Vol.3(3) (July 2014): American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences

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2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS

International Editorial Board

Editor-in-Chief

Executive Editor

Associate Professor, South Dakota State University, USA

Associate Professor, Thammasat University, THAILAND

Zhong Hu, PhD

Boonsap Witchayangkoon, PhD

Associate Editors:

Associate Professor Dr. Ahmad Sanusi Hassan (Universiti Sains Malaysia ) Associate Prof. Dr.Vijay K. Goyal (University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez) Associate Professor Dr. Narin Watanakul (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Assistant Research Professor Dr.Apichai Tuanyok (Northern Arizona University, USA) Associate Professor Dr. Kurt B. Wurm (New Mexico State University, USA ) Associate Prof. Dr. Jirarat Teeravaraprug (Thammasat University, Thailand) Dr. H. Mustafa Palancıoğlu (Erciyes University, Turkey )

Editorial Research Board Members

Professor Dr. Nellore S. Venkataraman (University of Puerto Rico, Mayaguez USA) Professor Dr. Marino Lupi (Università di Pisa, Italy) Professor Dr.Martin Tajmar (Dresden University of Technology, German ) Professor Dr. Gianni Caligiana (University of Bologna, Italy ) Professor Dr. Paolo Bassi ( Universita' di Bologna, Italy ) Associate Prof. Dr. Jale Tezcan (Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA) Associate Prof. Dr. Burachat Chatveera (Thammasat University, Thailand) Associate Prof. Dr. Pietro Croce (University of Pisa, Italy) Associate Prof. Dr. Iraj H.P. Mamaghani (University of North Dakota, USA) Associate Prof. Dr. Wanchai Pijitrojana (Thammasat University, Thailand) Associate Prof. Dr. Nurak Grisadanurak (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Associate Prof.Dr. Montalee Sasananan (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Associate Prof. Dr. Gabriella Caroti (Università di Pisa, Italy) Associate Prof. Dr. Arti Ahluwalia (Università di Pisa, Italy) Assistant Prof. Dr. Malee Santikunaporn (Thammasat University, Thailand) Assistant Prof. Dr. Xi Lin (Boston University, USA ) Assistant Prof. Dr.Jie Cheng (University of Hawaii at Hilo, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Jeremiah Neubert (University of North Dakota, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Didem Ozevin (University of Illinois at Chicago, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Deepak Gupta (Southeast Missouri State University, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Xingmao (Samuel) Ma (Southern Illinois University Carbondale, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Aree Taylor (Thammasat University, Thailand) Assistant.Prof. Dr.Wuthichai Wongthatsanekorn (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Assistant Prof. Dr. Rasim Guldiken (University of South Florida, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Jaruek Teerawong (Khon Kaen University, Thailand) Assistant Prof. Dr. Luis A Montejo Valencia (University of Puerto Rico at Mayaguez) Assistant Prof. Dr. Ying Deng (University of South Dakota, USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Apiwat Muttamara (Thammasat University, Thailand) Assistant Prof. Dr. Yang Deng (Montclair State University USA) Assistant Prof. Dr. Polacco Giovanni (Università di PISA, Italy) Dr. Monchai Pruekwilailert (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Dr. Piya Techateerawat (Thammasat University, Thailand ) Scientific and Technical Committee & Editorial Review Board on Engineering and Applied Sciences Dr. Yong Li (Research Associate, University of Missouri-Kansas City, USA) Dr. Ali H. Al-Jameel (University of Mosul, IRAQ) Dr. MENG GUO (Research Scientist, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor) Dr. Mohammad Hadi Dehghani Tafti (Tehran University of Medical Sciences)

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FEATURE PEER-REVIEWED ARTICLES for Vol.3 No.3 (July 2014) 181 189

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Contact & Office: Associate Professor Dr. Zhong Hu (Editor-in-Chief), CEH 222, Box 2219 Mechanical Engineering Department, College of Engineering, Center for Accelerated Applications at the Nanoscale and PhotoActivated Nanostructured Systems, South Dakota Materials Evaluation and Testing Laboratory (METLab), South Dakota State University, Brookings, SD 57007 Tel: 1-(605) 688-4817 Fax: 1-(605) 688-5878 Zhong.Hu@sdstate.edu, Editor@TuEngr.com Postal Paid in USA.

2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS

Effect of Combined Antenna Electromagnetic Power to Human Chakree Maleewan a

a*

Department of Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO Article history: Received April 01, 2014 Received in revised form May 15, 2014 Accepted May 20, 2014 Available online May 26, 2014

Keywords: Cellular communication; Combined antenna field; human brain; signal excitation human molecule.

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the effect of the combined signals from the nearby cellular towers that have toward population health in Thailand. We investigate the frequencies in the operating ranges of GSM 850/ 900/ 1800/ 1900/ and 2100 MHz. Both power and frequency of electromagnetic wave have influence to living cell. In theory, these combined signals strength can fluctuate the energy level of certain minerals that are key components of human internal organs. These minerals, such as K+, Ca++, and Na+, are crucial in maintaining the balance for healthy body. The damage to the living organ from the small amount of heat energy that caused by the vibration of polar dielectric, such as H2O is even less than the damage that is caused by displacement of electron in the these minerals. In theory the charged particle that originated from as such demonstrates property of electric vector (magnitude, phase and direction) which cause the living cell to be prone to oxidization and degenerated; it can deviate from its normality. Hence, this study is crucial to human and all livings.

2014 Am. Trans. Eng. Appl. Sci.

1. Introduction Cellular communication has been rapidly developed in recent time. With the wide spread usage of the communication devices of both handheld and stationary, many communication companies have developed and installed cellular antenna to cover the cell network areas for optimum receiving and transmitting between the devices and the towers. Main objectives are to not having drop calls with high quality voice and data.

In Thailand, there are five major cellular companies: AIS, TrueMove, DTAC, CAT Telecom

Co., and TOT [1].

It is being seen in many areas that these companies have installed the cellular antenna towers in close proximity to each other to cover the usage areas of their own subscribers. The signal that generated from the antenna is electromagnetic wave which can be considered harmful to human. One clear example is x-ray imaging that is being used in medical analysis. There is development of x-ray imaging to produce *Corresponding author (C. Maleewan). Tel: +66-2-5643001-9 x3062. E-mail: charkree@engr.tu.ac.th.

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higher quality image with lower x-ray signal strength to be less harmful to human [2] and studied the effect of cellular signal to human [3]. In this paper, we propose the study of the combined cellular towers signal strength.

2. Power and Frequency of Antenna and the Living Cell In Metallic bond, with the right frequency and right energy, the bond between atoms can be excited and its outermost electron can be free so it becomes free electron. Simple example is the rise of temperature of the metal in the sun light.

The electrons are excited and move randomly resulting in the heat. When

different parts of conductance have unequal energy, there is movement of electron from one place to another (Ohm’s law). Different frequency with different exciting energy cause different electrons to move which results in rising temperature.

This is the same principle of cause and effect of frequency and power that is being transmitted from cellular tower in cellular communication.

Covalent bond: the atoms are bonded and polarized as negative and positive, i.e., H2O. and CaCO3 The electric field causes the dipole-moment which sways the molecules. The water molecule has two Hydrogen atoms and one Oxygen atom and has electric dipole characteristic, Figure 1.

With the sufficient

electromagnetic power of 2.45 GHz frequency, the water molecules will spin 2.45 thousand millions time per second with dipole moment according to electric vector direction. The movement of these molecules generates heat as the household microwave equipment.

Ionic bond: This is the bonding of positive ion and negative ion of the outermost atoms of minerals that have different electro-negativity such as Na+Cl‐.

All Metallic bond, Covalent bond, and Ionic bond reactions to electromagnetic signal can be applied to the effect of the electromagnetic that is transmitted from cellular antenna toward human health. Human body composes of various kinds of minerals elements that listed on periodic table. With the right amount of quantized energy, the minerals in human body will be excited. This causes the electrons to be free and randomly move which results in disturbance to the cell functions. Cells behave abnormally.

The ionizing process separates atoms of the substance. When this happens, the ions differentiate themselves to be positive ions and negative ions, which cause free electric charge particles within that substance, example of this behavior can be observed in NaCl. The covalent bonding that is formed has a very strong bond. Even such strong bond, with the matching frequency of either full or half electromagnetic wave, it can cause resonant effect that breaks down the covalent bonded molecules of non-polarized substance, thus called ‘electronic break down’. This is fundamental principle that explains the breaking down of electronic components. Most of the time, it occurs in dielectric components such as the blow up of the capacitor. In summary, with the right frequency of energy, the electro-magnetic wave can cause resonance to the electron, atom, and molecule to the breaking point of the substance.

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There are two categories according to the response of the molecules of substance to electromagnetic energy: Molecules with Dipole properties and Molecules with Non-Dipole properties. In fabricating the microelectronic components, Silicon and Carbon are used as they have 4 outer most electrons. Then we make them to be N-type or P-type. An N-type (Negative type) can be achieved by adding 1 – 3 extra electrons into the minerals. A P-type (Positive type) is achieved by reducing 1 – 3 electrons. This is the principle of P-N junction (Diode). The resonance within the diode properties and dielectric devices that is caused by the right amount of electromagnetic energy and frequency can result either Photon or Phonon.

An example of Photon is Laser Diode, for Phonon is PZT. From above, it shows that the electromagnetic wave can cause deviation in molecules structure (to be either photon or phonon).

For the organism, there is research result to create photon from human kidney

cell [4], which is similar to the process of making diode from Carbon, OLED. This is to conclude that not only water that can be excited by electromagnetic energy to form Dipole characteristic, but there are acids, certain fat, and other internal organs of living creatures that can form Dipole characteristics as well.

The organisms, in general, have non-dipole state of properties except the

mechanism or working brain and muscles. But once the cells are excited with enough amount of external electromagnetic energy (from cellular towers), both dipole molecules and non-dipole molecules can cause the ion transmission in the cell not being able to propagate normally. The occurrence rate of ion of the cell depends upon the bonding strength of the atoms.

In Quantum Golden rule [5], according to Heisenberg, the outer most electron is perturbed by electric fields of electromagnetic energy and causes changes in electron speed and its energy momentum. This applies to atoms, molecules in organism as well. In order to calculate the energy that effect on the atom and molecule, the measurement of energy intensity [6] from poynting vector of the electromagnetic over electron wave function across

area, penetration to -axis known as skin depth effect.

In Thailand, multiple towers from multiple cellular companies result in different frequencies with different electromagnetic energy levels transmitted out to cover the cellular network of each company.

The electromagnetic energy does not go to only cellular phone, but go to everyone and everything in the coverage area. To calculate the effect of electromagnetic energy to the human cell, we need to combine the intensity according to the angles of various energies that cover in the area. The result of combined electromagnetic energy that has toward living cell will cause the atom of the cell to wander randomly. The combination of different frequencies and different electromagnetic energy has effect to calcium carbonate and the bone cell. This can cause Osteoporosis disease. When the electromagnetic signals from cellular towers disturb the signal from human brain (cortex and cerebellum), it poses the possibilities for the brain to demonstrate abnormality. This can occur without large energy of electromagnetic signal; all it needs is to have the frequency that matches with the brain frequency as stated in Quantum theory. *Corresponding author (C. Maleewan). Tel: +66-2-5643001-9 x3062. E-mail: charkree@engr.tu.ac.th.

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From the above statement, it is obvious that the electromagnetic signal can be harmful to the living cell even. The level of the electromagnetic power [7], does not need to be as high as 9 watts/sq meter neither its frequency has to be as high as ultraviolet to be harmful for the atom of organism to break down and form ionizing. Lower frequency such as in microwave range, even it does not cause ionizing in atom but it may cause abnormality in DNA as there is effect of electromagnetic toward living cell as described above. This is the topic that needs to be studied extensively and needs long term monitoring of the effect of electromagnetic signal from cellular tower.

Figure 1: Behavior of molecule when it is covered with various frequencies.

3. Modeling and Analysis Antenna Power Density (far field), S, we have: S

(1)

Where Pt is antenna radiation power (watt), G is antenna gain, and D is distance between antenna and the target (meter).

In general, all 3 companies (AIS, DTAC, and TRUE) will set up their cellular tower in the same boundary areas. Each of their towers sends electromagnetic signal with their required power densities and required frequencies, as shown in Figure 2.

Figure2: Cellular tower in the same boundary areas.

Figure3: Cellular tower in the same territory areas.

Table 1: the values used in our modeling Frequency (MHz) 850 900 1800/1900 2100

184

Transmit Power (W) Antenna Gain (dBi) Antenna Gain (dBi) 10 – 50 6 – 18 25 – 50 10 – 60 7.5 – 18 25 – 50 1- 80 per carrier 8 – 21 25 – 50 1- 80 per carrier 12 – 18 35 – 50

C. Maleewan

EIRP = PG (W) 100 – 800 100 – 800 30 – 800 800

Next, we show the coverage areas when all 3 companies have their transmit antennas towers at the territory area.

Here, the coverage areas are filled with electromagnetic energy with their required

frequencies as shown in Figure 3.

In our study, we use the maximum value allowed that are provided in Table 1.

MHz, we use transmit power of 50 W with antenna gain of 18 dBi.

For example, in 850

Next we consider Safety Regulation

and recommended power density from standard organizations [8].

Table 2: Recommended safety values for each frequency[9].

Reference levels expressed as power density (W/m2,rms) (F=frequency in MHz) 400-2000 MHz 900 MHz 1800 MHz F/200 4.5 9 F/200 4.5 9 F/150 6 12 2 2 2

Standard/Recommendation ICNIRP 1998 CENELEC ENV 50166-2 IEEE C95.1-1991 AS/NZS 2772.1

Table 3: Recommended power density for each system [10] by ICNIRP. No. 1 2 3 4

Application GSM/CDMA850 GSM900 GSM1800 3G

Frequency 850MHz 900MHZ 1800MHz 2100MHz

ICNIRP limit value for public 4.25 watt/m2 4.5 watt/m2 9 watt/m2 10 watt/m2

Table 4: Recommended power density by IMC. 400-2000MHz = f/2000 W/m2 2-300GHz =1 W/m2

CDMA/GSM900 GSM1800 3G

0.45 W/m2 0.92 W/m2 1 W/m2

Table 5: Result of 2100 MHz. Distance of target Max Power Density for single Power Density for single cell Max Power Density for 3 cell and Antenna cell Antenna (W/m2) Antenna from EIRP (W/m2) site Antennas colocated (W/m2) 10 m 1.146 0.637 3.438 50m 0.0458 0.025 0.1374 100 m 0.0115 0.00637 0.0345 150 m 0.00509 0.00283 0.01527 200 m 0.00286 0.00159 0.00858 250 m 0.00183 0.00102 0.00549 300 m 0.00127 0.000707 0.00381 350 m 0.000935 0.00052 0.002805 400 m 0.000716 0.000398 0.002148 450 m 0.000566 0.000314 0.001698 500 m 0.000458 0.000255 0.001374 3 cell overlapped 1 cell Antenna = 0.00183 areas within 250 m Hence, 3 cell Antennas = 0.00183 x 3 = 0.00549 w/m2 2 cell overlapped 1 cell Antenna = 0.00183 areas within 250 m Hence, 2 cell Antennas = 0.00183 x 2 = 0.00366 w/m2

From Tables 4, and 5, the maximum power density from single antenna of 1.146w/m2 is when the target is 10 meters away from transmit antenna and for 3 antennas it is 0.00549 w/m2

with 250 meters

*Corresponding author (C. Maleewan). Tel: +66-2-5643001-9 x3062. E-mail: charkree@engr.tu.ac.th.

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apart. Comparison with the safety standard in other countries (Table 6) i.e., Australia (New South Wales) and Austria, it is obvious that ours power density is much higher than their standard for power density limits.

2100 MHz 3.5 1 antenna 3 antenna

power dens ity (w /m 2 )

3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0

0

50

100

150

200

250 300 distance (m)

350

400

450

500

Figure 4: Result of power density per distance.

From Figure 4, result of 2 companies (TRUE, AIS) transmit towers are collocated with frequencies of 850 MHz, 900 MHz is shown in Table 6.

Here, again the result shows the maximum power density of

2

6.873 w/m is resulted when target and antenna are 10 meters apart. This resulted power density is much higher than other contrived limit for health safety, such as Australia and Austria.

Table 6: Colocations Maximum Power Density.

Distance between target and antenna 10 m 50m 100 m 150 m 200 m 250 m 300 m 350 m 400 m 450 m 500 m

Maximum Power Density with colocations of 3 companies coverage (w/m2) 6.873 0.276 0.06873 0.03054 0.01728 0.01104 0.007641 0.005613 0.004299 0.003396 0.002748

4. Conclusion We present another sequel of fast growing modern communication technology, cellular phone. Aside from facilitating us to connect with everyone in everywhere through radio signal, there are huge impacts of these signal to our human body. Strong signal eases Tx and Rx between communication devices. Strong signal extends the boundary of cellular cell which lessen the installation of cellular towers. Hence, it yields less expense to the cellular company in covering its network, but adversely harmful to human organ tissues.

Strength level of electromagnetic wave has impact to living creature organ and its tissue. In microwave oven, it heats our food by string up food molecule.

Same principle applies to cellular tower and human

organ. Electromagnetic signal excites human molecule, causes the molecule to behave differently from its normal state. Some level of the signal even changes polarity of atom by increase or decrease charge

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C. Maleewan

particle, hence abnormality behavior resulted. So, what level of signal strength is safe?

With the strength of radio electromagnetic power being sent to cover the population area, the living cell molecules are affected. This results in abnormality of cell function and/or DNA. Do we want ourselves, our children, and our parent to be in the harmful territory? Let’s consider microwave over for heating up the food, and x-ray in dentist office with the chest protector. Do we really know if the strong cellular signal around us is not the cause of cancer, Alzheimer disease, brain dysfunction, and other illness? We don’t, that is why more study is needed. Cellular system gives us convenience and we don’t reject it; but more efficient transmitting scheme of antenna with less power and less radiation to our body is truly needed.

5. References [1]

Sumet. Wongpanichlert. Health: Effects from Electromagnetic Waves. 3rd Reprint (in Thai), TQP Publishing, Bangkok, 2009.

[2]

D. Graham and T. Eddie, X-ray Techniques in Art Galleries and Museums (1985); B. H. Kevles, Naked to the Bone: Medical Imaging in the Twentieth Century (1997)

[3]

Office of the National Broadcasting and Telecommunication Commission. Guideline on Setting Telecommunication Stations“. April 2008 (in Thai), 7 pages.

[4]

Malte C. Gather, Seok Hyun Yun, Single Cell Biological Lasers, Nature Photonics 5, 406 (2011)

[5]

M. Frasca, (1998). "Duality in Perturbation Approximation". Phys. Rev. A 58 (5): 3439.

[6]

S. M. Mann, T G Cooper, A G Allen, R P Blackwell and A J Lowe, NRPB-321. “Exposure to Radio Wave near Mobile Phone Base Stations”, 2000.

[7]

Sir William Stewart, “Radiofrequency Fields from Mobile Phone Technology”, Mobile Phones and Health, (2000):p. 33-38

[8]

“Technology Third Generation of Mobile Telephone (3G)”. . http://www.stat.rmutt.ac.th/Docstat/research/ScienceNewletter/Technology3G.pdf. 30 June 2012 (in Thai).

[9]

TechnoInfocity.“Macro Cells, Micro Cells and PicoCells” http://technoinfocity.blogspot. com/2011/02/macro-cells-micro-cells-and-pico-cells. 10 August 2012.

[10]

Clarke, M. (2003). Shaping the Industry through CDMA 2000 Technology Leadership: Innovative Design and Development Approaches are Key Factors in How Operators Choose their Wireless Supply Partners - Advertorial - Innovative Vendors are in Demand Telecom Asia (pp: 8-12).

Theory

and

the

Quantum

Adiabatic

C. Maleewan is an Assistant Professor in Department of Electrical Engineering at Thammasat University, Thailand. He received his B.Sc. (Physics), from Ramkhamhang University and B.Arch.

(Industrial Design) from King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang. Later, he gained an M.Sc. (Physics) from Northeastern Illinois University, USA, and M.S.EE. (Microelectronics), University of Texas at Dallas, USA. He is interested in microelectronics, electromagnetics and opto-electronics.

Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website. *Corresponding author (C. Maleewan). Tel: +66-2-5643001-9 x3062. E-mail: charkree@engr.tu.ac.th.

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2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS

Seismic Capacity Comparisons of Reinforced Concrete Buildings Between Standard and Substandard Detailing a

Jirawat Junruang , and Virote Boonyapinyo a

a*

Department of Civil Engineering Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received 24 February 2014 Received in revised form 04 June 2014 Accepted 20 June 2014 Available online 24 June 2014

Keywords: Seismic Capacity; Reinforced Concrete Buildings; Incremental Dynamic Analysis; Seismic Detailing; SAP 2000.

ABSTRACT

Earthquakes are cause of serious damage through the building.

Therefore, moment resistant frame buildings are widely used as lateral resisting system. Generally three types of moment resisting frames are designed namely Special ductile frames (SDF), Intermediate ductile frames (IDF) and Gravity load designed (GLD) frames, each of which has a certain level of ductility. Comparative studies on the seismic performance of three different ductility of building are performed in this study. The analytical models are considered about failure mode of column (i.e. shear failure, flexural to shear failure and flexural failure); beam-column joint connection, infill wall and flexural foundation. Concepts of incremental dynamic analysis are practiced to assess the required data for performance based evaluations. This study found that the lateral load capacity of GLD, IDF, and SDF building was 19.25, 27.87, and 25.92 %W respectively. The average response spectrum at the collapse state for GLD, IDF, and SDF are 0.75 g, 1.19 g, and 1.33 g, respectively. The results show that SDF is more ductile than IDF and the initial strength of SDF is close to IDF. The results indicate that all of frames are able to resistant a design earthquake.

2014 Am. Trans. Eng. Appl. Sci.

1. Introduction Many building in the Thailand are inadequate for seismic loads and could be seriously damaged or could suffer collapse in an earthquake.

Hence, the new standard for the building

*Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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design under seismic loading in Thailand DPT 1302-52 (2009) define three types of moment frames systems namely ordinary moment frames, intermediate ductile frames and special ductile frames (OMF, IDF and SDF) used as lateral resisting system.

This study evaluates and

compares the performance of three moment resisting frames namely, SDF, IDF and GLD, which three building are designed according to the Thailand DPT 1302-52 (2009) and detailing by the provisions of UBC (1997) and of DPT standard 1301-50 (2007). A computer program SAP2000 (2000) is employed as a means of analysis.

Many researches have investigated the performance and response of structure under earthquake excitation. As a consequence, several researchers and designers are interested in nonlinear static analysis (pushover) and nonlinear dynamic analysis (NTHA). The later method, the convention has been to run one to several different records, each once, producing one to several ‘single-point’ analyses, mostly used for checking the designed structure. Vamvastikos and Cornell (2002) proposed method called ‘incremental dynamic analyses’. Concept of Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) is run nonlinear time history analyses (NTHA) of structure under monotonically scaling up considered ground motion until the response of structure shown collapse.

The monotonic scalable ground motion intensity measure (IM) was plotted together

with a damage measure (DM) called incremental dynamic analysis curve (IDA curve). The IDA curve contains the necessary information to assess the performance levels or limit-states of the structures.

Since, incremental dynamic analysis required a lot of resources and time-consuming. To reduce analysis times of the convention NTHA, Vamvastsikos and Cornell (2005) propose another method that describes a non-linear static (pushover) combined with NTHA of equivalent single degree of freedom (ESDOF). FEMA P440A (2009) investigates the effect of stiffness and strength degradation on the seismic response of the structures by using concept of ESDOF. However, all these procedures require accuracy of nonlinear force–deformation curves. In order to capture structural member behavior in non-linear elastic, the model which considers a shear force, a bending moment, and an axial force should be studied. The research related to the model was suggested in the previous works (Sung et al., 2005, 2013; Sharma et al., 2013).

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Jirawat Junruang, and Virote Boonyapinyo

(a) Ordinary Moment Frames (b) Intermediate Ductile Frames (c) Special Ductile Frames Figure 1: Detailing of reinforced concrete frame.

2. Case study for 5 story reinforced concrete building Based on the strong column-weak beam design concept, plastic hinges (PHs) should be employed on beam elements in order to dissipate the energy generated by earthquakes. By properly specifying capacity and ductility, sufficient shear strength can be provided by Beam-column joints (BCJs) to allow the development of PHs on beam elements. The strength ratio between beams and columns in the ACI 318-11(2011) code is given as: ∑ M nc ≥ (6 / 5)∑ M nb

(1)

Where ∑ M nc is the total nominal flexural strength and also the minimum flexural strength considering the axial and lateral forces of columns connected to a joint; and ∑ M nb is the total *Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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191

nominal flexural strength of beams connected to the joint considering the floor reinforcement (ACI Committee 318, 2011).

The shear capacity of a joint is calculated by considering the repetitive loading on BCJs under earthquakes and energy dissipated by the PHs on beams near the joint, and the induced shear force V jh,u is set as the design shear-force of the joint Vu . The induced shear force is expressed as

V jh,u = ( As + As' )αf y − Vcol

(2)

Where As and As' are the upper and lower rebar areas of the beam, respectively, αf y is the over strength of the beam rebar, and Vcol is the shear-force of the column. The As' term can be neglected if the rebar is anchored inside the joint. Detailing about reinforced concrete with various ductility (see Figure 1)

2.1 Geometry Figure 2 and 3 shows the geometry of 5-storey dormitory building used for study. The selected buildings are beam–column reinforced concrete frame without shear wall. The rectangular plan of building measures 14.40×32.00 m. Each story height is 2.80 m. with a total height 14.00 m. The structural system is essentially symmetrical.

Table 1: Cross-section summaries designed for gravity load design columns and beams.

Storey Description Dimension Reinforcement Stirrup 1-2 3-5

C1 C2

0.4×0.3 m.

0.4×0.25 m.

1-4

B1

0.25×0.45 m.

1-4

B4

0.25×0.45 m.

Roof

B8

0.25×0.45 m.

10-db20 mm.

8-db16 mm.

6-db16 mm. (T) 6-db16 mm. (B) 4-db16 mm. (T) 4-db16 mm. (B) 3-db16 mm. (T) 3-db16 mm. (B)

Rb6 mm.@20cm.

Rb6 mm.@20cm.

Rb6 mm.@20cm.

Rb6 mm.@20cm.

Rb6 mm.@20cm.

All frames were designed with ductility to 8 and 5 in order to examine the influence of the design ductility classes as moment resisting frames with SDF and IDF respectively. For the GLD frame, the structure was designed according to ACI 318-11 (2011). Each pile is of I-shaped 0.40 m. in size and 21m. in length. It is designed for a vertical safe load of 40 tons, the dimension of beam and column (see in Table 1, 2 and 3)

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Table 2: Cross-section summaries designed for immediate ductile columns and beams.

Storey Description Dimension Reinforcement Stirrup 1-5

C

0.4×0.4 m.

1-4

B1

0.25×0.5 m.

1-4

B4

0.25×0.5 m.

Roof

B8

0.25×0.5 m.

12-db20 mm.

5-db20 mm. (T) 5-db20 mm. (B) 4-db16 mm. (T) 4-db16 mm. (B) 3-db16 mm. (T) 3-db16 mm. (B)

3Rb9 mm.@15cm. (H1) 3Rb9 mm.@20cm. (H2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2)

Table 3: Cross-section summaries designed for special ductile columns and beams.

Storey Description Dimension Reinforcement Stirrup 1-5

C

0.4×0.4 m.

1-4

B1

0.25×0.5 m.

1-4

B4

0.25×0.5 m.

Roof

B8

0.25×0.5 m.

12-db20 mm.

4-db20 mm. (T) 4-db20 mm. (B) 4-db16 mm. (T) 4-db16 mm. (B) 3-db16 mm. (T) 3-db16 mm. (B)

3Rb9 mm.@15cm. (H1) 3Rb9 mm.@20cm. (H2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2) Rb9 mm.@10cm. (L1) Rb9 mm.@15cm. (L2)

Figure 2: Foundation plans view.

*Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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Figure 3: Plan view of buildings.

2.2 Material Properties In the design, the cylinder compressive strengths of concrete columns and beams are 240 ksc. The yield strengths of steel deformed and rounded bars are 4,000 ksc. (SD 40) and 2400 ksc.

(SR 24), respectively. For seismic evaluation, the actual yield strength of steel reinforcement of 4,600 ksc. (SD 40) and 3,480 ksc. (SR 24) are used for SD 40 and SR 24, respectively (Kiattivisanchai, 2001).

3. Analytical modeling 3.1 Plastic hinge setting of beam and columns The Plastic hinges (PHs) settings of the beams and columns of the frame were established using the method developed by Sung et al., (2005).

For a specific RC component, the

relationship between the moment and curvature (M âˆ’Ď†), can be established when considering the flexural capacity of the component, as shown in Figure 4 Note that the condition where the shear capacity of the RC component decreases as inelastic deformation proceeds is also included in this approach. As a result, the shear capacity, which consists of the relationship between the transformed moment đ?‘€đ?‘Ł and rotation đ?œƒ, as shown in Figure 4(b), can be obtained. By superimposing the diagrams of (đ?‘€đ?‘? − θ) and (đ?‘€đ?‘Ł − θ), three different types of failure modes

(shear failure, flexure to shear failure, and flexure failure) can be illustrated. The PH

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characteristics indicated by points A through E in Figure 4, expressed by the relationship between moment and flexural rotation, are therefore definable.

(a) Shear failure (b) Flexure to shear failure (c) Flexure failure Figure 4: Failure modes of a column or beam and their PH characteristics

3.2 Plastic hinge settings for beam-column-joints The PH characteristic of BCJs were established using the method developed by Sung et al., (2013), according to FEMA-356 (2000), the nominal shear strength of BCJs can be calculated as Vn = Νγ f c' A j

(3)

Where Îť is the coefficient of the concrete, and is set as 1 for regular concrete and 0.75 for lightweight concrete; Îł is a constant depending on the volumetric ratio of the horizontal confinement reinforcement in the joint and the classification of the BCJ. Specific values of Îł can be found in Table 4, where f c' is the strength of concrete and A j is the effective cross sectional area of the joint.

đ?œŒâ€˛

<0.003 >0.003

* Ď ''

Table 4: Values of the constant Îł specified in (FEMA 356, 2000) Value of đ?&#x203A;ž

Interior Joint Interior Joint with without Transverse Beam Transverse Beam

12 20

10 15

Exterior Joint Exterior Joint with without Transverse Beam Transverse Beam

8 15

6 12

Knee Joint

4 8

= volumetric ratio of the horizontal confinement reinforcement in joint.

*Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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Axial force Pstrut

Axial displacement δstrut

Figure 5: behavior of the PH of a BCJ (Sung et al., 2013).

Based on FEMA-356 (2000), the values used to define the PH characteristics of BCJs are calculated as shown in Figure 5, where Aj is the initial point and Bj represents the yielding. By assuming that the beam-column joints are part of the column and beam hence, the initials stiffness of the PH between Aj and Bj equal to 0.4 EcAg. Since, shear failure is a common cause of failure of a BCJs, the strength at point Cj, the final point of the nonlinear stage, is conservatively set as the same value as at Bj. Point Dj is defined to represent the residual strength, and the strength and axial displacement can be estimated as the mean values at points Cj and Ej, where the strength at Ej is 0.2 Pn. The BCJ is simulated by using a pair of cross struts in the diagonal direction when resisting horizontal loading, as illustrated in Figure 6. The adjacent components of the BCJ are simulated by a rigid bar with a hinge connection on the end point, where the height of the model is the depth of the beam, and the width equals the effective width of the column. The complex behavior of the BCJ is subsequently simulated by a cross-strut model with an equivalent two-force component. The relationship between the horizontal shear force V and displacement δ is transformed into the direction of the strut, and is derived as Pstrut = V / 2cosθ

(4)

δstrut = δ× cosθ

(5)

Where Pstrut is the equivalent axial force on the strut; V is the equivalent horizontal shear force on the strut; δstrut is the equivalent axial displacement; δ is the equivalent horizontal displacement; and θ is the angle of the strut from horizontal.

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Figure 6: Cross-strut model for BCJ simulation.

3.3 Masonry infill wall As mentioned earlier, equivalent strut concept will be used to model masonry infill wall.

Based on this concept, the stiffness contribution of infill wall is represented by an equivalent diagonal compression strut as shown in Figure 7. Thickness and modulus of elasticity of strut are assumed to be the same as those of infill wall. Moreover, width of equivalent strut a , is determined, which was suggested by FEMA-273 (1997).

hcol hin

rin

a θ

l in Figure 7: Equivalent diagonal compression strut model (FEMA-273, 1997).

a = 0.175(λ1hcol )

0.4

rin

(6)

1

 Eme tin sin 2θ  4 λ1 =    4 E fe I col hin  Where

E me

frame material,

is modulus of elasticity of masonry infill wall,

(7)

E fe is modulus of elasticity of

I col is moment of inertia of column section, t in is thickness of infill panel. In

*Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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SAP 2000, equivalent diagonal compression strut will be modeled as an axial element having a nonlinear axial hinge along its length. According to FEMA-273 (1997), idealized force-displacement relations for infill wall are defined by a series of straight-line segment.

In

order to determine the expected strength of strut, Rs the expected infill shear strength, V ine , is used. Therefore, the axial compression strength of equivalent strut Rs can be obtained by solving equation as shown.

Vine = τ 0 lin t in + µ f Rs sin θ

(8)

Where τ 0 is an average value of cohesive strength, µ f is a typical value for the coefficient of friction, l in is length of infill panel and t in is thickness of infill panel. These recommended values are used in the calculation of shear strength of masonry infill walls in this study.

Vine = Rs cos θ = (lin / rin )Rs

Rs =

τ0 rin t in 1 - μ f (hin / lin )

(9)

(10),

Where rin is length of diagonal of infill panel, hin is height of infill panel

4. Artificial Ground Motions To evaluate the seismic performance of the reinforced concrete structure by incremental dynamic analysis (IDA), Vamvatsikos and Cornell (2005) suggests that the response of the 20 ground motion should be used for evaluating performance of reinforced concrete building. The ground motions in this study were generated corresponding to design spectrum of Bangkok Thailand (Zone5) (DPT 1302-52, 2009) (see in Figure 7).

5. Nonlinear static pushover Generally, in pushover method the structure is loaded with “lateral load pattern” and is pushed statically to “target displacement”. The lateral load might be considered as “force” or “displacement”. The loading is monotonic with the effects of the cyclic behavior and load reversals and with damping approximations.

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0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1

0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1

1 0

5

10

15

20

Time (sec.)

25

30

Sa (g.)

Sa (g.)

Sa (g.)

Sa (g.)

Artificial 1 Artificial 2 Artificial 3

0.1 0.05 0 -0.05 -0.1

0.1

0

5

10

15

Time (sec.)

20

25

0.01 0.01 0

5

10

15

Time (sec.)

20

25

(a) Example three artificial ground motions

0.1 Preiod (sec.) 1

10

(b) Response spectrum of 20 artificial ground motions VS. design spectrum

Figure 7: Artificial ground motions generated corresponding with the design spectrum for the inner area of Bangkok

Figure 8: Base shear vs. maximum roof displacement of 5-storey dormitory building.

Figure 9: Base shear coefficients vs. roof drift ratio of 5-storey dormitory building.

The static pushover analysis is performed on each model to evaluate the lateral strength and post-yield behavior. Base shear vs. maximum roof displacement pushover for 5 storey buildings are shown in Figure 8. For one bay framed, displacement-control loading is applied to the models using a load pattern based on fundamental period of the structures to account for inherent response of the buildings to lateral loadings. As it is shown in Figure 8, the stiffness of SDF is closed to IDF whereas; the ductility of SDF is much greater resulting in the superiority of SDF in input *Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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energy absorption. The considerable drop in load carrying capacity of the buildings is due to limit rotations assigned to beam column connections to account for design provisions and considerations which high lights the fact that SDF connections shall be designed such that more deformability is obtained. Moreover, base shear coefficients vs. roof drift ratio pushovers for 5 storey buildings are shown in Figure 9.

From the pushover curve in Figure 9, the results of lateral resistance of three building are hereinafter. The 1st stage, the relationship between base shear and lateral roof displacement represent a linear relationship. Until continue loading of lateral force over elastic period result in the yielding of B4 (short beam) and the rupture of brick wall. These phenomena led to a few reduction of lateral force resistance.

The most reduction of lateral force resistance can be

observed when the failures of B1 beam (long beam) occurred. All of the failure of B1 beam appears at the right side tail because of the vertical force from self-weight load and live load. The vertical force cause the negative moment at bilateral tails while the lateral force cause the positive moment in B1 beam at position near the lateral force at the left side. The lateral force induces the destructive of the moment at the left side tail. Moreover, the negative moment at the right side tail of B1 beam can be generated, result in the supplement of negative moment at the tail. Since the positive and negative moment resistances B1 beam were equal, negative moment at right side tail can reach the maximum moment resistance and failure first. The loss of vertical and lateral resistance force of the structure at failure condition can be occurred when there are a great damage in the joint until the stability of the building gets lost. Based on the strong column weak beam concept design, there are a little damage in the column. Displacement coefficient between the layers of the building is a variable that can be described how structure behavior responded and where is the most movement between the layers occurred.

The result from nonlinear static pushover analysis in Figure 9 also shown that the most inter-storey drift can be observed at the second floor, the lateral load capacity of GLD, IDF, and SDF building was 19.25, 27.87, and 25.92 %W (W = total building weight), respectively, and roof displacement was 0.89, 1.24, and 1.49 %H (H = total building height), respectively.

6. Incremental Dynamic Analysis Incremental Dynamic Analysis (IDA) of multi degree of freedom (MDOF) has been reported

by Vamvatsikos and Cornell (2002) involves performing a series of nonlinear dynamic analyses of

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Jirawat Junruang, and Virote Boonyapinyo

Figure 10: Concept of incremental dynamic analysis of equivalent single degree of freedom

(a) Gravity load designed.

(b) Intermediate designed frame

(c) Special designed frame.

Figure 11: All twenty IDA curves for 5-storey buildings. a structural model for multiple records by scaling each record to several levels of intensity that are suitably selected to uncover the full range of the modelâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s behavior: from elastic to yielding and nonlinear inelastic, finally leading to global dynamic instability. Each dynamic analysis can be characterized by at least two scalars, an intensity measure (IM), which represents the scaling *Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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factor of the record [e.g., the 5% damped first-mode spectral acceleration Sa(T1,5%)] and an engineering demand parameter (EDP), which monitors the structural response of the model [e.g., peak inter-story drift ratio θmax].

The concept of combining between nonlinear static and nonlinear dynamic (time history) analysis (NTHA) has been suggested by Vamvatsikos (2005). The pushover curves from nonlinear static are represent the lateral behavior of whole structure, and then defined it into the single degree of freedom to be equivalent of MDOF structure. Concepts of IDA by ESDOF (see in Figure 10), and the result of IDA by ESDOF of 5-storey dormitory building with various ductility are show in Figure 11.

The results from Incremental dynamic analysis of equivalent single degree of freedom are shown in Figure 11. It can be interpret as follow: at the beginning, the linearity was controlled by initial stiffness, so no distributions of the data until the earthquake violence reach up to the yield point. In this stage, some beams are reaching yield point so slope of IDA decrease. Then, the strength of the structure was improved until reach the maximum pushover curve. At this point, IDA slope was going to flat line which was implying that the structure was dynamic instability.

Figure 11 shows the IDA curves display a wide range distribution of data, thus, it is essential to summarize randomness of data and quantify introduced by the records. The central value (e.g., the median) was used for easy interpretation of data. Consequently, it has been chosen to calculate the 16%, 50% and 84% fractile values of DM and IM capacity for each limit-state. For example, summarized capacities for each limit-state for 5-storey buildings are shown in Figure 12. Dynamic characteristics of these aforementioned buildings could be readily observed through the use of median IDA curves. As it is seen, linear slope is increased as behavior factor is decreased through the models. That is, IDF is the laterally stiffest since its members are designed stronger in comparison with other types of building. However, special consideration and provisions imposed for SDFs dedicate superior deformability which can be clearly implied by IDA. One can investigate better performance of SDF through comparing different Sa evaluation and corresponding demand, reported by the structural model.

Other information may be extracted from IDA curves to pronounce the suitability and capability of moment frames as show in Table 5 and Table 6 for yield state and collapse state, respectively.

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Jirawat Junruang, and Virote Boonyapinyo

(a) Gravity load designed.

(b) Intermediate designed frame

(c) Special designed frame.

Figure 12: The summary of the IDA curves into their 16%, 50% and 84% fractile curves for 5-storey buildings.

GLD IDF SDF

Table 5: Yield state from IDA curves of buildings.

Period of Sa (T1, 5%) Roof displacement θ Max (%) building (sec) (g) (m.)

0.719 0.31 0.29 0.032 0.653 0.448 0.366 0.038 0.653 0.409 0.328 0.034

GLD IDF SDF

Table 6: Collapse state from IDA curves of buildings.

Period of Sa (T1, 5%) Roof displacement θ Max (%) building (sec) (g) (m.)

0.719 0.75 1.12 0.105 0.653 1.19 1.62 0.147 0.653 1.33 2.25 0.195

Base shear (kg.)

32,188.21 42,795.52 39,923.79

Base shear (kg.)

47,723.00 70,981.41 66,978.47

In the past, conventional model used to perform pushover analysis must be set the failure criteria by assuming to have collapsed if the Maximum inter story drift ratio exceed of 3%, 2.5%, 2%, and 1% for SDF, IDF, ODF, and GLD, respectively. In this study, the analytical models consider all types of failure mode, (i.e. flexural failure, shear failure, flexural to shear failure, *Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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beam-column joint connection failure, infill wall failure and flexural foundation failure). Thus, pushover curve consider the failure criteria automatically. Accuracy of pushover curves is significant because itâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s able to absorb and dissipate the earthquake energy. If areas of pushover curves extend too much, they are affecting to the seismic capacity of building. The results at collapse state shown that the maximum inter story drift ratio of GLD, IDF, and SDF building in Bangkok was 1.12%, 1.62%, and 2.25% respectively, and can interpret to roof displacement as 0.105m. 0.147m. and 0.195m., respectively. Base shear was 47,723 kg. 70,981kg. and 66,978kg., respectively and response spectra acceleration at fundamental periods with 5% damping was 0.75, 1.19, and 1.33 g, respectively. The results showed that the different detail of building leads to the highly different lateral capacity of the structures.

7. Conclusion This study involves seismic performance and evaluations of 5-storey dormitory buildings which having different structural detailing (i.e., SDF, IDF and GLD). The analytical models used in this study emphasize on the plastic hinges (PHs) in beams and columns. Three types of PHs were studied include shear failure, flexure to shear failure, and flexure failure. The initial stiffness of PHs in beam-col connection was considered as a part of the column and the PH characteristics of BCJs are calculated according to FEMA-273. Based on this study, seismic performance for all buildings can be explained as follow: (1) The analytical model considers all type of failure mode (i.e. flexural failure, shear failure, flexural to shear failure, beam-column joint connection failure, infill wall failure and flexural foundation failure) shows the accuracy pushover curve. As a result, seismic capacities of building by incremental dynamic analysis method are more accuracy than conventional model.

(2) Using the concept of ESDOF for evaluating the seismic performance of the studied building by the mean of IDA can reduce the computational time from 90 minutes per load case for MDOF to 6 minutes per load case for ESDOF (about 93% of computational time reduced) (3) The results also shown that lateral load capacity of GLD, IDF, and SDF building in Bangkok was 19.25, 27.87, and 25.92 %W (W = total building weight), respectively, and roof displacement was 0.89, 1.24, and 1.49 %H (H = total building height), respectively. At collapse state, response spectra acceleration at fundamental periods with 5% damping was 0.75, 1.19, and 1.33 g, respectively. GLD building was designed by considered gravity load

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Jirawat Junruang, and Virote Boonyapinyo

only. Therefore, the detailing of steel was not follow to Thailand seismic code (DPT 1302-52, 2009). Consequence, seismic capacity of the building has shown the lowest value.

(4) The seismic performance of IDF and SDF building from initial to yield stage were almost the same. Because of the higher lateral load design for IDF, IDF building results in higher base shear capacity than SDF building.

(5) As far as the effect of the ductility class is concerned, frames of SDF, IDF, and GLD ductility classes are to perform satisfactorily during a design earthquake. Although SDF was designed for five-eighths value of the designed lateral load of IDF, all components of SDF had to satisfy the applicable special proportioning and detailing requirement to have a level of adequate toughness enabling the structure to perform well during a design earthquake. It demonstrated the successful application of the strong-columnâ&#x20AC;&#x201C;weak-beam implemented in the capacity design.

8. Acknowledgements This work was supported by the National Research University Project of Thailand Office of Higher Education Commission. The valuable comments of the anonymous reviewers of the paper are also acknowledged.

9. References ACI (2011). Building code requirements for structural concrete and commentary. Report No. ACI 318-11, Farmington Hills, Michigan, U.S.A., American concrete Institute.

DPT (2007). Additional standard for building designed under seismic load. Report No. DPT 1301-50, Department of Public Works and Town and Country Planning (in Thai).

DPT (2009). Standard for building designed under seismic load. Report No. DPT 1302-52, Department of Public works and town and country planning (in Thai).

FEMA (1997). Guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of building. Report No. FEMA-273, NEHRP Commentary on the guidelines for the seismic rehabilitation of building. Report No. FEMA-274, Federal emergency management agency. Washington D.C. FEMA (2000). Pre-standard and commentary for the seismic rehabilitation of buildings. Report No. FEMA-356, Building seismic safety council, Washington D.C. FEMA (2009). Effects of strength and stiffness degradation on seismic response. Report No. FEMA-P440A, Federal emergency management agency, Department of homeland security (DHS). *Corresponding author (Virote Boonyapinyo). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001-9 Ext. 3111. E-mail address: bvirote@engr.tu.ac.th.

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Kiattivisanchai, S. (2001). Evaluation of seismic performance of an existing medium-rise reinforced concrete frame building in Bangkok, M.Eng thesis, Thesis No. ST-01-11, Asian Institute of technology SAP 2000 (2000). Integrated finite element analysis and design of structure: Analysis reference, Computers and Structures, Inc., Berkeley, California.

Sharma AK., G.R. Reddy, K.K. Vaze, R. Eligehausen. (2013). Pushover experiment and analysis of a full scale non-seismically detailed RC structure. Engineering Structures, Vol.46 Sung Y.C., Liu KY, Su CK, Tsai IC and Chang KC. (2005). A study on pushover analyses of reinforced concrete columns. Journal of Structural Engineering and Mechanic, 21(1): 35– 52.

Sung Y.C., T.K. Lin, C.C. Hsiao, and M.C. Lai. (2013). Pushover analysis of reinforced concrete frames considering shear failure at beam-column joints. EARTHQUAKE ENGINEERING AND ENGINEERING VIBRATION, Vol.12, No.3 Prakit Chomchuen and Virote Boonyapinyo. (2012). Comparisons of current seismic assessment methods for non-Seismic designed reinforced concrete bridges, 15th World Conference on Earthquake Engineering, 24-28 September, Lisbon, Portugal UBC (1997). Uniform building code, structural engineering designed provisions. Report No. UBC 1997, International Conference of Building Officials (ICBO).

Vamvatsikos, D. and Cornell, C. A. (2002a). Incremental dynamic analysis, Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 31(3): 491–514.

Vamvatsikos, D. and Cornell, C. A. (2005). Seismic performance, capacity and reliability of structures as seen through incremental dynamic analysis. Department of civil and environmental engineering, Stanford University.

Jirawat Junruang is a PhD student in Department of Civil Engineering at Thammasat University, Thailand. He received his B.Eng. from King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok, Thailand. He earned a master degree in Civil Engineering from Thammasat University, in 2013. Jirawat is interested in earthquake-resistant design and evaluation for buildings.

Dr.Virote Boonyapinyo is an Associate Professor of Department of Civil Engineering at Thammasat University, Thailand.

He received his B.Eng. and M.Eng. from Chulalongkorn University. He continued his D.Eng. Study at Yokohama National University, Japan, where he obtained his D.Eng. in Civil Engineering. Dr. Virote is interested in wind- and earthquake-resistant design for high-rise buildings and long-span bridges, and steel structures.

Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website.

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2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS

Role of 2,4-D on Callus Induction and Shoot Formation to Increase Number of Shoot in Miniature Rose In Vitro Anchalee Jala

a*

a

Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University Pathumtani, 12121

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received February 28, 2014 Received in revised form June 11, 2014 Accepted June, 20 2014 Available online June 24, 2014

Keywords: Mini rose; Duncanâ&#x20AC;&#x2122;s New Multiple Range Test; NAA; BA.

ABSTRACT

Stem node with axillary bud were used as explants. These explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 2, 5, 10 mg/l) 2,4-D. It was found that MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l 2,4-D gave the highest number of green callus. The callus cultured on MS medium supplemented with different combination of NAA (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l) and BA (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l) to form new shoot and root. The result showed that the highest number of young shoots was induced from callus when cultured callus on MS medium supplemented with 1.0 mg/l NAA and 1.0 mg/l BA. When subcultured all new shoots with the same size to MS medium supplemented with different concentration of (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) BA, and (0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) 2,4- D for 6 weeks. The result was significant difference (Pâ&#x2030;¤0.5) when compared the average height of plant and percentage of root formation, but their duration time for flowering were not significant different.

2014 Am. Trans. Eng. Appl. Sci.

1. Introduction A miniature roses are true roses with perfectly placed in a pink pail. The metal pail is embossed with a delicate floral pattern. Most mini roses also have smaller flowers than standard *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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rose bushes, but they come in a variety of types and colors and are a very carefree grower with great disease resistance.

Overall height of plant is approximately 10 inches. Clonal propagation

through tissue culture offers great potential for the establishment plantlets from inducing callus to form new shoots (Jala, 2012; 2013b). In this paper was present for mass production and for a rapid in vitro clonal propagation system for this rose, which would be ideal for flowering in bottles.

2. Materials and methods 2.1 Plant materials Stem nodes with axillary buds of miniature rose were used as explants. These explants having height about 1–1.5cm, were washed with tap water and followed by15% and 10% clorox solution for 10 and 15 minutes, respectively, then followed by washing materials three times with sterile distilled water. Finally these stem nodes with axillary bud were inoculated on MS medium supplemented with combination of 0.1 mg/l NAA and 0.1 mg/l BA, 2% sucrose, 0.25% gelrite at pH 5.7 and autoclaving at 121o C for 20 min.

The cultures were maintained at 25 ± 2° C under

16-hour photoperiod with illumination provided by cool fluorescent lamps at an intensity of 60 µmolm-2 sec-1 (TLD 36 w/853350 lm Phillips Thailand).

Callus induction: Cleaned explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of (0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 2, 5, 10 mg/l) 2,4-D, to enhance callus induction.

Shoot formation from callus: All callus were cultured on MS medium supplemented with combination of (0.1, 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.10.5, 1.0 and 2.0 mg/l) BA for inducing shoot formation.

Duration time on flowering: Young shoots with the same size (about 3cm) were subcultured on MS medium supplemented with combination of (0.5,1.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.5,1.0 mg/l) BA and vary concentrations of( 0.1,0.5,1.0 mg/l) 2,4-D to form flowers.

3. Statistical Analysis Experiments were set up in Completely Randomized Design (CRD) with 6 treatments; each treatment was consisted of 20 and 25 replicates for the first and the second experiment, respectively.

The test of statistical significance was done by applying Dancan1955 at 5%

confidence level using SAS statistical software.

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4. Results and Discussion After two weeks, all clean cultured from explants were cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of 2,4-D. It was showed that cluster of callus were formed and proliferated around the base of explants as showed on Table 1 and Figure 1.

Table 1: Callus induction from explants which cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentration of 2,4 -D for 6 weeks.

MS medium Proliferation*(score) Color of Characteristic of callus supplemented with callus 2,4-D 0.1mg/l 4.24a Pale green Big cluster on explants 2,4-D 0.5mg/ 4.98a green Biggest cluster on explants 2,4-D 1.0 mg/ 2.36b Pale green few callus around explants 2,4-D 2.0 mg/ 2.22b yellowish few callus around explants 2,4-D 5.0 mg/ 1.24c creamy A little callus had occur 2,4-D 10.0mg/ 1.02c white A little callus had occur Score of callus formation: 1 – less (diameter about 0.1-0.3cm) 3 – medium(diameter about 0.4-1.0 cm) 5 – high diameter about 1.1-1.5 cm) *Significant different (P≤0.5) abc - compared their by Duncan’s New Multiple Range Test (P≤0.5) This experiment showed that low concentration of 2,4-D induced callus at the base of explants but high concentration of 2,4-D(5.0 and 10.0 mg/l) gave less callus. It showed that 0.1- 0.5 mg/l 2,4-D suitable for inducing callus and giving the biggest cluster of callus(Figure1). Callus proliferated around the explants and their color was green. This callus was used as inoculum for shoot induction. a

b 1cm

1cm

Figure 1: Cluster of callus occurred on MS medium supplemented with: a – 0.5 mg/l 2,4 – D b – 0.1 mg/ 2,4 - D After transferred cluster of callus to MS medium supplemented with different combination of (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.1, 0.5, 1.0, 2.0 mg/l) BA for 6 weeks. It showed that callus was induced and formed young shoots (Table 2). MS medium supplemented with 1.0mg/l NAA *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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and 1.0 mg/l BA was the best medium for regenerating new shoot (100%) from callus as showed in Table 2.

Table 2: Average of new shoots formed from callus in each treatment after cultured for 6 weeks.

MS medium % new shoot from callus NAA (mg/l) BA(mg/l) 0.1 0.1 18.6 b 0.1 0.5 26.2ab 0.5 0.5 42.9ab 1.0 0.5 42.9ab 1.0 1.0 100a 2.0 1.0 28.2ab 1.0 2.0 14.3b 2. 0 2.0 11.6b * *Different letters indicate significant difference at p â&#x2030;¤ 0.05 ( Duncan, 1955) These new shoots are regenerated from callus. According to Jala (2013a), histological analysis revealed that callus was formed from hypertrophied cortical parenchyma cells of the explants. Some of these cell unbent was divided, while the surrounding cell accumulated starch.

Callus was capable of shoot bud regenerated after 70 days.

New shoots (with the same size) were subcultured to MS medium supplemented with different combination of (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l ) BA and (0.1.0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) 2,4D for 6 weeks. It was found that all new shoots were grew up, we measured the average of plant height, root formation, flowering induction, and duration time for flowering after subcultured as showed in Table 3.

Table 3: Average of plant height, percentage of root induction, flower induction and duration time for flowering after subcultured within 6 weeks.

MS medium with Plant % Root % Flower Duration time for height(cm) * induction * induction ns flowering after NAA(mg/l) BA(mg/l) subcultured ns 0.5 0.5 3.44a 50a 30 27.0 1.0 0.5 3.45a 40a 30 27.65 1.0 0.1 3.42a 50a 40 25.5 2,4-D 0.1 mg/l 0 2.69b 30ab 0 0 2,4-D 0.5 mg/l 0 2.54b 20ab 0 0 2,4-D 1.0 mg/l 0 0.97c 10b 0 0 * Different letters indicate significant difference at p â&#x2030;¤ 0.05 ( Duncan, 1955) ns = non-significant difference

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When compared the average height of plant, root induction in statistics, it was found that plant height and percentage of root formation was significant difference (p≤0.5) but percentage of flower induction and duration time for flowering were not significant difference. Plantlets are cultured on MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of NAA and BA, their percentages of flower induction were about 30–40% and the same as duration time for flowering about 25.5 – 27.5 days. It was found that flower induction was occurred only in MS medium supplemented with different combination of (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) NAA and (0.5 and 1.0 mg/l) BA (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Plant with flower (arrow) on MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/l BA and 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D.

5. Discussion Based on the results obtained in this study, low concentration of 2,4-D can induced callus.

Plantlets can be regenerated from these calli by indirect organogenesis (Mello et al., 2001). BA at concentrations of 0.1-0.5 mg/l in combination with 0.5 mg/l NAA was the most suitable treatment for in vitro multiplication of Miniature rose. Results were similar to those obtained by other investigators for other rose species (Campos and Pais, 1990, Khosh-Khui and Sink, 1982, Kumar et al., 2001, Salehi and Khosh-Khui, 1996 and Skirvin et al., 1990). The shoot proliferation and multiplication were decreased when increased concentration of NAA and BA followed the same pattern as Kim et al (2003) and Davies (1980), but different from Carelli and Echeverrigaray (2002).

According to the results, application of MS medium supplemented with different concentrations of NAA and BA 0.1, 0.5, and 1.0 mg/l 2,4-D for six weeks followed by *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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transferring the explants to MS medium free from any PGRs was successful for root formation in Damask rose. 2,4-D is one of the important phenolic compounds with auxinic effect, at low concentrations and acts as a rooting cofactor and prevents breaking of endogenous auxin by oxidase enzyme results in rooting, similar to Hudson et al. (2002).

6. Conclusion Stem node with axillary bud cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l 2,4-D enhanced callus induction and the callus color was green. When cultured callus on MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l NAA and 0.5 mg/l BA, it was found that callus regenerated to form the highest number of young shoots on MS medium supplement with 1.0 mg/l NAA and 1.0mg/l BA. It was found that all new shoots grew up. MS medium supplemented with 0.5 mg/l NAA and 0.5 mg/l BA gave the average of plant height and percentage of root formation. But the duration time for flowering in each treatments was not significant different.

7. References Campos P.S. and M.S.S. Pais. (1990). Mass propagation of the dwarf rose cultivar Rosamini. Sci Hortic. 43:321–30.

Carelli BP, S. Echeverrigaray. (2002). An improved system for the in vitro propagation of rose cultivars. Sci Hortic. 92:69–74.

Duncan, D. B. (1955). Multiple range and multiple F tests. Biometrics, 11(1), 1-42.

Davies,D.R.(1980) Rapid propagation of roses. In vitro Sci. Hort., 13(4):169-172.

Jala, A. and W. Patchpoonporna. (2012). Effect of BA NAA and 2,4-D on Micropropagation of Jiaogulan (Gynostemma pentaphyllum Makino). International Transaction Journal of Engineering, Management, & Applied Sciences & Technologies. V3(4):363-370.

Jala, A.(2013a). Callogenesis and Organogenesis from inflorescence segments of Curcuma alismatifolia and Curcuma hybrid ‘Laddawan’. American Transactions Engineering & Applied Sciences. 2(3):213 -222.

Jala, A.(2013b). Potential of Benzyl Adenine, Naphthalene Acetic Acid and Sucrose Concentration on Growth, Development, and Regeneration of New Shoot and cormel on Gladiolus.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.2(4):277- 285.

Kim, C.K., J.Y. Oh, S.O. Jee and J.D. Chung. (2003). In vitro micropropagation of Rosa hybrida L. J. Plant Biotechnology. 5(2):115-119.

Khosh-Khui M, Sink KC.(1982). Callus induction and culture of Rosa. Sci. Hortic.17:361-370.

Kumar, A., A. Sood, U.T. Plani, A.K. Gupta, and L.M.S. Plani. (2001).Micropropagation of Rosa

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damascena Mill. from mature bushes using thidaizuron. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology. 76:30–34.

Mello,M.O., M. Melo, B.Appezzato-Da-Gloria. (2004). Histological analysis of the callogenesis and organogenesis from root segments of Curcuma zedoaria Roscoe. Scientia Agricola.

57:703-713.

Murashige and Skoog. (1962). A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tissue culture. Physilogia Plantarum. 15:473-497.

Salehi H. and M. Khosh-Khui. (1997). Effects of explant length and diameter on in vitro shoot growth and proliferation rate of miniature roses. J Hortic Sci. 72:673–6.

Skirvin R.M, M.C. Chu and H.J. Young.(1990). Rose. In: Ammirato P.V., Evans D.R.,Sharp W.R., Bajaj Y.P.S., editors. Handbook of Plant Cell Culture Vol. 5. New York: McGraw Hill, New York: Springer; pp. 716–743.

Dr.Anchalee JALA is an Associate Professor in Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathumtani , THAILAND. Her teaching is in the areas of botany and plant tissue culture. She is also very active in plant tissue culture research.

Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website.

*Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences http://TuEngr.com/ATEAS

Public Perception on Road Accidents: A Case Study of Mahasarakham City, Thailand a

Apirath Chattranusorn , and Boonsap Witchayangkoon a

a*

Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received April 24, 2014 Received in revised form July 14, 2014 Accepted 26 July 18, 2014 Available online July 21, 2014

Keywords: Likert Scale; Driving Behavior; Street accident; Drunk driving; Cause of accident; Questionnaire.

A B S T RA C T

This study surveyed public perception on the causes of roadway accidents in Mahasarakam City area. There are 400 questionnaire respondents from different ages, occupations, and background. The majority of respondents never have an experience of confronting crash. Average perception of all respondents indicates that human is the most dominant factor causing road accidents. In addition, most respondents give high score to drunk driving as the most dangerous driving behavior. Respondents with different educational backgrounds seem to have agreeable perception on most of the items that cause street accidents.

2014 Am. Trans. Eng. Appl. Sci.

1. Introduction Accidents occurred on roads in Thailand are at very high numbers. Motorcycle accident is ranked at the highest, following with car accident. Accidents are caused by many factors such as driving behaviors, road conditions, conditions of traffics, etc. This work tries to learn public perceptions on road accidents, with a case study of people living in Mueang Mahasarakham, north-east province of Thailand. Questionnaires were used as a study tool.

Questionnaires had

*Corresponding author (B.Witchayangkoon). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail address: drboonsap@gmail.com.

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been distributed to the general public at random. There are 400 respondents from varied ages, occupations, and educational background took part in this study.

2. Literature Review Different French male and female driversâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; behaviors were studied by GuĂŠho et al. (2014), at varied driver ages, by differentiating two types of violations (aggressive and ordinary) three types of errors (dangerous, inattention and inexperience) and by taking positive behaviors into account.

The results also showed the link between demographic variables (age and gender), mobility (kilometers driven weekly), the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) scores and the involvement in accidents in the previous five years.

In Qatar and United Arab Emirates, Bener et al. (2008) had 1110 Qatari and 1286 UAE drivers responded the survey questionnaire including the DBQ and background information. The results showed that UAE drivers scored higher on almost all DBQ items than Qatari drivers.

Factor analysis resulted in four issues, including errors, pushing-speeding violations, lapses, and aggression-speeding violations.

Vanlaar and Yannis (2006) created an empirical 2D model to see how European drivers perceive the importance of several causes of road accidents?

Kouabenan (1998) studied

characteristics inherent in the analyst of traffic accidents and in the social group to which one belongs: beliefs, value systems, norms, experiences in common, attitudes, roles, social and technical practices, etc. Report about public perceptions on road accidents are barely found, and thus this work is about to present such study.

3. Methodology 3.1 Questionnaire Survey A questionnaire consists of a series of questions including general questions and questions on perceptions regarding accidents. General questions are information regarding background of respondent such as gender, age, education, and occupation.

Perceptions questions encompass

opinions on causes of accidents and driving behaviors that trigger the road accidents.

Perceptions questions are with five Likert scale: 216

Apirath Chattranusorn, and Boonsap Witchayangkoon

1: least agreeable opinions / perceptions it is the cause of accident 2: less agreeable opinions / perceptions it is the cause of accident 3: moderate agreeable opinions / perceptions it is the cause of accident 4: high agreeable opinions / perceptions it is the cause of accident 5: highest agreeable opinions / perceptions it is the cause of accident In this study, total 400 respondents are randomly selected from general public.

A wide

range of respondents is from different age groups, occupations, educational backgrounds of males and females. The survey was conducted during June 2013.

4. Study Result and Discussion Public perceptions on cause of accident are compiled as shown in Table 1. It is found that human is perceived as the highest cause of accidents. This is consistent with the fact that human is the one who operates the vehicle and drives the vehicle involved in the crash; especially those who do not followed rules and regulations of traffic law. The lowest public perception is that driver is unfamiliar to the roadway.

Table 1: Levels of perception on cause of accident with mean and SD. Frequencies

Cause of Accident Levels of perception on cause of accident 5 4 3 2 1 Human 236 102 53 8 1 (59.0%) (25.5%) (13.3%) (2.0%) (0.3%) Car 5 27 182 27 8 (1.3%) (6.8%) (45.5%) (6.8%) (2.0%) Slippery Road 192 131 70 7 0 (48.0%) (32.8%) (17.5%) (1.8%) (0.0%) Dangerous curve 170 172 44 10 4 (42.5%) (43.0%) (11.0%) (2.5%) (1.0%) Inadequate street 156 138 83 18 5 lighting (39.0%) (34.5%) (20.8%) (4.5%) (1.3%) No warning label 151 155 73 18 3 (37.8%) (38.8%) (18.3%) (4.5%) (0.8%) Unfamiliar to the 0 13 68 171 148 roadway (0.0%) (3.3%) (17.0%) (42.8%) (37.0%)

x

S.D.

Rank

4.41

0.812

1

2.61

0.700

6

4.27

0.809

2

4.24

0.819

3

4.06

0.943

5

4.08

0.896

4

1.87

0.808

7

3.50

0.819

For driving behavior, it is found that drunk driving is perceived as the highest cause of accidents, as shown in Table 2. This comes from the fact that Thailand has high number accidents *Corresponding author (B.Witchayangkoon). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail address: drboonsap@gmail.com.

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from drunk driving especially during the Thai New Year festival. The second highest perception on cause of accidents is about using mobile phone while driving.

Table 2: Levels of perception on driving behavior causing road accident, with mean and SD. Accident due to driving behavior

Frequencies

Levels of perception on driving behavior causing accident

5 Drunk driving 183 (45.8%) Driving without 1 helmet (0.3%) Violation of 2 traffic signals (0.5%) Driving over 2 speed limit (0.5%) Not wearing seat 0 belt (0.0%) Using mobile 82 while driving (20.5%)

4 148 (37.0) 10 (2.5) 49 (12.3) 61 (15.3) 61 (15.3) 115 (28.8)

3 63 (15.8) 77 (19.3) 123 (30.8) 177 (44.3) 149 (37.3) 135 (33.8)

2 6 (1.5) 190 (47.5) 152 (38.0) 120 (30.0) 138 (34.5) 45 (11.3)

1 0

122 (30.5) 74 (18.5) 40 (10.0) 52 (13.0) 23 (5.8)

x

S.D.

Rank

4.27

0.777

1

1.96

0.786

6

2.38

0.940

5

2.66

0.872

3

2.55

0.903

4

3.47

1.110

2

2.97

0.930

From Figure 1 public perception on cause of accident classified by age group, human factor and dangerous curve are the most concern for age over 36. Unfamiliar to the roadway system is the most worry for age under 15, compared to other age group.

Figure 1: Public perception on cause of accident classified by age group.

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Apirath Chattranusorn, and Boonsap Witchayangkoon

Human Car

Over bachelor's Degree

Slippery Road

bachelor's Degree subordinate Degree

Dangerous Curve

high school

Street Light not inadequate

junior high school

No warning Label

Primary school

Unfamiliar to the roadway 0

1

2

3

4

5

Figure 2: Public perception on cause of accident classified by educational background.

From Figure 2, public perception on cause of accidents classified by educational background seems to be alike, except that respondents with high school background seems to think that inadequate street lighting is the factor that causes accidents, compared to other educational backgrounds.

Human Car

Non-office Worker Private Business Owner

Sliperry road Dangerous curve

Government officer

Inadequate street lighting

Company Employee Agriculturist

No warning label

Student

Unfamiliar to the roadway 0

1

2

3

4

5

Figure 3: Public perception on cause of accident classified by career.

From Figure 3, non-office workersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions show that human is the major cause of accident. Private business ownersâ&#x20AC;&#x2122; perceptions indicate that slippery road and dangerous curve are major cause of roadway accident.

Age under 15 perceives drunk driving as the cause of roadway accident with averaged scale *Corresponding author (B.Witchayangkoon). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail address: drboonsap@gmail.com.

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almost 5, as shown in Figure 4. This factor seems to decrease as age of respondents increase.

Respondents with age under 15 seems to be less worry about using mobile phone while driving, but respondents with higher ages seem to worry more about this, especially for ages over 36.

Drunk Driving Driving without Helmet Over 36

Violent of traffic Signal

26 - 35

Driving over Speed Limit

15 - 25 Under 15

not wearing seat belt using mobile while driving 0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

3

3.5

4

4.5

5

Figure 4: Public perception on driving behavior causing road accident classified by age group.

Drunk Driving Over bachelor's Degree

Driving without Helmet

bachelor's Degree

Violent of traffic Signal

subordinate Degree

Driving over Speed Limit

high school junior high school

not wearing seat belt

Primary school

using mobile while driving 0

1

2

3

4

5

Figure 5: Public perception on driving behavior causing road accident classified by age group From Figure 5, respondents with high school background seems to visualize that all driving behavior factors causing accidents more than respondents with other educational background, except driving without helmet.

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Apirath Chattranusorn, and Boonsap Witchayangkoon

Drunk driving Driving without helmet

Non-office Job Private Business Owner

Violation of traffic signals

Government officer

Driving over speed limit

Office Employee Agriculturist

Not wearing seat belt

Student

Using mobile while driving 0

1

2

3

4

5

Figure 6: Public perception on driving behavior causing road accident classified by career.

Respondents with different careers show their respective perceptions on driving behavior causing road accidents, Figure 6. Most of these are of similar perceptions. However, private business owners seem to think that violations of traffic signals and using mobile while driving are likely to cause more road accident compared to other careers.

5. Conclusion This study surveyed 400 people from Mahasarakham City, Thailand, during June 2013. All respondents have different ages, genders, occupations, and educational backgrounds.

All

respondents point out that human is the most influential factor causing accidents. In addition, respondents give high score to drunk driving as the most dangerous driving behavior.

Respondents with different educational backgrounds seem to have agreeable perception on most of the item that cause street accidents.

6. References Bener, A., Ă&#x2013;zkan, T., & Lajunen, T. (2008).The driver behaviour questionnaire in arab gulf countries: Qatar and united arab emirates. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 40(4), 1411-1417.

GuĂŠho, L., Granie, M. A., &Abric, J. C. (2014).French validation of a new version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) for drivers of all ages and level of experiences. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 63, 41-48. *Corresponding author (B.Witchayangkoon). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5643001 Ext.3101. E-mail address: drboonsap@gmail.com.

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Kouabenan, D. R. (1998). Beliefs and the perception of risks and accidents. Risk Analysis, 18(3), Guého, L., Granie, M. A., &Abric, J. C. (2014).French validation of a new version of the Driver Behavior Questionnaire (DBQ) for drivers of all ages and level of experiences.

Accident Analysis & Prevention, 63, 41-48.

Vanlaar, W., & Yannis, G. (2006). Perception of road accident causes. Accident Analysis & Prevention, 38(1), 155-161.

Apirath Chattranusorn is a mater candidate in the Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Thammasat University. He holds a Bachelor of Engineering from Sirinhorn International Institute of Technology (SIIT), Thammasat University. He is interested in applying technologies to everyday life.

B. Witchayangkoon is an Associate Professor of Department of Civil Engineering at Thammasat University. He received his B.Eng. from King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi with Honors in 1991. He continued his PhD study at University of Maine, USA, where he obtained his PhD in Spatial Information Science & Engineering. Dr.Witchayangkoon current interests involve appications of emerging technologies to engineering.

Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website.

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Apirath Chattranusorn, and Boonsap Witchayangkoon

2014 American Transactions on Engineering & Applied Sciences.

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Effect of Oryzalin on Growth of Anthurium andraeanum In Vitro Anchalee Jala

a*

and Youngsak Kajohnpadungkiti

a

a

Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University Pathumtani, 12121, THAILAND

ARTICLEINFO

Article history: Received May 19, 2014 Received in revised form July 10, 2014 Accepted July 21, 2014 Available online July 23, 2014

Keywords: Naphthaline acetivc acid; NAA; Kinetin;

A B S T RA C T

Apical shoots and lateral buds of Anthurium andraeanum about 0.5 cm grew very well when cultured on MS medium supplemented with NAA, kinetin, sucrose and gelrite. When brought young plantlets (the same sized) of A. andraeanum soaked in various concentrations of oryzalin with different duration times. The A. andraeanum plantlets were subcultured into the same medium every 4 weeks for 3 times. It was found that 5.0 mg/l oryzalin with 24 and 72 hours gave the best average number of leaves per bunch, plant height and diameter of bunch. These parameters were reverse proportion, when increased concentration of oryzalin, the growth rate in each parameter was decreased with thick and pale green leaves.

2014 Am. Trans. Eng. Appl. Sci.

1. Introduction Anthurium is an ornamental plant that always use for decorating and landscape. Anthurium has beautiful bract and many colors, many types of leaf shapes, so this plant can use in many proposes. Propagation rate of this plant is cutting, and then we can get a few plants from one stock.

Tissue culture is one technique used to maintain or grow plant cells, tissues or organs under sterile conditions on a nutrient culture medium and growth regulator. This technique used to produce *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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clones of a plant in a method known as micropropagation.

Oryzalin is a selective preemergence surface-applied herbicide of the dinitroaniline class. It acts through the disruption (depolymerization) of microtubules, thus blocking anisotropic growth of plant cells(Rye, et al. 2002 )It can also be used to induce ploidity as an alternative to colchicine (Taiz, 2010). The present paper reports the effect of oryzalin on plant growth of Anthurium andraeanum) cultured in vitro.

2. Materials and Methods Shoot tip and lateral bud of anthurium (Anthurium andraeanum) about 0.5 cm were used as explants, surface sterilized by 20% chlorox(v/v) for 20 min, followed by 10% chlorox for 20 min and rinsed three times with sterilized water for 3 min each. These explants were cultured on solid MS medium(1962) supplemented with 0.1 mg/l NAA and 0.1mg/l kinetin and subcultured for four times every 3 weeks until got enough plantlets for doing other experiments. Plantlets with the same sized were soaked with different concentration (0, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/l) of oryzalin and different duration times (0, 24, 48 and 72 hours). After soaking, plantlets were transferred to MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/l NAA, 0.1 mg/l kinetin 3% sucrose and 2.5 % gelrite. Plantlets were cultured for 12 weeks and subcultured for four times every 3weeks. The parameters: diameter of bunch, plant height and number of leaves per bunch and different characters were recorded.

3. Results and Discussion Plantlets soaked with different concentration of oryzalin and different duration times were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.1 mg/l NAA, 0.1mg/l kinetin and 3% sucrose for 12 weeks. The diameter of bunch was recorded every four weeks. After cultured for four weeks, the result in diameter of bunch was significant difference (pâ&#x2030;¤0.05) (Table 1). The result showed that diameter of bunch increased when treated for 72 hours with 5mg/l oryzalin as showed in Figure 1g and 1h. It showed that different concentration and times for soaking in oryzalin would effect on growth of cells and tissue of anthurium. This result was similar as Rye et al., (2002) did with Ilex parpguariensis. It showed that after 2â&#x20AC;&#x201C;3 weeks culture in various treatments with oryzalin profuse differentiation of somatic embryos was observed. Additionally, this is the first study to show that oryzalin can be used to promote somatic embryogenesis in zygotic embryo cultures of Ilex paraguariensis. Plantlets which treated with 20 mg/l oryzalin for 24, 48 hours dried after culturing 224

Anchalee Jala and Youngsak Kajohnpadungkiti

for two weeks. The reduction diameter of bunch obtained caused by highest antimicrotubule agent concentrations used in our study was expected and must be due to the strong toxic effect of the herbicide oryzalin in plant cells by destroying spindle fibers and modifying the differentiation process (Eigsti & Dustin, 1955); (Bartels et al., 1973). When treated plantlets with long period and high concentration of oryzalin, the result showed that some plantlets dried. This may be due to the strong toxic effect of oryzalin (Rose, 2006).

Table 1: Growth rate in bunch diameter of anthurium after soaking in various times with different concentrations of oryzalin and cultured for 4,8 and 12 weeks.

Oryzalin Conc. Soaking (mg/l) (hrs.))

0 0 5 24 48 72 10 24 48 72 15 24 48 72 20 24 48 72

Diameter bunch (cm) 8 weeks.

12 weeks.

4 weeks.∗ 0.45 ± 0.85 0.50 ± 0.50 0.30b∗ ± 0.28 0.09ab ± 0.29 0.39 ± 0.25 0.35 ± 0.18 0.07a± 0.05 0.22 ± 0.22 0.30 ± 0.20 0.15ab ± 0.27 0.25 ± 0.41 0.37 ± 0.17 0.08a ± 0.05 0.39 ±0.34 0.41 ± 0.46 0.08a ± 0.04 0.13 ± 0.13 0.25 ± 0.22 0.08a ± 0.04 0.18 ± 0.15 0.34 ± 0.22 0.07a ± 0.05 036 ± 0.46 0.22 ± 0.28 0.03a ± 0.06 0.50 ± 0.30 0.43 ± 0.12 0.06a ± 0.05 0.08 ± 0.13 0.12 ± 0.18 0.10ab ± 0 – – 0.02a ± 0.04 0.00 ± 0 0.20 ± 0.21 – – –

*ab - compared mean in the same row was not significant difference with Turkey test at p ≤ 0.05.

3.1 Plant height When examined height of A. andraeanum after treating with various times and different concentration of oryzalin. It was found that growth rate in plant height were significant difference (p≤0.05). The result showed that after four weeks, plantlets which soaked for 72 hours with 5 mg/l oryzalin gave the highest height. Eight weeks, plantlets which treated for 48 hours with 5 mg/l oryzalin were the best result and 12 weeks, plantlets which treated for 24 hours with 5 mg/l oryzalin gave the highest plantlets. When treated plantlets with higher concentration of oryzalin (20 mg/l) for 24 and 72 hours plantlet died quickly. This result was the same as Kimberly et al.

(2006) treated on Euphorbia pulchurrima with 115.5 µm for 2 days failed to produce callus and died quickly after exposure to oryzalin. For Lilium (van Tuyl et al., 1992) and Nerine (Tosca et al., 1995), shoot regeneration was less inhibited by oryzalin and the same as Tandon et al.,(1965) did *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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with Torenia fournieri . In the experiment found that at 15 mg/l oryzalin at different duration times (24,48 and 72 hours) showed that callus were formed at the base of explants as in Figure 3b ,3c 3d and 3e.

Table 2: Growth rate in plant height of anthurium after soaking in various times with different concentrations of oryzalin and cultured for 4, 8 and 12 weeks.

Oryzalin Soaking conc. (mg/l) (hrs.)

0 0 5 24 48 72 10 24 48 72 15 24 48 72 20 24 48 72

4 weeks* 0.41b ± 0.44 0.09a ± 0.11 0.15ab ± 0.11 0.18ab ± 0.18 0.07a ± 0.11 0.02a ± 0.06 0.09a ± 0.17 0.05a ± 0.1 0.10a ± 0.17 0.02a ± 0.07 0.10a ± 0.17 0.02a ± 0.58 –

Plant height (cm) 8 weeks* 0.72bc ± 0.79 0.48abc ± 0.31 0.57abc ± 0.35 0.39abc ± 0.38 0.17ab ± 0.21 0.20ab ± 0.24 0.19ab ± 0.28 0.36ab ± 0.46 0.93c ± 0.25 0.18ab ± 0.29 – 0.01a ± 0.03 –

12 weeks* 1.19d ± 0.82 0.94bcd ± 0.49 0.59abcd ± 0.34 0.56abcd ± 0.40 0.17a ± 0.25 0.20a ± 0.21 0.21ab ± 0.25 0.43abc ± 0.58 1.13cd ± 0.32 0.22ab ± 0.32 – 0.04a ± 0.05 –

*ab - compared mean in the same row was not significant difference with Turkey test at p ≤ 0.05

3.2 Number of leaves It was found that number of leaves from bunch of anthurium in every four weeks was significant difference (p≤0.05).

It was found that number of leaves was depending on

concentration and time for soaking with oryzalin. In the first recorded (4 weeks) the number of leaves was the highest when treated with 5 mg/l oryzalin for 72 hours. Then, the result showed that 5.0 mg/l oryzalin at 8, 12 weeks gave the best number of leaves (Table 3). After cultured for 12 weeks, the result showed that low concentration of oryzalin and short duration time gave the highest number of leaves as showed in Table 3. Plantlet which treated with 20 mg/l oryzalin and soaked for 24 and 72 hours could not survival after culturing for 8 and 12 weeks. Oryzalin is known to be less toxic to plant tissues (Vainola.,2000).This result was the same as Lilium (van Tuyl et al., 1992), Nerine (Tosca et al.,(1995) and Euphorbia pulcherrima (Pickens et al.,2006). However, in winter rose, oryzalin was found to be unsuitable for inducing growth, the same as Eeckhaut et al., (2004) had been observed for Rhododendron species which soaked with oryzalin at higher concentrations regardless of duration of treatment.

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1a

1c

1b

1d

1f

1e

1g

1h

Figure 1: Anthurium andraeanum cultured for 12 weeks after treating with 5 mg/l oryzalin and difference duration time : 1a,1b - 0 hours, 1c,1d - 24 hours, 1e,1f â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 48 hours, 1g,1h â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 72 hours.

Anthurium treated with different concentration of oryzalin and vary duration time were transferred to the same MS medium. After cultured for 12 weeks all parameters in diameter of bunch, plant height and number of leaves per bunch were collected and their picture were showed as in Figures 1, 2 and 3.

Plantlets treated with 15 mg/l for 48 and 72 hours gave abnormal characteristics such as slow *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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growth rate, leaf with round shape, light green leaves , thick leaves and short leaf petriole (as showed in Figure 2c, 2d, 2e, 2f, and 2g, 2h. This worked was the same as Mandon et al. (2005) did with oil plam, and Jala et al. (2012) did with Amethyst Curcuma.

2a

2b

2c

2e

2d

2f

2g 2h Figure 2: Anthurium andraeanum cultured for 12 weeks after treating with 10 mg/l oryzalin and difference duration time : 2a,2b - 0 hours, 2c 2d - 24 hours, 2e,2f â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 48 hours, 2g,2h â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 72 hours.

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Anchalee Jala and Youngsak Kajohnpadungkiti

3b

3a

3d

3c

3e Figure 3: Anthurium andraeanum cultured for 12 weeks after treating with 15 mg/l oryzalin and difference duration time : 3a - 0 hours, 3b - 24 hours, 3c, 3d â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 48 hours, 3e â&#x20AC;&#x201C; 72 hours.

4. Conclusion Shoot tip and adventitious bud of Anthurium andraeanum about 0.5 cm were used as explants.

Explants cultured on MS medium supplemented with 0.1 NAA and 0.1 mg/l kinetin, 3% sucrose gave the best result in increasing number of plantlets. Plantlets treated with different concentration *Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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Table 3: Number of leaves in anthurium after soaking with oryzalin at different concentrations and duration times and cultured for 4, 8 and 12 weeks.

Number of leaves (leaves) oryzalin Soaking Conc. (mg/l) (hrs.)

8 weeks* 12 weeks* 4 weeks.∗ 0 5

10 15 20

0 24 48 72 24 48 72 24 48 72 24 48 72

8.25a ± 11.55 2.58ab ± 2.78 3.00ab ± 3.44 4.08ab ± 4.66 1.33ab ± 2.50 0.25a ± 0.87 0.75a ±1.42 1.17ab ± 2.12 2.67ab ± 4.62 0.22b ± 0.07 1.33b ± 2.31 1.17b ± 0.58 –

9.83ab ± 10.94 5.33ab ± 4.94 7.22ab ± 5.61 8.25a ± 7.44 3.67b ± 2.86 2.00b ± 2.86 1.83b ± 2.79 4.89b ± 6.25 6.33ab ± 3.79 1.22b ± 1.99 – 0.11b ± 0.33 –

15.17ab ± 12.50 14.50ab ± 5.98 11.56b ± 6.15 16.22a ± 8.97 5.75b ± 8.98 4.82b ± 4.83 4.92b ± 6.43 6.22b ± 8.26 9.00b ± 4.36 3.67b ± 4.53 – 1.2.0b ± 2.17 –

*ab - compared mean in the same row was not significant difference with Turkey test at p ≤ 0.05. of oryzalin with varied duration time. It was found that 5 mg/l oryzalin with 24 hours in 4 weeks gave the best average diameter of bunch but next times (8 weeks and 12 weeks) the result in diameter of bunch is not significant difference. Plantlets treated with 5 mg/l oryzalin for 24 hours gave the best result on plant height, treated with 5 mg/l oryzalin for 24 and 72 hours gave the best number of leaves per bunch. When treated with 20 mg/l oryzalin for 24 and 72 hours plantlet died within three weeks. Abnormal plantlets were found in plantlets which treated with 15mg/l and higher oryzalin and duration longer than 48 hours, slow growth rate, thick leaves and short leaf petriole.

5. References Bartels, P.G. and J. L. Hilton.1973. Comparison of trifluralin, oryzalin, pronamide, propham and colchicine treatments on microtubules. Pest Bioch. Physiol. 3: 462–472.

Eigsti, D.I. and P. Dustin.1955.Spindle and cytoplasm. Colchicine. In: Agriculture, pp. 65–139.

The Iowa State College Press, Ames.

Eekhaut, T.,S. Werbrouck, L. Leus, E. Bockstaele, and P. Debergh. 2004. Chemically induced polyploidization in Spathiphyllum wallisii Regal through somatic embryogenesis. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult. 78 : 241 – 246.

Jala, A. and Kitti Bodhipadma. 2012. Low Concentration of Paclobutrazol Induced Multiple Shoot and Plantlet Formation in Amethyst Curcuma. The Journal of KMUTNB. V22(3):505-510.

Murashige, T. and F. Skoog. 1962. A revised medium for rapid growth and bioassays with tobacco tissue cultures. Physiol. Plant 15: 473–497.

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Madon, M.,Clyde, M.M.,Hashim, H.,Mohd Yusuf, Y., and Mat, H. 2005. Polyploidy induction of oil palm through colchicine and oryzalin treatments. J. Oil Palm Res. 17:110–123.

Pickens, K.A., and Max Z. M. Cheng.2006.Effects of Colchicine and Oryzalin on Callus and Adventitious Shoot Formation of Euphorbia pulchurrima ‘Winter rose’. Hortscience.

41(7)1651-1655.

Taiz, L., Zeiger, E. Plant Physiology, 5/e. 2010. p. 443-4.

Rye, H.Y., P.A. Sansberro, M.M. Collavino, J.R. Daviña, A.M. Gonz`alez and L.A. Mroginski.2002.Colchicine, trifluralin, and oryzalin promoted development of somatic embryos in Ilex paraguariensis (Aquifoliaceae) Euphytica 123: 49–56.

Rose.J.B., J.Kubba and K.R. Tobutt.2000.Chromosome doubling in sterile Syringa vulgaris x S. pinnatifolia hybrids by in vitro culture of nodal explants. Plant Cell Tissue Organ Cult.

63:127-132.

Tandon, S.L. and K. Bhutani. 1965. Morphological and cytological studies of colchicine-induced tetraploids in Torenia fournieri Lind. Genetica. 36 : 439-445.

Tosca, A.,R. Pandolfi, S. Citerio, and S. Sgorbati.1995. Determination by flow cytometry of the chromosome doubling capacity of colchicine and oryzalin in gynogenic haploids of Gerbera. Plant Cell Rep. 14: 455 – 458. van Tuyl, J.M., B. Meijer, and M.P. van Dien. 1992. The use of oryzalin an alternative for colchicine in in vitro chromosome doubling of Lilium and Nerine. Acta Hort.325 -: 625 – 630.

Vainola, A. 2000.Polyploidization and early screening of Rhododendron hybrids.

Euphytica. 112 : 239 – 244.

Dr.Anchalee JALA is an Associate Professor in Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathumtani , THAILAND. Her teaching is in the areas of botany and plant tissue culture. She is also very active in plant tissue culture research.

Dr. Youngsak Kachonpadungkitti is a faculty in Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Thammasat University, Rangsit Campus, Pathumtani , THAILAND. He obtained Monbusho scholarship from Japanese Government. He was awarded a B.Sc. (Applied Biochemistry), an M.Sc. (Environmental Sciences) and a Ph.D. (Agricultural Sciences) from University of Tsukuba, Japan.

His research interests encompass Plant tissue culture, Micropropagation in vitro, Induction of Salt Tolerant Plants, In vitro pollination, In vitro cross breeding, and Sago palm.

Peer Review: This article has been internationally peer-reviewed and accepted for publication according to the guidelines given at the journal’s website.

*Corresponding author (Anchalee Jala). Tel/Fax: +66-2-5644440-59 Ext. 2450. E-mail address: anchaleejala@yahoo.com.

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