to the specific needs of older people, concentrating on how older people can use this technology, what it can give them and which specifics it should have for this customer group (Stefanov et al., 2004). Moreover, this group of reteaches provides the specification of analysis for older people (Sanchez et al., 2017). The result of the studies is the set of factors that

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A.M. Martynov, K.M. Levkin, S.A. Kotov, R.A. Kondratenko, A.S. Novikov, M.A. Nazarenko

specify older people, which use smart house technology, and their needs (Nguyen, et al, 2019). This group the studies is very important for this research due to its assumption about different groups of smart houses customers (Lobanovsky, 2018).

The third group includes different specifications of sensors in a smart house system.

Undoubtedly, both sensors (Jurenoks, 2017) and hardware (Vladimirovich, 2017) are important for quality assurance. However, these papers concentrate on information management plus the hardware of sensors. The fourth group of articles is also dedicated to management and information management with the help of smart house systems (Shutov, et al, 2020). However, it focuses on different aspects of measurable quality, such as quality of air, especially in the comparison between indoor and outdoor (Schieweck et al, 2018) and elevator timeout (Prusov et al., 2019). The main idea of quality estimation in these studies is the analysis of different components. The overall quality of the smart house is a combination or sum of its componentsâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; quality. Undoubtedly, overall quality depends on its components but does not come down to it.

The fifth group of studies attempts to estimate the quality via life quality changes (Corradini et al., 2017; Nazarenko et al., 2019) that can be measured but this estimation is not very accurate (Fitriaty et al., 2018; Nazarenko, 2019). These articles cover a very significant issue. The quality of a smart house cannot be reduced to the quality of its components. Moreover, it is not just the quality of living that raises with the help of this technology. It should also take into account other factors, including external influence. The main issue is how to measure all of these factors.

This study attempts to measure hardly measurable factors. The main purpose of the paper is to find out what the key factors of quality assurance are.

3. METHOD 3.1 OBSERVED VARIABLES According to all mentioned above, it can be formulated a list of criteria and quality requirements for smart home system: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7)

accuracy of key indicators, especially in safety, comfort and climate modules; speed of decision-making; speed of decision correction; completeness of possible solutions and scenarios database; effectiveness of adaptation to the situation; user-friendly interface; compliance with the user's expectations and perceptions of comfort, taking into account changing external conditions.

Based on this list, it should be noted that in addition to the analyzed criteria, it is important to determine the most relevant research methods. First, the Pareto diagram should be used to analyze the contribution of each of the seven factors to the overall performance of smart home systems. Thus, the most significant factors will be identified.

At the same time, each of the seven factors of the quality of smart home systems should also be analyzed in the context of the reasons that affect the quality violation. In the future, each of the seven *Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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quality factors is also analyzed using Shewhart control maps to determine the number of quality violations in a certain time, which means that the probability of a general violation of the quality of the system.

It is also important to note that the total number of Pareto charts should be eight, and the number of Shewhart control charts is seven. However, the results will be presented just significant ones, two Pareto charts, and seven Shewhart control charts.

3.2 SHEWHARTCONTROLCHART SPECIFICATION Shewhart control maps can be implemented based on quantitative and qualitative criteria. They can be measured based on: •

individual value;

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sliding swings;

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average;

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standard deviation;

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medians;

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scope's;

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stability indicator (t-criterion).

Thus, the main criteria for the quality of smart home systems in the context of Shewhart control charts can be represented by the following indicators: 1. the accuracy of accounting for key indicators, especially in the modules of safety, comfort and climate- t-criterion, the boundaries are respectively the limits of the norm of this indicator for each separately observed system; 2.speed of the decision - making-milliseconds in each case for many observations; 3. speed of decision correction - milliseconds in each case for several observations; 4. completeness of the database of possible solutions and scenarios – the scope of variation for each system, and this indicator should reflect redundancy control; 5. effectiveness of adaptation to a changing situation – engineer's rating points for each observation; 6. user-friendly interface - user rating points for each observation; 7. compliance with the user's expectations and perceptions of comfort, taking into account changing external conditions - user rating points for each observation.

4. RESULT AND DISCUSSION Previously, the list of criteria and quality requirements for the smart home system was provided.

Not all of them are equally important and essential. Therefore, to build a Pareto chart, you need to rank them in order of decreasing contribution to the final quality of the system: 1. Accuracy of key indicators, especially in safety, comfort and climate modules; 2. Effectiveness of adaptation to a changing situation; 3. Completeness of the database of possible solutions and scenarios; 4. The speed of decision-making; 5. Speed of decision correction; 6. Meeting the user's expectations and perceptions of comfort, taking into account changing external conditions; 7. User-friendly interface.

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Thus, the most significant contribution to the quality of smart home systems is the accuracy of accounting for key indicators. In second place is the effectiveness of adaptation to a changing situation. On the third â&#x20AC;&#x201C; the completeness of the database of possible solutions. Together, these three quality criteria cover more than 70% of the overall quality of the smart home system, as shown in the Pareto chart (Figure 1). While the two final indicators related to consumer expectations and the interface contribute to quality only in the region of 8%. Of course, these aspects are more important for consumers, but this is more about the marketing component than the quality component.

120 100 80 60 40 20 0

accuracy of key effectiveness of completeness speed of indicators, adaptation to of possible decision-making the situation solutions and especially in safety, comfort scenarios and climate database modules

speed of decision correction

compliance with the user's expectations

user-friendly interface

Figure 1: Pareto chart for smart house system quality Thus, the first of the quality criteria, the accuracy of accounting for key indicators, especially in the modules of safety, comfort, and climate, consists of the variables mentioned earlier. At the same time, the greatest contribution to quality is made by the serviceability and proper functioning of each sensor (Figure 2) and is 35%. While the measurement error adds another 24% to the quality of the measurement accuracy criterion. Together with the information processing system, their overall contribution to the accuracy of measurements as a quality parameter is 76%. While errors of the first and second types, which close the list of requirements for the quality of measurements, make up only 13%. In other words, the first three criteria are as pronounced for this quality criterion as the first three criteria for the quality of the smart home as a whole. Figure 3 shows the Shewhart control chart for accurate tracking of key indicators, especially in the safety, comfort, and climate modules.

So, according to the presented data, the violation of the regulatory boundary occurs only from above. In other words, the data exceeds their variation significantly. This situation can be caused by two reasons: o measurement error at the point; o estimation error due to measurements.

*Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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sensor's serviceability

sensor's accuracy

sensor data procedure for probability of false probability of false processing system working with peak reading of reading of values that differ information that information that from normal values reflects a violation does not reflect the by more than 2 when working violation during times properly faulty operation

Figure 2: Pareto chart for accuracy of key indicators, especially in safety, comfort and climate modules 4 3 2 1 0

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Figure 3: Shewhart Control map for accurate accounting of key indicators, especially in the modules of safety, comfort, and climate We are talking about the fact that the system assumes peak values that significantly stand out from the normal ones. In some cases, this is due to external factors, such as water leaking from a tap.

However, in most cases, it is the measurement error that leads to a false trigger of the algorithm. As a result, we can talk about excessive regulation and the need to improve the measurement and response of the system to indicators outside the norm. For a more accurate analysis, we will refer to the Shewhart control cards for other quality criteria.

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Figure 5: Shewhart control chart for the speed of decision correction Figure 4 shows the Shewhart control chart for decision speed. So, the speed of decision-making is much more within the limits of regulation than the accuracy of accounting for key indicators. In particular, we are talking about the fact that there are three points on the upper border of regulation, and three more intersect it. At the same time, there are two points on the lower border, and two intersect it. Thus, the overall stability of the indicator is not very high, since 10 out of 30 observations reach one of the control borders. However, unlike the accuracy of observations, this boundary is reached both from above and from below. Although the overall upward bias is maintained. Thus, we can say that the speed of decision-making should be stabilized by reducing the excessively long response and average time. Attempts to reduce it by overreacting are not effective. Figure 5 shows the Shewhart control chart for the speed of decision correction. *Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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Figure 6: Shewhart control chart for completeness of the database of possible solutions and scenarios In one observation, the rate of decision adjustment goes beyond the lower limit of regulation. At the same time, two observations lie on the lower border of regulation. In four observations, the upper limit of regulation was exceeded. Thus, in 7 observations there was a border crossing. Note that such dynamics are also excessive. However, the average value is close to the true average. In other words, in general, the speed of decision adjustment is within the statistical norm. However, it is also necessary to adjust the speed of decision adjustment in critical situations. At the same time, we are talking about exceptional situations. Note also that the speed of decision-making is less stable than the speed of decision correction. Figure 6 shows the Shewhart control chart for completeness of the database of possible solutions and scenarios.

The upper limit of regulation was never violated when observing the completeness of the database of possible solutions. At the same time, 5 observations lie on the border of regulation. While 4 observations lie beyond the lower limit of regulation, and another 3 â&#x20AC;&#x201C; on it. As a result, it can be argued that in 12 out of 30 observations, there is a violation of the quality boundary. Thus, the process is extremely unstable. At the same time, the average content of the database of possible solutions and scenarios is lower than the real average. We are talking about the fact that the base as a whole is not filled enough, which leads to excessive deviations along the lower border. As a result, we can say that it is necessary to fill the database in General, and not exclude individual incidents.

Figure 7 shows the Shewhart control chart for effective adaptation to a changing situation.

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Figure 7: Shewhart control chart for effective adaptation to a changing situation The process of effective adaptation to a changing situation is not stable. At the same time, in 5 cases it goes beyond the lower limit of regulation and is extremely inefficient. In two cases, the lower limit of regulation has been reached. While in one case-the the upper limit of regulation is exceeded and it is excessive. Simultaneously, the upper limit of regulation was reached in five cases. In other words, in 13 cases, the regulatory boundary has been reached or crossed. However, the regulation itself is not biased relative to the average. This means that regulation is either insufficient or excessive. It is important to note that the situation itself is relatively stable and requires both removing excessive regulation in some situations and adding it in others.

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Figure 8:Shewhart control chart for accessibility to the user interface. *Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com Š2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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The overall accessibility of the user interface is skewed towards the upper limit. At the same time, in three cases there was a violation of the upper limit of regulation, and in 3 cases it was reached.

The violation also affected 3 observations at the lower limit of regulation and three beyond it. Thus, it can be argued that the process is slightly shifted to the positive zone, while the overall dynamics are extremely unstable. It requires a large adaptation to the real expectations of users, perhaps their segmentation, instead of the same type of solution.

Figure 9 shows the Shewhart control chart to match the user's expectations and perceptions of comfort, taking into account changing external conditions.

Based on the data presented in figure 9, it becomes obvious that the process is extremely unstable and this quality indicator requires serious adjustment. In particular, in 30 observations, 5 cases of violation of the upper border, 2 more of its achievements, 4 cases of crossing the lower border, and 4 of its achievements were recorded. Thus, the number of points where the system has demonstrated its inefficiency has reached 15, which is 50%. Note that in general, the average is shifted up. Thus, it can be argued that less regulation, General smoothing of the process, and segmentation of user groups are required.

Based on all of the above and analyzed, the most critical aspects of the violation of the quality of smart home systems are: • • • • • •

inaccuracy of sensor processing; redundancy of regulation; incompleteness of the rule base; mismatch between the expectations of users; insufficient response time; the acceptable time of the overshoot.

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Average

Upper warning limit

Upper limit of the regulation

Lower warning limit

Lower limit of the regulation

Values

Figure 9:Shewhart control chart for user's expectations

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A.M. Martynov, K.M. Levkin, S.A. Kotov, R.A. Kondratenko, A.S. Novikov, M.A. Nazarenko

5. CONCLUSION The paper shows that studies in the fields of databases for the smart house and dedicated to IoT are very important for the quality of the system assurance. However, the most significant issue is users’ classification or dividing into different groups. The issue is not only found in older users.

Currently, their estimation of meeting expectations is very contradictory. In other words, some users are excited by the system, whereas the others are disappointed. Users studying should be specified in future studies due to in other aspects of quality improvement there no such opposite intentions. This study shows that users can estimate the smart house system quite differently. As a result, users’ segmentation for the smart house is the main task for future studies.

6. DATA AND MATERIAL AVAILABILITY Data can be made available by contacting the corresponding author.

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Jurenoks, A., &Jokić, D. (2017). Sensor network information flow control method with static coordinator within internet of things in smart house environment. Procedia Computer Science, 104, 385-392.

Lee, W., et al. (2016). Automatic agent generation for IoT-based smart house simulator. Neurocomputing, 209, 14-24.

Lobanovsky Y.I.(2018). General Classifier Of System Problems - I: Analysis, Synthesis, Validation and Verification.Russian Technological Journal. 6(4), 5-12. DOI: 10.32362/2500-316X-2018-6-4-5-12 Nazarenko M.A. (2019). Quality Management of Tax Burden's Optimization Processes In Russia Commercial Enterprises. International Transaction Journal of Engineering Management & Applied Sciences & Technologies. 10(6), 837-846. DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2019.77 Nazarenko M.A., Gorobets A.I., Miskov D.V., Muravyev V.V., Novikov A.S. (2019). Antivirus Software and Industrial Cyber Security System Certification in Russia. Russian Technological Journal. 7(1), 48-56.

DOI: 10.32362/2500-316X-2019-7-1-48-56 Nazarenko M.A., Khronusova T.V. (2017). Big Data in Modern Higher Education. Benefits and Criticism.

Proceedings of the 2017 International Conference Quality Management, Transport And Information Security, Information Technologies (IT&QM&IS). 676-679 Nazarenko M.A., Ponyaev I.M., Novikov A.S. (2019). Level Of Domestic Democracy And Estimation Of Russian 1993 Political Crisis: Interdependence And Political Management Opportunities.

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10(19), 10A19G. DOI: 10.14456/ ITJEMAST.2019.265 Nguyen M., Nefedov V.I., Kozlovsky I.V., Malafeev A.V., Selenya K.A., Mirolyubova N.A. (2019). Analysis of the Raman spectrum of high-power amplifiers of wireless communication systems. Russian Technological Journal. 7(6), 96-105. DOI: 10.32362/2500-316X-2019-7-6-96-105

Parkhomenko, A., Bilov, O., Tulenkov, A., Sokolyanskii, A., Zalyubovskiy, Y., Henke, K., &Wuttke, H. D. (2019, September). Virtual Model for Remote Laboratory Smart House & IoT. In 2019 10th IEEE International Conference on Intelligent Data Acquisition and Advanced Computing Systems: Technology and Applications (IDAACS) (Vol. 2, pp. 985-990). IEEE. *Corresponding author (A.M. Martynov). Email: science.rtu.mirea@gmail.com ©2020 International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. Volume 11 No.8 ISSN 2228-9860 eISSN 1906-9642 CODEN: ITJEA8 Paper ID:11A8U http://TUENGR.COM/V11A/11A8U.pdf DOI: 10.14456/ITJEMAST.2020.162

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Prusov, A., Sevryugina, N., &Ovsienko, A. (2019). Smart house: model of resource management and safety of vertical transport. In E3S Web of Conferences (Vol. 97, p. 01016). EDP Sciences.

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Tulenkov, A., Parkhomenko, A., &Sokolyanskii, A. (2019, September). Evaluation and Selection of IoT Service for Smart House System Big Data Processing. In 2019 IEEE 14th International Conference on Computer Sciences and Information Technologies (CSIT) (Vol. 2, pp. 124-129).

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Vestnik MGSU, 12(10), 1191-1201.

Alexander M. Martynov is a student at Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA — Russian Technological University. Mr. Martynov is interested in Quality Management and Certification.

Kirill M. Levkin is a student at Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA — Russian Technological University. Mr. Levkin is interested in Quality Management and Certification.

Semen A. Kotov is a student at Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA — Russian Technological University. Mr. Kotov is interested in Quality Management and Certification.

Roman A. Kondratenko is a student at Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA — Russian Technological University. Mr. Kondratenko is interested in Quality Management and Certification.

Dr.Alexander S. Novikov is a Lecturer at Department of Quality Management and Certification, MIREA — Russian Technological University. He got a Ph.D. in technical sciences. Dr. Novikov is interested in Standardization and Quality Management, including Scientific Papers Similarity.

ORCID iD:0000-0001-9349-2574; Scopus Author ID: 57210977938.

Professor Dr.Maxim A. Nazarenko is Chair of the Department of Quality Management and Certification in MIREA — Russian Technological University. He got a Ph.D. in Physics and Mathematics. Dr. Nazarenko's scientific interests cover a wide range of subjects, especially in Quality Management and Standardization, Scientometric indicators.

ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3452-0982; ResearcherID: A-5575-2016; Scopus Author ID: 54783073400.

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A.M. Martynov, K.M. Levkin, S.A. Kotov, R.A. Kondratenko, A.S. Novikov, M.A. Nazarenko

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