IAFOR Journal of Education: Volume 13 – Issue 3 – Studies in Education by IAFOR

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journal of education studies in education Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025 Editor: Pearl Subban

ISSN: 2187-0594

iafor IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

IAFOR Publications

The International Academic Forum

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Editor Pearl Subban Monash University, Australia

Published by The International Academic Forum (IAFOR), Japan IAFOR Publications, Sakae 1-16-26-201, Naka-ward, Aichi, Japan 460-0008

Executive Editor: Joseph Haldane Publications Manager: Nick Potts Publications & Communications Coordinator: Mark Kenneth Camiling IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025 Published December 16, 2025

Cover image: Prostock-studio, Shutterstock

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025 Edited by Pearl Subban Monash University, Australia

Table of Contents From the Editor

Authors List

Towards an Inclusive and Identity-Conscious Approach to Higher Education in South Africa Rentia du Plessis Diana Breshears Luzelle Naudé

Evaluating Intercultural Competence Outcomes of Japanese Undergraduate Mobility Programs in Malaysia and Thailand: Evidence from the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC) Hiroyoshi Hiratsuka

Enacting Youth Agency in Higher Education: Resilience as a Mediating Factor Yasemin Yılmaz Yüksek Nilüfer Ülker Özlem Ayar Gemalmaz

Teacher Educators’ Practices of Diversity Responsive Pedagogy in Primary Pre-service Teachers’ Education Program Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba Abbi Lemma Wedajo Woldu Assefa Yadete

Professional Development of EFL Instructors in Indonesia: Challenges from Higher Education Institutions Hijjatul Qamariah Maria Hercz

105

Poverty-Simulation Activities for Enhancing Student Teachers’ Beliefs and Inclusive Education: A Non-Equivalent Groups in Thailand Chanadda Poohongthong

125

Exploring the Scientific Culture of Elementary School Teachers in Jakarta Musringudin Yulian Dinihari

159

Shifting Education Systems and the Development of Third Culture Kids: An Autoethnographic Exploration Sanjukta Chakraborty Dhritiman Chakraborty

179

A Ground-Based Study on School Management Committees: Insights from School Principals Abdul Rahim Wardak Jagbir Singh Narwal

203

Teaching for Social Justice: Rethinking the Educator’s Role in Equity and Inclusion Tayyibah Roohi Shafia Baber Amber Jamshaid Naima Qureshi

223

Reimagining Dignified Inclusive Higher Education: System-Level Strategies of a South African University Hilda Du Plooy Riccardo Sartori Francesco Tommasi

255

Qualified by Different Standards: Challenging Historical Narratives in Ontario’s Teacher Education Michael Owen

279

From Equity to Containment? A Critical Analysis of Compensatory Education in Portugal Hélder Ferraz Tiago Neves Gil Nata

305

Cursed by Accuracy: Exploring Decolonial Practices in Undoing the Native Speaker Spell Mitsuyo Sakamoto

339

A Machine Learning Approach to Predict Technology Integration Among Mathematics Teacher Educators Churun L. Maknun Rizky Rosjanuardi Dadan Dasari

359

Unpacking Philippine Madrasah Education Pedagogies: A Case Study of Asatidz’ Pedagogical Practices Abdul Haiy A. Sali

391

Family–School Relationships in Contexts of Social Vulnerability: Perspectives from Chilean Teachers Héctor Cárcamo Vásquez Marcelo Gallegos Fuentes María José Cares Geoffroy

415

Employability Skills for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder/Intellectual Disabilities: Gaps and Expectations Lisfatul Fatinah Hiroki Yoneda

437

AI-Driven Pedagogical Empowerment in International Education: Transforming Teaching Practices for College Faculty through Faculty-Centered Innovation Ding Lin

467

Validating Universal Design for Learning Survey with Latvian Preschool Teachers: A Pilot Study Inese Tīģere Dina Bethere Gatis Lāma Linda Daniela

493

Core Competencies for Inclusive Early Childhood Educators: A Systematic Review Jamil Suprihatiningrum Nur Listiawati Yendri Wirda Simon Sili Sabon Siswantari Betti Nuraini

525

Ghana’s Standards-Based Curriculum Reform: National Insights from the Bono East Region Experience Peter Jabal James Fox

565

The PRIME Framework: A Design-Based, Pace-Sensitive RME Approach for Inclusive Mathematics in Indonesia Pujia Siti Balkist Turmudi Al Jupri Elah Nurlaelah

585

Evaluating the Socioeconomic Value of Low-Threshold Youth Clubs in the Czech Republic: Bridging Data Gaps in Informal Education through Social Return on Investment and Theory of Change Lothar Filip Rudorfer Marie Fulková Vendula Fremlová, Lucie Jakubcová Hajdušková Kemal Ahson

615

Educational Equity at the Geopolitical Frontier A Music-Based Teacher Training Case Dimitri Chatzigiannakis Agnes Papadopoulou

643

Reviewers

673

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

From the Editor Mapping Educational Possibilities Across Global Contexts This issue of the IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education brings together a diverse collection of papers from across the world, spanning Asia, Africa, Europe, The Americas and the Middle East. Each contribution offers nuanced insights into contemporary educational challenges and the creative, contextually grounded practices emerging in response. Though the topics differ in scope and setting, the papers share a common focus: understanding how educators and learners navigate rapidly shifting social, cultural, and institutional landscapes. Collectively, they illuminate the complex intersections of identity, pedagogy, curriculum, and teacher professionalism that shape education today. The issue begins with papers examining how intercultural engagement and learner agency develop within higher education. These studies explore the growth of intercultural competence in transnational settings and consider how academic work can foster resilience, critical participation, and reflective learning among students. Together, they highlight the transformative possibilities available when learners are supported to engage meaningfully across cultural boundaries. Teacher development emerges as a strong thread, with several papers investigating how educators build professional knowledge and adaptive expertise in diverse contexts. Research from Southeast Asia and the Middle East demonstrates how teachers respond creatively to structural constraints, how technology (such as simulation and robotics activities) can enhance pedagogical confidence, and how professional learning environments support ongoing growth. These insights underscore both the resourcefulness of teachers and the importance of institutional support in enabling pedagogical innovation. A number of papers examine the sociocultural dynamics that shape educational experiences. Contributions exploring scientific literacy, shifting education systems, and culturally complex schooling environments reveal the ways in which identity, heritage, and community narratives influence both teaching and learning. These studies remind us that education is deeply embedded in social and cultural histories, and that classrooms often serve as sites where broader societal tensions are negotiated. Leadership and school improvement also feature prominently. Papers addressing school governance, community engagement, and equityoriented leadership highlight the potential of collaborative, locally grounded approaches to strengthen educational outcomes. Studies focusing on teacher learning for social justice foreground the significance of critical reflection, collective responsibility, and inclusive professional cultures in achieving meaningful school transformation. Historical and political considerations surface in investigations into policy, compensatory education, and racialised or marginalised narratives within teacher education. These papers interrogate the consequences of long-standing inequalities, revealing the ways in which policy settings can both address and inadvertently reproduce systemic barriers. Several contributions offer decolonial, identityconscious, and technology-informed perspectives. Research on decolonial practices, digital integration, and predictive technologies highlights the evolving nature of teacher agency and the possibilities for more equitable and culturally grounded pedagogical design. These papers

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

underscore that innovation must be responsive to local knowledge systems, community values, and the lived realities of learners and educators. A strong social justice orientation runs through studies focusing on vulnerable learners, inclusive teacher preparation, and culturally responsive pedagogy. Whether exploring the experiences of learners in socioeconomically challenged contexts, the needs of students with disabilities, or the identity work of pre-service teachers, these papers demonstrate the centrality of inclusion and belonging in contemporary educational discourse. The issue also includes work centred on early childhood and preschool education. These contributions examine inclusive learning environments, play-based design, and leadership frameworks that support holistic development. Their insights reinforce the importance of early intervention and the need for environments that nurture curiosity, creativity, and equitable participation. Global commitments to equity and transformative education are reflected in papers addressing youth development, large-scale curriculum reform, and arts-based teacher training. Studies on youth clubs, national education reforms, and music-infused professional learning highlight the ways in which education can bridge social divides, revitalise cultural understandings, and contribute to national and regional educational renewal. The articles in this issue reflect a discipline that is continually evolving in response to global shifts, technological change, and renewed commitments to justice. They remind us that education is never static; it is shaped by the practices, relationships, aspirations, and resistances of those who participate in it. This issue celebrates the collective work of researchers who continue to interrogate, imagine, and re-envision educational futures across contexts. It is our hope that readers will find both scholarly insight and affirmation of the enduring capacity of education to transform lives and communities. Pearl Subban Monash University, Australia Editor: IAFOR Journal of Education

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

Authors List Article 1 Towards an Inclusive and Identity-Conscious Approach to Higher Education in South Africa Rentia du Plessis University of the Free State, South Africa Email: duplessise5@ufs.ac.za Diana Breshears University of the Free State, South Africa Luzelle Naudé University of the Free State, South Africa Article 2 Evaluating Intercultural Competence Outcomes of Japanese Undergraduate Mobility Programs in Malaysia and Thailand: Evidence from the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC) Hiroyoshi Hiratsuka Aoyama Gakuin University, Japan Email: hhiratsuka@gsc.aoyama.ac.jp Article 3 Enacting Youth Agency in Higher Education: Resilience as a Mediating Factor Yasemin Yılmaz Yüksek Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye Nilüfer Ülker Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye Email: ulkern@itu.edu.tr Özlem Ayar Gemalmaz Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

Article 4 Teacher Educators’ Practices of Diversity Responsive Pedagogy in Primary Pre-service Teachers’ Education Program Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba Jimma University, Ethiopia Email: temesgeny2@gmail.com Abbi Lemma Wedajo Jimma University, Ethiopia Woldu Assefa Yadete Jimma University, Ethiopia Article 5 Professional Development of EFL Instructors in Indonesia: Challenges from Higher Education Institutions Hijjatul Qamariaha University of Szeged, Hungary Email: hijjatulqamariah@gmail.com Maria Hercza University of Szeged & Eotvos Lorand University, Hungary Article 6 Poverty-Simulation Activities for Enhancing Student Teachers’ Beliefs and Inclusive Education: A Non-Equivalent Groups in Thailand Chanadda Poohongthong Naresuan University, Thailand Email: poohongthongc@gmail.com Article 7 Exploring the Scientific Culture of Elementary School Teachers in Jakarta Musringudin Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof Dr. Hamka, Indonesia Email: musringudin@uhamka.ac.id Yulian Dinihari Indraprasta University, Indonesia

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Article 8 Shifting Education Systems and the Development of Third Culture Kids: An Autoethnographic Exploration Sanjukta Chakraborty Amity University, India Email: s.chakraborty.phd@gmail.com Dhritiman Chakraborty University of Bristol, United Kingdom Article 9 A Ground-Based Study on School Management Committees: Insights from School Principals Abdul Rahim Wardak Maharshi Dayanand University, India Email: abdulrahim.rs22.pubadmin@mdurohtak.ac.in Jagbir Singh Narwal Maharshi Dayanand University, India Article 10 Teaching for Social Justice: Rethinking the Educator’s Role in Equity and Inclusion Tayyibah Roohi University of the Punjab, Pakistan Email: troohi78@gmail.com Shafia Baber Superior University, Pakistan Amber Jamshaid University of the Punjab, Pakistan Naima Qureshi University of Education, Pakistan

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Article 11 Reimagining Dignified Inclusive Higher Education: System-Level Strategies of a South African University Hilda Du Plooy University of Verona, Italy Email: hilda.duplooy@univr.it Riccardo Sartori University of Verona, Italy Francesco Tommasi University of Milan, Italy Article 12 Qualified by Different Standards: Challenging Historical Narratives in Ontario’s Teacher Education Michael Owen Brock University, United States Email: mowen@brocku.ca Article 13 From Equity to Containment? A Critical Analysis of Compensatory Education in Portugal Hélder Ferraz University of Porto, Portugal Email: hnrferraz@hotmail.com Tiago Neves University of Porto, Portugal Gil Nata University of Porto, Portugal Article 14 Cursed by Accuracy: Exploring Decolonial Practices in Undoing the Native Speaker Spell Mitsuyo Sakamoto Sophia University, Japan Email: mitsuy-s@sophia.ac.jp

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Article 15 A Machine Learning Approach to Predict Technology Integration Among Mathematics Teacher Educators Churun L. Maknun Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Rizky Rosjanuardi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia rizky@upi.edu Dadan Dasari Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Article 16 Unpacking Philippine Madrasah Education Pedagogies: A Case Study of Asatidz’ Pedagogical Practices Abdul Haiy A. Sali Far Eastern University Manila & Philippine Normal University Manila, Philippines Email: abdulhaiysali@gmail.com Article 17 Family–School Relationships in Contexts of Social Vulnerability: Perspectives from Chilean Teachers Héctor Cárcamo Vásquez Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile Marcelo Gallegos Fuentes Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile María José Cares Geoffroy University of Concepción, Chile Email: macares@udec.cl

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

Article 18 Employability Skills for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder/Intellectual Disabilities: Gaps and Expectations Lisfatul Fatinah University of Tsukuba, Japan Email: lisfatulfatinah@gmail.com Hiroki Yoneda University of Tsukuba, Japan Article 19 AI-Driven Pedagogical Empowerment in International Education: Transforming Teaching Practices for College Faculty Through Faculty-Centered Innovation Ding Lin Henan Polytechnic, China Email: dingdingphilip@163.com Article 20 Validating Universal Design for Learning Survey with Latvian Preschool Teachers: A Pilot Study Inese Tīģere RTU Liepāja Academy, Latvia Email: inese.tigere@rtu.lv Dina Bethere RTU Liepāja Academy, Latvia Gatis Lāma University of Latvia, Latvia Linda Daniela University of Latvia, Latvia

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Article 21 Core Competencies for Inclusive Early Childhood Educators: A Systematic Review Jamil Suprihatiningrum State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia Email: jamil.suprihatiningrum@uin-suka.ac.id Nur Listiawati The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Yendri Wirda The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Simon Sili Sabon The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Siswantari The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Betti Nuraini University of Muhammadiyah Prof. Dr. Hamka & Indonesian Association of Early Childhood Educators and Education Personnel, Indonesia Article 22 Ghana’s Standards-Based Curriculum Reform: National Insights from the Bono East Region Experience Peter Jabal Salisbury University, United States Email: pjabal1@gulls.salisbury.edu James Fox Salisbury University, United States

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Article 23 The PRIME Framework: A Design-Based, Pace-Sensitive RME Approach for Inclusive Mathematics in Indonesia Pujia Siti Balkist Universitas Muhammadiyah Sukabumi & Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Email: pujiabalkist@upi.edu Turmudi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Al Jupri Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Elah Nurlaelah Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Article 24 Evaluating the Socioeconomic Value of Low-Threshold Youth Clubs in the Czech Republic: Bridging Data Gaps in Informal Education Through Social Return on Investment and Theory of Change Lothar Filip Rudorfer Charles University, Czech Republic Email: lotharfilip.rudorfer@pedf.cuni.cz Marie Fulková Charles University, Czech Republic Vendula Fremlová Charles University, Czech Republic Lucie Jakubcová Hajdušková Charles University, Czech Republic Kemal Ahson University of Helsinki, Finland

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Article 25 Educational Equity at the Geopolitical Frontier: A Music-Based Teacher Training Case Dimitri Chatzigiannakis Ionian University, Greece Email: chatzigiannakis@ionio.gr Agnes Papadopoulou Ionian University, Greece

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Volume 13 – Issue 3 – 2025

Towards an Inclusive and Identity-Conscious Approach to Higher Education in South Africa Rentia du Plessis University of the Free State, South Africa Diana Breshears University of the Free State, South Africa Luzelle Naudé University of the Free State, South Africa

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Abstract This study explores how Black South African students experience diversity and identity affirmation in higher education, as well as what lecturer and/or institutional behaviors they identify as encouraging or inhibiting this process. Five focus groups were facilitated with a total of 29 participants. Discussions encompassed diversity within the institution, the impact of institutional policies on educational experiences, the inclusive and exclusive role of language, and the importance of communication/interaction to unify students in a diverse university setting. Findings highlight how students’ understanding of diversity is shaped by the immediate campus context. Participants emphasized the need for authentic engagement, representation and critical dialogue to support identity exploration and meaningful inclusion. Themes reflect the importance of fostering students’ holistic development, advocating for transformative action against structural impediments, and emphasizing educators’ responsibility in creating a supportive environment. Implications of the findings are discussed. Keywords: diversity, inclusive education, identity-conscious, South Africa

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Universities are powerful institutions with the potential for both opportunity and alienation (Alcock & Bellugi, 2018). No group in South Africa is more aware of this dynamic perhaps than the majority Black population who were historically excluded from higher education under Apartheid. Since the enactment of democracy and efforts of redress, the demographics and diversity of South African university students have changed in the last few decades. In 2021, Black South Africans accounted for about 80% of students enrolled in higher education institutions, while White students accounted for approximately 10% (Department of Higher Education and Training [DHET], 2021). Despite the diversity of the modern South African university, studies show that university culture and pedagogy remain overtly Western (Alcock & Bellugi, 2018; Liversage et al., 2018). On an institutional level, students have reported struggling to navigate a university culture that is much different to their own (Janse van Rensburg & Kapp, 2015) and felt impeded from freely assuming African identities on campus (de Kadt & Mathonsi, 2003; Govender & Naidoo, 2023). In the classroom, as well, students have reported that higher education curricula do not include African ways of being and do not acknowledge or accommodate African identities, leading to feelings of alienation and lack of belonging (Alcock & Bellugi, 2018; Liversage et al., 2018; McKenna, 2004). To address issues of belonging, more focus is needed on inclusive education. According to Dier et al. (2022), student-affirming education “creates a welcoming environment for all … regardless of their race, ethnicity, national origin, gender, sexual orientation, income, ability, family structure or other characteristic” (p. 6). For South African education, in particular, this requires a transformation of classroom and institutional culture to create a sense of belonging for students from different backgrounds (Badenhorst & Kapp, 2013). Without a student-inclusive culture, students are at risk of losing their sense of identity or may feel that assimilation is the only way to succeed (Badenhorst & Kapp, 2013; Tierney, 2000). Despite major transformation efforts, South African universities continue to struggle with making inclusion part of everyday teaching and institutional life (Mutongoza, 2025). The challenge lies not only in policy but in how lecturers and institutions sustain belonging in diverse classrooms (Morris, 2021). This study addresses that problem by examining how identity and inclusion are enacted through lecturer communication and institutional culture across two university campuses. In doing so, it offers empirical evidence of how transformation is experienced at the intersection of pedagogy and policy, contributing new insights to both South African and global discussions on culturally responsive and humanizing higher education. In what follows, we will discuss the conceptual framework and the context of the study, outline the methodology used, present key findings, and discuss the implications and recommendations emerging from these findings. Literature Review The importance of culturally responsive teaching was first articulated in Gay’s (2010) foundational work, which stresses the need to align educational practices with students’ cultural backgrounds. More recent research builds on this foundation, highlighting the urgency for higher education institutions to adopt inclusive, affirming and culturally responsive approaches—both pedagogically and structurally (Massar, 2022). In South Africa, the “White

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Paper for Post-School Education and Training” (DHET, 2013) calls for curriculum transformation that reflects African contexts and promotes inclusive, socially just education. It positions transformation as both a moral and developmental imperative, centered on equity of access, participation, and success. The Council on Higher Education (Webbstock, 2017) extends this call by challenging Eurocentric knowledge hierarchies and advocating for curricula informed by African epistemologies and local realities. The Language Policy for Framework for Higher Education Institutions (DHET, 2020) reinforces these priorities by promoting multilingualism and elevating indigenous languages as legitimate languages of scholarship and teaching, recognizing language as central to belonging and epistemic success. In practice, Makokotlela and Gumbo (2025) show that integrating indigenous knowledge systems into university curricula enhances relevance, sustainability, and inclusion for African students. Together, these frameworks and studies demonstrate that transformation policy can only succeed when it is enacted through daily communicative and pedagogical choices of educators. Within this landscape, lectures become pivotal agents of change, translating institutional commitments into classroom practice through approaches that affirm identity and inclusion (Govender & Naidoo, 2023). Culturally affirming and inclusive pedagogies that focus on the lived realities, backgrounds, and knowledges of marginalized students can significantly enhance a sense of belonging and academic success (Williams et al., 2021). When educators center culturally relevant knowledge, practice cultural validation, and promote cultural humanization, students not only achieve learning outcomes, but also learn more about themselves and elevate their socio-political consciousness (Williams et al., 2022). In South African higher education, culturally responsive practices are essential for fostering student belonging and countering the alienation caused by Western curricula and institutional cultures (Biccard & Meeran, 2024). Research shows that Black South African first-generation students often experience identity conflict and exclusion in academic spaces, and that decolonizing curricula by re-centering African epistemologies and validating diverse cultures is key to promoting inclusion and social justice (Hlatshwayo & Alexander, 2021; Liversage et al., 2018). The current study was guided by a conceptual framework that integrates three interrelated dimensions: humanizing pedagogy, identity development, and policy-to-practice translation. Drawing from Freire (1968), Howard and Jordan (2023), Suzina and Tufte (2020) and others, the study highlights how identity-affirming educational environments can support student agency, belonging, and social justice. In South African literature, this framework resonates with humanizing pedagogy (Fataar, 2016; Geduld & Sathorar, 2016; Zinn et al., 2016), which calls for mutual respect, dialogue, and recognition of students’ lived realities as foundations for equitable teaching. It also aligns with work on student identity and belonging (Groenewald, 2024; Naudé & Breshears, 2025), which argues that South African higher education must nurture both cognitive and socio-emotional development. Finally, it acknowledges the policyto-practice gap that persists in South Africa: transformation and inclusion are written into institutional documents but often remain under-implemented in classrooms (Adonis & Silinda, 2021; Keet, 2019) This conceptual orientation informs the study’s research questions by linking policy ideals with teaching and learning practice, and by framing lecturers’ communicative behaviors as a site where identity development and institutional transformation converge.

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The principles of a humanizing pedagogy remain relevant as they underscore the importance of cultural diversity, promote inclusivity, and foster a sense of belonging among students. In the South African context, a humanizing pedagogy is a multifaceted approach to social justice that involves three aspects: (re)distribution of knowledge; recognition of student knowledge, literacies, and identities; and emphasis on participation (Fataar 2016). It situates education as a relational, ethical practice—where teachers and students co-construct meaning through dialogue, empathy, and care (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016; Zinn et al., 2016). When embedded institutionally, these principles transform the classroom into a microcosm of social justice (Leibowitz & Bozalek, 2016). Similarly, culturally affirming practices – especially when institutionalized – can help create equitable academic spaces (Williams et al., 2022). These practices recognize diverse cultures and identities, fostering classrooms where students feel psychologically safe (Lin, 2020). Humanizing pedagogy thus provides the conceptual bridge between identity development and institutional transformation. In the current study, we not only explored identity-inclusive and diversity-supportive communication and behavior of lecturers, but also the extent to which the behaviors are incorporated into the institutional culture of South African universities. This responds directly to the empirical gap in existing literature: while South African policy discourse on transformation and diversity is extensive (Department of Education, 1997; DHET, 2013, 2020; Menon et al., 2025; Webbstock, 2017), there remains limited empirical understanding of how these policies are enacted through lecturers’ everyday communicative practices and institutional culture. Several studies have highlighted this gap: Van Schalkwyk et al. (2022) point out that transformation in South African higher education is often discussed in theory, but lacks solid data and clear measures to track progress; Maama (2023) finds that despite extensive policy frameworks, there is a lack of commitment and structural change at institutional level; and Luescher et al. (2023) reveal highly uneven implementation of transformation across universities, with limited coordination and standardization of practices. Jawitz (2012) observes, Substantial research needs to be undertaken to understand how social factors such as race, gender and class impact on academic practice and serve to undermine efforts to develop a higher education system in South Africa that is inclusive and equitable in its dealings with students. (p. 557) By positioning our analysis within this gap, the study examines how communication, pedagogy and institutional culture intersect to shape students’ experiences of identity-inclusion and belonging. Methods The current study was conducted at the University of the Free State (UFS)in South Africa, with campuses in diverse settings, one urban and one rural. Of approximately 40,000 students, the majority study on the Bloemfontein Campus, with about 7,000 students on the Qwaqwa campus (UFS, 2023). The University of the Free State is a historically White university, but in

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recent decades has a student body that is majority Black, from previously disadvantaged backgrounds. In 2023 (the date of data collection), 85% of the 39,800 total, cross-campus registrations were Black students. On the Qwaqwa campus specifically, 99.4% of students were Black, and on the Bloemfontein campus, 81.4% of students were Black. While the language of instruction is English, the university is committed to multilingualism (with particular emphasis on Sesotho, Afrikaans, and isiZulu) (UFS, 2016). In the University of the Free State’s vision statement, principles of student-centeredness and regional-engagement are prioritized, as well as Innovation and Impact (societal development), Accountability, Care, and Social Justice (UFS, 2022). According to the UFS’s (2023) Strategic Plan, diversity and inclusivity are key values at the university. Specifically, it states, The UFS’s dedication to fostering diversity and inclusivity, with a focus on racial, socio-economic, gender, capability, and epistemological diversity … to improve staff and student retention, recognizing these values as crucial for academic excellence, social justice, and impact. It is important to understand how, if at all, policies about diversity translate into pedagogical practice and student experience. The current study forms part of a larger interdisciplinary project titled: “Selves Within Selves on a University Campus: The Intersectionality of Student Identity Development in a Transitional Society”. In the first phase of the project, it became apparent that some Black students felt that their cultural identities were not accommodated at the UFS. For example, one student explained that cultural ceremonies which often require students to be away from their studies for days or weeks at a time, are not accommodated by lecturers. To further understand the dynamics of identity inclusion, the current study explored how South African students perceive inclusive and affirming pedagogy, as well as the lecturer and/or institutional behaviors they identify as encouraging or inhibiting this process. This study adopted an interdisciplinary approach, drawing primarily from the fields of Psychology and Communication Science to explore students’ perceptions of self and society. This interdisciplinary approach ensured a more nuanced perspective while exploring the complexity of experiences within contemporary social settings. The aim of this study was to explore the views and experiences of black students at the UFS [authors’ institution] regarding identity-inclusive education. We were guided by the following questions: RQ1 What are students’ perceptions of diversity at a South African university? RQ2: What are students’ experiences of the inclusion/exclusion of diverse identities in higher education? Black students who were enrolled for an undergraduate or postgraduate degree at the UFS [authors’ institution] were recruited through purposive sampling (Palinkas et al. 2015). Specifically, the call for participation was shared in lectures and tutoring sessions. Interested

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students contacted research assistants to sign up for focus group interviews, which were conducted separately by campus, with cross-campus comparison providing contextual contrast. Two master’s students in the Department of Communication Science facilitated the groups— one male and one female —each assigned to a different campus. As near peers who shared linguistic and cultural backgrounds with participants, they fostered open dialogue and engaged in reflexive memo writing and debriefs to account for their insider perspectives. Twenty-nine participants volunteered, and a total of five focus groups were conducted with a total of 29 participants (FG1 = 4, FG2 = 6, FG3 = 7, FG4 = 8, FG5 = 4). Participants ranged in age from 18 to 26 years (M = 21.4). (See Table 1 for a summary of participant demographics). Table 1 Participants Demographics Category Gender Male Female Home Language Sesotho Setswana isiXhosa isiZulu Shona Sepedi Sesotho/Setswana Study Year 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th Faculty Natural Sciences Humanities Education Management

FG1

FG2

FG3

FG4

FG5

Total (%)

1 3

4 2

4 3

4 4

4 0

17 (58.6) 12 (41.4)

2 0 1 0 0 0 1

4 1 0 1 0 0 0

4 0 1 2 0 0 0

4 0 0 2 1 1 0

0 1 3 0 0 0 0

14 (48.3) 2 (6.9) 5 (17.2) 5 (17.2) 1 (3.4) 1 (3.4) 1 (3.4)

1 3 0 0 0

3 2 0 0 1

0 3 3 1 0

4 2 1 1 0

2 0 0 1 1

10 (34.5) 10 (34.5) 4 (13.8) 3 (10.3) 2 (6.9)

3 1 0 0

0 6 0 0

0 5 2 0

1 7 0 0

0 3 0 1

4 (13.8) 22 (75.9) 2 (6.9) 1 (3.4)

The study was approved by the Research Ethics Committee of the [authors’ institution] (UFS-HSD2022/1149/22).

Each focus group lasted between 60 and 120 minutes and was facilitated by the research assistants using semi-structured questions. Participants discussed questions such as: “Explain how the university as an organization/culture does or does not make space for diverse

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identities,” and “Explain the efforts of lecturers to incorporate multicultural views into their content.” The sessions were audio-recorded and transcribed verbatim for analysis. The study employed reflexive thematic analysis within a social constructionist orientation (Braun & Clarke, 2022), examining how meanings of inclusion and identity were coconstructed through dialogue. Collaborative coding was treated as reflexive sense-making rather than reliability testing, acknowledging that multiple perspectives enrich interpretation. The values of the group of university students participating in the study were foregrounded while also considering how these experiences are shaped by the societal context (i.e., university culture). A blend of descriptive and interpretive modes of analysis was incorporated (Braun & Clarke, 2022). The following phases were undertaken: 1. A detailed understanding of data was established by thoroughly reading through the transcripts, while making preliminary reflective notes. 2. Initial codes were created by labeling parts of the data that connect to each research question. 3. The relationships between the initial codes were explored to construct preliminary thematic patterns. 4. The themes were reviewed and refined to make sure the codes fitted well within each theme and that the themes represented the phenomenon under investigation. 5. Each theme was named and described to offer insight into the meaning and significance of the theme. 6. The findings were documented, and examples from the data were included to provide context to each theme. The first three phases were performed individually by each researcher to allow for the exploration of potential themes and a nuanced interpretation of the data. The remaining phases were completed together. This collaborative approach helped to improve and refine the themes and findings. In the end, minimal differences were observed in the researchers’ initial coding, suggesting that the themes reflected the participants’ experiences. Results Six key themes were constructed from the data, reflecting participants’ views of diversity, inclusion, and identity within the context of South African higher education. They range from broad institutional concerns, such as the disconnect between policy and practice, to more personal and relational aspects, including the role of language and the contributions of both lecturers and students in creating inclusive environments. Limited Understanding of Diversity Students understood “diversity” differently across campuses, shaped by local demographics and everyday interactions. This was evident in how students described diversity within their

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own campus contexts: For example, in FG 1 and 5 (with participants from the Bloemfontein campus), conversations often involved reference to race, specifically to Black and White students. In contrast, in FG 2, 3 and 4 (with participants from the Qwaqwa campus), discussions instead focused on ethnolinguistic groupings, likely a result of the lack of racial diversity on the campus: Our campus is a very diverse space. The diversity ranges from gender. We have males, females, gender neutral beings, LGBTQI members that belong to the community, different age groups, different ethnicities. Different tribes, we have Zulu, Xhosas, Sothos, Swatis … Indians, yes, we even have Whites. So, it’s a very diverse space in terms of language, culture, economic background. Some are from rich backgrounds. Some of us are from poor backgrounds. Even the funds that we use for our tuitions are different. Some are self-funded, some are NSFAS funded, some have other bursaries. (FG3) While some participants acknowledged the broader idea of diversity, such as gender, socioeconomic background and ability—these aspects received minimal attention. Across campuses, discussions were largely centered on race and language, showing how local demographic composition shaped what “diversity” meant to students. Experiences of Inclusion and Exclusion Students’ experiences of inclusion and exclusion varied across campuses—while some described belonging and cultural learning, others highlighted social, cultural, and structural barriers that limited full participation. Many participants articulated positive experiences of belonging and integration on campus: “It’s your second home away from home” (FG5); “On our campus they meld together to create a unique environment” (FG3). They experienced university life as an opportunity to learn from different cultures: In our university, the diversity is incorporated, like there is a lot of different people from different cultures and different beliefs, and I think it’s working quite well because we meet different people from different cultures almost every day. I think we are learning each other’s cultures. (FG2) However, others shared experiences of exclusion linked to residence life, communication and economic inequality: “Like I said I am in a predominantly White residence. I feel excluded at almost every event” (FG1). Another student highlighted the feeling of deliberately being left out of campus committees and information sharing: The committees, we are so excluded. It is not even funny. We are told late of these closing dates if we are told at all. I feel like they keep this information to themselves, and we want to be a part of these things. (FG1)

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Others explained how the lack of transport impacted their ability to complete practical work: White kids have their own cars. So, it’s very easy and simple for them to go from point A to point B. For us, you have to take taxis, you have to take cabs, you have to make plans. It’s a bit more difficult, and it also hit our pocket hard. (FG1) Students from the smaller, more homogenous campus described inclusion through shared culture and language, whereas those on the larger, historically White campus noted persistent divides: “Even in our classes, the White students are on their side, the Black students are on their side” (FG5). Across campuses, students recognized institutional efforts—such as cultural events, health and food support, and awareness programs—but felt that inclusion often stopped at visibility rather than participation. While some saw space like Ingoma [drumming] Thursdays and Heritage Day as inclusive, others described a “majority rules” dynamic that privileges dominant ethnolinguistic groups. Economic and structural inequalities compounded these feelings of exclusion, showing that demographic and resource differences mediate how inclusion is experienced and perceived. Policy to Practice Participants recognized that while institutional policies promoting diversity and inclusion exist, there remains a clear disconnect between policy intentions and students’ lived experiences across campuses. Students acknowledged several university structures and policies that promote diversity, such as diversity policies, hiring practices, efforts to decolonize the curriculum, the Multilingualism Academy, and the Unit for Institutional Change and Social Justice, to name a few. However, they identified policy gaps, particularly regarding transgender residence placements and equitable representation of all ethnic groups: I am not familiar with the proceedings that have been put in place to cater for people that are in the community of LGBTQI, but there are no residences as yet that cater for such people … I feel like it disregards the concept of inclusion and diversity in this campus specifically. (FG3) Others felt that existing policies were impersonal and do not take into account their unique backgrounds. Using registration as an example, one person explained: They can get closer to situations … the background stories … to accept students in. Because here you just: Name, age, surname, your mother, do they get paid? and what are you gonna pay? … and you have to be approved by NSFAS for them to accept you. … it’s just business. They use student numbers. It’s like a prison. (FG1) Across campuses, participants pointed to inconsistent communication and limited policy implementation, particularly among support staff:

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It’s the default situation that there is diversity. So, I can’t think of anything that’s being done to maybe embrace or push the diversity part … you have to go look for it or meet someone with information … I can’t say it’s a matter of ignorance per se. In this case that would be the institution because the responsibility of communication falls onto them most. (FG5) Another person shared, I think what is missing is the workers, the security. I think they’re not taught enough, like how to handle students because we are from different backgrounds … They need to be educated on how to handle certain people. (FG2) Although students acknowledge progressive institutional policies and diversity initiatives, they questioned their visibility and enforcement in daily campus life. The perceived gaps between written policy and enacted practice were more pronounced on the larger, more diverse campus, where students noted inconsistent staff conduct and communication. These reflections reveal that inclusion requires not only policy but also effective communication, training, and accountability to ensure policy translates into equitable practice. Language as Uniting and Dividing Language functioned both as a bridge and a barrier on campus—uniting students through representation and shared understanding while at times reinforcing cultural and social divides. Participants described how language built belonging and recognition when a lecturer tries to explain concepts to students in their home language or meets them halfway in terms of culture: Being part of something great. You know, I feel like I belong. I don’t feel excluded, you know? I feel like I’m a part of this institution in a way. I feel recognized by the lecturer in a way. (FG2) However, others highlighted moments where language created exclusion, particularly in classroom communication: So, there is a type of miscommunication, and other lecturers won’t take the time to like, “let me further explain this to you, make it simple” cause most of them speak Afrikaans in our course. So even their communication has a bit of Afrikaans. (FG1) Another divisive scenario arose where other students and the lecturer communicate in Afrikaans, which creates a language barrier for students who do not speak Afrikaans: ‘Cause like it’s the same thing when the Afrikaans kids speak Afrikaans and the lecturer understands. Let’s say it happens, and then you find us, the Black kids, having to say, “Sir, we can’t hear them.” Let them speak English, ‘cause why must we speak English when they have to speak their own language? (FG5)

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Similarly, another participant shared, “Except in sociology class, because Mr X speaks Zulu. So that’s why I don’t feel accommodated, because sometimes I get lost. Some Zulu words, I don’t know. So I get lost in there” (FG4). Students also felt compelled to conform to the culture and language of the majority, even when it may not be their own: I have stated that this place is dominated by two cultures, and I’m not afraid to say, us as outsiders, are forced to conform to their culture. Culture is diverse, but other cultures are considered as subcultures here because we are forced to conform … to address people in their languages … We are forced to meet them halfway while they are not trying to push the same car we are pushing. (FG4) Students appreciated lecturers and support staff who accommodated multiple languages, seeing these efforts as validating and inclusive. Yet, the dominance of Afrikaans, isiZulu, and Sesotho in certain spaces—depending on campus demographics—created new hierarchies of belonging. These findings reveal how language simultaneously fosters inclusion and reproduces exclusion, underscoring its central role in shaping students’ experiences of diversity. Lecturer Contributions Students viewed lecturers as central to inclusion, commending those who used culturally relevant examples and language, but also noting inconsistent efforts and moments of cultural insensitivity. Participants commended lecturers on the use of examples in class that acknowledge their language and culture: The lecturers do play a role in making sure that the examples they make are very inclusive. And I can mention that they also play their part in trying to ensure that we as students don’t feel left out by trying to know a bit of our culture and the language that we speak as well. (FG2) Many participants emphasized the importance of connecting the teaching experience to their lived experience: No learner is tabula rasa, that’s a clean slate. There is knowledge about something. You just need to activate that knowledge or link whatever that you are doing currently with that prior knowledge. And I feel like that’s how you even diversify your content … link what you are saying to my understanding from my background, and also to link it to her background. (FG3) However, others described gaps in lecturer awareness and responsiveness: “There’s always going to be a miscommunication, there is always going to be a bit of a gap, somewhere.” (FG1)]

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They mentioned lecturer assumptions: “Some lecturers need to learn understanding of other people’s perspectives” (FG2). In more than one focus group, they mentioned a racial incident in class when a lecturer failed to step in: Lecturers are a bit tone-deaf … They don’t understand the capacity and the gravity of what is happening, the heaviness of everything. Because we are discriminated against in every sector, not just education, finding a job, anywhere else we are discriminated against. So, for them to be like ‘arg man, it’s not that deep … (FG1). Students appreciated lecturers who acknowledged diverse cultural contexts and drew from students’ lived experiences, recognizing these efforts as key to belonging. Yet, they also reported instances of disengagement or avoidance when diversity-related tensions arose, particularly during racial incidents in class. Such inconsistencies suggest that while some lecturers enact inclusive pedagogies, others inadvertently reproduce exclusion, highlighting the need for greater cultural competence across campuses. Personal Contributions Students recognized that inclusion also depends on individuals’ willingness to engage across differences, emphasizing open-mindedness, dialogue, and shared experiences as personal responsibilities that complement institutional efforts. Participants acknowledged limits to what the institution can achieve alone: “There’s only so much an institution can do” (FG3). They described their own contributions through openness and curiosity: “When I came here, I came with an open mind” (FG2), “Willing also to understand each other the person as they are” (FG5). They expressed an eagerness to learn: “I like learning things that are a bit far away from me, things I don’t know, things I’m not exposed. So, I try to engage as much as I consciously can” (FG5). However they did mention that other students do not feel the same and/or need to be forced into interactions to overcome the barriers that still exist: “We all know that the White kids are gonna group themselves and the Black kids are gonna group themselves” (FG1), “Sometimes you have to put people in an uncomfortable space” (FG1), and: My White friend, that is how we met. The lecturer said I have grouped you into these groups. Ever since then, we have always been friends from first year. So, the university need to think of that and understand how important it is. (FG1) Participants mentioned the importance of dialogue: “Having these conversations is great, but if we have it without them [White students], what is the point?” (FG1). They wanted to find ways to unite through, for example, music and singing: “As Africans we unite using music. Lecturers will tell you themselves, we cannot all speak at once, but we can all sing” (FG1). Students viewed personal agency as essential to inclusion, completing institutional structures. While they modeled openness and curiosity, they also recognized persistent social divisions – especially along racial lines—that require intentional interaction. Cross-group dialogue and

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shared cultural practices, such as music, were described as potential bridges to overcome these divisions, particularly on the more diverse campus where interaction fatigue was most evident. Discussion and Recommendations Drawing on the work of Freire (1968), Howard and Jordan (2023), Suzina and Tufte (2020) and others, the analysis explores how students experience validation and exclusion, the need for authentic connection and the limitations of institutional inclusion efforts. These insights are particularly relevant in the South African context, where universities are still grappling with legacies of inequality and the demand for deeper transformation. In line with South African scholarship on humanizing pedagogy (Fataar, 2016; Geduld & Sathorar, 2016), these findings confirm that belonging and validation are relational processes, not merely policy outcomes. These findings expand South African research on how context and demography shape students’ interpretations of diversity and inclusion. When students shared their perspectives on diversity, their responses were limited. On the Bloemfontein campus, the discussions tended to focus on race (between Black and White students) while on the historically Black Qwaqwa campus, participants spoke more about cultural and language differences. This difference in emphasis appears to be linked to the demographic makeup of the two campuses. This confirms global work (e.g. Morris, 2021; Walker, 2005) but also extends it by showing how the South African institutional context localizes diversity: race dominates on historically White campuses, while language and culture define belonging on historically Black campuses. These findings suggest that students’ understandings of diversity are not universal, but shaped by their immediate social and cultural context, rather than by a shared or critical framework. This aligns with Morris (2021), who found that South African university students’ perception of diversity and identity are deeply influenced by their personal narratives, social backgrounds and cultural contexts, especially within the diverse landscape of South African Higher Education. Participants’ judgements of diversity on campus relied largely on the representation of their own identities. That is, participants from cultural majorities often felt positive about the diversity on campus, while participants from cultural minorities felt excluded. Such contextdependent interpretations of diversity also resonate with Walker’s (2005) argument that identity is relational and shaped by place-based experiences. By demonstrating this campusspecific variation, the current study adds complexity to earlier generalizations that treat “diversity” as a stable category, adding a context-contingent understanding of inclusion to South African literature. Beyond definitional understandings of diversity, students’ lived experiences of belonging and exclusion highlighted the importance of authentic connection, dialogue, and care in educational spaces. Education can (and should) shape holistic identity development and agency (Freire, 1968; Howard & Jordan, 2023; Suzina & Tufte, 2020). Identity-affirming practices validate students by considering their subjective social realities and respecting the multiple intersecting identities they bring to the classroom (Badenhorst & Kapp, 2013; Howard & Jordan, 2023; Mapaling & Hoelson, 2022). The participants in this study reiterated this and explained how they feel valued and will thrive in educational environments where their backgrounds, experiences, learning styles, and identities are respected. This supports Freire’s (1968) notion of mutual humanization but extends it by

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identifying the specific pedagogical mechanisms—such as structured, assessed intergroup tasks (e.g. assigned mixed-group cited by students)—that make mutual learning possible. As Freire (1973) reminds us, “to be human is to engage in relationships with others and with the world” (p. 3). Education is a reciprocal process where teachers and students learn from each other through “mutual humanization” (Freire, 1968; Mapaling & Hoelson, 2022). To create environments conducive to critical teaching and holistic learning, institutions should consider not only what happens in the classroom but also the culture and structures in which teaching is embedded. Participants in this study expressed a clear desire for authenticity in their education, and for classroom conversations that extend beyond course content to include issues of relevance and personal significance. This finding confirms international work on dialogue pedagogy (e.g. Suzina & Tufte, 2020) while extending it through evidence from post-apartheid South Africa, where dialogue serves not only as a teaching tool but also as a vehicle for redress and recognition. At an institutional level, the findings challenge the assumption that progressive policies automatically translate into inclusive practices. The findings also suggest that institutional culture plays a significant role in shaping students’ sense of inclusion or exclusion. del Carmen Salazar (2013) stresses the importance of critical reflection and action to transform structures that impede humanness. In this study, the ethic of care expressed in the [Blinded for review] document was seen in staff members’ efforts to respect, listen, and show empathy. Still, in the face of significant diversity in backgrounds and cultures, creating a socially fair and inclusive campus culture requires a deep and thoughtful engagement, echoed in all the focus groups. Without critical reflection and intervention, Badenhorst and Kapp (2013) warn of institutions creating “benign multiculturalism” that still favors and makes comfortable dominant discourses at the expense of silencing others. While there were various examples of how the university is intentional in its efforts to ensure inclusivity and social justice, according to the participants in this study, much more can be done to realize the UFS’s (2022) vision of contributing to the decolonial transition towards a more just society. This aligns with Keet (2019) and extends the literature by revealing how institutional culture is also enacted by “street-level” interactions with administrative, security and support staff—often the most visible but least trained agents of inclusion. One of the disconnects between policy and practice is evident in the UFS’s Language Policy (UFS, 2016), which emphasizes the linguistic diversity of the country and its regions, as well as the importance of multilingualism at both institutional and social levels. The complexity of putting this policy into practice was apparent in this research study. Participants reflected on the language‐rich environment at the UFS, and the need to utilize language as a resource and not a barrier to academic success and social inclusion. Although policy frameworks appear inclusive, the implementation remains uneven, leading to frustration and disillusionment among students. This confirms findings by Webbstock (2017) and DHET (2020) but extends them by providing empirical evidence that multilingual policy becomes meaningful only when lecturers and peers enact it in daily exchanges—illustrating how language functions simultaneously as resource and barrier.

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Findings highlight the importance of dialogue and communication in this process. “Without dialogue there is no communication, and without communication there can be no true education” (Freire, 1968, p. 81). Freire’s thoughts on dialogue are of particular relevance to communication theory and instruction (Suzina & Tufte, 2020), but also in the post-apartheid South African context, where higher education institutions still need to consider aspects of educational disparity, socio-economic inequality, power asymmetry, and historically marginalized groups (Suzina & Tufte, 2020). In pursuing humanity, dialogue must be based on mutual trust, fellowship and solidarity and incorporate critical thinking (Freire, 1968). The participants in this study called for true dialogical encounters, where they can gain a deeper understanding of the subject matter, themselves, and the world through active and engaged learning such as group discussions, hands-on activities, and real-world applications. This finding extends global scholarship by demonstrating that dialogic engagement in South African classrooms must also confront lingering racial and linguistic hierarches to become truly transformative. It is not enough to put diverse students in the same space; they need to interact on a meaningful level to build the cohesion that participants desire. Doing so will help students move beyond the stereotypical perceptions they have of other students and foster an appreciation of the (oftentimes) superficial diversity in higher learning institutions. While students acknowledged their own responsibility to overcome social segregation, they also expressed the need for the university to facilitate this process. This interplay between institutional scaffolding and student agency confirms that inclusion requires both structural and personal commitment—a finding that extends humanizing pedagogy into a sharedresponsibility framework. Lecturers emerged as key agents in mediating inclusion through their communicative practices. According to del Carmen Salazar (2013), it is the responsibility of educators to promote a more fully human world through their pedagogical principles and the way they implement these principles in their classroom interactions. Educational resources, teaching content, and staff that show cultural relevance and representation (by incorporating cultural backgrounds, experiences, and the perspectives of students into the curriculum) make learning experiences more meaningful, create self-awareness and self-worth, and motivate students to reach their full potential. This supports international literature on culturally responsive pedagogy (Gay, 2010; Williams et al., 2022) and extends South African work (Geduld & Sathorar, 2016) by identifying how inconsistent lecturer responsiveness—especially failure to address racial incidents—undermines inclusion. Targeted professional development on cultural competence emerges as a key intervention. To reflect on self and systemic societal aspects, transform experience into learning, prepare students for challenges beyond the classroom, and lead to real-world application. Freire (1973) explained this form of reflection as the opportunity to: “reach back to yesterday, recognize today, and come upon tomorrow” (p. 3). Educational spaces and innovative instructional practices should thus allow students to use their cultural knowledge as an asset to debate/analyze social, economic and political issues. Through this, holistic identity development is fostered, and agentic action is promoted (Howard & Jordan, 2023).

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Ultimately, both institutional and individual agency are necessary to translate inclusion from policy to lived experience. As our participants highlighted, authentic transformation in higher education therefore requires more than policy—it demands that institutional values be embedded in daily practices and reflected in all layers of academic life. In moving towards a more inclusive and equitable educational system, higher education institutions should continue to find ways to improve responsiveness, social cohesion, identity inclusion, and cultural integration through humanizing principles, engaged practices, and ongoing critical thinking, curiosity, and creativity (Badenhorst & Kapp, 2013; Geduld & Sathorar, 2016; Mapaling & Hoelson, 2022). Collectively, these findings contribute four novel insights to South African and global higher education scholarship: (1) diversity is understood contextually, not universally; (2) language acts as both resource and barrier; (3) structured intergroup learning tasks catalyze genuine inclusion; and (4) everyday “street-level” staff interactions are pivotal to institutional culture. Education is a means to address historical injustices and promote social change (Freire, 1968). The liberation of individuals and the transformation of society require complex navigation between visions/aspirations for change and systematic/rigorous methodologies (Suzina & Tufte, 2020). If the variety of histories and diversity in lived experiences in South African society is considered, contradictory perspectives and emotive debates can be expected. Our findings contribute by specifying practical applications— multilingual accommodation, lecturer responsiveness, structured intergroup tasks, and training for support staff—through which institutions can operationalize values of inclusion. Some students did acknowledge broader dimensions of diversity—like gender identity, religion, socio-economic status, nationality and disability—but they were mentioned briefly and without deeper engagement. For example, gender diversity was mentioned in passing but not explored in ways that reflect critical engagement with inclusion or systemic inequality. Groenewald’s (2024) research at a South African university focusing on Tajfel and Turner’s social identity theory similarly found that South African students often define diversity in terms of race and language, with a limited awareness of broader or less visible dimensions of identity. This points to a constrained conceptualization of diversity, where familiar identity markers dominate and more complex, intersecting forms of difference are neglected. Such limited engagement restricts the potential of higher education spaces to foster the kind of critical identity development necessary in a democratic society. The findings also reveal a gap between institutional commitments to inclusion and the everyday realities students encounter. These narrow ways of looking at diversity aligns with concerns raised by South African researchers about how diversity is often addressed in higher education as symbolic, representational or depoliticized (Keet, 2019). Steyn (2015) argues for “Critical Diversity Literacy”—which is the ability to critically engage with how social identities intersect with systemic power and work towards a way to transform structural inequalities rather than merely acknowledging them. Without this, institutions might reinforce dominant norms under the guise of inclusion. Broadening the idea of diversity for institutions and students on an interpersonal level is therefore essential. Adonis and Silinda (2021) argue that South African higher education institutions should do this by recognizing multiple axes of identity such as gender, class, disability and religion. It is also important to note that genuine diversity and inclusion in higher education require more than mere recognition of different identities. Universities must actively

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transform their institutional culture, curricula and student engagement practices to foster substantive inclusion (Menon et al., 2025). Without such efforts, students’ understanding of diversity may remain narrow and static. Limitations of the Current Study and Recommendations for Future Research This study was limited to one South African university and drew on self-selected participants, which may have influenced whose voices were heard. Attention to diversity dimensions such as gender, class, disability and religion was uneven, with race and language dominating the discussion. Future research should include cross-institutional comparative work and intervention studies that test lecturer training in culturally responsive pedagogy, multilingual communication strategies, and structure intergroup dialogue models. Evaluating how these interventions influence belonging and identity inclusion would deepen understanding of how transformation ideals can be enacted in practice. Implications This study revealed that while students might value inclusion and dialogue, their understanding of diversity is limited by their own social constraints and identity markers. Although institutions try to promote inclusivity through policy, students often do not experience it in their day-to-day academic activities, demonstrating a disconnect between policy and practice (Subethra & Nirmala, 2018). We recommend that educational transformation in South African higher education must be intentional to go beyond surface-level interventions by implementing practices that affirm students’ identities, create space for dialogue and actively address systemic inequalities (Mutongoza, 2025). Lecturers play a central role in making inclusion tangible through their communicative and pedagogical practices. A more humanizing and inclusive pedagogy can be achieved through routine identity check-ins, where students are invited to share aspects of their background and communication preferences to build mutual understanding (Nybøe & Bruin, 2025). Culturally anchored examples that draw on students’ linguistic and cultural realities can enhance engagement and ensure learning reflects their realities (Gimenez, 2023). Moreover, guided intergroup dialogue and discussion-based learning can facilitate meaningful engagement across differences, helping students confront bias and learn through collaboration. (Brar et al., 2025). Lecturers should also create multilingual scaffolding – such as peer translation moments or inclusive explanations of key terms—to ensure that language becomes a bridge rather than a barrier to participation (Reyneke & Kaiser, 2025). At programme and institutional levels, inclusivity should be embedded in curriculum and policy design through curriculum audits, incorporation of African scholarship, and assessment methods that recognize lived and community knowledge (Zhou & Liao, 2025). Likewise, inclusivity should extend to student-facing staff—administrative, residence, and security personnel—through targeted diversity and communication training, ensuring that the

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university’s inclusive ethos is consistently enacted in everyday interactions (Makhalemele & Masunungure, 2025). Ultimately, genuine inclusion depends not only on who is present within the university but also on how all members are engaged, respected, and empowered. When identity-affirming teaching, responsive curricula, and inclusive institutional cultures align, South African universities become spaces where students belong and develop.

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References Adonis, C. K., & Silinda, F. (2021). Institutional culture and transformation in higher education in post-1994 South Africa: A critical race theory analysis. Critical African Studies, 13(1), 73–94. https://doi.org/10.1080/21681392.2021.1911448 Alcock, A., & Belluigi, D. Z. (2018). Positioning home for resilience on campus: Firstgeneration students negotiate powerless/full conditions in South African higher education. Education as Change, 22(1). https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/3206 Badenhorst, E., & Kapp, R. (2013). Negotiation of learning and identity among first-year medical students. Teaching in Higher Education, 18(5), 465–476. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2012.753050 Biccard, P., & Meeran, S. (2024). Africanising the curriculum: Exploring the perspectives of Bachelor of Education honours students at an open distance dducation and learning institution. Africa Education Review, 20(1–2), 21–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/18146627.2024.2352046 Brar, M. D., Morales-Chicas, J., Morris, S., Rivera, I., & Cannara, R. (2025). Intergroup dialogue empowering action for transforming equity in higher education. Education Sciences, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15010038 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2022). Thematic analysis: A practical guide. Sage. https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsqmip.2022.1.33.46 de Kadt, E., & Mathonnsi, N. (2003). Writing in English with an ‘African voice’: Ownership, identity and learning. Journal for Language Teaching, 37(1), 92–103. https://doi.org/10.4314/jlt.v37i1.5982 del Carmen Salazar, M. (2013). A humanizing pedagogy: Reinventing the principles and practice of education as a journey toward liberation. Review of Research in Education, 37(1), 121–148. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X12464032. Department of Education. (1997). Education White Paper 3: A programme for the transformation of higher education. Retrieved from https://www.che.ac.za/publications/legislation/education-white-paper-3-programmetransformation-higher-education Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). (2013). White Paper on Post-School Education and Training: Building an Expanded, Effective and Integrated Post-School System. Retrieved from www.dhet.gov.za Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET). (2020). Language policy framework for public higher education institutions. Retrieved from https://www.dhet.gov.za/Policy%20and%20Development%20Support/Languge%20P olicy%20Framework%20for%20Higher%20Education%20Institutions%202020.pdf Dier, C., Munnoz, G., Nagayoshi, T., Nance, T., & Washington, M. (2022). The studentaffirming education needed for our children and our nation’s future. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED625641

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Fataar, A. (2016). Towards a humanizing pedagogy through an engagement with thesocialsubjective in educational theorizing in South Africa. Educational Research for Social Change, 5(1), 10–21. https://doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2016/v5i1a1. Freire, P. (1968). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Seabury Press. Freire, P. (1973). Education for critical consciousness. Sheed and Ward. Gay, G. (2010). Culturally responsive teaching: Theory, research, and practice (2nd ed.). Teachers College. Geduld, D., & Sathorar, H. (2016). Humanising pedagogy: An alternative approach to curriculum design that enhances rigour in a B.Ed. programme. Perspectives in Education, 34(1), 40–52. Govender, L., & Naidoo, D. (2023). Decolonial insights for transforming the higher education curriculum in South Africa. Curriculum Perspectives, 43, 59–71. https://doi.org/10.1007/s41297-023-00200-3 Gimenez, J. (2023). Edulingualism: Linguistic repertoires, academic tasks and student agency in an English-dominant university. International Journal of Multilingualism, 20(2), 656–671. https://doi.org/10.1080/14790718.2020.1815750 Groenewald, E. (2024). Navigating a diverse university context in South Africa: A student’s narrative about identity formation. Issues in Educational Research, 34(3), 1053–1069. Howard, I., & Jordan, M. (2023). Fostering youth identity development through critical pedagogical practices and agentive action in sustainability learning. International Society for Learning Sciences, Conference Proceedings. https://doi.org/10.22318/icls2023.809972 Hlatshwayo, M. N., & Alexander, I. (2021). “We’ve been taught to understand that we don’t have anything to contribute towards knowledge”: Exploring academics’ understanding of decolonising curricula in higher education. Journal of Education (South Africa), 82, 44–59. https://doi.org/10.17159/2520-9868/i82a03 Janse van Rensburg, V., & Kapp, R. (2015). ‘So I have to be positive, no matter how difficult it is’: a longitudinal case study of a first-generation occupational therapy student. South African Journal of Occupational Therapy, 44(3), 29–33. https://journals.assaf.org.za/index.php/sajot/article/view/19666 Jawitz, J. (2012). Race and assessment practice in South Africa: Understanding black academic experience. Race, Ethnicity, and Education, 15(4), 545–559. https://doi.org/10.1080/13613324.2011.645568 Keet, A. (2019). The plastic university: Knowledge, disciplines and the decolonial turn. In J. Jansen (Ed.), Decolonisation in Universities: The Politics of Knowledge. (pp. 202– 216). Wits University Press. https://doi.org/10.18772/22019083351.15

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Lin, C. (2020). Understanding cultural diversity and diverse identities. In W. Leal Filho, A. Azul, L. Brandli, P. Özuyar, & T. Wall (Eds.), Quality Education. Encyclopedia of the UN Sustainable Development Goals. (pp. 929–938). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-69902-8_37-1 Leibowitz, B., & Bozalek, V. (2016). The scholarship of teaching and learning from a social justice perspective. Teaching in Higher Education, 21(2), 109–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2015.1115971 Liversage, L., Naudé, L., & Botha, A. (2018). Vectors of identity development during the first year: Black first-generation students’ reflections. Teaching in Higher Education, 23(1), 63–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2017.1359159 Luescher, T., Mncwango, B., Fongwa, S., Oppelt, T., Mthombeni, Z., & Paterson, M. (2023). The State of Transformation in South Africa’s Public Universities. Research Report of the Ministerial Oversight Committee on Transformation in the South African Public Universities (TOC). Maama, H. (2023). The transformative effect of South African higher education policy frameworks through the lens of Margaret Archer’s sociological concepts. International Journal of Educational Review, Law and Social Sciences (IJERLAS), 3(4). https://doi.org/10.54443/ijerlas.v3i4.949 Makhalemele, T., & Masunungure, A. (2025). Strategies of support for inclusive teaching and learning in higher education. In T. M. Makoelle & C. P. Mosito (Eds.), Inclusive Education in South African Further and Higher Education: Reflections on Equity, Access, and Inclusion (pp. 69–83). Emerald. https://doi.org/10.1108/978-1-83608-944-520251012 Makokotlela, M. V., & Gumbo, M. T. (2025). Decolonisation of the curriculum through the integration of indigenous knowledge in higher education. South African Journal of Higher Education, 39(1). https://doi.org/10.20853/39-1-6004 Mapaling, C., & Hoelson, C. N. (2022). Humanising pedagogy within higher education: Aten-year scoping literature review. SOTL in the South, 6(3), 68–81. https://doi.org/10.36615/SOTLS.V6I3.197. Massar, K. (2022). Exploring the lack of training on culturally responsive teaching in higher education. Interchange, 53(3–4), 477–484. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10780-022-09466-4 McKenna, S. (2004). The intersection between academic literacies and student identities. South African Journal of Higher Education, 18(3), 269–280. https://doi.org/10.4314/sajhe.v18i3.25496 Menon, K., Castrillón, G., Singh, M., Chiramba, O., & Motala, S. (2025). Reflecting, Renewing, and Realigning: A baseline study of conceptions of curriculum transformation in South African universities. Retrieved from https://www.che.ac.za/

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Morris, A. (2021). Knock Knock: An exploration of diverse student identities in a South African design classroom. Education as Change, 25, 1–22. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/8750 Mutongoza, B. H. (2025). Nothing but noise: Challenges impeding the transformation of higher education in South Africa. Interdisciplinary Journal of Education Research, 7(1), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.38140/ijer-2025.vol7.1.06 Naudé, L., & Breshears, D. (2025). It has given us a title: Identity-transitions in firstgeneration students at a South African university. Journal of Education, 97, 86–108. https://doi.org/10.17159/2520-9868/i97a05 Nybøe, Ø., & Bruin, M. (2025). Shaping inclusive approaches in the classroom: An analysis of teachers’ and students’ accounts on valued qualities in teacher-student interactions. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2025.2550275 Reyneke, M., & Kaiser, K. (2025). Language as a responsibility in teacher education: Multilingual pedagogies for higher education in South Africa. Educational Research for Social Change, 14(2), 1–13. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.17159/22214070/v14n2a1 Palinkas, L. A., Horwitz, S. M., Green, C. A., Wisdom, J. P., Duan, N., & Hoagwood, K. (2015). Purposeful sampling for qualitative data collection and analysis in mixed method implementation research. Administration and Policy in Mental Health and Mental Health Services Research, 42(5), 533–544. Subethra, P., & Nirmala, D. (2018). The mismatch between first-year students’ expectations and experience alongside university access and auccess: A South African university case study. Journal of Student Affairs in Africa, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.24085/jsaa.v6i1.3065 Suzina, A. C., & Tufte, T. (2020). Freire’s vision of development and social change: Past experiences, present challenges and perspectives for the future. The International Communication Gazette, 82(5), 411–424. Steyn, M. (2015). Critical diversity literacy: Essentials for the twenty-first century. In S. Vertovec (Ed.), Routledge International Handbook of Diversity Studies (pp. 379– 389). Routledge. Tierney, W. G. (1999). Models of minority college-going and retention: Cultural integrity versus cultural suicide. Journal of Negro Education, 68(1), 80–91. https://doi.org/10.2307/2668211 University of the Free State (UFS). (2016). University of the Free State Language Policy. University of the Free State. Retrieved from https://www.ufs.ac.za/docs/defaultsource/policy-institutional-documents/language-policy.pdf?sfvrsn=ea4dc321 _0 University of the Free State (UFS). (2022). Vision 130. Retrieved from https://www.ufs.ac.za/vision-130

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University of the Free State (UFS). (2023). UFS strategic plan 2023–2028: Renewal and reimagination for greater impact. Retrieved from https://www.ufs.ac.za/supportservices/departments/community-engagementhome/about/strategic-plan-2023-2028 Van Schalkwyk, F. B., van Lill, M. H., Cloete, N., & Bailey, T. G. (2022). Transformation impossible: Policy, evidence and change in South African higher education. Higher Education, 83(3), 613–630. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-021-00687-7 Williams, K. L., Mobley, S. D., Campbell, E., & Jowers, R. (2022). Meeting at the margins: Culturally affirming practices at HBCUs for underserved populations. Higher Education, 84(5), 1067–1087. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-022-00816-w Williams, K. L., Russell, A., & Summerville, K. (2021). Centering Blackness: An examination of culturally-affirming pedagogy and practices enacted by HBCU administrators and faculty members. Innovative Higher Education, 46(6), 733–757. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10755-021-09562-w Webbstock, D. (2017). Briefly speaking (3): Curriculum decolonisation – stimulating debate. Retrieved from https://www.che.ac.za/sites/default/files/publications/BrieflySpeaking%20%283%29 %20Curriculum%20decolonisation.pdf Zhou, Y., & Liao, S. (2025). Decolonizing the South African higher education curriculum: Causes, obstacles and lessons. Open Access Library, 12(06), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1113625 Zinn, D., Adam, K., Kurup, R., & Du Plessis, A. (2016). Returning to the source: Reflexivity and transformation in understanding a humanising pedagogy. Educational Research for Social Change (ERSC), 5(1), 70–93. https://doi.org/10.17159/2221-4070/2016/v5i1a5 Corresponding author: Rentia du Plessis Email: duplessise5@ufs.ac.za

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Abstract This study aims to analyze intercultural competence outcomes of Japanese undergraduate students studying in Malaysia and Thailand. The research question of this study is to investigate whether there is a relationship between individual and programmatic characteristics, and intercultural competence outcomes. This study required a theory-driven and methodologically rigorous quantitative research design to collect and analyze data. The sample group is Japanese undergraduate students from the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC) at Aoyama Gakuin University (AGU). This study utilized the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) as the primary instrument for collecting quantitative data. The study performed logistic multiple regression analyses to examine the relationship between individual and program characteristics and changes in intercultural competence. The study identified a negative relationship between students’ academic achievements and their intercultural competence in one of the cohorts. The result posed several implications for GSC’s outbound student mobility programs, including new approaches to student selection and program design, for both the GSC and other Japanese universities. Keywords: evidence-informed approaches, intercultural competence, Japanese universities, learning outcomes, outbound mobility programs, quantitative analysis

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The current academic, policy and public discourse in Japan tends to emphasize increasing the number of Japanese university students participating in outbound student mobility programs. The current dominant discourse may be a result of the declining number of undergraduate participants in recent years (Ota, 2018). The Japanese government (MIC, 2017) has also expressed concern that this ongoing trend could negatively impact Japan’s global political and economic presence. These stakeholders’ conviction about the transformative influence of outbound student mobility experience has led to the initiation of Japanese higher education policies such as the Top Global University Project (JSPS, 2017), Tobitate! (トビタテ！ [Leap for Tomorrow]) Study Abroad Initiative (MEXT, 2017), and Inter-University Exchange Project (JSPS, 2019). These internationalization policies by the Japanese government aimed to enhance Japanese universities’ international presence, increase Japanese students’ outbound mobility, and diversify academic partnerships with countries in less common regions. However, these Japanese stakeholders appear to hold a particular assumption about the outbound student mobility experience as a transformative experience that changes students’ lives and makes them future global leaders, without considering empirical evidence. Such an assumption appears to be based solely on anecdotal evidence or a tendency to rely on their individual positive experiences overseas, when Japanese experts inadequately address this dominant assumption about outbound mobility programs, inevitably contributing to positive change in Japanese participants. There is a significant need to fill the existing gaps in the literature that address the limitations of empirical evidence on the learning outcomes of Japanese undergraduate students’ intercultural experiences overseas. Literature Review Upon reviewing the existing literature, four specific core gaps were identified: evidence deficiency, methodological challenges, destination skewness, and theoretical limitations. First, insufficient evidence in research on learning outcomes of outbound student mobility programs poses a significant challenge for building an evidence base in Japan. These existing reports are often descriptive (i.e., JASSO, 2005, 2017) and are unable to evaluate factors contributing to changes in Japanese students as a result of their outbound student mobility experience. This shortcoming is a major criticism within Japan (i.e., Hanada, 2015, 2018; Shinmi, 2018). Second, the above shortage of evidence is linked to the need for improvement in the methodological design of the study of Japanese students’ learning outcomes in outbound student mobility research. Japanese researchers identified a need to diversify methodologies used in Japan (i.e., Hanada, 2018; Kobayashi, 2018; Shinmi et al., 2018), including the adaption of mixed-methods approaches (Hanada, 2015; Ujitani, 2015) and longitudinal designs (Ward et al., 1998). Third, a major challenge is expanding the analysis of outbound student mobility programs to nontraditional destination countries. The existing Japanese studies only represent students enrolled in programs in destinations in North America, Europe, or other English-language countries, predominantly the United States, Canada (i.e., Hanada, 2015, 2019; Ujitani, 2015; Yokota et al., 2018) and New Zealand (Ward et al., 1998). Yokota et al. (2018) only included a small Japanese undergraduate sample (n = 53) who studied in less common destinations. The study

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indicated “others,” meaning a country outside of North America, EU, Oceania, and East Asia. Unfortunately, this study did not indicate the specific countries in their report to illustrate these students’ destinations. Fourth, a critical challenge is the need to apply theoretical frameworks with associated instruments or measurements that focus on behavioral terms as individual learning outcomes of outbound student mobility programs among Japanese students. One study suggested that more efforts from some researchers in Japan are needed to examine conceptual and methodological issues specific to the Japanese educational context, rather than merely borrowing existing theoretical frameworks from outside Japan for Japanese studies (Tokui, 2004). More studies are needed to develop academic research based on a theory-driven research design that measures participants’ learning outcomes in the Japanese literature. Table 1 A List of Past Studies on Learning Outcomes Author(s)

Destination(s)

Sample

Instrument

Burrow (2019)

Various countries

Hanada (2015, 2019) Lee (2019)

US, Canada

Japanese

Various instruments Metaanalysis IDI

Japanese

IES

Sutton and Ruben (2004)

n/a

A survey

Ujitani (2015)

Japanese

CCAI

Vande Berg et al. (2009) and Vande Berg et al. (2012). Ward et al. (1998)

Various countries

IDI

New Zealand

Japanese

SCAS

Ward and Kennedy (1999)

17 different countries

SCAS MetaAnalysis

Yokota et al. (2018)

US, Canada

17 different groups Japanese

A survey

Conclusions Different instruments have different statistical and practical significance. There is a statistical relationship between the pre-departure orientation and ICC. Students’ intercultural competence gain was positively related to their participation in study abroad compared to their nonstudy-abroad peers. The differences in outcomes between the study abroad group and non-study abroad group disappeared after controlling GPA. There is a statistical difference between the pre- and post-scores on the CCAI. Study abroad enhances intercultural competence, depending on programmatic and curricular factors. The study concluded that psychological and sociocultural adjustments differ from one another. The SCAS is a valid and reliable instrument to measure cultural competencies. Study abroad had a positive impact on participants’ career development.

These gaps in the academic literature on learning outcomes of outbound student mobility research result in inadequacies in policy and program decision-making. This inadequacy in terms of evidence, methodologies, destinations, and theories also means administrators, faculty, parents, and students have incomplete information when making their decisions related to the educational opportunities and benefits of outbound student mobility programs. Therefore, the purpose of this study is to evaluate the changes in students’ behavior as a result of their outbound student mobility experience by investigating the factors that contribute to these positive changes. Specifically, this study focuses on the following primary objective:

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•

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Evaluating the relationship between these students’ learning outcomes and factors such as destination countries and background variables, including gender, academic performance and language proficiency.

This study poses the question of whether there is a relationship between Japanese undergraduate students’ demographic data, destination countries and their behavioral changes. The following figure illustrates the theory of change of this study. Figure 1 A Theory of Change of GSC Outbound Student Mobility Programs

Predictors:

Control:

Outcome:

- Academic performance - Language proficiency - Gender - Cohort years

Intercultural Competence through SCAS at the predeparture phase.

Intercultural Competence through SCAS at the post-return phase.

Destination Countries: - Malaysia - Thailand

Conceptual Framework Evaluating the contribution of outbound mobility programs to the development of intercultural competence among Japanese undergraduate students requires this study to conceptualize the relationship between these students’ demographic characteristics, destination countries, and intercultural competence (ICC), based on prior studies of Japanese samples. This study draws its theoretical foundation from the ABC (Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive) model of Culture Contact (Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2001). The ABC model and the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) had become an ideal conceptual framework and measurement tool for this study to address the existing challenges of outbound mobility programs among Japanese higher education institutions: a theory-driven quantitative instrument that was publicly available, would measure behavioral changes and had precedence in the Japanese sample even though diverse theoretical frameworks and associated instruments were available to measure learning outcomes of outbound mobility programs (i.e., Fantini, 2009; Paige, 2003; Paige and Stallman, 2007). Several other options were considered, including Intercultural Development Inventory (IDI) (Hammer, 2012), Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory (CCAI)(Kelly & Meyers, 1992) and Beliefs, Events and Values Inventory (BEVI) (i.e.

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Hiroshima University, 2016; Nishitani, 2017; Shirley, 2016), these available theoretical frameworks and associated instruments were either too expensive or non-behavioral focuses when this study required a conceptual framework that focused on an individual changes in anew sociocultural environment. The ABC model was the appropriate social psychological theory with the SCAS as an ideal instrument for this study. The ABC model represents the two major components of individual adaptation in a new social environment: psychological and sociocultural adaptations (Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2001; Ward et al., 1998). Ward and others defined psychological adjustment as individual psychological well-being or emotional satisfaction. These studies viewed sociocultural adaptation as the ability to “fit-in or negotiate interactive aspects of the host environment” (i.e. social skills and learning in the target cultures) (Ward & Kennedy, 1999, p. 661). Distinguishing sociocultural adjustment from psychological adjustment in the cultural learning terms brings clarity to this study of Japanese students’ gains in intercultural competence as learning outcomes in the behavioral domains under the ABC model. The ABC model treated people’s reactions to a new sociocultural environment as their proactive process to confront environmental changes. The model integrated three different theoretical approaches into a holistic model: an affective approach (stress and coping theories), a behavioral approach (culture learning theories) and a cognitive approach (social identification theories) (i.e., Ward, 2004; Ward et al., 2001; Ward et al., 1998). Within the ABC model, a behavioral approach is related to culture learning. The culture learning approach is an extension of the social skills approach, which assumes interpersonal behaviors to be “mutually skilled performance” (Ward et al., 2001, p.268). Sojourners need to acquire culturally appropriate interpersonal skills and knowledge as they face challenges establishing and maintaining cooperative relationships with members of host cultures. Otherwise, these sojourners’ behaviors tend to be inappropriate, resulting in misunderstandings and conflicts with members of the host culture. Interventions for this behavioral approach focus on adjusting sojourners’ social behavior or skills by providing training, mentoring, and learning opportunities about the host culture. This model has been constructed based on evidence from various samples (Ward & Kennedy, 1999), including the Japanese sample (Ward et al., 1998). At the same time, a few limitations were identified regarding a cultural learning approach, sociocultural adjustment, and associated constructs proposed by Ward and others (i.e., Ward, 2004; World et al., 2001; Ward & Kennedy, 1999; Wilson et al., 2017; Wilson et al., 2013), including cultural selfawareness, language proficiency, communication skills, additional behavioral competencies, examining the potential bifactor structure, and adjusting the scale from the difficulty level to the competence level. Based on the ABC model, this study conceptualizes these Japanese undergraduate students’ demographic characteristics, including academic performance, English language proficiency, gender, and destination countries, as intervention variables. This study defines these Japanese students’ course marks as their academic performance, their IELTS scores as English language proficiency, and their program assignments in Malaysia and Thailand as the destination

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countries. These demographic characteristics were included in two prior studies: gender, English language, and destination countries in Hanada’s study (2015) and gender in Ward et al.’s study (1998). Intercultural competence (ICC) is operationalized as an outcome variable in the form of a cultural learning theory based on a behavioral approach and measured using the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS). Based on this operationalization definition, change was defined as the difference in participants’ SCAS scores before and after measurement points. A competence is operationalized as the ability to adjust one’s social behavior in the destination countries. Evaluating the relationship among these variables contributes to explaining the effectiveness of outbound mobility programs in helping student learning outcomes. The diagram below illustrates the conceptual framework of this study. Methods Study Design and Rationale The study design was quantitative to investigate the relationship between participants’ psychometric characteristics, destination countries and intercultural competence outcomes. This study intended to identify potential factors that contribute to a larger change in intercultural competence as a result of outbound student mobility programs. This study was organized as a pre- and post-design to collect and analyze data from a group of Japanese undergraduate students’ intercultural competence outcomes. Since there is a limited number of empirical studies on intercultural competence outcomes of Japanese undergraduate students in quantitative methods, this design became an appropriate option to answer the study’s research question. Specifically, this quantitative study selected an extreme group analysis to detect patterns that could have been masked in the analyses by taking only the extreme quartiles of the full sample (Preacher et al., 2005). This extreme group analysis was employed for the following reasons: enhanced sensitivity to differences, non-linearity of relationships and increased statistical power. Testing hypotheses on extreme groups is a legitimate method to explore latent effects that are weakly expressed in the general population. By looking only at extreme groups and excluding mid-range, the analysis concentrates on those who have the most “exposure” and “lack of exposure” on the independent variable. This focus helps clarify whether the outcome appears only for those with high exposure or not. This study extended the original attempt to investigate the relationship between the predictors and outcomes in the full sample by Hiratsuka (2015), when the initial results only found weak statistical and practical significance. This approach attempted to explore latent effects that were weakly expressed in the total sample by enhancing sensitivity to differences. The focus on extreme groups allowed this study to concentrate on those cases with the most and least exposure to the independent variables. This design focus attempted to clarify whether or not the outcome appears only for those with high exposure.

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Description of the GSC Sample and the Data The data came from undergraduate students at the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC), Aoyama Gakuin University (AGU). GSC requires all undergraduate students to participate in 15-week outbound student mobility programs. GSC established a monitoring system to collect data from these participants to examine the role of its outbound student mobility programs in their learning outcomes because of participants’ intercultural experiences in destination countries. GSC intended to use evidence from this analysis to improve curriculum design and operational procedures, in addition to contributing to the generation of knowledge of intercultural competence as learning outcomes of outbound student mobility programs. Participants in this study belonged to two cohorts: the 2015 admission cohort (N = 225) (Gakkou Houjin Aoyama Gakuin, 2015) and the 2016 admission cohort (N = 214)(Gakkou Houjin Aoyama Gakuin, 2016). Out of the total GSC enrollment in the two cohorts (N = 439), 206 cases were included in the sample (n = 206) after the data management treatments, including missing values that were greater than 70%, outliers after further examination and a pattern of responses to the selected response items suggested that these cases should be considered inattentive responses. In addition, one (1) case had its destination country outside of Malaysia and Thailand. Furthermore, for the extreme group analysis, the second and third quartile groups from the ICC change scores became the candidates for elimination as described in the design and rationale section. The final sample was 206 (n=206) from the two (2) GSC cohorts in this study who completed their required programs. Descriptive Statistics: Demographic Characteristics of the GSC Sample and Procedure The study required describing the psychometric and programmatic characteristics of the GSC sample. Gender, destination countries and cohort years were all categorical variables. English Proficiency and Academic Performance were all scale variables. For the categorical variables, a chi-square test of independence was conducted to examine whether there was a statistical difference in destination countries and gender between the cohort groups: destination countries (Malaysia and Thailand), gender (male and female) and the cohort groups (2015 and 2016). For the scale variables, an independent-samples t-test was conducted to examine whether English proficiency and academic performance in a form of Grade Point Average (GPA) were statistically different between the cohort groups. Among the categorical variables, the chi-square test for gender was found to differ between the cohort groups, Pearson χ ² (1, n = 207) = 6.25, p = 0.013. The proportions of the two genders were 40.5% (male) and 58.6% (female) in 2015, and 59.5% (male) and 41.4% (female) in 2016. The test found that more female students were enrolled in the 2015 cohort than the 2016 cohort. The independent-samples t-test result for the IELTS scores was significant, t(205) = 2.06, p = 0.041. On average, the 2015 cohort (M = 5.45, SD = 0.497) scored higher than the 2016 cohort (M = 5.30, SD = 0.52). The 95% confidence interval for the difference in means was narrow,

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ranging from 0.01 to 0.56. The effect size (Cohen’s d) was approximately 0.28, showing a small effect, although classifications vary depending on the disciplines and fields, as noted in the existing literature (i.e., Fidler & Cumming, 2019; Field, 2013; Green & Salkind, 2011). Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of the GSC Sample 2015

2016

Malaysia

54.0

46.0

.185a

Thailand

50.8

49.2

Male

40.5

59.5

Female

58.6

41.4

GPA

M(SD)

2.62 (.61)

2.49 (.59)

.004b

IELTS

M(SD)

5.45 (.49)

5.30 (.52)

.11b

Country, %

Gender, %

.012a

Note. a – significance testing conducted with χ ² test of independence. b – significance testing conducted with independent samples t-test.

The descriptive statistics from the GSC cohorts were also compared to the existing studies in the Japanese literature to evaluate their representation in the Japanese undergraduate population. After comparing the GSC sample with similar studies in the literature, it was determined to be representative of Japanese undergraduate students in terms of age, gender, and English proficiency. A comparison of the GSC sample with the existing studies is listed in Tables 2 and 3. First, the GSC students’ age was comparable to other existing studies. GSC students’ average age at the time of departure was 18.3 years old. Yokota et al. (2018) sampled Japanese students in outbound student mobility programs in different age groups. Within the age groups, the sample of outbound Japanese undergraduate students, aged between 18 and 23 years at the time of departure, was approximately 90%. Another study on age comparison is a study by Hanada (2015). Although Hanada (2015) does not indicate a specific age group, he described his sample as equivalent to traditional Japanese undergraduate students in outbound student mobility programs (Hanada, personal communication, 2020). Second, gender distribution was also similar across all existing studies in Japan. Overall, female students made up a greater proportion than male students in all samples. The 2015 GSC cohort included more female students than the 2016 GSC cohort and the other existing studies. The 2016 cohort, however, showed more male students than female students. The gender imbalance in the 2015 cohort was an important consideration when further analysis was conducted. One exception was Ward et al. (1998), which included only a slightly higher proportion of male students than female students. In this sense, the 2016 cohort is similar to

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Ward et al. (1998) than other studies. Third, the GSC students’ English language proficiency in IELTS score (academic) averaged 5.38. The average scores in the GSC cohorts were slightly lower than the two official categories given in IELTS data, which included nationality (Japanese) and first language (Japanese). Instrumentation The GSC study required an instrument that could examine the changes in Japanese students’ intercultural competence in the behavioral domain as a result of their academic and social experience in the destination countries. After careful consideration of the needs and limitations of this study, the GSC study selected the Sociocultural Adaptation Scale (SCAS) (Ward & Kennedy, 1999; Ward et al., 1998) to collect quantitative data on changes in the GSC undergraduate students’ intercultural competence for several reasons. The SCAS is a publicly available instrument, flexible as described by its designers, and has been tested and validated for Japanese samples. It has a theoretical foundation in a socialbehavioral focus to measure intercultural competence scales. This study devised a short form comprising 25 items from the original 41 SCAS items. Based on the original item list (Ward & Kennedy, 1999), this study’s short form included a Likert Scale between one (1) and five (5) (難しくない [no difficulty]/あまり難しくない[slight difficulty]/そこそこ難しい[moderate difficulty]/非常に難しい[great difficulty]/極めて難しい[extreme difficulty]) for the quantitative data collection. Although the instrument was tested and validated for the Japanese sample in the past (Ward et al., 1998), no Japanese instrument was available in the original publication. Therefore, this study translated SCAS from English to Japanese based on the TRAPD model team-based translation (Translation, Review, Adjudication, Pretesting, and Documentation) (Mohler et al., 2016). The entire instrumentation process, testing, validation results and the complete Japanese translation form are available in Hiratsuka (2021) and Hiratsuka et al. (2022). Data Collection Procedure This study was a secondary data analysis (McKnight & McKnight, 2011), through the data transfer from the GSC. The data was held by the GSC International Exchange Committee. According to the GSC, data collection was done at the mandatory pre-departure and post-return orientations. Surveys were distributed to GSC students to collect their responses to SCAS questions. Because there were two groups of GSC students in each cohort, with different departure and post-return orientations, there were two separate data collection schedules. Analytical Strategies This study selected multiple logistic regression analyses to evaluate the relationship between predictor and outcome variables. Logistic regression was selected to examine the relationship between multiple predictors and binary outcomes using odds ratios, controlling for

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confounding variables and handling non-normality. This analytical strategy enabled the inclusion of both continuous predictors and categorical variables, allowing a comprehensive analysis of their individual and combined effects. Additionally, this approach is robust to violations of normality assumptions, allowing for controlling confounding variables. The use of extreme group analysis further enhanced sensitivity to latent effects that may be weakly expressed in the full sample. This analytical strength makes logistic regression a suitable and rigorous choice for this study’s analytical strategy. This study designed the pre-post change scores to isolate positive and negative change groups by creating and excluding the categories called “no change criteria” within 0.5 and 1 Standard Deviation (SD). This design allowed the analysis to exclude no-change cases from the analysis. The independent variables were English proficiency (scale), academic performance (scale), destination countries (category), gender (category) and cohort (category). The outcome variable was the intercultural competence scale as measured by the SCAS. The outcome variable was coded to be the ICC_Down Group as zero (0) and ICC_Up_Group as one (1) after the sample group being categorized into four groups based on their outcome scores. The control variable was the intercultural competence scale by SCAS at the pre-departure score (scale). Results Binary logistic regression was performed to evaluate the effects of language proficiency, academic performance, destination countries, and gender on Japanese students’ ICC score change as a result of their outbound student mobility programs. The statistical and practical significance was found between academic performance (GPA) and ICC in the 2015 Cohort group, while no statistical and practical significance was found in the 2016 Cohort group. For the 2015 Cohort group, the logistic regression model was not statistically significant, χ2(5) = 6.09, p = .298. The model also had weak predictive power, as measured by Nagelkerke R2 (.045). The model correctly classified 60.8% of the students in the sample, which is about a 1.7% increase compared to the null model. GPA was statistically significant, Exp[B] = .53, CI [.29, .97], p = .038; the effect size for this predictor was large. For this cohort, one additional unit increase (0.1) in GPA is related to 1.9 times a decrease in the odds of the Japanese students being in the ICC Up Group. For the 2016 Cohort group, the logistic regression model was not statistically significant, χ2(5) = 2.52, p = .773. The model also had weak predictive power, as measured by Nagelkerke R2 (.02). The model correctly classified 60.8% of the students in the sample, which is about a 1.1% increase compared to the null model. No predictor was statistically significant in the model.

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Table 3 Logistic Regression Analysis Summary for Demographic Variables Predicting an ICC Score Change Categories in the 2015 and 2016 Cohorts

Cohort 2015

B .09

SE .24

Exp(B) 1.09

95% CI [.68, 1.75]

Wald statistic .14

p .709

IELTS

.23

.39

1.26

[.60, 2.65]

.38

.537

GPA

-.65

.31

.53

[.29, .97]

4.29

.038

Country

-.21

.35

.81

[.41, 1.61]

.36

.549

Gender

-.52

.35

.59

[.30, 1.18]

2.21

.137

Pre-Departure ICC

-.09

.28

.91

[.53 1.57]

.11

.737

IELTS

-.28

.30

.75

[.42, 1.36]

.88

.348

GPA

.03

.27

1.03

[.61, .1.74]

.01

.908

Country

.30

.32

1.35

[.72, 2.54]

.85

.356

Gender

.06

.33

1.06

[.56, 2.01]

.85

.850

Pre-Departure ICC Score

2016

Score

Note. B = the Unstandardized Beta, SE = the Standard Error, Exp (B) = the exponentiation of the B coefficient, p = p-value

Discussion This study aimed to investigate specific factors that contribute to the extent of change in intercultural competence resulting from participation in an outbound student mobility program among Japanese students. The results from this study may provide valuable insights for improving program design, enhancing student preparation and informing future research approaches. However, the generalizability of this study beyond GSC must be acknowledged due to the sample size and contextual specificity. With this acknowledgement, some considerations would benefit the literature and deepen our understanding of assessing the learning outcomes of outbound mobility programs among Japanese undergraduate students. One significant result was the statistically and practically significant relationship between GPA and participants’ ICC change in the 2015 group. The result suggests that one of the traditional indicators of higher education, academic performance in the form of GPA, may relate to participants’ ICC development in a direction opposite to what is traditionally expected. There are several possible interpretations for this negative relationship. One possible explanation could be related to participants’ individual characteristics. For example, some participants may be less open, less willing or less psychologically prepared to engage in new intercultural experiences in destination countries regardless of their academic performance or GPA. Another possible explanation may relate to programmatic factors, including pre-departure orientations and preparation initiatives that support participants’ intercultural learning before their departure. Given this reverse relationship from this study, Japanese universities may need to reconsider the weight placed on GPA in outbound mobility programs, particularly in terms of

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learning outcomes and intercultural competence. The current literature tends to assume that GPA among high academic achievers is a predictor of student success in the destination countries. Since this study’s results indicate that the role of participants’ GPA is negatively related to their changes in ICC, our understanding of the role of GPA in the learning outcomes of outbound mobility programs among Japanese universities might require re-evaluation. This result is significant when compared with the existing studies. In fact, only a few existing studies examined GPA or other academic performance variables in relation to learning outcomes of outbound mobility programs. One exception is Sutton and Rubin (2004), who included GPA in their study. Their study included cultural sensitivity, the closest variable to intercultural competence in this study. Their study found a statistically significant difference with a large effect size of cultural sensitivity after controlling for GPA. The results from the 2015 group from this study aligned with Sutton and Rubin’s claim (2004). However, direct comparison is limited due to differences in instrument use and the US students as the sample groups. Since no other studies in this review (i.e., Burrow, 2019; Vande Berg et al., 2009; Vande Berg et al., 2012) included GPA, future studies must investigate the role of academic achievements in changes to intercultural competence among US students as the role of GPA remains underexplored. This lack of attention to GPA and academic performance is a critical gap in the existing literature, especially given that academic achievement is central to the mission of higher education institutions. An evidence gap regarding the role of GPA in research on undergraduate students’ intercultural competence in outbound student mobility programs needs to be addressed in future studies more intentionally. A comparison with another Japanese study examining the extent of change in intercultural competence among Japanese students in outbound student mobility programs would be beneficial despite the recognized limitations. Unfortunately, no direct comparison of the role of GPA was possible between this study and Hanada’s studies (2015, 2019) since GPA was omitted from Hanada’s studies and there was an instrumental difference between this study and his studies. While Hanada’s studies (2015, 2019) found that pre-departure orientations influenced the changes of his participants’ ICC score, the role of pre-departure orientation could be considered in future studies by GSC, as this study excluded this variable. One possible explanation for the role of pre-departure orientation in ICC changes is the improvement of participants’ psychological preparedness by pre-departure orientations, especially focusing on intercultural training. Participants’ psychological preparedness through intercultural training may contribute to improving their intercultural competence regardless of the level of their academic performance. Since pre-departure training and intercultural training have been integral to outbound mobility programs, building evidence on the interaction effects among GPA, pre-departure orientations through intercultural training and changes in intercultural competence among participants needs further consideration. Implications The results from this study identified several implications for policy, practice and research areas. In the policy area, institutionalizing a program evaluation is crucial for improving the

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evidence gaps in outbound mobility programs among Japanese universities. The institutionalization of program evaluation attempts to address the need for building evidence in intercultural competence through research and evaluation. This implication is critical because the limitations of studies with methodological shortcomings remain a consistent challenge. The program evaluation integration enables Japanese universities to make informed decisions based on evidence, build a database for future research to address existing limitations and shortcomings, and promote capacity building and knowledge mobilization. The existing policy discourse emphasizes increasing the number of participants; there is a need for Japanese universities to shift the focus of their outbound programs from quantity to quality. In the practice area, student selection and placement criteria for outbound mobility programs would benefit from reconsiderations of an overemphasis on academic performance, such as GPA. This analysis provided evidence for posing a question about the relationship between academic performance, as measured by GPA, and ICC. Japanese universities often screen their students based on traditional indicators such as GPA by testing prospective students’ academic performance; however, the current admission procedure might be inadequate to accept students suitable for their outbound programs, since this study found that low GPA students showed higher odds of being in the ICC up-group than the down group in the 2015 cohort. For example, Japanese universities could consider admitting a group of students who are excited about studying in Malaysia and Thailand, even if their GPA is lower than that of others. While reliance on students’ academic performance on admission tests would be difficult to change, including additional considerations in the existing screening process would contribute to prospective students’ success in the outbound mobility program. For the research area, theory-driven and methodologically diverse approaches are critical for examining the intercultural competence outcomes of Japanese participants in future studies. A need for evidence on Japanese students’ gains in their intercultural competence is recognized as a significant challenge in Japan in this study. For example, this study employed a pre- and post-design to compare ICC through a cross-sectional analysis procedure. However, this design suffered from analyzing participants’ ICC changes over time during their studies. Academic researchers in Japan could design a longitudinal design by integrating pre-, post-, and followup data collection points. These academic researchers could also design a mixed-method approach to integrate both quantitative and qualitative data in innovative ways. Conclusion: Limitations and Recommendations This study aimed to identify factors related to changes in intercultural competence outcomes among Japanese undergraduates participating in outbound student mobility programs. This study yielded statistically and practically significant results in the role of GPA in Japanese students’ gains in intercultural competence in the 2015 cohort. The GPA in the 2015 cohort showed a negative relationship with participants’ ICC score, with a large effect size. Although this result was more nuanced than originally expected, the result provided evidence for further exploration in this area.

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In response to this study’s question, the evidence contributed to the existing literature by highlighting shortcomings and limitations in the current discourse on Japanese students’ intercultural competence as a learning outcome of outbound student mobility programs. Several significant contributions resulted from this study. First, this study provided muchneeded empirical evidence for analyzing ICC among Japanese students. Second, the study design employed a rigorous methodological approach utilizing a theory-driven instrument, SCAS, and logistic regression. Third, the study provided contextually unique evidence of Japanese undergraduate students’ intercultural experiences in non-traditional designations, including Malaysia and Thailand. The results of this quantitative analysis led to the conclusion that further studies are necessary to examine the relationship between Japanese students’ characteristics and the ICC scores. Such factors as language proficiency levels, academic performance, destination countries, and gender differences showed no statistical or practical relationships with their ICC scores in this study. This result suggested that more evidence is needed to explore relationships between student characteristics and the ICC scores of Japanese undergraduate students in outbound student mobility programs. This study recognized the following methodological limitations: working entirely with secondary data analysis and addressing missing data in the existing dataset. First, working with the secondary data for this study was a limitation, as matching this study’s purposes with the existing data posed a challenge. Working with secondary data, as noted by Pienta et al. (2011), necessitated adjustments to this research’s purpose and methodological design. Second, dealing with missing data in the secondary dataset posed a limitation. Handling missing data in the existing dataset (McKnight & McKnight, 2011) was a challenge because the designated Aoyama faculty member, who conducted the data collection for this study at GSC, was unfamiliar with quantitative methodologies. After consulting with several method experts, a decision was made to implement several data management strategies to overcome this limitation. Acknowledgement The author would like to acknowledge two collaborators who contributed to preparing this manuscript: Dr Makoto Kobori and Dr Sayaka Hashimoto. These two GSC researchers provided invaluable contributions to arranging permissions and providing access to secondary data. The author also would like to acknowledge Ms Olesya Falenchuk, PhD, for her contribution through her methodological consultation. As a research system analyst at the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education, Dr Falenchuk shared her insights on the methodological procedure to confirm my analysis as robust and sound. Disclosure of Conflict of Interest The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.

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This manuscript is part of an ongoing grant project by the Global Research Institute, the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC), Aoyama Gakuin University (AGU). Publication of research results from this project is a requirement of this grant by the institute. Ethics Approval Statement This original study was conducted during author’s PhD study at the University of Toronto. This study received its ethics approval by the Institutional Review Board of the University of Toronto. Funding The project is funded by the Global Studies Institute, GSC, AGU. The author is affiliated with the institute as an analyst. The position is renewed annually, appointed for this project, and no academic duties.

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References Burrow, J. D. (2019). A meta-analysis of the relationship between study abroad and intercultural competence [Doctoral Thesis, Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of Toronto]. https://search-proquestcom.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/docview/2322786735 Fantini, A. E. (2000). A central concern: Developing intercultural competence. In World Learning, About our institution (pp. 25–42), World Learning. Fantini, A. E. (2009). Assessing intercultural competence: Issues and tools. In D. K. Deardorff (Ed.). The SAGE Handbook of Intercultural Competence (pp. 456‐476). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781071872987.n27 Gakkou Houjin Aoyama Gakuin. (2015). 2015 nenndo jigyo houkousho [2015 institutional report]. Aoyama Gakuin. Gakkou Houjin Aoyama Gakuin. (2016). 2016 nenndo jigyo houkousho [2016 institutional report]. Aoyama Gakuin. Green, S. B., & Salkind, N. J. (2011). Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh: Analyzing and understanding data. (6th ed.). Princeton Hall. Gouran, D. S., & Nishida, T. (Eds.). (1996). Culture and communication. Hassakusha. Field, A. (2013). Discovering statistics using IBM SPSS statistics (4th ed.). SAGE Publications. Haji, K. (2012). Gensho suru nihonjin ryugakusei [a decline of Japanese outbound study abroad students] (pp. 1–2). Retrieved December 22, 2018, from NLI Research Institute website: https://www.nli-research.co.jp/report/detail/id=40179?site=nli Hammer, M. R. (2012). The intercultural development inventory: A new frontier in assessment and development of intercultural competence. In M. Vande Berg, R. M. Paige, & K. M. Lou (Eds.), Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they’re not, and what we can do about it (pp. 115–136). Stylus. Hanada, S. (2015). Assessing intercultural competence: A comparative study of Japanese students in study abroad programs (Doctoral Dissertation). University of Toronto. Retrieved April 17, 2018, from https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/80204 Hanada, S. (2018). Ryugaku kouka bunseki no apurooch: ibunkateiou nouryoku wo tema ni[an analytical approach of study abroad effectiveness: intercultural competence focus]. In M. Yokota, H. Ota, & Y. Shinmi (Eds.), Impact of study abroad on career development and life (pp. 69-79). Gakubunsha. Hanada, S. (2019). A quantitative assessment of Japanese students’ intercultural competence developed through study abroad programs. Journal of International Students, 9(4), 1015–1037. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i4.391 Hiratsuka, H. (2021). An evaluative case study of Japanese undergraduate students’ gains in intercultural competence as learning outcomes in Malaysia and Thailand [The Ontario Institute for Studies in Education (OISE), University of Toronto]. https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/handle/1807/108660

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Hiratsuka, H. Kobori, M., & Hashimoto, S. (2022). The study abroad learning outcome project at the School of Global Studies and Collaboration (GSC): A case study of Japanese undergraduate students’ intercultural competence development. The Aoyama Journal of Global Studies and Collaboration, 6, 77-92. Hiroshima University. (2016). Study abroad learning achievement analysis. https://www.hiroshima-u.ac.jp/system/files/67980/01Program.pdf Japan Student Service Organization (JASSO). (2005). Heisei 16 nendo kaigairyugaku keikensha tsuiseki chosa houkokusho-kaigai ryugaku ni kansuru annkeeto [2005 survey report of study abroad participants follow-up study]. JASSO. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from http://ryugaku.jasso.go.jp/link/link_statistics/link_statistics_2005/ Japan Student Service Organization (JASSO). (2017). Heisei 28 nendo kyoteitou ni motozuku nihonjin gakusei ryugakujoukyou chousa [2018 survey of Japanese students studying abroad based on university partnerships and other study options]. Yokohama, Japan: JASSO. Retrieved on November 11, 2019, from https://www.jasso.go.jp/about/statistics/intl_student_s/2017/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018 /02/23/short_term16.pdf Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). (2017). Supar gurobaru daigaku sousei sien jigyo: Chukan hyoka kekka no soukatsu [Mid-term Evaluation Summary of Top Global University Project]. Accessed at https://www.jsps.go.jp/jsgu/data/kekka/h29_sgu_chukan_kekkasoukatsu.pdf. Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). (2019). Daigaku no sekai tenkairyoku kyouka jigyou [The summary of summative evaluation of Inter-University Exchange Project in 2013]. https://www.jsps.go.jp/jtenkairyoku/data/kekka/h25/h30_tenkai_jigo_kekka.pdf Kelly, C., & Meyers, J. (1992). CCAI: Cross-cultural adaptability inventory. National Computer Systems. Kobayashi, A. (2018). Koukou ryugaku no impakuto [An impact of high school study abroad]. In M.Yokota, H. Ota, & Y. Shinmi (Eds.), Impact of study abroad on career development and life (pp. 129–155).Gakubunsha. Lee, S. Y. (2019). An empirical study of the effect of studying abroad: Focusing on its effect on (non-)cognitive skills and labor market outcomes. Meiji Gakuin Review International & Regional Studies, 54, 1–28. McKnight, P., & McKnight, K. E. (2011). Missing data in secondary data analysis. In K. H. Trzesniewski, M. B. Donnellan, & R. E. Lucas (Eds.), Secondary data analysis: An introduction for psychologists (p. 245). American Psychological Association. Matsuo, T., Morino, T., & Kudo, K. (2018). Applying intercultural competence: Toward the practices of intercultural education. Intercultural Education: Bulletin of Intercultural Education Society of Japan, (47), 1–15. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT), Japan. (2017). About Tobitate! (Leap for Tomorrow) Study Abroad Initiative. MEXT. Retrieved August 13, 2018, from: https://www.tobitate.mext.go.jp/about/english.html Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communication (MIC). (2017). Gurobaru jinzai ikusei no suishin ni kansuru seisaku hyouka [policy evaluation on global human resource development of Japan]. Retrieved November 12, 2019, from MIC http://www.soumu.go.jp/menu_news/s-news/107317_00009.html

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Mohler, P., Dorer, B., Jong, J. de, & Hu, M. (2016). Translation: Overview. In Survey Research Center, Guidelines for best practice in cross-cultural surveys (pp. 233–377). Survey Research Center, Institute for Social Research, University of Michigan. Morishita, M., Ariga, M., Harada, Y., Sakai, K., & Tomida, E. (2018). Cognitive aspects of effectiveness evaluation of action: Recognition changes through internship and study abroad programs. Conference Presentation Proceedings presented at Osaka, Japan. Ota, H. (2018). Nihon no kaigai ryugaku sokushin seisaku no henyou [Changes in study abroad policies in Japan]. In M. Yokota, H. Ota, & Y. Shinmi (Eds.), Impact of study abroad on career development and life (pp. 69–79).Gakubunsha. Paige, R. M., & Stallman, E. M. (2007). Using instruments in education abroad outcomes assessment. In M. C. Bolen (Ed.), A guide to outcomes assessment in education abroad (pp. 137–162). Forum on Education Abroad. Preacher, K. J., Rucker, D. D., MacCallum, R. C., & Nicewander, W. A. (2005). Use of the extreme groups approach: a critical reexamination and new recommendations. Psychological methods, 10(2), 178–192. https://doi.org/10.1037/1082-989X.10.2.178 Shinmi, Y. (2018). Ryugaku no impakuto nikansuru kokunaigai no kenkyuu gaiyou [The domestic and international literature related to study abroad impact]. In Y. Yokota, H. Ota, & Y. Shinmi (Eds.), Impact of study abroad on career development and life (pp. 29-47).Gakubunsha. Shirley, N. S. (2016). Making sense of beliefs and values: Theory, research, and practice (N. S. Shirley, Ed.). Springer Publishing. Sutton, R. C., & Rubin, D. L. (2004). The GLOSSARI project: Initial findings from a systemwide research initiative on study abroad learning outcomes. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 10, 65–82. https://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v10i1.133 Tokui, A. (2004). Developing intercultural competency: Toward a multicultural society. Intercultural Education: Bulletin of Intercultural Education Society of Japan, 20, 56– 66. Tomo, R. (2017). Intercultural competence in developmental psychology: For modeling of intercultural competence considered a development stage. Intercultural Education: Bulletin of Intercultural Education Society of Japan, 45, 49–64. Ujitani, E. (2015). The effect of a short-term study abroad program on intercultural competence. Journal of Intercultural Communication, 18, 49–70. Vande Berg, M., Connor-Linton, J., & R. Michael, P. (2009). The Georgetown consortium project: Interventions for student learning abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 18, 1–75. https://doi.org/10.36366/frontiers.v18i1.251 Vande Berg, M., Paige, R. M., & Lou, K. H. (Eds.). (2012). Student learning abroad: What our students are learning, what they’re not, and what we can do about it. Stylus Publications, LLC. Ward, C. (2004). Psychological theories of culture contact and their implications for intercultural training and interventions. In D. Landis, J. M. Bennett, & M. J. Bennett (Eds.), Handbook of intercultural training (3rd ed., pp. 185–216). SAGE Publications, Inc. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452231129.n8

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Ward, C., Bochner, S., & Furnham, A. (2001). Psychology of culture shock (2nd ed.). Routledge. Ward, C., Okura, Y., Kennedy, A., & Kojima, T. (1998). The U-curve on trial: A longitudinal study of psychological and socio-cultural adjustment during cross-cultural transition. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 22(3), 277–291. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(98)00008-X Ward, C. & Kennedy, A. (1999). The measurement of sociocultural adaptation. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 23(4), 659–677. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0147-1767(99)00014-0 Wilson, J. K., Ward, C., & Fischer, R. (2013). Beyond cultural learning theory: What can personality tell us about cultural competence? Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 44(6), 900–927. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022113492889 Wilson, J. K., Ward, C., Fetvadjiev, V. H., & Bethel, A. (2017). Measuring cultural competencies: The development and validation of a revised measure of sociocultural adaptation. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 48(10), 1475–1506. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022022117732721 Corresponding Author: Hiroyoshi Hiratsuka Email: hhiratsuka@gsc.aoyama.ac.jp

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Enacting Youth Agency in Higher Education: Resilience as a Mediating Factor Yasemin Yılmaz Yüksek Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye Nilüfer Ülker Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye Özlem Ayar Gemalmaz Istanbul Technical University (ITU), Türkiye

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Abstract This study investigated the role an undergraduate course in a Turkish state university plays in the development of youth agency and how, during its implication, the students’ level of resilience has performed a mediating role. Ethical approval was obtained from the University’s Institutional Review Board before the study was initiated. The research was conducted employing a concurrent mixed research design, consisting of implementation of a questionnaire, in which 421 students participated, and conducting interviews with 20 students and 13 instructors simultaneously. Based on the results of the questionnaire, undergraduate students exhibit moderate levels of psychological resilience during hard times. As for the interview results, three themes emerged as a result of the thematic analysis of students’ and instructors’ responses: Adapting to adversity, developing social agency, and academic engagement as resilience practice. The findings revealed that courses, particularly those on social issues, have the potential to increase the sense of agency when active participation of students is achieved and students’ resilience may act as a mediating factor in the development of youth agency through implementation of such courses. Keywords: student resilience, sustainable development goals, 21st century higher education, youth agency

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Physical and mental well-being of students in higher education play a pivotal role in their adaptation to university life as well as academic achievement. The process of affirming their identities as both young adults and responsible citizens proves demanding, affecting them both physically and mentally. Feeling the need to enact their agency both for their personal life and as socially responsible members of society, students realize that they have to maintain their resilience amidst a surplus of challenges in order to act. At this point, student resilience stands out as a mediating factor in enacting youth agency and enhancing social participation. Considering that resilience is regarded as a precondition of student well-being in many studies, there is an obvious gap in resilience literature which relates resilience to agency and shows how the former supports the latter. This study, which underlines the mediating role of resilience in the formation of agency among university students, therefore, firstly aims at establishing this neglected link between resilience and youth agency. Secondly, it presents a sample undergraduate course designed with the objective of increasing the sense of agency among students. To this end, this study aims at revealing how resilience reinforces youth agency in efficient learning environments and seeks responses to the following research questions: 1. What is undergraduate students’ level of resilience during hard times? 2. How can a course on social development enact youth agency with the role of resilience as a mediating factor? Theoretical Background and Literature Review Agency and resilience are conceptually related in that resilience is a mediating factor in fostering youth agency. The ability of individuals to withstand and overcome challenges in their lives makes it easier for them to make decisions and take action. Increased resilience makes one much more active and willing to take initiatives resulting in an increase in problemsolving skills. Since “resilience could mediate the path from basic psychological needs to academic performance” (p. 3), students whose resilience is fostered can perform academically well (Liu & Huang, 2021). When they are given the chance to join teams, exchange ideas and find solutions to existing problems around them, their sense of agency is reinforced making them feel stronger against challenges. Realizing their potent agency and taking responsibility to solve social problems make young adults feel more resilient and tolerant towards the adversities they witness. Realizing this interdependent nature of resilience and agency, particularly in higher education, promises a higher involvement of students in social matters, making them realize their potential to be active agents of social change (Figure 1). With this purpose in mind and the increasing need to teach global problems in higher education (Anderson & McCune, 2013), many universities worldwide have introduced new courses that specifically teach global problems in many areas of life ranging from education, health, and employment to climate crises, and inequalities. Involving students in community research and team work, such courses are found to increase student resilience to obstacles (Cantor et al., 2015). In this respect, this empirical study fills a gap in resilience studies by showing how it is related to agency. In the higher education context, it interrogates the role of resilience in fostering student agency.

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Figure 1 Concept Map Showing the Relation among Resilience, Academic Work and Youth Agency

Considering the lack of methodological unity in approaching resilience studies, it is difficult yet necessary to present a theoretical overview of the term. Particularly, student resilience in the higher education context must be defined to provide a conceptual basis for our study. Resilience is generally associated with mental well-being which helps people “withstand stressors and not manifest psychological dysfunction” (Sood, 2013, p. 252) in stressful conditions. It is directly related to “how well [an individual] copes with the hardships of life” (Archana & Singh, 2014, p. 228). Resilient students are seen capable of coping with the difficulties they encounter “by adjusting better to the transitions of university life” (Archana & Singh, 2014, p. 232). Students who can adopt a more resilient stance, thus, perform better in times of crisis, managing the conflicts and seeking negotiation. Resilience plays a significant role for higher education students in achieving their academic tasks, taking responsibilities, and maintaining their well-being. More importantly, it helps them approach the challenges in their lives with a calmer and proactive attitude. Resilience of university students has been the subject of study in many publications (Gerson, 2013; Li & Yang, 2016; Margo, et al., 2019) as higher education is seen as a transition into a more professional and yet more stressful life. Related with many positive traits such as happiness, patience, and optimism and its role in “positive psychology construct” (Price, 2022, p. 83), resilience enables young individuals to be decisive in their goals even in times of hardships and think more strategically to make alternative plans. Student resilience is affected by a number of factors ranging from family issues, economic problems, friendships, and health to social and global issues such as disasters, conflicts, wars and human rights violations. The hectic and chaotic nature of the 21st century (Ahmed & Julis, 2015), which interrupts the sense of order and regularity makes it highly difficult for university students to keep their resilient stance in times of crisis. Acquiring a more resilient stance during higher education prepares young individuals for the chaotic nature of professional life, making

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it easier to accept the adversities they encounter. The hardships on their way for a successful academic life and career get fiercer when they are faced with global issues such as climate crisis, inequalities among people as well as countries, and human rights violations. It appears necessary for the young generation now to remain resilient in times of these global crises in order to be able to find ways to act proactively. Considering that socially responsible young individuals are potential leaders and policy makers of the future, teaching them how to keep their resilience while struggling with problems stands out as one of the crucial assets of higher education. As Price (2022) draws attention, however, increasing the resilience of the “problemsolver”, that is the student of the present and the leaders of the future, still “remains an afterthought” (p. 84). That higher education still puts the highest emphasis on academic achievement with slight changes towards a more noticeable concern with problem-solving and critical thinking skills causes the psychological aspect to be undermined. Therefore, the need for resilience building programs particularly in higher education is still pressing. Changes in the higher education curriculum with a new emphasis on youth agency is, therefore, necessary to highlight the active role students can take in dealing with social issues. The Role of Increased Agency in Assisting Students Act Proactively High resilience levels directly help students cope with stress and better manage their reactions. More implicitly; however, it enables them to realize their potential as social agents and enact self-agency in particular settings. It is also possible for the youth to channel their energy to the social issues and pressing needs of the time. Since the sociocultural development of the youth is shaped partly by their engagement with civil society, providing them with opportunities to actively participate in problem-solving and decision-making mechanisms fosters their sense of agency. Engagement in teamwork, social projects and decision-making mechanisms also changes them “from a polite economic entity to the level of high productivity and sustainable development” (Ekpiken & Ukpabio, 2015, p. 114). This is particularly important considering that active participation in society through shared responsibilities and decisions increases the sense of social cohesion, making the individual feel part of the community. Redefining the youth as an important component of the public sphere entails a reconsideration of many policies including their education. Therefore, courses on global issues equip “learners with skills to think through complexity, learn through dialogue and communication, engage in deep reflection, develop worldview and value sensitivity” (Filho et al., 2019, p. 286). Students indulge themselves, both individually and in groups, in social matters, trying to understand their root causes and offer solutions. Working together to find ways of grappling with the social problems in their communities helps university students to look at the issues from a broader perspective, making them realize the presence of similar problems in other parts of the world. This also brings about understanding, higher tolerance and empathy, and in the long term, a sense of global agency. More importantly, these courses encourage them to come up with solution suggestions and ideally put these suggestions in practice. All around the world, courses on sustainable development and global problems have been on a rise since education institutions are seen among the most influential partners to achieve the goals of many stakeholders towards social development. In this respect, the introduction of the

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Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations (UN) in 2015 was followed by changes in the curriculum and lesson design of many schools and universities. Filho et al. (2019) refer to Kopnina’s (2017) research which documents courses related with SDGs and the concept of sustainability. The research revealed that the number of higher education institutions providing courses of social development is quite limited, proving inadequate to address the need for the achievement of goals. Based on the guide prepared by the Sustainable Development Solutions Network (SDSN) Australia/Pacific, Kerstin et al. (2017) list advantages of integrating SDGs in higher education curriculum together with suggestions for further implementation. By incorporating SDG education, universities can “engage students in the co-creation of learning environments and opportunities that support learning on the SDGs” (p. 13). More importantly, the document describes the youth as “creative, energetic, idealistic, and optimistic about the future” highlighting their potential to be agents of social change. Courses taught to large concentrations of students from diverse backgrounds and departments present answers to the question of what they can do for the society and the world and are therefore crucial to embark a sense of responsibility for social change. In 2010, the Council of Higher Education (CoHE, Türkiye) approved the National Qualifications Framework for Higher Education, which was developed to create national education systems that are more inclusive and resilient aligned with Bologna goals, joined by Türkiye in 2001 (CoHE, 2025). In accordance with the Turkish Qualifications Framework, bachelor’s degree graduates are expected to demonstrate a questioning and analytical perspective, show awareness of social and ethical values, and possess the competencies required to address complex and unpredictable problems (VQA, 2015). These represent some of the skills and competencies as defined in the principles of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) (UNESCO, 2020). Accordingly, a growing interest and emphasis on sustainable development is observed on the side of CoHE, which is reflected in policy documents, conferences and evaluation reports as well as sustainability practices of Turkish universities. The university where the research was conducted is one of the leading higher education institutions in Türkiye in terms of integration of ESD principles in teaching and learning, research and campus operations. It ranked 1st in Türkiye and 38th in the world among 1477 institutions across 95 countries in UI GreenMetric World University Rankings 2024 (Universitas Indonesia, 2024). In line with current global and national trends in higher education, the priorities of the University and the increasing focus on SDGs, an English for Academic Purposes (EAP) course was added to the English curriculum to equip students with the insight necessary to understand global problems and suggest sustainable solutions. Considering the insufficiency of higher education initiatives that foster the implementation of SDG-related curriculum at universities, the EAP Course, henceforth EAPI, stands out as a significant example that demonstrates the impact of a higher education institution on the development of youth agency. The course offers students many opportunities to speak their opinions about global problems, scrutinize root causes and find creative ways to deal with them. Engaging in case studies from

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around the world, students discover the social issues of various geographies such as climate crises, immigration policies, and armed conflicts as well as gender inequality and acquire a sense of global citizenship in time. In this respect, it can be claimed that “the so-called third mission (engagement)” has been accomplished in addition to education and research (Chankseliani & McCowan, 2021). Addressing “complex facets of local environmental, economic, and societal conditions” (Salem & Harb, 2012, p. 101) and encouraging students to take active part in their solutions, universities prepare students as more environmentally and socially aware global citizens. Like many higher education institutions that include global citizenship as a “learning objective” in their educational approaches, the course also aims at developing the agency of young people and educating them to be global citizens of the future by enabling them to “increase their academic and cultural knowledge [. . .] develop certain dispositions, and become more active in global affairs” (Massaro, 2022, p. 109). Students who can truly address global challenges and invent solutions for them are trained to be conscious and responsible agents of change towards a more sustainable society. Making students realize their agency and increase their resilience to obstacles is the focus of many studies about higher education. However, most of the studies conducted about the resilience of young people specifically focus on the youth at risk or in vulnerable conditions. One of these is research conducted in England in 2017 with 26 young people in care. It was found in the study that the participants’ sense of agency is closely related to their resilience (Berridge, 2017). A similar study analyzing the role of positive youth development (PYD) practices on the resilience levels of young people was conducted in New Zealand in 2015 (Sanders et al., 2015). Recent studies about resilience in higher education (Ang et al., 2021; Durso et al., 2021) all focus on the factors affecting resilience of university students and address the need for resilience building programs. Among many resilience studies that investigate the ways to increase resilience of young people, there is surprisingly no study that points at the link between resilience and agency, which this study aims to address. Methodology Research Design and Rationale This study was conducted in concurrent mixed method research design. The basis of mixed methods research is integration of the obtained results from qualitative and quantitative data (Creswell & Plano Clark, 2011). In concurrent mixed method design research, the initiation and implementation of quantitative and qualitative research dimensions take place simultaneously, indicating that the findings of one research dimension does not influence the other's sample selection, data collection and analysis. Mark (2015) asserts that mixed methods design may be used for alternate purposes and in different ways. In this study, mixed methods research data collection was realized in a complementary fashion, which comprises “alternative tasks where the two methods do not address the same research question but rather focus on distinct but conceptually related questions” (p. 25), thereby contributing to depth and richness of empirical evidence.

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Participants The participants for the quantitative study were selected using random sampling in accordance with ease of access and participants’ equal opportunity to contribute to the research (Golzar et al., 2022). The study involved undergraduate students enrolled in three compulsory EAP courses: EAPI (as previously introduced), and two additional courses henceforth referred to as EAPII and EAPIII. Whereas the goal of quantitative methods is to achieve breadth of understanding, qualitative methods seek to gain a deeper understanding of the topic being investigated (Patton, 2002). This necessitates the careful selection of participants with ample information, thus optimizing and utilizing the use of restricted sources (Creswell, 2014), which is the case in the current study. The purposeful sampling methodology encompasses selecting people with particular experience with or expertise in a certain topic (Cresswell & Plano Clark, 2011). Therefore, in line with the objectives of the study and the principles of the participant selection technique, purposeful sampling was employed and only the students who took and the instructors who taught the EAPI Course were interviewed. Students A total of 465 students completed and submitted their responses to the questionnaire via an online data collection platform. However, 44 inconsistent answers were observed and their forms were taken out. Therefore, in the final phase of quantitative data collection, there were 421 valid questionnaires available for statistical analysis. Among all respondents of the questionnaire, 63.4% (n = 267) students were enrolled in EAPII Course, 22.5 % (n = 95) were enrolled in EAPIII Course and 14% (n = 59) were enrolled in EAPI Course. With regard to involvement in NGOs, 47 students (11%) stated participating in NGO activities while 374 (88.8%) indicated the opposite. As for qualitative data collection, 20 voluntary freshman and sophomore students who had taken the EAPI Course at least once were interviewed. Demographic information of the students interviewed is presented in Table 1, Appendix 1. 18 of the student participants were coming from various cities in Türkiye while two were international students. The age range of the student participants was between 18-31 and all of them were Turkish except for one Uzbek and one Serbian student. The students were studying in 15 different departments and all but one was taking the course for the first time. 4/20 students reported being involved in NGOs while the remaining students were not. Instructors Data was collected from both students and instructors so as to identify the different perspectives of both course instructors and recipients. 13 instructors, who had all taught the EAPI Course at least twice, were interviewed. Please see Table 2, Appendix 1 for demographic information of instructor participants. The contributing instructors' teaching experience ranged from 13 to 36

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years and their age range was between 38 and 57. Teaching experience with the course varied: three taught it twice, one three times, one four times, one five times and seven six times, since the initiation of the course in the program. Only 2/13 instructors stated that they had participated in NGO activities before. Instruments To measure the resilience levels of students as a mediating factor for youth agency, the Brief Resilience Scale (BRS) by Smith et al. (2008) was used. The scale, which was adapted to Turkish by Doğan (2015), comprises six items in total and each item uses a five-point Likert scale from “strongly disagree” (1) to “strongly agree” (5). Higher scores demonstrate higher resilience levels of the participants. This scale was specifically selected as it was found to be the most appropriate for reflecting the resilience levels of undergraduate students among others in parallel with the objectives of the study and it had been used and verified many times in similar contexts. Before the implementation of the scale, the consent of the original scale developers and the researcher who had adapted the scale into Turkish were taken via email. One of the various methods to calculate the reliability of a scale is Cronbach's alpha coefficient, which ranges from zero to one. Higher values of Cronbach alpha suggest that the items measure the same dimension whereas lower values indicate that some or all of the items do not measure the same dimension (Cronbach, 1951). The Cronbach's alpha value of the original scale (Smith et al., 2008) ranged from .80 to .91. Doğan (2015) calculated Cronbach's alpha value as .81 in his study. This finding showed that the scale was a valid and reliable instrument that can be implemented in Turkish culture. In the current study, the reliability of the scale was calculated as .858, which demonstrates that it was a reliable instrument for data collection. The data for the qualitative study was collected through semi-structured interview protocols, the questions of which were created in line with the literature review. Pilot interviews were conducted with one student and one instructor to improve the protocols and anticipate potential difficulties in their implementation (Van Teijlingen & Hundley, 2001). Necessary modifications were made in line with feedback from the pilot study and the final versions of the interview protocols were developed accordingly. Data Collection Both quantitative and qualitative data were collected during the spring semester of the 20232024 academic year. Ethical approval for the study was obtained from the Institutional Review Board of the university where the study was conducted (Approval No: 2023/475) before the initiation of the study. The participants were asked to fill in informed consent forms explaining in detail the research specifics and data collection procedures. Quantitative and qualitative data were collected separately, each spanning a period of one month. Quantitative data was collected anonymously through BRS using an online platform while qualitative data was gathered through semi-structured interviews, which is the most commonly

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used method in qualitative studies in social sciences. Along with providing an overall framework through a pre-planned procedure intensifying around a key topic, semi-structured interviews enable the investigation of contentious directions (Magaldi & Berler, 2020), which was also the case in the current study. The confidentiality and anonymity of student and instructor participants were achieved through a number of measures throughout the research process. Every participant was assigned an identification code (as in Student 1, Instructor 1) and information that has a potential for identification was removed from the transcripts. The recordings of the interviews were only accessible to researchers in secure folders. Direct quotations were reported anonymously, using the codes that were previously assigned to participants. Data Analysis The data from the quantitative study was analyzed using SPSS (Version 28.00), which is a widely used statistical data analysis software for social sciences due to its effectiveness in managing and analyzing data sets. The normality of the data was analyzed through Kolmogorov-Smirnov test based on the number of student participants and it was determined that the data exhibited normal distribution. Then, for descriptive statistics, frequency and percentage distributions, arithmetic mean and standard deviation values were calculated and the students’ levels of resilience were determined accordingly. Qualitative data was analyzed through thematic analysis and themes were created in line with participant responses. Thematic analysis is a commonly used form of qualitative data analysis that facilitates interpretation of shared expertise and/or experiences of the participants (Braun & Clarke, 2012). Nowell et al. (2017) explain the major advantages of thematic analysis as its value despite its simplicity of application and adaptability. The interviews were analyzed based on the six-phase thematic analysis method presented by Braun and Clarke (2012, as also cited in Byrne, 2022): familiarization with the data, creation of initial codes, creating themes, revising themes, naming themes and creating the report where each theme and sub-theme are discussed in relation to the research question(s) and the dataset. Findings The students’ psychological resilience levels in response to the scale questions were calculated using descriptive analysis. Accordingly, the mean scores and standard deviation values of individual items and the total point were calculated using SPSS 28.00. Table 3 Mean and Standard Deviation Values of Total Psychological Resilience Scores of the Students n x̄ sd Psychological resilience 421 19.44 4.41

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As illustrated in Table 3, the mean score of the total scores of 421 students is 19.44 with a standard deviation of 4.41. The scores obtained from the BRS show differing levels of resilience: 6–11 low level, 12–22 moderate level, and 23–30 indicating high level of resilience. Therefore, it can be drawn based on data here that the undergraduate students participating in the study exhibit moderate levels of psychological resilience during hard times. Three themes emerged as a result of the thematic analysis of students’ and instructors’ responses. To support the findings and contribute to reliability of findings, the themes were supported by direct utterances from participants’ responses. Adapting to Adversity Urgent needs and social problems of our country and the world were listed in line with the number of times referred to by the participants: economic problems and their effects, wars and social conflicts, inadequacy of natural sources, injustice and violations of rights, climate change, income inequality, lack of communication among people and societies, identifying problems yet not taking responsibility. As one of the students noted: “Certainly peace, everyone should be aware of this. There must be welfare in all countries” (Student 13). Likewise, according to the recurrence of students’ mentions, Covid 19 pandemic, wars, earthquake, immigrants, economic conditions and inflation have affected them the most in the last three years. As conveyed by the 20th student: “Hatay earthquake in our country, war in the world as well, Ukraine-Russia war” (Student 20). It is certain that individuals need to have necessary skills to cope with the adversities they face, such as the ones mentioned by the students. In this context, some instructors (38.4%) argued that the students have encountered too many difficulties shaped by their generation and that they are generally resilient. “Compared to myself at university, they're more flexible and adaptable. It's easier for them. It used to be harder for those who came from Anatolia, but now, regardless of where students come from, they're more flexible. They're more open-minded” (Instructor 11). The students’ resilient stance is an attribute generally appreciated by the instructors, as seen in the following quote: “It is a characteristic of this generation already. They are somehow indomitable. They are not demotivated like us. They can approach problems in a different way” (Instructor 6). This also reflects the results of the BRS indicating that the students establish moderate levels of resilience when confronted with adverse situations. Student participants mentioned various methods to actively deal with challenging circumstances on an individual level. That a group of students (30%) asserted ignoring problems in order to cope with them attracts attention. Talking to people around, trying to find strategies analyzing the problems and being active to solve them, trying to keep calm, getting the opinions of those having experienced similar problems before can be evaluated as ways of actively dealing with adverse situations. “First, I try to ignore as much as possible. If I really need to solve it, I consult someone who has experienced the same problem. Still, I prefer to solve it myself. I feel more successful then” (Student 15). In addition, working freelance to deal with economic problems, getting scholarships and daily jobs were mentioned. That one of

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the students expresses her opinions on social media as a means of dealing with adversities while another student avoids social media also draws attention. The students, who specified their own means for developing and establishing a resilient stance, also recommended various methods for individuals and institutions. An awareness was observed among student participants that community action is more effective than individual efforts. “Togetherness should be a priority. Individuals who are united and who understand and love each other can deal with unexpected situations together” (Student 8). In this respect, organization of events by student participants to bring people together emerges as one of the methods for developing a resilient stance. Similarly, being prepared for adverse situations is among the practices accentuated by student participants. The assertions of the 5th instructor also confirm this situation: “If you are familiar with an issue, you will be prepared for it and you will not be surprised” (Instructor 5). Developing Social Agency While three of the student participants (15%) reported being less proactive in finding solutions for societal issues, the rest of them pointed out taking various measures to address difficulties. Here, charity collections and making donations during earthquakes stand out among the main prominent activities. “We collected aid during the earthquake. I gave my surplus insulin, for example” (Student 4). Producing masks and taking part in the Red Crescent bazaar during the pandemic are among the examples presented. Besides these, protecting street animals, warning people about various issues, donating books and giving exam preparation lessons to high school students voluntarily are among the salient examples. When considered in terms of contribution to students’ comprehension of sustainability, 11 instructor participants (84.6%) advocated that the course contributed to increasing students' awareness of sustainability. Participant 3 illustrated this situation in the following quote: “For example, one of my students said, 'Now, I bring my water from home in a glass bottle’” (Instructor 3). In addition, that students can demonstrate the concepts and facts they learn in this course in other faculty courses and participate in projects related to SDGs proves the case. However, deficiencies were observed in turning awareness into action. This is mainly associated with creating space and a suitable environment for students. Within this scope, as illustrated by the 5th instructor: “They question themselves, how respectful they are to the environment, how conscious they are, but .... they are engineers.... it’s their profession, they get paid. There are facts, too” (Instructor 5). Half of the student participants (50%) expressed that the course contributed to increasing their awareness about global issues and their understanding of global citizenship. By this means, there has been an increase in young people's awareness of social needs as well as what has been done and what can be done to solve global problems. As put by the 4th student: “Now I am now thinking of using my own knowledge and resources in the civil society rather than making a donation once and stepping back” (Student 4). Some students contended that the course engages them in searching for solutions about the SDGs and global problems. As argued by

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the 3rd student: “Even if one person in the class tries to turn his/her idea into a project, a project that will sprout out of this initiative can have a positive influence on people” (Student 3). Similarly, some of the students underlined that by virtue of the course, they acquired a vision of global citizenship and that they became more aware that everyone in the world has common problems. “It gives you the vision to turn into a global person from a local citizen” (Student 8). With regard to contributing to the understanding of global citizenship, the instructor participants presented similar conceptions. Accordingly, seven instructors (53.8%) underscored that the course contributed to the students' consciousness of global problems and the importance of joint action for the solution of these problems. “Thanks to this course, the students developed a strong awareness that not only people from their own country but also those from different cultures in the same geography experience similar problems to theirs” (Instructor 10). It is remarkable that an instructor emphasized that even offering the course in English contributes to global citizenship as a whole. On the other hand, three instructors (23%) stated that they were indefinite about the contribution of the course to the students' perception of global citizenship. This is especially attributed to the fact that the issues are not perceived as global by students due to restrictions on international movement, visa etc. and the difficulties in achieving global citizenship. Similarly, three of the student participants (15%) reported that the course did not contribute to their awareness of the significance of active participation of individuals in solving societal problems. Although the responses in general indicate an increase in awareness of global problems, it is important to note that the potential for active contribution and action are still in a phase of growth. Within this scope, as contended by some of the students, it may require additional enhancements to enable them to transform their awareness of global citizenship into tangible steps. A variety of improvement proposals came from the instructors so as to ensure the active participation of the students in the solution of societal problems within the scope of the course: examining the studies administered by the school on this particular topic and sharing them with the students, distributing the spoken and written work of the people involved in the school's sustainability report, especially the ones intended for the students, encouraging involvement in start-up projects, making improvements in course assessment and evaluation for more effective solution suggestions, introducing such concepts as sustainable engineering and sustainable fashion, including students through workshop-style initiatives by the Sustainability Office, organizing seminar-like activities in which students will also participate are some of the methods voiced by the instructors. In this context, the 11th participant made the following suggestions: “Students can distribute brochures…Help can be received from relevant ministries. Students can walk around with their SDG t-shirts, for example” (Instructor 11). Academic Engagement as Resilience Practice To foster students’ academic engagement potentially leading to enhancement of their sense of agency, where resilience functions as a mediating factor, instructors’ awareness of and

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engagement with global issues and their possible solutions is critical. Under the circumstances, the majority of instructors (76.9%) asserted that in parallel with the students, their awareness about sustainability and global citizenship has improved and their level of consciousness has advanced as a result of their engagement with SDG-related content since they started teaching the course. Participant 2 articulated her opinions as follows: “I was not familiar with global citizenship, sustainability or SDGs. I learned it in the course and with the students” (Instructor 2). This was observed in such behaviors as relating these topics with issues encountered in daily life and questioning themselves about how to contribute even more. One of the instructors noted that as she questioned more, she made the students question more and deepen in-class discussions (Instructor 1). This awareness is also reported by many instructors to be reflected in the methodologies and techniques applied in the classroom settings. Accordingly, the most effective teaching methods are mentioned to be those that engage students in activities that promote questioning, critical thinking, and problem-solving. While such activities capture students’ interest, they also, often unconsciously, contribute to the development of their resilience, as alleged by the instructors. Students expressed varied views about the importance of academic engagement and its contribution to their current states of resilience. While some of them acknowledged that the course made a significant contribution to increasing their levels of resilience in challenging situations, some alleged the opposite. “It helped me to better control and cope with negative situations. I became more aware of different environmental factors and my level of awareness has definitely increased” (Student 18). Similarly, as one of the student participants stated: “It gives people a new perspective on the world. It helps me draw a roadmap to follow when confronted with adversities, even if it's just a rough outline, of what I can do” (Student 9). The importance of learning activities in contributing to a resilient stance was also discussed by the students. As alleged by the 10th student, “being involved in real-life-like activities where we are expected to work in groups with our classmates to propose sustainable solutions to global issues is definitely effective” (Student 10). Whereas majority of the students agreed upon the influence of the course on increasing the levels of resilience, some of them admitted their reluctance in turning this consciousness into action. As highlighted by the 12th student participant: “We have become more aware but we still have difficulty turning this into action” (Student 12). This is also in line with the findings of the BRS, which revealed that the students establish moderate levels of resilience when faced with adverse situations, experiencing difficulties in effectively responding to social and economic challenges influencing their own lives or their societies. A variety of suggestions were made by the instructors for the course to promote students' resilience against adverse situations so that it can facilitate the development of their potential to act as agents of social change. Examples include expanding students' awareness about growth mindset, accommodating personal touch to students that are open to development, asking students to write projects for the SDGs, relating the SDGs with real life situations in all cases, enabling students to face difficulties and mistakes, encouraging students to create more effective solutions to solve societal problems, leading students to think, discuss and share ideas, serving as a model for students through behaviors and opinions, and assigning students tasks

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which will make them feel their potential in realizing change are among the suggestions made by the instructors. It was mentioned by a number of instructor participants that the primary objective of the course was not to contribute to students' resilience. Nevertheless, as resilience is an important component of youth agency, the association established between these two topics was considered natural. Within this scope, the 6th instructor participant asserted: Sustainability already necessitates resilience, but I do not know if we can provide this connection to students. I cannot argue that the students taking this course are resilient. The students may be making the connection with their own efforts. We do not particularly teach it, but the course definitely contributes to it. [Instructor 6] Discussion This research examined student resilience and youth agency together in the higher education context in order to find answers to aforementioned research questions. At the end of the study, three important findings emerged: (1) The students were found to be moderately resilient and adopted various measures to deal with adversities (2) They are unsure as to how they can transform their newly-acquired knowledge into action (3) They feel more resilient through academic work that makes them feel more proactive. Firstly, it was planned to quantitatively measure the resilience levels of students so that resilience could be qualitatively explored as a mediating factor to achieve higher agency among the youth. Despite the abundance of theoretical studies about youth agency and youth resilience separately, the absence of case studies regarding this connection was the motivating factor of this study. Ayala and Manzano (2018) argued that there is a “reciprocal causation” (p. 1323) between academic achievement and resilience and DeJaeghere et al. (2016) conceptualized youth agency as determined by not only individualistic but also sociocultural and economic environments. Reconsidering youth agency in line with the social and economic factors that affect resilience, our study exemplifies the role of high resilience in achieving agency among the youth. The quantitative results of the resilience scale used in this study revealed that the students considered themselves as moderately resilient, not finding themselves highly capable to cope with the social and economic problems they face in their individual lives or witness in their societies. Student resilience is associated with endurance to hardships in the personal life of the students and the ability to adapt to difficult situations. Among many hardships, socioeconomic status of families can be viewed as one of the factors that affects students’ academic development (Collie et al., 2024), which may lead students to perceive themselves as less privileged compared to their peers. In this context, financial constraints may contribute to students’ perceptions of inequality and reduce their sense of resilience. DeJaeghere et al.’s (2016) emphasis on social and economic structures limiting youth agency should also be noted. Students’ acknowledgement that “social change is not easily achieved” reveals that they may not become active agents of change when their resilience is threatened by external forces. Analysis of students’ answers further revealed that global problems such as inequality, injustice and national disasters are also among the factors decreasing their resilience. Uncertainties or sudden shocks may demotivate them, hindering their ability to take initiatives. Knowing that

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being a citizen requires to deal with “the growing uncertainty that characterizes the complex, and globally interconnected, contemporary societies,” (p. 66) they may find it difficult to define their identity and take an active role in society (Camozzi et al., 2015). Taking all these social, cultural, and economic factors into consideration, it is important to remember that students, as social members of society, are “always socially embedded in different structures” (Camozzi et al., p. 2). Our study demonstrated that student resilience increases when students obtain more knowledge and “socio-cultural recognition” (p. 34) about the conditions that make them (as well as other vulnerable groups) feel a sense of vulnerability and lack of control (Lopez Cardozo et al., 2015). Accessing information about a challenging condition or an intricate social problem enables them to comprehend the root causes and come up with strategies to deal with the problem more effectively. The study further revealed that increased resilience acts as a mediating factor, making students believe in the possibility of solutions. It is expected that higher resilience increases academic performance and emotional as well as cognitive development (Ayala & Manzano, 2018; Brewer et al., 2019; Moroz et al., 2021). Knowledge and experience exchange in class; therefore, proves essential in guiding students and encouraging them to take action, which again underpins the definition of agency in social science (Dillabough & Kennelly, 2010). However, student responses to the interview questions as well as the comments of the instructors indicated that students prove unable to transfer their awareness into active engagement. Although they gain information about social problems, exchange ideas in discussions, and even offer solutions, they appeared to have limited awareness as to the ways of participating in civil society. One reason for this may be their lack of knowledge about NGOs and how they work. This may also be attributed to the insufficiency of role models, creating distance between young people and civil society. In the social, cultural and academic environment of many young people, the general tendency is to prioritize academic achievement over civil engagement. This one-sided pedagogical view may be one of the reasons that curbs their potential to engage in community work and exert their collaborative skills. Therefore, providing opportunities to students to engage in teamwork and collaborative projects during lectures obviously increases the feeling of self-efficacy since they become “subjects in their own right rather than objects of intervention” (Lopez Cardozo et al., 2015, p. 59). This also explains how youth agency can thrive within the young population when they learn how to act accordingly and which steps to take in the case of a problem. By applying a more comprehensive pedagogy that does not exclude civic engagement, awareness of a problem and the knowledge of how to act can be followed by active participation in civil society. While increased knowledge and awareness do undoubtedly increase one’s resilience against a problem, it is by no means sufficient to manage to find a solution without proactive strategies. The study demonstrated that students found themselves more resilient when they learned about their roles and responsibilities for their as well as the others’ lives. They are further encouraged to consider the ways of becoming more proactive. One strategy that aims at increasing youth agency and resilience is enabling students to “design and implement solutions that address their priorities and needs” making it possible for them “to lead change within their communities”

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(Armstrong et al., 2021, p. 4). The qualitative aspect of our study revealed that encouraging students to engage in problem solution activities directly increases their belief that they can create change in society. The fact that agency “encompasses potential, action, and purpose” (p. 4) implies that it helps students to believe in their potential and make plans to use it. It consequently encourages them to take action (Mitchell et al., 2022). Still, it is seen in the responses of the students that they are not sure how to turn this belief into proactive behavior. The EAPI course which provided the case for this study was observed to increase student awareness of global problems, making them analyze the problems cross-culturally. The emphasis of both students and instructors during the interviews on the necessity for active participation in the solution of societal problems showed that willingness to be agents of change increases in line with resilience and awareness. As the students get more resilient through knowledge, they become more self-confident that they can overcome problems. When increased confidence and resilience is complemented with team-work, collaboration, and creative thinking studies, they find themselves as potential agents of change, seeking ways to put their ideas into practice. Our study is therefore valuable in revealing this potent yet newly discovered ability of the youth to suggest solutions and strategies to alleviate the problems of societies. Implications This study has provided valuable research findings regarding youth agency and how resilience acts as a crucial asset in fostering it. Through an empirical study, it has been revealed that students show enhanced agency and increased resilience in learning environments that foster their creativity, critical thinking, and problem solution skills. This study, therefore, has clear implications for higher education policy and practice not only in Türkiye but for universities worldwide. A more holistic approach to university education is crucial to create inclusive learning environments where students feel part of a community. Adopting the philosophy of holistic approach to ESD (UNESCO, 2020) is essential to help students go beyond academic development and be informed and educated citizens of the century. With this in mind, some important steps to take would be (1) organizing extracurricular activities such as workshops and seminars that foster a sense of civil society, (2) inviting NGO members to the campus to meet with students (3) encouraging interdisciplinary projects that would include both students and researchers of the field as well as the lecturers to foster a sense of community and civic engagement, (4) integrating SDGs in both graduate and undergraduate English for Academic Purposes courses, (5) complementing the courses with case scenarios, collaborative contexts and platforms for creativity empowers young undergraduates to develop self-expression and agency skills. Regarding the implementation of holistic approach to ESD, it would also be helpful to include students in the decision-making mechanisms of the university so that the campus would be a living site for ongoing education. Given that students are adversely affected by the problems of their societies and the global problems of the world, one important implication about resilience is also relevant with this research. It is obvious that resilience building programs or activities are needed in the higher

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education context to prepare them for the hardships of real life. Offering professional guidance and counselling services for the undergraduates particularly helps them share the hardships demotivating them with experts and get advice. Conclusion The empirical aspect of this study has revealed that youth agency is fostered through the mediating role of resilience. The capacity of students to adapt to changes in their lives also makes it easier for them to make decisions, take initiatives as well as risks. The increase in student resilience goes in tandem with agency. In line with the analysis of the scale as well as interview results and review of literature about resilience and youth agency, it has been observed that higher education institutions can increase student resilience by providing them with the necessary knowledge and experience needed to deal with problems. Moreover, feelings of inadequacy or despair lessen or even disappear as they gain more information about challenging situations. It is therefore critical to consider high resilience as one of the basic assets of youth agency. When resilient students are guided to realize their potential as agents of social change, they feel more confident to take responsibility and create change. In the context of student well-being, resilience has a pivotal role in helping young individuals to act more proactively.

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References Ahmed, Z., & Julis, S. H. (2015). Academic performance, resilience, depression, anxiety, and stress among women college students. Indian Journal of Positive Psychology, 6(4), 367–370. Retrieved from http://www.iahrw.com/index.php/home/journal_detail/19#list Anderson, C., & McCune,V. (2013). Fostering meaning: Fostering community. Higher Education, 66, 283–296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-012-9604-6 Ang, W. H. D., Shorey, S, Hoo, M. X. Y., Chew H. S. J., & Lau, Y. (2021). The role of resilience in higher education: A meta-ethnographic analysis of students’ experiences. Journal of Professional Nursing, 37(6), 1092–1109. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.profnurs.2021.08.010 Archana, U., & Singh, R. (2014). Resilience and spirituality as predictors of psychological well-being among university students. Journal of Psychosocial Research, 9(2), 227– 235. Retrieved from https://www.questia.com/library/journal/1P33770967661/resilience-and-spirituality-as-predictors-of-psychological Armstrong, C., Vidyarthi, A., Vijayaraghavan, J., Livesey, A., Bibi, A., Haj-Ahmad, J., Singh, A., Gittings, L., Fagan, L., Lengkeek, Q., Friscia, F., Lauro, G. Rakshit, D., Ashmore, B., Mullings, D., & Timilsina, A. (2021). Agency and Resilience, Adolescent Well-being: Background Papers for Multi-stakeholder Consultations. Retrieved from https://pmnch.who.int/resources/publications/m/item/agency-andresilience---foundational-elements-of-adolescent-well-being Ayala, J. C., & Manzano, G. (2018). Academic performance of first-year university students: the influence of resilience and engagement. Higher Education Research & Development, 37(7), 1321–1335. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2018.1502258 Berridge, D. (2017). The education of children in care: Agency and resilience. Children and Youth Services Review, 77, 86–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2017.04.004 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2012). Thematic analysis. In H. Cooper, P. M. Camic, D. L. Long, A. T. Panter, D. Rindskopf, & K. J. Sher (Eds.), APA handbook of research methods in psychology, vol. 2: Research designs: Quantitative, qualitative, neuropsychological, and biological (pp. 57–71). American Psychological Association. Brewer, M. L., van Kessel, G., Sanderson, B., Naumann, F., Lane, M., Reubenson, A., & Carter, A. (2019). Resilience in higher education students: a scoping review. Higher Education Research & Development, 38(6), 1105–1120. https://doi.org/10.1080/07294360.2019.1626810 Byrne, D. (2022). A worked example of Braun and Clarke’s approach to reflexive thematic analysis. Quality & Quantity 56, 1391–1412. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11135-021-01182-y

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Camozzi, I., Cherubini, D., Leccardi, C., Rivetti, P., Feixa, C., & Sanchez, J. (2015). Youth cultures: Values, representations and social conditions. Barcelona, Spain: SAHWA Project Background Paper (3). Cantor, A., DeLauer, V., Martin, D., & Rogan, J. (2015). Training interdisciplinary ‘wicked problem’ solvers: Applying lessons from HERO in community-based research experiences for undergraduates. Journal of Geography in Higher Education, 39(3), 407–419. https://doi.org/10.1080/03098265.2015.1048508 Chankseliani, M. & McCowan, T. (2021). Higher education and the Sustainable Development Goals. Higher Education, 81, 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-020-00652-w Collie, R. J., Martin, A. J., Flesken, A., & McCourt, B. (2024). Personal agency among students from low socio-economic backgrounds: An examination of student profiles, perceived teaching support, and achievement. Soc Psychol Educ, (27), 1705–1736. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11218-023-09881-0 Council of Higher Education. (2025). Higher Education System in Türkiye. Retrieved from https://www.yok.gov.tr/en/page/higher-education-system-vylAb. Cresswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2011). Designing and conducting mixed method research (2nd ed.). Sage Publications. Cresswell, J. W. (2014). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches. Sage Publications. Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests. Psychometrika, 16(3),297–334. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02310555 DeJaeghere, J. G., McCleary, K. S., & Josić, J. (2016). Conceptualizing youth agency. In J. DeJaeghere, J. Josić, & K. McCleary (Eds.), Education and Youth Agency: Advancing Responsible Adolescent Development. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-33344-1_1 Dillabough, J. A., & Kennelly, J. (2010). Lost youth in the global city: Class culture and the urban imaginary. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203858332 Doğan, T. (2015). Kısa Psikolojik Sağlamlık Ölçeği’nin Türkçe uyarlaması: Geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması [Adaptation of the Brief Resilience Scale into Turkish: A validity and reliability study]. The Journal of Happiness & Well-Being, 3(1), 93-102 Durso, S. de O., Afonso, L. E., & Beltman, S. (2021). Resilience in higher education: A conceptual model and its empirical analysis. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 29 (August–December), 156. https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.29.6054 Ekpiken, W. E., & Ukpabio, G. U. (2015). Youth empowerment in higher education for sustainable development of developing communities in Cross River State, Nigeria. International Education Studies, 8(9), 113–119. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v8n9p113

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Filho, W. L., Shiel, C. Paço, A., Mifsud, M. Ávila, L. V., Brandli, L. L., Molthan-Hill, P., Pace, P., Azeiteiro, U. M., Vargas, V. R. & Caeiro, S. (2019). Sustainable Development Goals and sustainability teaching at universities: Falling behind or getting ahead of the pack. Journal of Cleaner Production, 232, 285–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.05.309 Gerson, M. W., & Fernandez, N. (2013). PATH: A program to build resilience and thriving in undergraduates. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 43(11), 2169–2184. https://doi.org/10.1111/jasp.12168 Golzar, J., Noor, S., & Tajik, O. (2022). Simple random sampling. International Journal of Education & Language Studies, 1(2), 78-82. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijels.2022.162982 Kerstin, T., van den Belt, M., Denby, L., Ross, K E., Thwaites, J., & Hawkes, M. (2017). Getting started with the SDGs in universities: A guide for universities, higher education institutions, and the academic sector. Australia, New Zealand and Pacific Edition. Sustainable Development Solutions Network – Australia/Pacific, Melbourne. Li, M.-h. & Yang, Y. (2016). A cross-cultural study on a resilience–stress path model for college students. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94, 319–332. https://doi.org/10.1002/jcad.12088. Liu, Y. & Huang, X. (2021). Effects of basic psychological needs on resilience: A human agency model. Frontiers in Psychology. 12,700035. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.700035. Lopez Cardozo, M.., Higgins, S., Maber, E., Brandt, C.O., Kusmallah, N., & Le Mat, M. L. J (2015). Literature review: Youth agency, peacebuilding and education, Research Consortium Education and Peace Building. University of Amsterdam. Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323317773_Literature_Review_Youth_Age ncy_Peacebuilding_and_Education. Magaldi, D., & Berler, M. (2020). Semi-structured interviews. In V. Zeigler-Hill, & T.K. Shackelford (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Personality and Individual Differences. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-24612-3_857. Mark, M. M. (2015). Mixed and multi-methods in predominantly quantitative studies, especially experiments and quasi-experiments. In S. N. Hesse-Biber, & R. B. Johnson (Eds.). The Oxford Handbook of Multimethod and Mixed Methods Research Inquiry, pp. 21–41. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199933624.013.15. Massaro, V. R. (2022). Global citizenship development in higher education institutions: A systematic review of the literature. Journal of Global Education and Research, 6(1), 98–114. https://doi.org/10.5038/2577-509X.6.1.1124. Mitchell C., Lussier, K. & Keita, F (2022). Youth agency in times of crisis: Exploring education and conflict in Mali through participatory visual approaches with youth. Frontiers in Education, 7, 959225. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2022.959225

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Moroz, L. I., Dikhtiarenko, S. Y., & Andrusik, O. O. (2021). Emotional resilience as a major factor in the mental health of prospective university students. Scientific Bulletin of Mukachevo State University. Series “Pedagogy and Psychology”, 7(2), 118– 124. https://doi.org/10.52534/msu-pp.7(2).2021.118-124 Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406917733847 Patton, M, Q. (2002). Qualitative research and evaluation methods (3rd ed.). Sage Publications. Price, R. A. (2022). A review of resilience in higher education: toward the emerging concept of designer resilience. Studies in Higher Education, 48(1), 83-99. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2022.2112027. Salem, T., & Harb, J. (2012). Education for sustainable development: Assessment of the current situation at the faculty of engineering of Notre Dame University-Louaize. Discourse and Communication for Sustainable Education, 3(1), 100–108. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10230-012-0007-9 Sanders, J., Munford, R., Thimasarn-Anwar, T., Liebenberg, L., & Ungar, M., (2015). The role of positive youth development practices in building resilience and enhancing wellbeing for at-risk youth. Child Abuse and Neglect, 42, 40–53. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chiabu.2015.02.006 Smith, B.W., Dalen, J., Wiggins, K., Tooley, E., Christopher, P., & Bernard, J. (2008). The brief resilience scale: Assessing the ability to bounce back. International Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 15, 194–200. Retrieved from https://mcwell.nd.edu/assets/400953/brs.pdf Sood, S. (2013). Happiness as a mediator between resilience and mental health in university students. Indian Journal of Health and Wellbeing, 4(2), 252–255. UNESCO. (2020). Education for sustainable development. A roadmap, UNESCO, Paris. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374802 Universitas Indonesia. (2024). UI GreenMetric World University Rankings 2024. UI GreenMetric. Retrieved from https://greenmetric.ui.ac.id/rankings/overall-rankings2024. Van Teijlingen, E., & Hundley, V. (2001). The importance of pilot studies. Social Research Update, 35, 1-4. Vocational Qualifications Authority (VQA). (2015). Turkish Qualifications Framework (TQF). Retrieved from https://www.tyc.gov.tr Corresponding author: Nilüfer Ülker Email: ulkern@itu.edu.tr

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Appendices Table 1 Demographic Information of Student Participants No Age Nationality

Department

NGO Involvement

Turkish

Mechanical Engineering

Turkish

Mechanical Engineering

Turkish

Environmental Engineering

Yes

Turkish

Mathematics Engineering

Turkish

Molecular Biology

Turkish

Computer Engineering

Turkish

Computer Engineering

Turkish

Mechanical Engineering

Yes

Turkish

Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering

Yes

Turkish

Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering

Uzbek

Textile Engineering

Turkish

Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering

Serbian

Industrial Engineering

Turkish

Electronics and Communications Engineering

Turkish

Shipbuilding and Ocean Engineering

Turkish

Petroleum and Natural Gas Engineering

Turkish

Geophysics Engineering

Turkish

Economics

Yes

Turkish

Control and Automation Engineering

Turkish

Management Engineering

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Table 2 Demographic Information of Instructor Participants No

Age Teaching Experience Times Teaching the Course

16 years

Yes

19 years

23 years

26 years

Yes

36 years

23 years

29 years

24 years

13 years

19 years

22 years

25 years

30 years

NGO Involvement

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Teacher Educators’ Practices of Diversity Responsive Pedagogy in Primary Pre-service Teachers’ Education Program Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba Jimma University, Ethiopia Abbi Lemma Wedajo Jimma University, Ethiopia Woldu Assefa Yadete Jimma University, Ethiopia

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Abstract Teacher educators play a crucial role in the professional preparation of pre-service teachers. The study’s main purpose was to investigate teacher educators’ practices of diversityresponsive pedagogy in primary pre-service teachers’ education programs in Ethiopia and draw its implications for trainees’ professional preparation. The study employed a cross-sectional survey design. The data were collected from three primary pre-service teacher education colleges involving 70 teacher educators and 150 pre-service teachers. Simple random, multistage, and purposive sampling techniques were used. Questionnaires, interviews, and observations were the sources of data. Quantitative data were analyzed using means and standard deviations. Qualitative data were analyzed verbatim and with responses narrated. The study’s findings show that teacher educators have an understanding of and positive attitudes towards diversity but lack practices. They were incapable of building diversity-responsive practical skills and experience. Lack of diversity-responsive curricula, pedagogical skills, and leadership supports were the main challenges for teacher educators. As a result, the primary pre-service teachers didn’t have the opportunity to learn and grow professionally in response to diversity. Therefore, the practices of diversity-responsive pedagogy by teacher educators deserve due attention. This study provided insight into teacher educators’ practices of DRP in primary pre-service teacher preparation in Ethiopia and provided curriculum planners with valuable information on what content to emphasize in order to produce diversity-responsive primary school teachers. The study suggests practice-oriented capacity-building trainings for teacher educators and revisiting teacher education curricula from diversity perspectives. Further research is recommended to investigate its impact on the professional preparation of pre-service teachers. Keywords: diversity-responsive pedagogy, primary pre-service teachers, teacher educators, teacher education program

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Diversity is a fundamental aspect of education. Recently, schools are increasingly populated with students who are diverse in language, culture, expectations, experiences, and backgrounds. To provide equal opportunity for all students to be successful in their learning, educators highly recommend diversity-responsive pedagogy (Banks & Banks, 2016; Gay, 2018; Skepple, 2015). The concept of diversity-responsive pedagogy is used alternatively with different terms, such as culturally relevant teaching, culturally responsive teaching, contextualized pedagogy, and equity pedagogy (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Siwatu, 2011; Skepple, 2015). In this study, however, diversity responsive pedagogy (hereafter called DRP) can be used to mean teaching that recognizes all pre-service teachers’ differences, responding to the uniqueness of each, and intentionally nurturing it to create suitable conditions for their learning (Banks & Banks, 2016; Rychly & Graves, 2012; Shey et al., 2020). DRP involves responding to the diversity in the classroom by connecting new information to pre-service teachers’ background knowledge and presenting it in ways that respond to students’ natural learning styles (Rychly & Graves, 2012). It occurs when teacher educators are sensitive to differences and differences are naturally integrated into the classroom instructional delivery, classroom management, assessment, and feedback practices to make learning more appropriate to diverse learners (Banks & Banks, 2016; Gay, 2018; Tamang, 2022). Thus, DRP is a transformative approach that accepts existing power and accomplishments and works to improve students’ achievement (Banks & Banks, 2016; Caingcoy et al., 2022; Yuan, 2017). It also involves careful acknowledgement, respect, tolerance, and understanding of differences among diverse students (Banks & Banks, 2016; Caingcoy et al., 2022). The complexity of the teaching profession underlines the importance of teacher education programs and ensuring teacher educators’ understanding, attitudes, and practices in preparing pre-service teachers for diversity (Ebersole et al., 2015; Gist, 2014; Rychly & Graves, 2012). The teacher education program is needed to equip pre-service teachers with knowledge, attitudes, and skills in teaching culturally diverse students (Tanase, 2020; Yuan, 2017), and teacher educators are crucial actors in preparing pre-service teachers for teaching in diverse classrooms (Aboushi, 2023). Hence, DRP is a learner-centered approach to teaching, emphasizing the professional preparation of pre-service teachers (Ateh & Ryan, 2023; Shey et al., 2020; Tanase, 2020; Yuan, 2017). Teacher educators are also expected to build pre-service teachers’ solid knowledge base of the subject matter and how to teach it to diverse learners, understand how diverse students grow and learn, how culture influences their learning, and understand the broad purposes of schooling and how those purposes affect their work (Gay, 2018; Gist, 2014; Yuan, 2017). These enable pre-service teachers to develop adequate understandings of the curriculum and how diverse students learn and inculcate positive attitudes and skills within social contexts (Aboushi, 2023; Özüdoğru, 2018; Skepple, 2015). As a result, many teacher education programs around the world have turned their attention towards preparing pre-service teachers for classroom diversity (Dhar, 2023; Shey et al., 2020). While some programs have been successful in preparing pre-service teachers for diversity, several researchers have concerns over the ability of the existing teacher education programs to adequately prepare pre-service teachers for highly diverse classrooms (Ateh & Ryan, 2023; Shey et al., 2020; Siwatu, 2011).

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In Ethiopia, a country with over eighty nations and nationalities, having their cultural backgrounds, the issue of addressing students’ diversity in the educational institutions (university, colleges, and schools) is critical to improve the academic achievements among diverse learners (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Egne, 2015; Mohammed, 2020). This is because schools are increasingly diverse and classrooms are populated by students’ diversity (MoE, 2020, 2023), that have worsened the challenges teachers face in their day-to-day classroom activities (Mohammed, 2020; Tezera & Seyoum, 2024). In addition, primary school students’ low academic achievement has been one of the most persistent and challenging issues that education faces in the country (MoE, 2022). In this regard, the national learning assessment findings showed that students’ achievement for grades 4 and 8 were below the standard. One of the main explanatory factors was associated with teachers’ inadequate preparation and classroom teaching practices (MoE, 2020; Tefera et al., 2018). Hence, the primary pre-service teacher education program was focused because it is responsible for training teachers for the foundation stage which is critical to prepare students for the academic rigor and challenges of secondary education (MoE, 2020, 2022, 2023). Teacher educators are placed at the very center of educational development and considered spearhead of educational initiatives to prepare preservice teachers who can confidently implement school curricula with a learner-centered approach to teaching (TGE, 1994). Teacher educators are required to empower pre-service teachers with a theoretical base and practical skills necessary to teach in a diverse classroom setting to promote primary school students’ academic achievement. As a result, the notion of embracing diversity and the need for multicultural education were realized in the Ethiopian Education and Training Policy (TGE, 1994). Multicultural education is expected to enhance the transformation of society and the maintenance of social justice and equity in the country (Egne, 2015). Thus, the issue of teaching for diversity and preparing primary pre-service teachers for DRP is a pressing concern in teacher education. There have been studies on multicultural education (Degaga & Mekuria, 2023; Egne, 2015; Kibret, 2019), but there have been few studies on primary pre-service teacher educators’ practices of DRP. Therefore, the main purpose of this study was investigating teacher educators’ practices of DRP in selected primary pre-service teacher education programs in Ethiopia and to draw its implications for trainees’ professional preparation. Thus, the study was guided by the following research questions: 1. To what extent do teacher educators have an understanding of and positive attitudes towards DRP? 2. To what extent do teacher educators practice DRP in their pre-service teachers’ education to prepare pre-service teachers for teaching in diverse classrooms? 3. What are the challenges for teacher educators to practice DRP in the pre-service teachers’ preparation to teach in diverse classrooms?

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Literature Review An Overview of Primary Pre-service Teachers’ Education in Ethiopia The primary pre-service teacher education in Ethiopia is a regular program that prepares preservice teachers for teaching in the primary schools, grades 1–8 (MoE, 2022). It is expected that the primary pre-service teacher education equips trainees with the knowledge and skills of the subject matter (academic content), methods of teaching the subject (pedagogy of content), theory-practice connection (practicum), and general pedagogy for teaching primary grades (Gemechu & Aba-oli, 2024). In improving students’ learning outcomes, the Federal Ministry of Education has made several attempts to reform teacher education programs in the country (Tefera etal, 2018). However, the most decisive turn in the Ethiopian teacher education system took place with the formulation of the Education and Training Policy (TGE, 1994) that acknowledged teacher education as one of the priority areas to address key educational challenges (relevance, quality, access, and equity) in the country (Ahmad, 2013). Notable reforms included the Teacher Education System Overhaul (TESO) which was initiated in 2003 (Ahmad, 2013; MoE, 2022). Before TESO a primary pre-service teacher education was given for a year duration, and pre-service teachers were awarded certificate for teaching different subjects in primary schools (MoE, 2022). TESO transformed primary pre-service teacher education to a duration of 3 years, and trainees were awarded diploma in teaching. Due to graduates’ lack of content knowledge, poor implementation of active learning, lack of professional commitment, and lack of interest, TESO was replaced by another reform (Gemechu & Aba-oli, 2024). This focused on a generalist modality that prepares teachers for lower primary grades 1-4 a composite of four subject areas. The integrative modality prepares teachers for grades 5-6, and the linear modality prepares teachers for upper primary grades 78 in major and minor subjects (Tefera et al., 2021). In all cases, common, professional, and practicum courses are an integral part of the teacher education system in the country. Currently, these approaches have been used to prepare primary pre-service teachers for teaching at different levels of primary schools (MoE, 2022; Tefera et al., 2021). It was also expected that the primary pre-service teacher education program focused on a student-centered approach and accommodated diversity through the practices of DRP, a transformational pedagogical approach that recognizes, acknowledges, and celebrates students’ diversity, fostering inclusive and equitable learning opportunities (MoE, 2022). Despite some reforms undertaken to improve the professional quality of primary school teachers, the pre-service teacher education has been criticized for a lack of preparation of competent pre-service teachers (Gemechu & Aba-oli, 2024). Studies show that primary school teachers had inadequate pedagogical knowledge and skills, lack knowledge of their students, and rarely use diverse assessment strategies to address students’ learning needs (Tefera et al., 2018). Teacher education programs were unable to equip pre-service teachers with the pedagogical knowledge and skills required to address students’ diversities (Tefera et al., 2021). It was expected that teacher educators’ practices of DRP could promote equality, tolerance, respect, and mutual understanding among diverse learners (Mohammed, 2020). In addition,

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DRP is believed to lay the foundation, promote peaceful coexistence, belongingness, empower females and the disabled in the education system (MoE, 2020). Teacher Educators’ Understanding, Attitudes, and Practices of DRP DRP is a pedagogy that empowers students intellectually, socially, emotionally, and politically by using cultural references to impart knowledge, attitudes, and skills (Gay, 2018; Shey et al., 2020). It encompasses acceptance and respect for individual differences (Gay, 2018; Tamang, 2022). DRP connects students’ culture, languages, and life experiences with what they learn in school. These connections help them to access the curriculum and develop high-level academic skills (Tamang, 2022). It focuses on the assets students bring to the classroom, raises expectations, and makes learning relevant for all students (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Gay, 2018; Idrus et al., 2023). Teachers connect culture with students’ life to increase student performance, enhance student access to more rigorous curriculum, and advance student attainment to high school completion and beyond (Banks & Banks, 2016; Tamang, 2022; Tanase, 2020). Hence, DRP is a conceptual framework that can be utilized in all subject areas with a diverse student population (Shey et al., 2020). Teacher educators play a crucial role in preparing pre-service teachers to deal with and teach about diversity (Aboushi, 2023). DRP requires teacher educators to use critical diversity awareness and skills to objectively examine their values, beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions (Rychly & Graves, 2012). This provides pre-service teachers with understanding, sensitivity, and appreciation of lifestyles of others (Gay, 2018). Further, teacher educators should also have a clear awareness of pre-service teachers’ diversity, how people’s attitudes, beliefs, values, assumptions, and self-awareness affect the ways they interact with those who are different from themselves (Perso, 2012; Rychly & Graves, 2012). In practicing DRP, teacher educators use a variety of instructional strategies to promote pre-service teachers’ practices connected with diversity of learners (Aceves & Orosco, 2014; Banks & Banks, 2016). Teacher educators practice strategies allowing students to develop the knowledge, attitudes, and skills related to academic content, reflecting on critical issues to make learning personally meaningful and effective for them (Gay, 2018; Rychly & Graves, 2012). Some pertinent instructional strategies to be used in DRP include collaborative learning, modeling, scaffolding, problem-based learning, case studies, and simulations (Aceves & Orosco, 2014; Ebersole et al., 2015; Perso, 2012). DRP also requires teacher educators to use culturally responsive instructional materials and resources that engage students and promote critical thinking and reflection suitable addressing diverse learning styles of pre-service teachers (Rychly & Graves, 2012). Assessment of learning is responsive when it is relevant, immediate, continuous, and providing more information about students and their achievement (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Banks & Banks, 2016). Feedback is considered responsive when it is ongoing, and immediate on preservice teachers’ responses and participation in the classroom (Banks & Banks, 2016; Özüdoğru, 2018). Classroom management is responsive when teacher educators have thorough knowledge about, and building relationships with, inclusive learning environments that can foster an equitable educational experience for all learners (Aboushi, 2023; Ateh & Ryan, 2023).

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Challenges in Implementing DRP in Teacher Education Programs The review of literature shows that teacher educators face many challenges in creating an appropriate classroom environment and high standards of instruction that foster the learning of all pre-service teachers (Banks & Banks, 2016). The most common challenge to implement DRP in the classroom is teacher educators’ lack of knowledge, attitudes, and skills in managing and handling diversity issues in the teacher education program (Ebersole et al., 2015). Teacher educators with limited knowledge, sensitivity, or those with little space for diversity may perceive differences as problems and respond to pre-service teachers’ diversity with a negative attitude and low expectations (Ateh & Ryan, 2023). The attitudes held by teacher educators to their pre-service teachers, particularly the expectations they have of their learning, impact on what pre-service teachers eventually learn (Özüdoğru, 2018). It is therefore essential that these attitudes are positive and affirming (Perso, 2012). Another challenge is the theory-practice gap. Many teacher education programs put much of their attention and energy to theory instead of preparing pre-service teachers for the daily realities of the classroom (Mburu, 2022). Many teacher educators have a grounding in the subject area knowledge but lack exposure to the pedagogy of schooling and teaching in multicultural school settings (Tanase, 2020). This absence of diversity-responsive practice-base in real classrooms outweighs the subject content knowledge, or “professional skill” training in teacher education programs (Yuan, 2017). Further, supportive leadership is also required to prepare pre-service teachers for diversity (Aceves & Orosco, 2014; Skepple, 2015). Teacher education leadership must ensure that teacher educators are not only masters of content but also practice how to engage pre-service teachers (Rychly & Graves, 2012; Shey et al., 2020). Materials and Methods Study Design The study employed a cross-sectional survey design. This was because a cross-sectional survey design is suitable for describing and measuring the current attitudes, beliefs, opinions, behaviors, and practices of a population (Creswell, 2012). Thus, quantitative and qualitative data were collected simultaneously to provide better understanding of research problem. The quantitative data were used to measure the extent of teacher educators’ practices of DRP, and qualitative data were used to supplement quantitative data. Participants and Sampling techniques The data for the study were collected from three primary pre-service teacher education colleges involving 70 teacher educators and 150 pre-service teachers. The study employed simple random, multi-stage, and purposive sampling techniques. Simple random sampling was used to select three pre-service teacher education colleges. Multistage sampling was used to teacher educators and pre-service teachers, creating three strata based on their teacher education colleges. For anonymity, teacher education colleges were named A, B, and C. Then, the samples were selected using the proportional allocation method. Hence, 24, 26, and 20, a total

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of 70 teacher educators, and 42, 62, and 46, a total of 150 pre-service teachers, were selected from A, B, and C teacher education colleges, respectively. Purposive sampling was used to select department heads. Data Collection Instruments To collect data, questionnaires, interviews, and observations were used. Similar close-ended questionnaires were prepared by the research team for teacher educators and pre-service teachers, vital for cross-checking the results. The questionnaire items were five points of the Likert scale, piloted in two teacher education colleges that were not included in the main study, and administered. In addition, semi-structured interview guides were used to collect supplementary qualitative data from 9 department heads (three in each teacher education college). Further, classroom observations were conducted using a semi-structured observation protocol. In this regard, 12 (four in each teacher education college) classroom observations (each lasting fifty minutes) were performed to collect live data from the classroom settings that supplement self-reported data. The observations were focused on teacher educators’ use of DRP strategies in the classroom settings. Validity and Reliability of Instruments The validity of quantitative instruments was promoted by carefully developing instruments and checking for accuracy by language experts. The questionnaires were piloted on sample teacher education colleges other than the actual sample. Cronbach alpha coefficients were calculated and found to be 0.92, suggesting the items have high internal consistency. A reliability coefficient of 0.70 or higher is considered “acceptable” in most social science research situations (Cohen et al., 2007). In addition, to ensure the trustworthiness of qualitative data, member-checking was used at different stages of data collection and analysis throughout the research and writing process. The transcribed interviews and the draft section of the report were given to participants to review, make comments, and provide suggestions on the truthfulness of the accounts. Based on the participants’ input, modifications were made. The use of multiple instruments (questionnaires, interviews, and observations) was found to be vital for triangulating, developing, expanding, and complementing the data for supporting validity/trustworthiness to achieve the objectives of the study. Data Analysis The quantitative data collected through a closed-ended questionnaire were organized in tables and analyzed using Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS) software version 26 and using descriptive statistics such as means and standard deviations. Besides, qualitative data were analyzed verbatim to supplement and explain quantitative data whenever necessary. Based on the collected data, analysis, and discussion, findings and conclusions were reached.

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Ethical Considerations The researchers received ethical clearance from Jimma University College of Education and Behavioral Sciences Ethical Review Board. We were also granted permission from the school administrations. Participants were explicitly informed about the purposes, voluntary participation, and guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality of their participation. Finally, the study was reported ethically, and credits were given to all materials and sources used. Results The study’s purpose was to investigate the practices of teacher educators’ DRP in primary preservice teacher education programs in Ethiopia. Accordingly, the quantitative results are analyzed based on the research questions followed by verbatim and narrating qualitative results. Teacher Educators’ Understanding of and Attitudes Towards DRP To find out the extent to which teacher educators have adequate knowledge of and positive attitudes towards DRP, the quantitative data collected through close-ended questionnaires are summarized in Table 1. Table 1 Teacher Educators’ Knowledge of and Attitudes towards DRP

Item Positive attitude towards diversity View diversity as normal Acknowledge trainees’ diversity Show sensitivity to address diversity Support all trainees equally Understanding trainees’ diversity Responsible for trainees’ learning Promote equity and mutual respect Enhance trainees’ self-perception Diversity is seen as a resource Addressing diversity is extra work Beliefs of diversity shape instruction

Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 4.17 0.87 4.20 0.77 4.19 0.75 3.96 0.88 4.16 0.75 4.06 0.72 4.17 0.61 4.06 0.72 4.00 0.74 3.83 0.74 3.20 1.20 3.66 0.95

Pre-service teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 4.12 0.86 4.08 1.09 4.01 1.23 3.56 1.25 4.07 1.27 4.11 1.07 3.37 1.11 3.46 1.11 3.85 1.22 3.69 1.18 3.62 1.28 3.23 1.25

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

Table 1 shows teacher educators and pre-service teachers’ responses to teacher educators’ understanding of and attitude towards diversity-responsive pedagogy. In this regard, teacher

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educators’ and pre-service teachers mean scores are between 4.00 and 4.99, indicating “great extent” for their positive attitude towards diversity, view diversity as normal, acknowledge trainees’ diversity, understand trainees’ diversity, and support all trainees equally, promote equity and mutual respect, and enhance trainees’ self-perception. For the remaining variables, the mean scores for both teacher educators and pre-service teachers are between 3.00 and 3.99, revealing “some extent”. Exceptions were teacher educators rated their responsibility for trainees learning, promoting equity and mutual respect, and enhancing trainees’ self-perception to “great extent”, whereas pre-service teachers rated it to “some extent”. In addition, the analysis of interviews shows that teacher educators have an understanding of and a positive attitude towards the diversity of pre-service teachers. For instance, one of the participants replied: I see differences among students as normal. This is because students come from different families, ethnic, and cultural backgrounds. It is what we can’t avoid. I accept diversity because understanding it helps me to value, respect, and tolerate differences. Teacher Educators’ Practices of DRP To identify teacher educators’ practices of DRP, the quantitative data collected through closeended questionnaires are summarized in Tables 2- 5. Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Content to Address Diversity Concerning teacher educators’ use of diverse content to address pre-service teachers’ diversity, the quantitative data collected through close-ended questionnaires are summarized in Table 2. Table 2 Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Content to Address Diversity

Item Adequacy of content Accuracy of content Completeness of content Content from diverse perspectives Use of multiple examples Content related to the real world Content addressing high expectation

Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 2.39 0.92 2.37 0.98 2.49 1.05 2.40 1.04 2.41 0.99 2.57 1.08 2.59 1.04

Pre-service teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 2.11 0.89 3.35 1.17 3.23 1.08 2.37 0.93 2.19 0.93 2.61 1.25 2.83 1.11

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

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Table 2 indicates teacher educators and pre-service teachers’ responses on teacher educators’ use of diverse content to address pre-service teachers’ diversity. Accordingly, teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ mean scores are between 2.00-2.99, depicting “small extent” for all variables included (content addressing high expectation, content related to the real world, use of multiple examples, completeness of content, accuracy of content, adequacy of content, and content from a diverse perspective). The exceptions were for the mean scores for pre-service teachers indicate between 3.00 and 3.99, for teacher educators’ accuracy and completeness of content to “some extent”. In addition, the analysis of the interviews revealed a lack of content presentation from diverse cultures and various perspectives. In this respect, one of the participants said: The issue of diversity is touched on only in the pedagogy and foundation courses. In these courses, there is a need to go beyond their mere focus on conceptual understandings of multicultural education. The content and examples were drawn from Western cultures rather than focusing on cultural diversity in the Ethiopian school context. Further, classroom lesson observations showed teacher educators rarely used diverse examples from different cultures and backgrounds, and inadequately linked examples to pre-service teachers’ future teaching in primary schools. Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Teaching Methods to Address Diversity Regarding teacher educators use of diverse teaching methods to address pre-service teachers’ diversity, the quantitative data collected through close-ended questionnaires are summarized in Table 3.

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Table 3 Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Teaching Methods to Address Diversity Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 3.29 0.87 2.97 0.87 2.99 0.86 3.23 0.82 3.14 0.89 2.89 0.83 3.07 0.80 3.23 0.82 3.29 0.87 2.94 0.89 2.90 0.95 2.89 0.83 3.13 0.87

Item Support trainees according to their ability Know trainees in their learning styles Use of diverse active learning strategies Motivate all trainees to engage Create an interactive environment Teach to address the diversity of students Use cooperative or collaborative learning Respond positively to trainee’s needs View trainees as active participants Use positive interdependence Pay attention to special needs Encourage trainees’ critical thinking Challenge trainees for excellence

Pre-service teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 2.02 0.89 2.43 1.19 2.31 0.99 3.20 1.21 2.99 1.36 2.23 0.96 2.67 1.16 3.33 1.14 3.27 1.19 2.05 0.79 2.03 0.87 2.93 1.23 2.93 1.23

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

Table 3 depicts teacher educators and pre-service teachers’ responses on teacher educators’ use of diverse teaching methods to address pre-service teachers’ diversity. In this respect, teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ mean scores are between 3.00 and 3.99 depicting to “some extent” for positively responding to trainee’s needs, viewing trainees as active participants, motivate all trainees to engage, For the remaining variables, the mean scores for both teacher educators and pre-service teachers are between 2.00 and 2.99, revealing “small extent”. The exceptions were for support provided to trainees as on their ability, creating an interactive environment, and challenging trainees for excellence were the results contradicted. In addition, the analysis of the interviews depicts that the participants’ utilization of diversityresponsive teaching methods was very limited. Most teacher educators employ lecture methods, question and answer, and group work during their instructional delivery. In this regard, one of the participants stated: Many teacher educators know that each pre-service teacher is unique, calling for the use of diverse teaching methods. But we all teach in the same way. As a department head, I rarely observed an attempt to use a variety of student-centered methods in a single lesson to address pre-service teacher differences. Further, classroom lesson observations also showed that teacher educators’ oral explanation and lesson delivery focused on covering the subject matter within the allotted time predominates. Some of the teacher educators used small group discussion, but the contribution

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of each member was not well identified. Besides, the support provided by teacher educators was not clear, creating either dependence of some group members on others or dominance of active participants in the group work. Teacher educators’ use of modeling, scaffolding, simulation, case-based, and problem-solving methods was less observed. Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Instructional Media and Materials With respect to teacher educators’ use of diverse instructional media and materials to address pre-service teachers’ diversity, the quantitative data collected through close-ended questionnaires are summarized in Table 4. Table 4 Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Instructional Media and Materials Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 3.10 1.12 3.20 1.02 3.21 0.99 3.19 0.95 3.03 0.99

Item Carefully select the materials Use of multiple instructional materials Apply the material to their own experiences Show how the material relates to trainees Evaluate the materials used

Pre-service teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 2.29 1.03 2.42 1.13 3.30 1.15 3.25 1.21 2.11 0.99

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

Table 4 indicates teacher educators and pre-service teachers’ use of diverse instructional media and materials. In this regard, the mean scores for teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ are between 3.00 and 3.99, indicating “some extent” for applying material to their own experiences, and showing how the material relates to trainees. For the remaining variables included the results contradicted. In addition, the analysis of the interviews revealed that teacher educators’ limited use of instructional materials to address pre-service teachers’ diversity. In this regard, one of the participants replied: In our teacher education college, there is a shortage of instructional materials. Besides, our commitment to the preparation of supportive instructional material is also limited due to financial issues allocated for this purpose. Sometimes we use the available ones. The support we have from college leaders is also minimal. Further, evidence from classroom lesson observations has never shown teacher educators using a variety of supportive instructional materials intended to make the lesson concrete, clear, and understandable, except for using a chalkboard.

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Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Learning Assessment and Feedback Regarding teacher educators’ use of diverse assessment and feedback to enhance pre-service teachers’ learning, the quantitative data collected through close-ended questionnaires the results are summarized in Table 5. Table 5 Teacher Educators’ Use of Diverse Learning Assessment and Feedback Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 3.43 0.86 3.24 0.91 2.90 1.01 3.33 0.85 3.40 0.81 2.67 0.85 2.59 0.93 2.74 0.93 2.91 0.91 2.77 0.87 3.24 0.91

Item Use multiple formative assessments Use evidence to inform their practice Identify strengths and weaknesses Prepares an assessment of diverse types Assess trainees fairly Use of trainees’ self-evaluation Use of trainees’ peer evaluation Give timely feedback Use of a multiple feedback system Use of critical reflection Alignment of assessment activities and objectives

Prospective teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 3.47 1.25 2.13 0.79 2.03 0.79 3.55 1.16 3.47 1.25 2.01 0.81 2.06 0.81 3.09 1.11 2.25 0.93 2.07 0.79 3.52 1.10

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

Table 5 reveals teacher educators and pre-service teachers responses on teacher educators utilization of diverse assessment and feedback to enhance pre-service Accordingly, the mean score for teacher educators and pre-service teachers are between 3.0 and 3.99, depicting “some extent” for their use of a multiple formative assessments, prepare assessment of diverse types, assess trainees’ fairly, and aligning assessment activities and objectives. For the remaining variables included the mean scores are between 2.00 and 2.99, revealing “small extent”. The exception was where the results contradicted the teacher educators’ use of evidence to inform their practice. The analysis of the interviews revealed that teacher educators’ lack commitment to using formative assessments of different types aligned with the objectives of the lessons. Most of them were very reluctant to properly implement continuous assessment, rarely allowed preservice teachers to self-assess and peer - assess, and never used no multiple feedback system beyond showing them mid-examination. In our teacher education college, every teacher educator is required to implement continuous assessment. There is also a format given for this purpose. In a practical

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sense, only limited teacher educators adhere to this format. We use only attendance, one group assignment, mid-exam, and a final examination. Further, classroom lesson observations also showed that teacher educators’ limited the use of assessment strategies beyond oral questions and responses. Teacher educators were not observed while providing pre-service teachers with the opportunity to assess themselves and/or their peers. Major Challenges of Teacher Educators to Practice DRP To find out the challenges of teacher educators to practice DRP, respondents were ranked from most difficult to least difficult challenges, and the results are summarized in Table 6. Table 6 Major Challenges of Teacher Educators to Practice Diversity-responsive Pedagogy Teacher educators (N = 70) Mean Std. dev. 4.21 1.87 3.37 2.13 5.66 2.08 5.90 2.12 4.34 2.73 4.84 2.21 3.19 1.77 4.59 2.21

Item Lack of awareness Lack of a positive attitude Lack of pedagogical skill Lack of inclusive curricula Lack of instructional materials Lack of capacity-building training Lack of an inclusive medium of instruction Lack of leadership support

Pre-service teachers (N = 150) Mean Std. dev. 4.06 1.53 2.69 1.29 5.14 1.75 7.07 1.42 4.34 1.50 4.35 1.65 1.46 0.74 6.83 1.56

Note: 1.00–1.99 = Not at all, 2.00–2.99 = Small extent, 3.00–3.99 = Some extent, 4.00–4.99 = Great extent, 5.00 and above = Very great extent

Table 6 shows teacher educators’ and pre-service teachers’ responses to teacher educators’ challenges in practicing DRP from the most challenging to the least. In this regard, the mean scores for teacher educators’ four top-ranked challenges are: lack of inclusive curricula, lack of pedagogical skills, lack of capacity building, and lack of leadership support. Similarly, the mean scores for the pre-service teachers of four ranked challenges are: lack of inclusive curricula, leadership support, pedagogical skills, capacity building, awareness, positive attitude, and inclusive medium of instruction. In addition, the analysis of interviews indicates that a lack of inclusive curricula, a lack of pedagogical skills, a lack of capacity building, and a lack of leadership support were cited as major challenges of using DRP. In this respect, one of the participants said: As far as my understanding of DRP is concerned, many teacher educators lack the pedagogical skills to practice DRP. The teacher education curricula also lack

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responsiveness to the diversity of pre-service teachers and their future professional needs to address the diversity of school students. Discussion The central task of a teacher education program is to effectively prepare pre-service teachers to recognize the benefits of diversity for schools and all students. This task primarily requires teacher educators clear understanding of and positive attitudes towards diversity. Hence, in response to the first research question, the study’s findings show that teacher educators have an understanding of and positive attitudes towards DRP. These findings are explicated by teacher educators’ understanding of trainees’ diversity, positive attitude towards diversity, viewing diversity as normal, and acknowledging pre-service teachers’ diversity (Table 1). The qualitative findings support quantitative findings. These findings concurred with other findings (Özüdoğru, 2018; Perso, 2012), who found adequate awareness and positive attitudes towards diversity. The findings of the study showed that teacher educators had an understanding of and positive attitudes towards DRP, which his encouraging. This is because a thorough understanding of DRP is essential for teacher educators to gain greater self-understanding, understanding of others, better interpersonal skills, and effectively address diversity challenges. In particular, teacher educators’ attitudes play a profound role in framing preservice teachers’ assumptions about teaching, students, and the material to be taught, which provides a basis for actions and influences their orientations towards diversity (Ebersole et al., 2015; Siwatu, 2011). This means teacher educators inculcate in the pre-service teachers the interest, motivation, beliefs, values, and confidence required to teach in diverse settings. Teacher educators who understand the diversity of pre-service teachers can assist in developing their positive attitude towards school students’ differences and accepting diversity as normal. Thus, teacher educators’ understanding of and positive attitude towards diversity is vital to prepare pre-service teachers for diversity, supporting and promoting their knowledge and attitudes towards the world of the teaching profession so that they can learn how to address students’ diversity in the schools effectively. It is also essential to develop pre-service teachers’ knowledge base of the multiple dimensions of students’ diversity, understanding the social, cultural, and linguistic contexts that enable the successful socialization of all students in school settings (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Gay, 2018). Treating diversity as an asset and a source of growth rather than a hindrance to student performance can help to ensure better performing and more inclusive classrooms (Brownlee et al., 2022; Skepple, 2015). Literature also shows that teacher educators support pre-service teachers with knowledge and understanding that promote inter-group support, cooperation, mutual and reciprocal respect, tolerance, and sensitivity, vital for inculcating understanding of difference and their commonalities (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024; Gay, 2018). This is because teacher educators not only provide pre-service teachers with essential subject matter and pedagogical knowledge and skills, but also with the interest, motivation, beliefs, values, and confidence required to teach in diverse settings. Teacher educators’ positive attitudes towards accepting pre-service teachers’ assumptions about teaching, students, and the material to be taught provide a basis for action and influence their orientations towards diversity (Ebersole et al., 2015; Siwatu,

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2011). Pedagogical choices are also typically informed by underlying belief systems about teaching and learning developed by teacher educators (Brownlee et al., 2022). It is encouraging that teacher educators have an understanding of and a positive attitude towards pre-service teachers’ diversity. Therefore, it could be possible to say that teacher educators had adequate understanding of and positive attitudes towards diversity to shoulder the responsibility to prepare pre-service teachers for working with a diverse student population in the school. In response to the second research question, the extent to which teacher educators practice diversity responsive pedagogy, the quantitative findings reveal that teacher educators inadequately practice DRP. This finding is elucidated by teacher educators’ lack of utilization of diversified content, inadequate implementation of learner-centered teaching methods, inadequate use of diverse instructional materials, lack of use of variety of assessment and feedback strategies to address pre-service teachers’ diversity (Table 2–5). The qualitative findings support the quantitative findings. These findings concurred with other findings (Degaga & Mekuria, 2023; Mohammed, 2020; Yuan, 2017), who found teacher educators’ inadequate practices in teaching in multicultural settings. The findings of the study implied that the existence of a gap between teacher educators’ theoretical knowledge, understanding, attitudes, and their practical work in the classrooms in addressing diversity. This is because teacher educators’ practices to foster pre-service teachers’ positive-attitudes towards diversity and building diversity-responsive knowledge and skill base had never been their central concern during the instructional processes. In addition, teacher educators’ lack of sensitivity to address diversity and addressing diversity was seen as extra work. Literature shows that diversity-responsive teacher educators generate meaningful lessons relevant to their pre-service teachers by connecting the coursework to the familiarities and practices of diverse pre-service teachers in the training institution (Gist, 2014; Tanase, 2020). The use of DRP (diverse teaching methods, instructional aids, assessment, and feedback) strategies empowers pre-service teachers to develop into improved individuals and more successful future teachers (Idrus et al., 2023; Yuan, 2017). DRP practices improve pre-service teachers’ academic abilities, self-efficacy, and personal creativity (Aboushi, 2023). In this respect, through student-oriented practices, teacher educators respond to pre-service teachers’ backgrounds and learning needs (Özüdoğru, 2018). However, the findings of this study reveal that teacher educators often gave priority to cover the subject matter (content) they teach than addressing pre-service teachers’ diversity leading to inadequate modeling to address students’ diversity in the classroom. Teacher educators often fail to encourage pre-service teachers to expand their vision of DRP beyond academic materials. This means inadequately prepared preservice teachers resort to traditional teaching practices (chalk and talk) that they experienced while they were assigned to the school. Practical support and experience sharing through modeling, scaffolding, simulation, and problem-solving strategies were lacking. This implies pre-service teachers have limited opportunities to question their values, attitudes, and preconceived ideas about students’ diversity in the school. In addition, DRP provides preservice teachers with the support needed to grow intellectually and develop skills in producing, selecting, and utilizing material appropriate for the ages, abilities, and learning styles of those being taught (Mburu, 2022). The lack of such understanding, skills and experiences may limit

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the competence of pre-service teachers to work later in the diverse school environment. Further, teacher educators were reluctant to properly implement continuous assessment, rarely used the results to inform future practices, provided less timely feedback, and monitored pre-service teachers. Learning assessment and feedback of pre-service teachers’ abilities and achievement must be continuous and transparent to improve their achievement, and they will do the same thing in the school later. This shows that elements of assessment and feedback systems were lacking. DRP should encompass practices that capitalize on opportunities for all pre-service teachers to learn, emphasizing the importance of enhancing the outcomes of their learning via follow-up, reflection, and monitoring their progress (Ebersole et al., 2015; Shey et al., 2020; Skepple, 2015). In response to the third research question focused on the challenges of teacher educators to practice DRP, the findings of the study show that the lack of diversity-responsive curricula, lack of pedagogical skills, inadequate capacity building, and lack of leadership support stand at the top priority (Table 6). The qualitative findings support the quantitative findings. These findings concurred with other studies (Degaga & Mekuria, 2023; Gist, 2014; Tezera & Seyoum, 2024), who found similar challenges of culturally responsive pedagogy. The findings of this study disclosed that lack of inclusive curricula, inadequate pedagogical skills, shortage of capacity building, and limited leadership support as major challenges of using DRP in their teacher education programs to deal with and address pre-service teachers’ diversity. They have both the opportunity and challenge in their multiple professional roles, as teachers of teachers, researchers, curriculum developers, and implementers (Abdalla & Moussa, 2024). The findings of this study demonstrated that the lack of diversity-responsive curricula in teacher education programs is one of the major challenges. Diversity-responsive curricula include content about diverse populations from diverse perspectives and connect classroom activities with the students’ daily lives, focusing on topics that matter to the students in the school that pre-service teachers later serve (Banks & Banks, 2016). In the present study, participants emphasized that the curricula lack content adequacy, multiple examples, and inclusion of diverse perspectives to address pre-service teachers’ diversity. In addition, teacher educators lack pedagogical skills to address pre-service teachers’ diversity, leading to theory-practice gaps. Such a theorypractice gap is a challenge to many teacher educators, for they put much of their attention and energy into theory instead of preparing pre-service teachers for the future realities of the classroom (Mburu, 2022). Further, supportive leadership is required to ensure that teacher educators have to practice DRP and build their capacity with relevant on-the-job training in preparing pre-service teachers (Shey et al., 2020; Rychly & Graves, 2012). In general, implementing DRP in teacher education programs is not an easy task. Thus, joint efforts of the Federal Ministry of Education, the Regional Education Bureau, the College Teacher Educations, and curriculum planners were critical to overcome these challenges to extend the merits of DRP to primary pre-service teachers in the country.

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Limitations The data for this study were secured from questionnaires, interviews, and observations. The analysis of teacher education curricula was not considered. Thus, future studies should consider the analysis of teacher education curricula from a diversity perspective. Conclusions Teacher educators are central in implementing teacher education curricula and building the foundation for pre-service teachers. Teacher educators’ practices of DRP highly impact preservice teachers’ cognitive, affective, and behavioral qualities, critical for their professional career. The study’s findings showed that teacher educators have an understanding of and positive attitudes towards diversity; however, their classroom practices were found to be inadequate. Teacher educators did not make meaningful connections between their theoretical understandings of DRP and actual classroom practices by linking academic concepts with preservice teachers’ professional experiences. They were incapable of building diversityresponsive practical skills and experience bases that were fundamental to positively impacting pre-service teachers’ competence to address students’ diversity in the schools they were supposed to teach later. As a result, primary pre-service teachers didn’t have the opportunity to learn and grow professionally in response to diversity. Therefore, the practices of diversityresponsive pedagogy by teacher educators deserve due attention to produce competent primary pre-service teachers who can address diversity - promote equality, inclusion, tolerance, respect, and mutual understanding in primary schools, which are core values of Ethiopia’s teacher education system. It is crucial to prepare competent graduates who can properly implement DRP in Ethiopia’s primary schools by focusing on DRP in the teacher education programs, revisiting teacher education curricula, and strengthening teacher educators’ pedagogical skills. Implications This study provided insight into teacher educators’ practices of DRP in primary pre-service teacher preparation in Ethiopia and provided curriculum planners with valuable information on what content to emphasize in order to produce diversity-responsive primary school teachers. Recommendations The study recommends that teacher educators and pre-service teachers should be supported with relevant on-the-job capacity building training focused on DRP by the regional education office and teacher education colleges. Finally, further research is recommended to investigate the impact of teacher educators’ practices of DRP on pre-service teachers’ professional preparation in the country at large.

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Acknowledgements We are grateful to Jimma University for the stationary material support, pre-service teachers, and teacher educators who involved in providing data for the study.

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References Abdalla, H., & Moussa, A. (2024). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Navigating Models and Implementing Effective Strategies. Acta Pedagogia Asiana, 3(2), 91–100. https://doi.org/10.53623/apga.v3i2.432 Aboushi, F. A. (2023). Are They Ready ? Do Teacher Preparation Programs Adequately Prepare Students To Implement Culturally Responsive Teaching ? Seton Hall University Dissertation and Thesis. Aceves, T. C., & Orosco, M. J. (2014). Innovation Configuration Culturally Responsive Teaching. Ceedar Center, 2(IC), 1–37. Retrieved from http://ceedar.education.ufl.edu/tools/innovation-configurations Ahmad, S. (2013). Teacher Education In Ethiopia: Growth And Development. University of Ha’il, Saudi Arabia, 3(3), 1–20. https://doi.org/10.21083/ajote.v3i3.2850 Ateh, C. M., & Ryan, L. B. (2023). Preparing teacher candidates to be culturally responsive in classroom management. Social Sciences and Humanities Open, 7(1), 100455. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2023.100455 Brownlee, J. L., Bourke, T., Rowan, L., Ryan, M., Churchward, P., Walker, S., L’Estrange, L., Berge, A., & Johansson, E. (2022). How epistemic reflexivity enables teacher educators’ teaching for diversity: Exploring a pedagogical framework for critical thinking. British Educational Research Journal, 48(4), 684–703. https://doi.org/10.1002/berj.3789 Banks & Banks C. (2016). Multicultural Education: Issues and perspectives (9th ed.). Maynard Johnny Jr./GarfinkelPublication Inc. Caingcoy, M. E., Lorenzo, V. I. M., Ramirez, I. A. L., Libertad, C. D., Pabiona, R. G., & Mier, R. M. C. (2022). Assessing Practice Teachers’ Culturally Responsive Teaching: The Role of Gender and Degree Programs in Competence Development. IAFOR Journal of Cultural Studies, 7(1), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.22492/ijcs.7.1.02 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2007). Research Methods in Education. Boston: Pearson. Pearson. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203029053 Creswell J. (2012). Educational Research :Planning, Conducing and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. New York: Pearson. Degaga, T. L., & Mekuria, Y. S. (2023). Multicultural education: Teachers’ perceptions in Hosanna College of Education, southern nations, nationalities, and peoples’ region (SNNPR), Ethiopia. Cogent Education, 10(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2023.2184916 Dhar, D. (2023). Necessity of Pre-service Teacher Education Programe for the Improvement of Secondary Education. 4(7), 785–789. Ebersole, M., Kanahele-Mossman, H., & Kawakami, A. (2015). Culturally Responsive Teaching: Examining Teachers’ Understandings and Perspectives. Journal of Education and Training Studies, 4(2), 97–104. https://doi.org/10.11114/jets.v4i2.1136

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Egne, R. M. (2015). Ethiopia in Transition : A Multicultural Education Perspective on Teacher Education Policies , Curricula , and Practices. March. Gay, G. (2018). Pedagogical potential of cultural pesponsiveness. Culturally Responsive Teaching : Theory, Research, and Practice, 28–56. Retrieved from http://ebookcentral.proquest.com/lib/unimelb/detail.action?docID=5309048. Gemechu, E., & Aba-oli, Z. (2024). Ethiopian College of Teacher Education Program : A Tension between Selection , Curriculum and Professional Development. 20(3), 0–2. https://doi.org/10.29329/ijpe.2024.664.1 Gist, C. D. (2014). The Culturally Responsive Teacher Educator. Teacher Educator, 49(4), 265–283. https://doi.org/10.1080/08878730.2014.934129 Idrus, F., Ramli, L. N., & Habib, N. J. (2023). Exploring Preservice Teachers’ Experiences of Implementing Culturally Responsive Teaching in the ESL Classrooms. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 13(3), 766–776. https://doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1303.26 Kibret, B. W. (2019). A Brief Overview of Multicultural Education in Ethiopian: A Review. Journal of Philosophy, Culture and Religion, 42(2007), 9–15. https://doi.org/10.7176/jpcr/42-02 Mburu, J. M. (2022). All Children Matter”: A Preservice Teacher’s Understanding and Practice of Culturally Responsive Teaching in a Third-Grade Mathematics Classroom Jane. International Journal of Multicultural Education, 24(1), 27–46. MoE. (2020). Ethiopian general education curriculum framework (EGECF) Addis Ababa: MoE. December, 1–85. MoE. (2022). The Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia Ministry of Education Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education. Addis Ababa MoE Publishing. January. MoE. (2023). Ethiopian Education Transformation Programme Program Design. Addis Ababa: MoE. Mohammed, A. A. (2020). The Status and Pronounced Effect of Multicultural Education: The Case of Madda Walabu University Ethiopia. OALib, 07(04), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.4236/oalib.1106250 Özüdoğru, F. (2018). The Readiness of Prospective Teachers for Culturally Responsive Teaching. Acta Didactica Napocensia, 11(3–4), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.24193/adn.11.3-4.1 Perso, T. (2012). Cultural Responsiveness and School Education. In Menzies School of Health Research. Retrieved from http://ccde.menzies.edu.au/sites/default/files/Literature review Cultural Responsiveness and School Education March 2012 FINAL.pdf Rychly, L., & Graves, E. (2012). Teacher Characteristics for Culturally Responsive Pedagogy. Multicultural Perspectives, 14(1), 44–49. https://doi.org/10.1080/15210960.2012.646853

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Shey, P., Linda Fangwi, M., & Author, C. (2020). Culturally Responsive Pedagogy: A Pathway for the Inclusion of Diverse Learners in Today’s Contemporary Classroom. American Research Journal of Humanities Social Science (ARJHSS)R) 2020 ARJHSS Journal, 59–69. Retrieved from www.arjhss.com Siwatu, K. O. (2011). Preservice teachers’ culturally responsive teaching self-efficacyforming experiences: A mixed methods study. Journal of Educational Research, 104(5), 360–369. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220671.2010.487081 Skepple, R. G. (2015). Preparing culturally responsive pre-service teachers for culturally diverse classrooms. Kentucky Journal of Excellence in College, 12(June), 57–69. Tamang, Y. B. (2022). Multicultural Education: Concept, Emergence and Dimensions. Innovative Research Journal, 1(1), 80–85. https://doi.org/10.3126/irj.v1i1.51817 Tanase, M. (2020). Is good teaching culturally responsive? Journal of Pedagogical Research, 4(3), 187–202. https://doi.org/10.33902/JPR.2020063333 Tefera, A., Atnafu, M., & Michael, K. (2021). The Relevance of Current Ethiopian Primary School Teacher Education Program for Pre-service Mathematics Teacher’s Knowledge and Teacher Educator ‘ s Awareness about Mathematics Knowledge for Teaching. 17(5). https://doi.org/10.29333/ejmste/10858 Tefera, T., Asgedom, A., Oumer, J., Woldehanna, T., Dalelo, A., & Assefa, B. (2018). Ethiopian education development roadmap (2018 – 2030). An integrated executive summary. Draft for discussion (Issue July, pp. 1–101). MoE. Tezera, D., & Seyoum, Y. (2024). Opportunities and challenges of multicultural education in Ethiopian public universities. Humanities Journal, 1(2), 2024008. https://doi.org/10.31893/humanitj.2024008 TGE. (1994). Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia: Education and Training policy. Addis Ababa: Berhanena Salam Printing. Yuan, H. (2017). Developing Culturally Responsive Teachers: Current Issues and a Proposal for Change in Teacher Education Programs. World Journal of Education, 7(5), 66. https://doi.org/10.5430/wje.v7n5p66 Corresponding author: Temesgen Yadeta Dibaba Email: temesgeny2@gmail.com

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Professional Development of EFL Instructors in Indonesia: Challenges from Higher Education Institutions Hijjatul Qamariah University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary Maria Hercz University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary Eotvos Lorand University, Budapest, Hungary

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Abstract This qualitative study investigates the professional development challenges faced by English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructors in Indonesian higher education. Based on a reflexive thematic analysis of semi-structured interviews conducted with ten instructors from five different universities, and utilising MAXQDA for data management, this study discovers four interconnected themes: limited access to pedagogical resources, institutional constraints, workload pressures, and personal limitations. Participants reported difficulties in accessing current ELT knowledge, particularly in remote areas, and highlighted the impact of rigid institutional structures, accreditation requirements and seniority-based promotion systems on PD engagement. Gendered responsibilities and family obligations, particularly among female teachers, have further restricted participation in long-term PD programmes. These results confirm and complicate the existing literature on PD in Southeast Asia and reveal how systemic, cultural and logistical factors intersect to shape the professional development of instructors. The study highlights the need for more comprehensive and context-sensitive PD policies, including digital resource platforms, flexible timetables, and family support systems. It also calls for institutional reforms to prioritize pedagogical quality rather than bureaucratic compliance. To tackle these issues, institutions of higher education should establish organised mentoring initiatives and dedicate specific time for the development of instructors. Keywords: English language instructors, higher education institutions, MAXQDA, qualitative research, professional development

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Professional development (PD) constitutes a pivotal element in augmenting teachers’ expertise and efficacy. As articulated by the OECD (2009), it comprises activities that enhance educators’ abilities, knowledge, and competencies. Functioning as a perpetual process of reflection, learning, and application, professional development fortifies teaching practices, thereby resulting in improved student learning outcomes (Desimone, 2009). Research concerning the professional development of middle school teachers has examined components such as motivation, pedagogical training, and program effectiveness (Cirocki & Farrell, 2019). Nonetheless, a considerable gap persists in the examination of English as a Foreign Language (EFL) instructors within Indonesian higher education institutions (HEIs). University-level EFL instructors are responsible for multiple roles, including teaching, conducting research, and engaging in community service (Kemal et al., 2019). These responsibilities define their professional status and contribute to the overarching quality of education. However, effective professional development in this domain necessitates more than merely fulfilling these duties—it requires continuous enhancement of linguistic proficiency, pedagogical strategies, and research methodologies. Despite the intensifying global emphasis on English language education, Indonesian EFL instructors encounter significant challenges. According to the English Proficiency Index (EPI, 2023), their language proficiency remains relatively low, eliciting concerns regarding instructional quality. Within this context, a more profound investigation of professional development among EFL instructors in Indonesian universities is imperative. This study aims to identify the obstacles hindering EFL instructors’ professional growth and emphasise strategies for enhancing teacher training programs to better align with evolving educational demands (Mu’in, 2018). To further investigate the difficulties encountered by EFL teachers in higher education, the following research question is posed: RQ: What are the challenges encountered by EFL instructors in higher education institutions in Indonesia in enhancing professional development? Literature Review Professional Development of EFL Instructors in Higher Education PD is essential for EFL instructors to maintain pedagogical relevance and adapt to evolving educational demands. In HEIs, PD is not only a matter of individual growth but also a strategic necessity aligned with institutional goals and accreditation standards. Desimone’s (2009) framework offers a foundational model for understanding effective PD, emphasising five core features: content focus, active learning, coherence with institutional goals, sufficient duration, and collective participation. This model has been extended by scholars who highlight the importance of reflective practice (Man & Walsh, 2021), self-directed learning (Cirocki & Farrell, 2019), and digital competencies (Hockly & Dudeney, 2022) in contemporary PD programs. García and Kleyn (2023) further argue for PD that supports translanguaging and intercultural competence, especially in multilingual contexts.

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In the Indonesian HE landscapes, EFL instructors face unique pressures stemming from the Tri Dharma obligations: teaching, research, and community service (Lamb et al., 2021). These responsibilities often compete with the time and energy needed for PD engagement. Moreover, institutional cultures marked by seniority hierarchies and limited autonomy (Alifia et al., 2022) constrain instructors’ agency in pursuing self-directed learning. While PD opportunities exist, they are often sporadic, urban-centric, and digitally uneven—leaving regional instructors with limited access to online platforms and mentoring networks (Zein, 2017; Nugroho & Mutiaraningrum, 2020). Examining neighbouring ASEAN countries, Malaysia has carved out a role as a regional hub for higher education by offering a middle-level niche characterised by affordable costs and fairly reliable quality assurance. Singapore, on the other hand, aims to develop world-class universities and position itself as a premier international centre for high-quality university education in Southeast Asia and beyond. Their universities enjoy greater independence, and the incentive structures have been revamped to reward high-performance lecturers, provide opportunities for staff development (Hill & Wie, 2012). Indonesia faces a more complex scenario. In terms of worldwide innovation and higher education indices, Indonesia ranks only in the second tier or lower. Challenges in higher education include the number of professors, irregularities in their appointments, and addressing the shortage by opening up more professorial positions as needed. Without standardised salaries for lecturers, their responsibilities are defined, but their salary rights remain unaddressed. Additionally, the lack of standardised salaries for private university lecturers (PTS) is equally concerning (Qamariah & Hercz, 2025; Sitanggang et al., 2023) PD engagement is shaped not only by pedagogical needs but also by institutional structures and sociocultural dynamics. Sadeghi and Richards (2021) note that teacher motivation and professional identity influence PD uptake, while Yumarnamto (2019) critiques the instability of ELT policy in Indonesia, which undermines teacher satisfaction and long-term commitment. These insights suggest that PD must be understood within the broader ecology of institutional governance, educator agency, and systemic support. Recent studies highlight the growing importance of digital PD, especially in post-pandemic contexts. Hockly and Dudeney (2022) advocate for PD programs that integrate emerging technologies such as AI and VR, while Renandya et al. (2018) emphasise the need for reflective and self-directed learning models tailored to local constraints. However, existing research focuses on school-based teachers, leaving a gap in understanding how HEI governance, accreditation pressures, and institutional priorities shape PD engagement among universitylevel EFL instructors. English Language Instructors in Indonesia In Indonesia, English language educators operate within varied sociocultural and educational environments, navigating complex institutional regulations. English is crucial for enhancing individuals’ abilities to compete in the global market. As part of its strategy to enhance human

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capital and global competitiveness, the government emphasises English proficiency, although it remains a foreign language within Indonesia’s school system (Lauder, 2008). In Indonesian higher education, English teachers must fulfil three core duties: teaching, conducting research, and participating in community service, known collectively as the Tri Dharma of higher education (Lamb et al. 2021). These responsibilities are vital for instructors to maintain their professionalism, their salaries, and obtain certification funding. To improve the quality of their professionalism, EFL instructors in Indonesia face several problems. Access to PD is uneven across regions. Urban institutions typically offer more opportunities and resources, while instructors in rural or regional HEIs face digital infrastructure gaps, limited funding, and fewer mentoring networks (Qamariah & Hercz, 2025; Sitanggang et al., 2023; Zein, 2022). Gendered and familial responsibilities also shape PD participation, particularly for female instructors balancing academic duties with caregiving roles (Gaus & Hall, 2016). The profession itself is often undervalued, with teaching perceived as a fallback career (Yumarnamto, 2016; Syaodih, 2011), affecting motivation and long-term commitment to PD. Institutional visions and rigid policies may limit instructors’ ability to pursue meaningful development, reinforcing a compliance-based rather than growth-oriented PD culture. Moreover, only 20% of Indonesian EFL instructors meet international proficiency standards (Hamied & Mustafa, 2019), reflecting systemic gaps in training and support. Despite initiatives like “English for Everyone” and partnerships with the British Council, implementation remains inconsistent due to funding and policy fragmentation (Zein et al., 2020). Knowledge Gap Although there is increasing attention on teacher PD globally and in Indonesia, the current literature lacks a detailed exploration of the specific constraints affecting EFL instructors’ engagement in PD within HEIs, neglecting the distinct governance requirements of HEIs— such as the Tri Dharma duties (teaching, research, and community service), accreditation challenges, and institutional performance metrics—that uniquely influence university-level instructors (Lamb et al., 2021; Gaus & Hall, 2016). This research explores the intersections of institutional frameworks, geographic settings, and sociocultural elements in shaping the professional development experiences of EFL instructors within Indonesian higher education institutions. It offers a context-specific examination of the challenges and opportunities in professional development, anchored in local circumstances and established theoretical frameworks. To guide this investigation, the study utilises Desimone’s (2009) framework for effective PD, highlighting five essential elements: content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, and collective participation. This framework guides the formation of interview questions and the thematic coding approach, facilitating a systematic identification of both institutional and personal limitations. Furthermore, the study incorporates perspectives on institutional and

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organisational support, such as policy alignment, leadership culture, and funding mechanisms, along with self-directed and reflective learning (Man & Walsh, 2021; Cirocki & Farrell, 2019), to capture the agency and adaptive strategies of instructors navigating complex PD environments. These conceptual perspectives collectively provide a basis for understanding how PD is implemented, limited, and negotiated within Indonesian HEIs. Method This research utilised a qualitative, interpretivist methodology to investigate the professional development experiences of EFL instructors at Indonesian higher education institutions. The methodology is based on the notion that meaning is socially constructed and influenced by context. Data analysis followed reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) as detailed by Braun and Clarke (2006), highlighting researcher subjectivity, reflexivity, and the interpretative role in developing themes. This approach effectively examines intricate, context-specific experiences within institutional cultures. Participant and Sampling Technique The study involved participants chosen through convenience sampling, a non-probability approach frequently employed in qualitative research to enlist individuals who are readily available and willing to join (Etikan et al., 2015). A total of 18 EFL instructors were approached, with 10 agreeing to participate voluntarily. To be included, participants had to (a) currently work as EFL instructors at an Indonesian higher education institution, (b) have at least five years of teaching experience, and (c) be involved in professional development activities, which could be supported by institutions, led by the ministry, or initiated by themselves. Among the participants, two had earned doctoral degrees in education, while the others held master’s degrees in education and TESOL. All participants were certified lecturers, matching the study’s focus on professional development (Creswell & Poth, 2018). The sample consisted of instructors from five different institutions, including three public universities, a polytechnic, and a vocational academy, covering both urban and semi-urban areas. Although convenience sampling allowed for a variety of participants, the ability to generalise the results to institutions outside this sample may be restricted. Table 1 summarises participant characteristics.

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Table 1 Participant characteristics EFL instructors Gender Year of teaching Educational qualification P1

Female 15 years

M.Ed.

Female 17 years

M.TESOL, M.Ed.

Male

10 years

M.Ed.

Female 13 years

M.Ed.

Female 12 years

M.TESOl, M.Ed.

Male

25 years

Doctorate in Linguistics

Male

22 years

Doctorate in Education

Female 12 years

M.TESOL, M.Ed.

Male

13 years

M.Ed.

P 10

Male

12 years

M.A

Data Collection Procedure Data were collected through semi-structured interviews, a widely utilised method in qualitative research for the elicitation of profound insights into participants’ experiences and perspectives (Bryman, 2016). The interview questions and answers were conducted in English due to the participants’ high self-reported proficiency level and academic degrees in English-related subjects. Additionally, the researcher conducted preliminary discussions with participants. These discussions yielded several notes concerning the experiences of EFL instructors in their professional development process. Ethical considerations were conscientiously addressed by explicating the study’s purpose, procedures, and confidentiality measures to participants before securing their written consent (Cohen et al., 2018). Interviews were systematically scheduled during non-instructional periods and conducted in tranquil settings within the participants’ respective institutions. Each interview spanned approximately 40 to 60 minutes and was audio recorded using a smartphone. Following transcription, participants were contacted to verify the accuracy of their responses, thus ensuring the credibility of the data (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The transcribed data were subsequently imported into MAXQDA for qualitative analysis. The interview protocol was developed based on key principles of Teacher Professional Development (TPD) and reviewed by a senior qualitative researcher. The interview consisted of two segments. The initial phase involved gathering background information from individuals. The second section consisted of 33 inquiries that asked them about the concept of

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teacher professional development, their efforts in developing their professionalism, their teaching quality, and their commitment to their job. Sample questions included: • • • • •

“What professional activities have you joined to improve your professional development so far?” “What source of tension impacts your professionalism as an EFL instructor?” “Do you think institutions help EFL instructors to play their role as instructors? “What aspects should be supported by the institutions to have professional EFL instructors?” Participants were made aware of their rights, the confidentiality protocols, and the fact that joining the study was entirely voluntary. In alignment with ethical standards (Cohen et al., 2018), written consent was obtained. The study secured approval from the Institutional Review Board (IRB) University of Szeged with reference number: 13/2024, and no incentives were provided. During transcription, all data were anonymised and stored securely on an encrypted, password-protected device that only the researcher could access.

Data Analysis The data analysis was carried out using reflexive thematic analysis (RTA) in accordance with Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase method: familiarisation, coding, theme development, review, definition, and write-up. The lead researcher manually performed the coding while engaging in iterative reflection throughout. To increase reflexivity, a peer researcher examined selected transcripts and engaged in analytical discussions to challenge assumptions and refine interpretation. This process was not designed to achieve inter-coder reliability but aimed to foster critical reflexivity and transparency in theme development. Data management tasks such as organising transcripts, retrieving coded sections, and recording analytical insights were facilitated by MAXQDA (Kuckartz, 2014). Thematic development was carried out manually to ensure thorough engagement with the data and maintain interpretive depth. Results This section presents six key themes that emerged from the data, each highlighting a distinct challenge faced by EFL instructors in Indonesian higher education. Each theme is supported by participant quotes and interpreted in relation to professional development (PD) and institutional structures. The themes found from the analysis are explained below (refer to Figure 1).

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Figure 1 Challenges Faced by EFL Instructors in Indonesian HEIs

Limited Access to Information and Knowledge Based on the data analysis, it is found that there are several challenges faced by the EFL instructors in higher educational settings in Indonesia. One of the challenges is the availability of access towards information and knowledge about English language teaching. The participants revealed problems in updating their knowledge about ELT especially related to updated teaching methodology and innovation in ELT which they believed this information and knowledge are significant in increasing their professional competence in ELT. One participant, referred to as P1, explicitly stated: “Access to get information about teacher development, about EFL career. Our place is too far from the capital city, and we have limited experts here” (P1). “…but the problem is we don’t know about the information. Our professional development is just average or getting worse, because we don’t get any workshops” (P 5). These quotes illustrate how physical distance from urban centres and a lack of expert networks hinder instructors’ ability to stay updated with ELT innovations. This structural barrier undermines their professional growth and classroom effectiveness, echoing concerns raised in Postholm (2018) and Hismanoglu (2009). Workloads Besides Teaching EFL instructors handle numerous teaching activities and often complain about their additional workloads. Besides their heavy teaching duties, they must also follow institutional rules for extra tasks.

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“While instructors in other countries may focus solely on teaching, in Indonesia, particularly in Aceh and at this institution, our responsibilities extend far beyond that. We are also tasked with managing organisational duties within the institution. If I could concentrate on teaching and conduct research related to my teaching methods, it might enhance my professional development. However, due to our demanding schedule, which requires us to work full-time from 8 AM to 5 PM, this is currently not feasible” (P2). The participant complained that a lot of workloads make it difficult to improve their professional development (Broad, 2015). The time is allocated for university demands. Other EFL instructors also mentioned that he is overwhelmed with a lot of tasks from the university, including preparation documentation for teaching, which he thought was not that urgent. “I think it’s quite dilemma for this institution, in my opinion, they also need to improve the quality of the teacher but they will do it in terms of regulation, they don’t even realize that this regulation, probably hindrance or becoming the problem for several individual to grow, but sometimes I also support the institution action because the institution need to guarantee that the teaching learning process run above the minimal requirement, that’s why this documentation is required for example, we need to finish the RPS before the teaching learning process ends but sometimes the time that they give to us maybe not fair. It is just documentation you have to follow because some sorts of documents for accreditation things, but there are other more important aspects that we forgot as an institution” (P 3). It is in line with the research findings by Syaodih (2011) Workloads are one of the hindrances which the EFL instructors from having a proper time to explore their self and their professional development, and workloads also hurt teachers’ health, wellbeing, and attrition (Creagh et al., 2023). Time Constraint Time scarcity, driven by institutional obligations, prevents instructors from engaging in skill development. It is because they are busy with many other activities besides teaching. “…the problem is we cannot upgrade our skills, particularly in English, because we are busy with administration, accreditation and some tasks that are not related to our skills, and there is no space for us to improve our skills because of the time” (P 4). “However, there have been certain difficulties, as the knowledge acquired at university differs from my current responsibilities. For example, we are constantly occupied with tasks, accreditation, and administrative duties unrelated to our formal education” (P5).

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Participants described how institutional routines crowd out time for PD. This reflects MittonKükner’s (2015) findings that time constraints are a major barrier to teacher learning, especially when career advancement is tied to compliance rather than growth. Institutional Supports While some universities offer flexible PD opportunities, others lack structured support, especially in private or vocational HEIs. From the interview, we found that there were two sides to the opinions regarding this issue. Some participants mentioned that the university has provided a lot of opportunities for the instructors to improve their professionalism. It includes university programs and the collaboration between the university and the Ministry of Education. However, others mentioned that there is a lack of opportunity for the instructors to upgrade their quality, either in teaching or career improvement. “The university provides us with flexible space and a schedule to participate in events organised by the Ministry of Education. I believe that by taking part in initiatives such as the Kampus Mengajar program, Praktisi Mengajar, and MSIB, we can develop our teaching skills and social interaction abilities” (P3). The instructor believes that these kinds of opportunities help them grow in teaching skills. The university does not regulate strict rules for the instructors to improve themselves. Other participants, however, have different opinions. They mentioned that universities do not seem to have special programs to increase instructors’ ability. Some participants mentioned that they must try hard to find the PD programs by themselves. “I would indeed like my university to allocate various time slots for each lecturer to discuss their teaching skills regarding the progression of instructional materials. I anticipate this should be available, yet currently, it is not” (P9). Others stated that the status of the university also determines the concern of the university in supporting PD of the instructors. “My university is a vocational institution, which means its focus is minimal on enhancing my professionalism. They are more oriented towards engineering expertise and do not priorities the development of English language skills” (P5). It is also like a private university status. The instructor mentioned that because it is a private university, the institution does not pay a lot of attention towards improving EFL instructors’ capacity. “The issue with the institution is that they must guarantee proper operation, right? Their focus extends beyond just EFL instructors; it includes the quality of the facilities, the curriculum, and the documentation. Providing support to EFL instructors involves

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offering opportunities for them to enhance their teaching skills. For instance, if they wish to teach a particular subject, they should be encouraged to do so; if they prefer certain techniques, they should be permitted to utilise them, in my view” (P1). Moreover, EFL instructors mentioned that the only support they receive is the support of the facilities in the teaching and learning process. “As I mentioned before, LP3i places significant emphasis on facilities, such as laptops, projectors, TVs, and sound systems, to aid teaching. However, they don’t focus as much on providing books. It seems these resources are mainly available for instructors, while students receive free copies instead”. (P10). These contrasting experiences show how institutional type and status shape PD access. While national programs exist, their implementation varies, leaving some instructors unsupported. Institutional Demands Rigid institutional expectations, especially around documentation and performance metrics limit autonomy and PD engagement. From the interview results, many instructors mention that the university demands high achievement of student results, more engaging teaching practices and excellent examination results. In the following excerpt one of the participants mentioned: “Sure, this may be one reason why enhancing our methods is essential. By staying informed of new strategies and evolving approaches, we can implement them in the classroom, potentially boosting quality. This could lead to student improvement”. (P 1). Others also mentioned that the requirement from the university to be a great teacher in terms of teaching document preparation is also taking a lot of instructors’ time. They said this requirement is not too important compared to teaching itself. “The challenge I face is that being an EFL instructor at the university level differs significantly from teaching at a school. In this country, there is a set career path we must adhere to, and this path includes specific requirements. For instance, we must develop lesson plans following a certain format; any deviation from this is considered incorrect. Although I don’t believe it’s necessary to dwell on this, it’s the reality. Our lesson plans, referred to as RPS, must be formatted correctly, or else we’re evaluated as inadequate educators, which seems quite unreasonable to me, but it’s the way things are”. (P3) Further, he mentioned that these requirements limit his opportunity to improve his professional development. “So, it also hinders the quality of how we improve our professional development. For example, when I do this research, it will consume my time focusing on the classroom;

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when I do something in the classroom, I will not do the research. I need to get to a certain point that I must get this semester. So, I think it becomes a hindrance for me as an EFL instructor, while there is also an internal regulation that affects the quality of my teaching, like the way it is to be formed, the way to dress, but you know, sometimes it is like limiting the freedom” (P 3). The emphasis on compliance over creativity restricts instructors’ ability to innovate or pursue PD. This reflects a broader tension between bureaucratic accountability and professional autonomy in HEIs. Personal Matters Personal responsibilities, including family obligations and gendered expectations, further limit instructors’ PD participation. At one point, they have to fulfil their tasks as an instructor at a university; on the other hand, they also have family members to be supported and taken care of. They also ever thought of quitting the job, since the pay is not good enough, but the work is a lot. “There are times I consider quitting this job because it feels repetitive and dull. Despite this, I have obligations to support my family” (P1). The other mentioned that personal matters also take up a lot of their time. They are overwhelmed, but the tasks should go on. “I have a significant number of tasks, particularly housework, which leaves me without time to conduct additional research or attend workshops, especially those lasting more than one day” (P 4). Their multiple roles besides EFL instructors at the university also lead them to have limitations on improving their professionalism. As mentioned by one of the EFL instructors. “Fundamentally, we, teachers and the department, face obstacles, but on a personal level, as a married woman, I need my husband’s approval if I wish to pursue further education. Additionally, the institution occasionally restricts our opportunities; we may have to wait two to three years for the chance to advance our studies” (P 8). These quotes highlight how personal and cultural factors intersect with institutional barriers, particularly for women, reinforcing the need for family-responsive PD policies. Discussion This study examined the complex issues that EFL instructors in Indonesian higher education institutions (HEIs) encounter, showing how institutional, structural, and individual factors

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interact to influence their experiences with professional development (PD). The results validate, expand upon, and complicate previous research in several fields. Instructors in rural areas indicated inadequate access to current ELT information and expert networks, showing ongoing infrastructure discrepancies. This research verifies Hismanoglu’s (2009) observation of geographic obstacles, but also goes beyond it by demonstrating how digital PD platforms, while available, are underutilized due to institutional rigidity. This shows that digital solutions are ineffective in the absence of systemic support, confounding Chin et al.’s (2021) proposal for context-sensitive PD. Heavy workloads emerged as a major obstacle to professional development, especially during institutional audit cycles. Instructors reported feeling overburdened by administrative responsibilities, accrediting documentation, and rigorous scheduling expectations, leaving little chance for pedagogical reflection or development. This conclusion supports Syaodih’s (2011) and Creagh et al.’s (2023) observations regarding the negative influence of heavy workloads on PD participation. However, it complicates the picture by illustrating how these forces are profoundly rooted in institutional culture rather than simply logistical. Prioritizing accreditation measures over instructional quality reflects a larger performance trend in Southeast Asian higher education, where compliance frequently outperforms originality (Broad, 2015). This contradiction between professional autonomy and institutional obedience implies that professional development is bound not just by time, but also by the values that govern academic life, raising fundamental questions about how universities define and sustain teaching quality. The institutional support for professional development among participants varied widely, showing a fragmented landscape across Indonesian HEIs. While some teachers have benefited from national initiatives such as Kampus Mengajar and MSIB, others, particularly those in vocational and private institutions, report minimal investment in PD infrastructure. This difference confirms Fairman et al.’s theory (2020), which argues that institutional culture and status influence PD access significantly, but also extends its work by highlighting how national programs can unintentionally strengthen existing inequalities when local institutions are unable to implement them effectively. Furthermore, the seniority-based progression system has become a structural obstacle to PD involvement. Instructors describe the long waiting periods for learning leave and promotions, which are often related to strict timetables rather than merits and motivations. This result complicates the assumption that PD is equally accessible within hierarchical systems and suggests that institutional entry, as a tradition, can suppress initiatives and innovation. These findings point to the need to pursue more inclusive and responsive PD policies that recognise institutional diversity and challenge outdated progress models. Personal obligations, particularly those linked to sex and marital status, have become a major obstacle to professional development. In particular, female teachers reported limited access to long-term PD opportunities due to care responsibilities and the need for the consent of their

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spouses to continue their education. These findings confirm Mitton-Kükner’s (2015) analysis of gender limitations in PD participation, but also expand it by revealing how cultural norms and family dynamics are linked to Indonesian HEI structures. The problem is not only logistical, but also deeply sociocultural, and professional aspirations are often negotiated within the expectations of the patriarchs. This suggests that PD policies must go beyond logistical flexibility and be actively engaged in gender equality, through family-responsive programmes, inclusive leave policies and the institutional recognition of domestic labor. Without such measures, access to PD remains uneven and reinforces the systemic disadvantages of women in the academic community. One of the recurring concerns of participants was the institutional emphasis on documentation and compliance, especially through rigid RPS (Rencana Pembelajaran Semester) forms and audit-based performance metrics. Teachers expressed their frustration that these bureaucratic demands limited their pedagogical creativity and little space for significant professional development. Although the purpose of performance standards is to ensure responsibility, the priority of quantifiable outputs over quality of instruction confirms Creagh et al.’s (1923) criticism of the culture of performance in higher education. However, this study explains how performativity is not only externally imposed, but is also internalized by institutions seeking accreditation and legitimacy. In this context, PD becomes a checkbox, not a transformational process, and innovation is often sacrificed in order to meet it. These findings highlight the growing imbalance between institutional goals and the professional needs of teachers, suggesting that reform efforts must take into account not only policies, but also deeper cultural logics of equivalence of quality and documentation. These findings reveal a variety of professional development landscapes in Indonesian higher education shaped by geographical differences, institutional pressures, cultural norms and bureaucratic constraints. Although national initiatives and policy frameworks provide some support, their uneven implementation and the persistence of seniority-based hierarchies, gender expectations and performing cultures limit their potential for transformation. The study not only confirms the existing criticism of the availability and equity of PD, but also exacerbates it by showing how structural and personal factors intersect in context-specific ways. To solve these challenges, it needs more than a programme expansion; it requires a rethink of institutional values, support systems, and cultural assumptions that define the professional significance of Indonesian HEI. Implications for HEIs and Instructor Professional Development The study’s findings indicate the urgent need for Indonesian higher education institutions to implement more structured, inclusive, and responsive PD programs. The following practical guidelines are given to promote EFL instructors’ professional development: •

Create credit-bearing PD programs that comply with the Tri Dharma Perguruan Tinggi mandate, providing micro-credentials and protected time for participants.

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Provide workload relief periods, especially before accreditation cycles, to enable instructors to prioritize professional development and creativity. Recognize professional development initiatives in performance assessments and promotion requirements. Increase access to blended and online professional development for instructors in remote locations. Set up resource repositories and mentorship pairs to encourage peer learning. Provide equitable financing and travel subsidies for conferences, certificates, and advanced studies. Implement clear rotation procedures for study leave to ensure equitable access. Family-Responsive Policies: To accommodate instructors with family commitments, provide short-format professional development sessions, flexible scheduling, and childcare support during PD weeks. Develop easy PD tracking tools that link classroom innovation and student learning outcomes, allowing institutions to analyze impact and continuously improve their offerings.

By implementing these steps, HEIs can provide a more conducive atmosphere for EFL instructors to grow professionally, hence improving the quality of English language education in Indonesia’s higher education system. Limitations and Future Research A number of limitations must be noted, even if this study offers insightful information about the difficulties EFL instructors in Indonesian higher education institutions (HEIs) encounter in their professional development (PD). First, convenience sampling was used in the study, which can restrict how broadly the results can be applied. Second, because the study was limited to Indonesian HEIs and was carried out in a single country, institutional and cultural factors unique to Indonesia might not be representative of larger regional or worldwide trends. Third, self-reported interviews were used to gather the data, which could be influenced by social desirability effects, selective recall, or personal bias. Last but not least, the small sample size (N = 10) limits the range of viewpoints and might not fully portray the variety of experiences among EFL teachers in various institutional kinds. To expand on these findings, future research should employ mixed-methods approaches that integrate qualitative insights with quantitative data to improve validity and depth. Comparative research of public, private, and vocational higher education institutions could shed light on how institutional type effects PD access and support. Furthermore, intervention-based research may assess the efficacy of specific PD models or institutional methods, such as structured PD pathways, digital learning platforms, or task management policies. Expanding the scope to include cross-country comparisons within Southeast Asia may uncover regional tendencies and inform policy harmonization across higher education sectors.

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Conclusion This study emphasizes the intricate and interconnected difficulties that EFL instructors in Indonesian higher education institutions encounter when trying to further their professional development (PD). Heavy administrative workloads, variable institutional support, personal limitations like family obligations, and restricted access to current educational materials are some of the main challenges. Despite their great desire to improve teaching quality and student results, these issues collectively make it difficult for instructors to participate in professional development programs. The results highlight the necessity for universities to implement more responsive and inclusive professional development methods. Practical suggestions include family-responsive policies, increased access to online and blended learning, workload respite during accreditation cycles, credit-bearing professional development programs in line with national regulations, and fair funding for further education. In order to promote a culture of continuous improvement, institutions should also put in place tracking mechanisms that connect professional development initiatives to classroom creativity and student accomplishment. However, the study’s small sample size, dependence on self-reported data, and concentration on a particular country setting restrict its scope. These limitations advise being cautious when generalizing the results. Future studies should examine institutional differences, use mixedmethods designs, and evaluate the effects of focused PD interventions. Southeast Asian comparative research could shed more light on regional patterns and guide the harmonization of policies. Finally, Indonesian HEIs can improve the quality and equality of English language instruction across the country by tackling these issues and putting strategic changes into place that will foster a more encouraging atmosphere for EFL teachers.

Acknowledgements We thank all the participants involved in this study. Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted Technologies in The Writing Process During the preparation of this work, the author(s) used MAXQDA 2020 qualitative tool to help organise and analyse the interview data and Grammarly and Writefull for language clarity checking.

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References Alifia, U., Pramana, R. P., & Revina, S. (2022). A Policy Lens on Becoming a teacher: A longitudinal diary study of novice teacher professional identity formation in Indonesia. https://doi.org/10.35489/BSG-RISE-WP_2022/096 Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa Broad, J. (2015) “So many worlds, so much to do: Identifying barriers to engagement with continued professional development for teachers in the further education and training sector”, London Review of Education, 13(1), 16–30. https://doi.org/10.18546/LRE.13.1.03 Bryman, A. (2016). Social research methods. Oxford University Press. Chin, J. M., Ching, G. S., Del Castillo, F., Wen, T., Huang, Y., Del Castillo, C. D., Gungon, J. L., & Trajera, S. M. (2021). Perspectives on the Barriers to and Needs of Teachers’ Professional Development in the Philippines during COVID-19. Sustainability, 14(1), 470. https://doi.org/10.3390/su14010470 Cirocki, A., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2019). Professional development of secondary school EFL teachers: Voices from Indonesia. System, 85, 102111. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102111 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2002). Research methods in education. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203224342 Creagh, S., Thompson, G., Mockler, N., Stacey, M., & Hogan, A. (2023). Workload, work intensification and time poverty for teachers and school leaders: a systematic research synthesis. Educational Review, 77(2), 661–680. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2023.2196607 Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2016). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Sage Publications. Desimone, L. M. (2009). Improving Impact studies of teachers’ professional development: Toward better conceptualizations and measures. Educational Researcher, 38(3), 181– 199. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X08331140 Etikan.I, Sulaiman A.M., & Rukayya S.A. (2015). Comparison of Convenience Sampling and Purposive Sampling. American Journal of Theoretical and Applied Statistics, 5(1), 1– 4. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.ajtas.20160501.11 Fairman, J. C., Smith, D. J., Pullen, P. C., & Lebel, S. J. (2020). The challenge of keeping teacher professional development relevant. Professional Development in Education, 49(2), 197–209. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2020.1827010 Gaus, N., & Hall, D. (2016). Performance Indicators in Indonesian Universities: The Perception of Academics. Higher Education Quarterly, 70(2), 127–144. https://doi.org/10.1111/hequ.12085 García, O., & Kleyn, T. (2023). Translanguaging with multilingual students: Learning from classroom moments. Routledge. Hamied, F. A., & Musthafa, B. (2019). Policies on language education in Indonesia. Indonesian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 9(2), 308–315. https://doi.org/10.17509/ijal.v9i2.20279

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Hill, H., & Wie, T. K. (2012). Indonesian universities in transition: Catching up and opening up. Bulletin of Indonesian Economic Studies, 48(2), 229–251. https://doi.org/10.1080/00074918.2012.694156 Hismanoglu, M. (2009). Effective professional development strategies of English language teachers. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 2(2), 990–995. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.03.139 Hockly, N., & Dudeney, G. (2022). Digital literacies: Research and resources in language teaching. Routledge. Kemal, I., Suryadi, S., & Rosyidi, U. (2019). Management of lecturers’ resource development at higher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 8(5). https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v8n5p246 Kuckartz, U. (2014). Qualitative text analysis: A guide to methods, practice & using software. SAGE Publications Ltd. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781446288719 Lamb, M., Waskita, D., Kuchah, K., Hadisantosa, N., & Ahmad, N. F. (2021). The state of English as medium of instruction in HEIs in Indonesia full report final.https://www.britishcouncil.id/sites/default/files/the_state_of_english_as_medium _of_instruction_in_heis_in_indonesia_full_report_final.pdf Lauder, A.F. (2008). The status and function of English in Indonesia: a review of key factors. Makara Hubs-Asia, 12, 4391. https://doi.org/10.7454/mssh.v12i1.128 Lincoln, Y.S. and Guba, E.G. (1985). Naturalistic Inquiry. SAGE, Thousand Oaks, 289–331. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(85)90062-8 Mitton-Kükner, J. (2015). Time constraints experienced by female teacher researchers in Canada and Turkey: challenges to developing an autonomous professional learning mindset. Professional Development in Education, 42(4), 628–646. https://doi.org/10.1080/19415257.2015.1073607 Mu’in, F., A. A. Y., A. R., & F. R. (2018). Investigating teacher professional development: English teachers’ learning activities as learners. Asian EFL Journal, 20(12), 333–369. Nugroho, A., & Mutiaraningrum, I. (2020). EFL teachers’ beliefs and practices about digital learning of English. Edulite: Journal of English Education, Literature, and Culture, 5 (2), 304–321. http://dx.doi.org/10.30659/e.5.2.304-321 OECD. (2009). Teaching practices, teachers’ beliefs and attitudes. In Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First results from TALIS (pp. 87–135). OECD publishing. https://doi.org/10.1787/9789264068780-6-en Postholm, M. B. (2018). Teachers’ professional development in school: A review study. Cogent Education, 5(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186X.2018.1522781 Qamariah, H., & Hercz, M. (2025). How EFL instructors improve their professionalism: The voice from Indonesian Higher Education Institutions. Jurnal Ilmiah Peuradeun, 13(1), 409–436. https://doi.org/10.26811/peuradeun.v13i1.1507 Renandya, W. A., Hamied, F. A., & Joko, N. (2018). English language proficiency in Indonesia: Issues and prospects. The Journal of AsiaTEFL, 15(3), 618–629. https://doi.org/10.18823/asiatefl.2018.15.3.4.618 Richards, J. C., & Farrell, T. S. C. (2020). Practice teaching: A reflective approach. Cambridge University Press.

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Sadeghi, K., & Richards, J. C. (2021). Professional development among English Language Teachers: Challenges and recommendations for practice. Heliyon, 7(9). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e08053 Sitanggang, N., Joharis Lubis, M., & Negeri Medan, U. (2023). Problems of Higher Education, Curriculum and Education in Indonesia. International Journal of Humanities Education and Social Sciences (IJHESS), 2(4), 1124–1132. https://ijhess.com/index.php/ijhess/ Syaodih, E. L. (2011). Lecture on professional development (Case studies in three stateowned colleges in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia). International Journal of Education, 6(1), 67–78. https://doi.org/10.17509/ije.v6i1.5291 Yumarnamto. M. (2016). Indonesian English language teachers’ professional growth and changing identities: An autoethnography and narrative inquiry [Unpublished doctoral dissertation] Indiana University. Yumarnamto, M. (2019). The Career Path of an Indonesian EFL Teacher: A professional capital perspective. RELC Journal, 50(1), 136–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688217730141 Zein, M. S. (2016). Government-based training agencies and the professional development of Indonesian teachers of English for Young Learners: perspectives from complexity theory. Journal of Education for Teaching, 42(2), 205–223. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2016.1143145 Zein, M. S. (2017). The pedagogy of teaching English to young learners in Indonesia. RELC Journal, 48(2), 227–247. http://dx.doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v12i1.1469 Zein, S., Sukyadi, D., Hamied, F. A., & Lengkanawati, N. S. (2020). English language education in Indonesia: A review of research (2011–2019). Language Teaching, 53(4), 491–523. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444820000208 Zein, S. (2022). English Language Teacher Education in Indonesia: Providers, Policies, Innovations, and Future Directions. In M. S. Khine & Y. Liu (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (pp. 465–488). Springer Nature Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-9785-2_23 Corresponding author: Hijjatul Qamariah Email: hijjatulqamariah@gmail.com

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Poverty-Simulation Activities for Enhancing Student Teachers’ Beliefs and Inclusive Education: A Non-Equivalent Groups in Thailand Chanadda Poohongthong Naresuan University, Thailand

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Abstract The study aimed to examine the results of poverty-simulation activities’ influence on student teachers’ beliefs about the academic achievement of students living in poverty, which was designed within the framework of Attribution Theory and the concept of Experiential Learning. This study utilized the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design. A total number of samples included in the study were: 107 student teachers who participated in the povertysimulation activities (experimental group, n = 56); and student teachers who did not participate in these activities (control group, n = 51). The Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty used to measure the subjects’ beliefs and a self-report questionnaire for the qualitative data was collected from 54 student teachers. Consequently, there was a significant effect of group on the posttest after controlling for pretest scores, F(1, 104) = 10.596, p = 0.002, partial η2 = 0.092, indicating a moderate effect size. Participants in the experimental group scored higher on the posttest (adjusted M = 3.93) than those in the control group (adjusted M = 3.77). Additionally, there were four themes that emerged from the qualitative data: Deeper empathy, expanded explanations of poverty, self-determination to overcome poverty, and teachers’ professional devotion. In short, the poverty-simulation activities helped enhance student teachers’ beliefs of learners from low socio-economic status backgrounds more broadly and realistically. Student teachers believed that disadvantaged learners can be improved in their academic and life achievement through accessing education and effort even under uncontrollable contexts. The results suggest that cultivating conceptualization of saviourism in education can facilitate to the differentiation between individual charity and structural responsibility. Keywords: academic achievement, poverty-simulation activities, students living in poverty, student teachers’ beliefs

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Universally, there is a belief that the quality of education is often regarded as a ladder out of poverty (Banerjee & Duflo, 2011). Nonetheless, the failure of quality in the Thai educational system persists over 10 years. For example, the scores of English literacy skills in the Ordinary National Educational Test (O-NET) of elementary-school aged students (6th grade) were explicitly lower than 40 percent from 2014 to 2024 (The National Institute of Educational Testing Service, 2025). One of the critical factors influencing teaching effectiveness in literacy of elementary school teachers is teachers’ beliefs about the academic potential of students, particularly those living in poverty or from low socio-economic status (SES) backgrounds (Poohongthong, 2023; Sabarwal et al., 2021). Previous research revealed that approximately 43 percent of teachers in developing countries hold fixed mindsets regarding the academic performance of students from low-income families. In other words, many teachers believe that if parents lack education or are illiterate, they are less likely to invest effort in supporting these students’ learning (Sabarwal et al., 2021). Furthermore, student teachers in the United States, who predominantly come from middleclass background, would have limited knowledge of poverty and experiences of students living in poverty, resulting in awkward interactions with students from different socio-economic status (Bennett, 2008). Similarly, the reality shock about disadvantaged students’ economic, social, and academic performances faced by student teachers or teacher candidates in the educational settings can be attributed to a lack of training and education on poverty awareness and empathy toward impoverished students (Mahmood, 2013; Parks et al., 2023). Poverty-simulation activities purposely create experiences of people living with poverty through role-play. It is an experiential learning tool that fosters empathy and raises awareness of people living in poverty. Participants are asked to role-play as different members of a family with low-income, with volunteers role-playing as agents of social institution who interact with participants. Poverty-simulation is particularly impactful for university students preparing for careers of social service fields, such as nursing students (Garrett-Wright et al., 2021; Noone et al., 2012) or teacher candidates or student teachers (Archambault & Verduijn, 2024; Briscoe, 2024; Browne & Roll, 2016). Poverty-simulation is connected Kolb’s theory of Experiential Learning which recognizes simulation activities as effective educational practices that can transform university students—typically late adolescents and early adult—both within the classroom and in broaden life contexts (Kolb & Kolb, 2017). In this study, student teachers majoring in elementary education are selected to engage in simulations to build an understanding of the lived experiences of students in poverty. Moreover, developing awareness and empathy for students from low socio-economic status backgrounds is crucial, as it directly impacts teaching effectiveness and fosters a perspective of student teachers who should believe that poverty is not merely a challenge but an opportunity to enhance students’s literacy and academic outcomes (Bartool & Haleen, 2023; Lau & Shea, 2022). In Thailand, most elementary school-aged students come from low socio-economic backgrounds, they mostly study in middle-sized or small governmental schools that are less advantaged in many aspects (Equitable education research institute, 2019). If teachers believe that effective teaching practices for students from low-income families can serve as a pathway

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out of poverty, this perspective is essential in transforming educational outcomes. However, based on my 15 years of experience with professional development practicums, I have observed that most student teachers are unprepared for the reality of students’ lives and classroom conditions, particularly in peripheral or high-poverty school contexts. As a result, this often leads to burnout in the teaching profession and a sense of hopelessness regarding the academic prospects of students living in poverty (Ellison et al., 2021). Preparing student teachers with awareness and empathy for students living in poverty through poverty-simulation activities may, therefore, help reduce reality shock and challenge stereotypes (Archambault & Verduijn, 2024; Bandler, 2018; Briscoe, 2024). The purpose of this study is to examine the results of poverty-simulation activities in enhancing student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty. However, it also emphasizes how these poverty-simulation activities cultivate student teachers’ understanding of learners from low socio-economic status backgrounds. Therefore, this study addresses these research questions: RQ1: Are there significant differences in student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty between those who participate in the povertysimulation activities and those who did not participate? RQ2: What are the perceptions of student teachers who participate in the povertysimulation activities? Hypotheses For only research question one, the hypotheses for each subscale were formulated as follows: H1: There will be statistically significant relationship between group and posttest scores after controlling for pretest scores. H0: There will be no statistically significant relationship between group and posttest scores after controlling for pretest scores. Literature Review Context of Thai Education The educational policies in Thailand, especially the teacher production system, emphasizes the production of high-quality teachers through the regulation of the Teachers’ Council of Thailand on Professional Standards in 2013 (Secretariat Office of the Teachers’ Council of Thailand, 2025). However, improving the qualifications of student teachers from teacher education institutions in Thailand has raised questions about student teachers’ perspectives and beliefs in inclusive education such as inadequate social justice awareness, educational inequality, and empathy towards impoverished students (Nopas, 2025; Sanguanngarm, 2020). Presumably, these deficits and beliefs affect discrimination in teaching praxis of teachers in classrooms (Boonchoo & Nokkaew, 2025). Moreover, the Education Ministry of Thailand has the second-

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largest portion of the national annual budget long since occupied. Despite this, these large financial investments in education have not conveyed productive learning outcomes for Thai learners, according to the national and international test scores of Thai elementary students in the basic subjects such as English language, Science, and Math that gradually underperform in Southeast Asian countries (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development [OECD], 2023). Currently, teacher education programs in Thai universities are criticized for the lack of fostering conceptualizations and implementations in the coursework, curriculum, and apprenticeship about the concepts of poverty trap, the socio-economic status (SES), educational inequality, and understanding of the lives of low SES students who are the majority in Thailand (see Steinberg & Krumer-Nevo, 2020). Nevertheless, there is a paucity of research on interventions for enhancing student teachers’ beliefs and behaviors in improving impoverished students’ academic achievement in Thailand. Yet, many research articles about poverty simulation as an experiential activity and learning tool for fostering social justice awareness, empathy, and shifting social agencies’ beliefs about poverty currently appear on the international databases for academic journals (Archambault & Verduijn, 2024; Briscoe, 2024; Browne & Roll, 2016). Community Action Poverty Simulation The poverty-simulation on “Community Action Poverty Simulation” (CAPS) (2024) is developed by the Missouri Community Action Network (MCAN) and consists of three main phases: pre-brief, simulation experience, and debrief/reflection. These phases are considered to align with Kolb’s Experiential Learning Cycle: concrete experience (pre-brief), reflective observation (debrief/reflection), abstract conceptualization (debrief/reflection), and active experimentation (simulation experience). Within two to three hours, CAPS can be completed and may change participants’ beliefs or perspectives about people living poverty. Apparently, using poverty-simulation activities was broadly applied in colleges or universities in the U.S. and Europe countries. However, this educational device hardly appeared in Thailand’s research as a tool of creating student teachers’ beliefs of the academic achievement in students living in poverty. Thus, the challenges of applying the poverty-simulation activities for student teachers in Thailand were 1) applying and developing the poverty-simulation activities to suit with the educational and socio-cultural context in Thailand; 2) designing and creating the extended activities and materials to deliver according to the expected direction of belief change in student teachers such as using the educational case study or phenomenon in pre-briefing phase for triggering their disorienting dilemmas, and character design of 18-20 family profiles with the detail of members of families; 3) maintaining and managing time of the simulation experience phase, especially in role-playing within two to three hours along the lines of CAPS; 4) recruiting and training the volunteer staff who were willing to role-play and design job descriptions of the social agents; and 5) designing to avoid the risk of pity or centering personal charity among student teachers as saviourism and focusing on the level of social structures and educational policies (not individual level) by adding the activities in the pre-briefing phase such as asking to analyze and discuss how educational system create or maintain a failure or

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success of Thai elementary students’ English literacy. In the following section, the literature on poverty’s perceptions will be reviewed. Explanations of Poverty’s Perception Yun and Weaver (2010) described that there are three explanations about poverty: 1) individualism – this perspective refers to the cause of poverty as resulting from individual’s behaviors or personal failures, such as a lack of motivation, laziness in earning income, or immoral conduct (Reutter et al., 2005); 2) structuralism – this viewpoint means poverty is primarily caused by systemic factors such as unemployment, discrimination, and economic inequality (Rank, 2004); and 3) fatalistic perspective – this perspective refers to poverty as resulting from external forces beyond an individual’s control such as luck, fate, or divine intervention (Feagin, 1972; Hunt, 1996; Weiner, 1985). These perspectives significantly influence the professional staff’s actions, particularly educators, teachers, and student teachers. Most likely, participation in the poverty-simulation activities help promote and enhance perceptions of poverty, such as empathy and raising awareness of social inequality among participants. In addition, participants may reflect and discuss about privilege and structural disadvantage in education. On the other hand, there are critiques of scholars in development studies and critical sociology about saviourism as being partly rooted in the concepts of white supremacy and colonialism. In short, individuals may see themselves as rescuers of the poor rather than critically examining systemic causes of poverty. Nevertheless, poverty-simulation activities in this study were designed cautiously to avoid reproducing problematic narratives of saviourism among student teachers, which victimized the poor rather than helping them. Moreover, the poverty-simulation experiences risk the misfortune of the poverty voyeurism that has mainly emerged from the rise of slum tourism or human zoo. Instead, it refers to establishing volunteerism for openness to experiences of the poor or marginalized groups in their own communities. Therefore, a critical and balanced approach requires a careful design and debriefing to ensure participants moving beyond personal emotion toward social analysis and collective responsibility. Student Teachers’ Beliefs of the Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty Teachers’ beliefs have a profound impact on students’ academic achievement. Teaching effectiveness or investigating in students’ learning depends largely on teachers’ beliefs and expectations toward student potential. In other words, when teachers believe that students can achieve their learning outcome, they are likely to engage with and support students’ learning (Haberman, 2010). A notable case study is Ban Nongkae School, a rural school in eastern Thailand facing severe educational inequality. The school’s former director, Miss Naowarat Thawon, firmly believed that students from low socio-economic status background can also succeed in both English and Thai literacy. With her strong beliefs and educational practice, the school consistently achieved O-NET scores of Grade 6’s English subject exceeding 70 percents for three years while the overall averaged score of Thai students in Grade 6 was never over 44 percents for 6 years since 2014 (Poohongthong, 2023).

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One of the critical success factors in improving literacy in peripheral Thai schools is the belief of academic achievement in students living in poverty. Thawon and her teaching staff overcame the barriers of students’ socio-economic status and financial limitations to ensure academic success. Evidently, teacher expectations play a crucial role in student learning outcomes. Moreover, teachers who perceive illiteracy as a challenge rather than an insurmountable problem were instrumental in demonstrating persistence in improving effective English language teaching methods (Poohongthong, 2023). For Naowarat Thawon, poverty is the educational challenge and a motivation to overcome. The measurement of student teachers’ beliefs in this study used the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty (SBALP), which was constructed into four subscales: 1) Perception of Students Living with Poverty’ Problems (PLP) (Briscoe, 2024; Strasser et al., 2013); 2) Attributing the Causes of Poverty in Students Living in Poverty (ACP) (Reutter et al., 2005); 3) Attitude toward Poverty (ATP) (Yun & Weaver, 2010); and 4) Confidence in Understanding Students Living in Poverty (CULP) (Strasser et al., 2013). Theoretical Framework This study emphasizes student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty and employs theories from the fields of Social Psychology and Educational Psychology. Firstly, it follows attribution theory (Feagin, 1972; Weiner, 1985) as a base for attributing the causes of poverty (Reutter et al., 2005); and attitude toward poverty (Yun & Weaver, 2010) in examining how individuals explain the cause of poverty that it distinguishes between individualistic, structural, and fatalistic attributions; as well as the perception of people living with poverty’ problems (Briscoe, 2024; Strasser et al., 2013). Secondly, it will apply the Missouri Association for Community Action’s poverty-simulation as characterized by Kolb’s (2017) Experiential Learning Theory and Mezirow’s (1997) Transformative Learning to transform individuals’ perspectives and behaviors. In other words, the simulation aims to create disorienting dilemmas (phase I pre-briefing for poverty-simulation) that challenge existing mindsets about academic achievement in students living in poverty, prompting reflection and potentially leading to perspective transformation. In a perspective, student teachers may shift from a deficit-based view of academic achievement in students living in poverty (blaming their families) to a more structural understanding (considering educational and economic policies). Figure 1 illustrates the logic model for this study. This logic model shows how enhancing student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty (output), improving student teachers’ awareness and empathy for students living in poverty, and reducing reality shock and stereotypes toward students living in poverty (outcome) could be produced by resources and theories (the intervention input), including the poverty-simulation activities.

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Figure 1 Logic Model for the Effect of Poverty-Simulation Activities in Enhancing Student Teachers’ Beliefs About Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty in Thailand

Intervention input Resources - Instructor/facilitator - Volunteer student teachers for roleplay - Materials Theories - Attribution theory - Experiential Learning - Transformative Learning

Activities

Outcome

Phase I: Pre-briefing - To study and analyze a case study of peripheral school and the O-NET scores

Output - enhancing student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty

Phase II: Simulation experience - Icebreaker activities - Role-play povertysimulation Phase III: Debriefing/reflecting

- Improving student teachers’ awareness and empathy for students living in poverty - Reducing reality shock and stereotypes toward students living in poverty

Methods Research Design and Samples This study employed the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design as a quasiexperimental research design. With the educational context in a natural setting, this design is feasible for comparing a treatment group and control group by student teachers in majors who are not assigned to the groups randomly (Denny et al., 2023). Furthermore, the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design can reduce the Hawthorne effect by using a control group. Participants in the control group did not engage in the poverty-simulation activities. Participants in the experimental and control group were measured by pretest and posttest at the same time points. Then, employing the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design helped to examine the results of poverty-simulation activities in enhancing student teachers’ beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty between the experimental and control group. Subsequently, to explain how the poverty-simulation activities cultivated student teachers’ understanding of learners from low socio-economic status backgrounds, qualitative data were collected using qualitative questionnaire. This study is not a mixed method approach because it does not join or converge the quantitative and qualitative results together. Moreover, it is believed that the qualitative data help to understand a more nuanced influence of the poverty-simulation only in the experimental group. Nevertheless, there are previous studies in the field of education and psychology that using a quasi-experimental design and following up with a qualitative method (Karnieli-Miller et al., 2017; Verbeek et al., 2024).

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The population of this study consisted of 450 first-year undergraduate students enrolled in the Bachelor of Education program in the Faculty of Education, Naresuan university, during the second semester (November 2024 to March 2025). The program has nine majors: Elementary education, Early childhood, Computer, Science, English, Thai, Physical education and exercise science, Mathematics, and Art education. After the researcher was permitted to conduct the study with approval of NU Institution Review Board (IRB) (COA No. 386/2024 and IRB No. P2-0301/2567), first-year student teachers in Elementary education major were selected to participate in the study, due to the inclusive criteria for the intervention group: 1) being the first year undergraduate student in the second semester enrolled in the course related with development and learning behavior of elementary-school–aged children; 2) accepting to participate in this study on a voluntary basis; 3) all participants were informed of the distressmitigation procedure where participants could decide to opt out for poverty-simulation activities and there was a counselor and counseling contacts for supporting throughout the research procedure; and 4) all participants were aware of role assignments in participating activities did not affect their grades and a confidentiality data storage procedure and data anonymization for the self-report questionnaire. In this way, the 56 student teachers from Elementary education major participated in the poverty-simulation activities as the experimental or treatment group. All 51 student teachers from Early childhood (n = 24) and Science (n = 27) majors were allocated randomly to the control group by the researcher, and they were informed of the details of this study and asked permission to participate willingly. In overall, 107 participants of both groups were included in this study. Additionally, the 54 student teachers from the Elementary education major who participated in the povertysimulation activities had to return the self-report questionnaire through the Google form to explain their perspectives through writing in the open-ended questions after role-play in the experiential learning. Instruments This study developed: 1) the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty by adapting the items and subscales from different sources of perspectives; 2) the selfreport questionnaire with eight open-ended questions, which was adapted from the previous research and Missouri Community Action Network’s discussion; and 3) the poverty-simulation activities designed and adapted from the previous research and the Missouri Community Action Network, and categorized into three main phases. Additionally, these instruments were ensured by reliability and validity. These instruments are detailed below. The Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty The Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty (SBALP) was adapted from Smith-Carrier et al. (2018), Strasser et al. (2013), Reutter et al. (2005), and Yun and Weaver (2010). The measurement of student teachers’ beliefs in this study used SBALP, which was constructed into four subscales both in pretest and posttest: 1) Perception of Students Living with Poverty’ Problems (PLP) (Briscoe, 2024; Strasser et al., 2013); 2) Attributing the Causes of Poverty in Students Living in Poverty (ACP) (Reutter et al., 2005);

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3) Attitude toward Poverty (ATP) (Yun & Weaver, 2010); and 4) Confidence in Understanding Students Living in Poverty (CULP) (Strasser et al., 2013). According to this scale, it was divided into five parts for collecting the data before the experiences through poverty-simulation activities (pretest) and for collecting the data after the experiences (posttest). The first part (Part I) asked about background information and experiences of poverty of student teachers and this part was divided from the analysis of SBALP (part II to V). Briefly, the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty was calculated from four subscales (part II to V). Notably, this questionnaire made moderate adaptations to suit with Thai educational context. And, this scale was validated for ensuring the quality of the instrument. Five experts from the field of education, sociology, and development studies examined the content validity through the indices of item objective congruence (IOC) and the qualitative data of feedback. This study selected IOC of the items which higher than 0.500, ranged from 0.600 to 1.000. Next, data collected from this scale were analyzed using 100 student teachers as known-group who did not participate in the experimental and control group for an analysis of item-total correlations, which was employed to select the items that had higher values than 0.205 (considered from critical values for Pearson’s correlation coefficient for degrees of freedom (two-tailed test = 0.05) = 90), and ranged from 0.213 to 0.705. Subsequently, collecting data of this overall scale in pretest and posttest showed that the Cronbach’s alphas of this overall scale (SBALP) was 0.858 (pretest) and 0.834 (posttest) (see Table 1). The part I of this questionnaire was developed from Smith-Carrier et al. (2018) for constructing the items of student teachers’ background information and experiences of poverty (6 items). The participants were asked with the 5-binary question (Yes or No) and a checkbox question (to select multiple answers from a list of predefined options). The items of part II in this scale were developed from Strasser et al. (2013)’s Reform Organization of Welfare record and Briscoe (2024) to measure student teachers’ Perception of Students Living with Poverty’ Problems (15 items). Items were rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly not severe) to 4 (strongly severe) with higher scores indicating higher level of perception of students coming from low-income families who may not have access to necessities. Examples of items are “Problem of students living in poverty is the lack of safe housing or accommodation” and “Problem of students living in poverty is the lack of a supportive physical environments for learning, such as electricity, internet access, and adequate study space.” After normalizing the item scores (from 4-point to 5-point Likert scale), the mean inter-item correlations of part II were 0.361 (pretest) and 0.357 (posttest). Cronbach’s alphas for the subscale were 0.895 (pretest) and 0.893 (posttest) (see Table 1). Moreover, the 3-item of part V were adapted from Strasser et al. (2013) to measure confidence in understanding students living in poverty. Items were rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 4 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating higher level of student teachers’ confidence in understanding and improving students living in poverty. Examples of items are “I am confident that I am able to understand the challenges of students living in poverty that they face with” and “I am confident that my teaching can enhance the

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academic achievement in students living in poverty.” After normalizing the item scores, the mean inter-item correlations of part V were 0.460 (pretest) and 0.797 (posttest), which were higher than 0.40. Then, we provided the item-level diagnosis by using CITC and found that there were three items in pretest (ranged from 0.458 to 0.651) and posttest (ranged from 0.817 to 0.865). Cronbach’s alphas for the subscale were 0.719 (pretest) and 0.921 (posttest) (see Table 1). For the 5-item of part III, Reutter et al. (2005)’s questionnaire was employed to adapt and measure attributing the causes of poverty in students living in poverty. Items were rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating higher level of attributing of the social structural causes of poverty in students living in poverty. Examples for such items included “Government policy is a cause of poverty among students” and “Social inequality is a cause of poverty among most people.” The mean interitem correlations of the subscale were 0.285 (pretest) and 0.371 (posttest). Cronbach’s alphas for the subscale were 0.670 (pretest) and 0.744 (posttest) (see Table 1). The 19-item of part IV was adapted from Yun and Weaver (2010)’s Attitude toward Poverty Short Form [ATP-SF] to measure attitude toward academic achievement in students living in poverty. Items were rated on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) with higher scores indicating higher level of beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty. Examples of these items are “I believe that if teachers invest in and support students living in poverty, those students can become literate” and “I believe that if students living in poverty acquire knowledge or received a good education, they can earn a higher income in the future.” The mean inter-item correlations of the subscale were 0.054 (pretest) and 0.039 (posttest), which were lower than 0.20. Then, we explored the items in this subscale by using CITC for the item-level diagnosis and found that there were ten items (pretest) and thirteen items (posttest). Cronbach’s alphas for the subscale were 0.493 (pretest) and 0.438 (posttest) (see Table 1). The Self-Report Questionnaire This self-report questionnaire was influenced from the previous research (Briscoe, 2024; Browne & Roll, 2016; Cho et al., 2015; Motter et al., 2024), Kolb’s concept (2017), and Missouri Community Action Network’s discussion (2024). These eight open-ended questions were appropriately major adaptations with Thai student teachers, who participated in these poverty-simulation activities. This questionnaire was validated to ensure the quality of instrument by five experts (the same group as the one validating SBALP). IOC were used to represent the content validity. We selected IOC of the questions which ranged from 0.600 to 1.000. We also edited the questions from the qualitative feedback of experts, particularly regarding the issues of using complex language and unclear sentences. Moreover, 10 Thai firstyear student teachers majoring in English participated in pilot testing by examining and completing the self-report questionnaire. Examples of these questions are “After participating in the poverty-simulation activities, what do you think about how poverty affects students living in poverty, particularly the academic achievement, learning behaviors in classroom, and

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their vocation in the future?” and “After participating in the poverty-simulation activities, how have your beliefs about students living in poverty changed?” The Poverty-Simulation Activities The objectives of the poverty-simulation activities, as the intervention in the quasi-experiment, are to trigger student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty to become a person who has more awareness and empathy for students from low-income families, and to transform the student teachers’ perceptions of those students’ academic abilities from an academic fixed mindset to a growth mindset. The poverty-simulation activities were adapted from reviewing the literature based on the concept of CAPS (Archambault & Verduijn, 2024; Briscoe, 2024; Browne & Roll, 2016; Motter et al., 2024). Five experts who had experience conducting social issue activities or projects with people from low socio-economic status backgrounds in Thailand, such as researchers from the educational inequality projects and the representatives of peaceful death projects, helped examined the content validity through evaluation of the appropriateness (e.g. purpose of the activities, contents of conducting in each phase: pre-briefing, the simulation experience, and debriefing) and the qualitative data of feedback. It was found that the overall of the poverty-simulation activities was highly appropriate (M = 4.47, SD = 0.49). The recommendations of experts were considered to develop these poverty-simulation activities, such as adding the poverty line activity for icebreaker idea in the simulation experience phase. Furthermore, developing the poverty-simulation activities employed a pragmatic trial to evaluate the effectiveness of the poverty-simulation activities as an intervention under realworld conditions with the volunteered sample group (six first-year student teachers from majoring English), which not participants in the experimental and control group, to test the poverty-simulation activities in all phases, particularly the role play of an individual in the family that living in poverty to survive and reach monthly living tasks for one month (approximately 1.30 hour) such as payment of housing and electricity, and the unemployment member of the family had to apply for a job at a government employment office or a textile factory for monthly/weekly wages. It was found that the level of effectiveness of the povertysimulation activities for overall was high effective (M = 4.13, SD = 0.503). The recommendations of the sample of trial test were considered to develop these activities, such as informing weekly/monthly wages that member can earn income in “the family profile” in the simulation experience phase. After developing the poverty-simulation activities, the author of this article conducted three main phases. Interventional Procedure To examine the effect of the poverty-simulation activities on enhancing student teachers’ beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty, the researcher recruited one treatment group and one control group. The intervention and control group were conducted in the different activities, except for the stage of prior and after all activities. While the

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experimental group was conducted with the poverty-simulation activities (Phase I, II, and III); as the intervention, the control group did not participate in the poverty-simulation activities. Prior to starting all phases of the poverty-simulation activities one month before, the researcher introduced the aims of the activities, including informed the inclusive and exclusive criteria, and asking the participants to sign the consent form. After that, the participants in the experimental and control group viewed the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty, which was divided into five parts for collecting the data before the experiences through poverty-simulation activities (pre-simulation experience) and for collecting data after the experiences (post-simulation experience). Moreover, the researcher recruited the 30 volunteered student teachers from English major who were willingly to serve as role players as agents of vocation and professional careers. They were assigned to train for role-playing that adhered to safety guidelines, no bias, and neutrality in 2-hour workshop to practice role-playing scenario in this simulation activity. The researcher made an appointment with the participants and the volunteers. The poverty-simulation activities were categorized into three main phases: 1) Pre-Briefing for Poverty-Simulation One week before the simulation activity, the researcher employed Mezirow’s (1997) Transformative Learning as the tools for triggering participants’ the beliefs about academic achievement in students living in poverty. In other words, participants were assigned to learn about the case study of Ban Nongkae school (see the detail above “Explanation of poverty’s perceptions”) through a short video clip on YouTube, analyzing and presenting the overall average scores of O-NET in Thai and English subjects in Thai grade 6 students in different school groups, and to read the academic articles about the success of peripheral schools in enhancing students’ English literacy to discuss what factors and strategies that teachers in these schools use to enhance their students’ English literacy. The day of the simulation activity, the icebreaker activities (e.g. the poverty line activity) for participants were conducted 3 hours before the simulation activity in a room the size of a basketball court. After that, the researcher as facilitator explained the simulation activity. Next, 56 participants were randomized to be members of families (there are 18 families: Family A to R and each family has differently number of members around 2-5 persons). The 30 volunteers who role-played as agents of institutions introduced their job descriptions and services such as a teacher from the primary school, a nurse from hospital, and governmental staffs from a government employment office. After that, participants were given the amount of money (pseudo cash) and “The family profile” which described the background information of each member and assign weekly/monthly tasks of living for one month (approximately 1.30 hour, divided into the four 15-minute sessions), to read and review their roles, imagine the characteristic of their roles, and ask questions for 30 minutes.

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2) The Simulation Experience The facilitator asked participants and volunteered staffs to start the first week of 15 minutes. After accomplishing each week, the facilitator gave the agents of social units announced unplanned incidents such as there were 5 persons from different families faced the accident or injuries, 3 students who got the scholarship from their school, and one family won lottery. At the end of the fourth week, the facilitator examined the payment of rent and electricity in all families that they had to pay before the fourth week. The facilitator sounded an alarm to end the poverty-simulation. 3) Debriefing/ Student Reflection Debriefing or student reflection is the process of student teachers’ s reflection in questions, which use after the poverty-simulation activities to help participants express their emotional reactions, examine assumptions, and connect the experience with structural causes of poverty (rather than personal failure). In this phase, the facilitator asked each family to count the cash on hand and requested the member of each family to express their feelings and thoughts about their recent living in the simulation with short sentence or a few keywords. The researcher and participants shared, concluded, and reflected the experiences from the activities through the self-report questionnaire to reflect their beliefs and point of views (see Appendix B). After all activities, participants received the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty (for the post simulation experience). Finally, the facilitator acknowledged participants and volunteer staffs. For the participants in the control group, they completed this scale (post-simulation experience) the following day. Data Analysis The quantitative data from the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty were calculated with t-test for independent sample for comparing the pretest scores between the experimental and control group. In this study, the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design is appropriate with the manipulation without randomization in the educational research because participants were selected into either the treatment group and the control group (not the intervention) with the educational natural setting. In selecting different majors in this design (Elementary education as the treatment group and Early childhood and Science as the control group), it is criticized that there is a main threat to internal validity. Thereby, analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for comparing the posttest in the experimental and control group can alleviate the internal validity threats by statistical controlling for pretest scores as covariates. Another strategy of alleviating these threats in this research design is collecting qualitative data that ensures to explain the effect of poverty-simulation activities in enhancing student teachers’ beliefs. Moreover, there were the normalization in the subscale of PLP and CULP. Furthermore, we checked ANCOVA assumption (homogeneity of regression slopes, residual normality, and equality of variance).

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The qualitative data from the self-report questionnaire were analyzed by thematic analysis technique which based on process of reduction, synthesis, and conclusion drawing (Miles et al., 2014). Applying data coding and categorization techniques in this study involved: 1) the initial step of data analysis starting with reading through all respondents to break down data into segments; 2) grouping similar data based on research question and to identify codes/subthemes; and 3) categorizing subthemes to develop or refine themes. After that, using peer debriefing for the credibility of qualitative data by reviewing and examining process of developing themes and subthemes by two educational researchers who have experience in doing qualitative research and have no interest in this study. Results Based on the analysis illustrated above, the results are reported as follows in accordance with the research questions. Quantitative Findings (Research Question 1) This study recruited 107 student teachers, 56 to the intervention group, and 51 to the control group. Table 1 shows the participants characteristics from part I of the scale. Table 1 Baseline Characteristic of Sample

Gender Female Male Other Age (year) Mean (S.D.) Range Parent’s profession Government official Public enterprise Private business Day worker Farmer Other Parent’s education Elementary education Secondary education High school Vocational certificate Higher vocational certificate

Intervention group (n = 56)

Control group (n = 51)

Total (n = 107)

42 (75%) 12 (21.4%) 2 (3.6%)

38 (74.5%) 13 (25.5%) -

80 (74.8%) 25 (23.4%) 2 (1.9%)

18.80 (0.644) 18-20

18.75 (0.627) 18-21

18.75 (0.634) 18-21

15 (26.8%) 2 (3.6%) 8 (14.3%) 16 (28.6%) 13 (23.2%) 2 (3.6%)

16 (31.4%) 1 (2%) 10 (19.6%) 11 (21.6%) 9 (17.6%) 4 (7.8%)

31 (29%) 3 (2.8%) 18 (16.8%) 27 (25.2%) 22 (20.6%) 6 (5.6%)

6 (10.7%) 7 (12.5%) 11 (19.6%) 3 (5.4%) 3 (5.4%)

3 (5.9%) 6 (11.8%) 12 (23.5%) 1 (2%) 4 (7.8%)

9 (8.4%) 13 (12.1%) 23 (21.5%) 4 (3.7%) 7 (6.5%)

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Bachelor’s degree Master’s degree Doctoral degree Not identify Having close acquaintances in poverty Yes No Receiving aids or subsidies from government or private sector Yes No Having experience helping people in poverty Yes No Not identify Perception of poverty in Thailand through the media Yes No Learning about poverty in classrooms Yes No Not identify Having personal experiences of poverty Dept problem Insufficient daily consumption Layoff problems Physical/chronic diseases Limited access to education Inadequate income Unemployment Disaster-related issues Other SBALP (PLP, ACP, ATP, & CULP) (42 total items) Cronbach’s alphas (pretest, posttest) Subscales of SBALP PLP (part II) (15 items) Cronbach’s alphas (pretest, posttest) MIIC (pretest, posttest) ACP (part III) (5 items)

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Intervention group (n = 56) 14 (25%) 11 (19.6%) 1 (1.8%)

Control group (n = 51) 15 (29.4%) 7 (13.7%) 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%)

Total (n = 107)

37 (66.1%) 19 (33.9%)

23 (45.1%) 28 (54.9%)

60 (56.1%) 47 (43.9%)

50 (89.3%) 6 (10.7%)

41 (80.4%) 10 (19.6%)

91 (85%) 16 (15%)

12 (21.4%) 43 (76.8%) 1 (1.8%)

17 (33.3%) 33 (64.7%) 1 (2%)

29 (27.1%) 76 (71%) 2 (1.9%)

52 (92.9%) 4 (7.1%)

46 (90.2%) 4 (7.8%)

98 (91.6%) 8 (7.5%)

48 (85.7%) 7 (12.5%) 1 (1.8%)

44 (86.3%) 7 (13.7%) -

92 (86%) 14 (13.1%) 1 (0.9%)

42 (75%) 1 (1.8%) 6 (10.7%) 2 (3.6%) 2 (3.6%) 2 (3.6%) 1 (1.8%) -

34 (66.7%) 1 (2%) 8 (15.7%) 2 (3.9%) 1 (2%) 1 (2%) 4 (7.8%)

76 (71%) 2 (1.9%) 14 (13.1%) 2 (1.9%) 4 (3.7%) 3 (2.8%) 2 (1.9%) 4 (3.7%)

29 (27.1%) 18 (16.8%) 2 (1.9%) 2 (1.9%)

0.858, 0.834

0.895, 0.893 0.361, 0.357

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Intervention group (n = 56)

Control group (n = 51)

Cronbach’s alphas (pretest, posttest) MIIC (pretest-posttest) ATP (part IV) (19 items) Cronbach’s alphas (pretest, posttest) MIIC (pretest-posttest) CULP (part V) (3 items) Cronbach’s alphas (pretest, posttest) MIIC (pretest-posttest)

Total (n = 107) 0.670, 0.744 0.285, 0.371 0.493, 0.438 0.054, 0.039 0.719, 0.921 0.460, 0.797

Note. SBALP, the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty; PLP, Perception of Students Living with Poverty’ Problems; ACP, Attributing the Causes of Poverty in Students Living in Poverty; CULP, Confidence in Understanding Students Living in Poverty; ATP, Attitude toward Poverty; MIIC, the mean inter-item correlations.

Before reporting the results of research question one, assumptions were tested. Equality of variances, residual normality, and homogeneity of regression slops were all satisfactory. Levene’s test of equality of error variances was not significant, F(1,105) = 0.151, p = 0.698. The residual normality was examined by using the Shapiro–Wilk test, W = 0.973, p = 0.241. The assumption of homogeneity of regression slops was examined by testing the interaction between the covariate (pretest) and the independent variable (group/condition). The interaction was not significant, F(1,103) = 0.854, p = 0.358, indicating the relationship between the covariate (pretest) and dependent variable (posttest) did not differ across groups. Therefore, the assumptions were met, and the ANCOVA was appropriate. The quantitative measure of student teachers’ beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty in the experimental and control groups could be presented as follow. The preliminary analysis revealed that the experimental group (pretest score [M = 3.87, SD = .36]) and the control group (pretest score [M = 3.97, SD = .39]). The two groups did not differ significantly in their scale of belief of academic achievement in students living in poverty, t[105] = -1.45, p = 0.150. Table 2 shows the descriptive statistics of pretest (mean, standard deviation, mean difference, and effect size). Table 2 Descriptive Statistics of Experimental and Control Group of Pretest Groups

Mean Difference

η2 p

Experimental Control

56 51

3.87 3.97

.36 .39

-.105

-1.45

.150

.37

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The ANCOVA result in Table 3 showed that after controlling for pretest scores, there was a significant effect of group on posttest (F(1, 104) = 10.596, p = 0.002, partial η2 = 0.092). Thus, the results accept H1 and reject H0. This interpretation is after participating in the povertysimulation activities and controlling for pretest scores, student teachers who participate in the poverty-simulation activities are higher scores on the beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty than student teachers who did not participate. The group effect accounted for 9.2% of the variance in posttest scores, indicating a moderate effect size. Participants in the experimental group scored higher on the posttest (adjusted M = 3.93) than those in the control group (adjusted M = 3.77) (Table 4). However, a paired-samples t-test was conducted to examine whether participants in each group improved from pretest to posttest. Results in Table 5 indicated that the experimental group did not show a significant difference between pretest and posttest, indicating a small effect. The control group showed a significant decrease in posttest scores compared to pretest, indicating a small effect. Table 3 ANCOVA Results for Posttest of Student Teachers’ Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty in the Experimental and Control Groups Source of Variance Covariate Pretest Group Error Total

Partial η2

8.444 .664 6.517 1608.398

1 1 104 107

8.444 .664 .063

134.746 10.596

.001* .002*

.564 .092

Note. * p<.05

Table 4 Descriptive Statistics of Experimental and Control Group of Adjusted Posttest Groups Experimental Control

M 3.93 3.77

SE .034 .035

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95% CI 3.868 to 4.001 3.706 to 3.845

Partial η2 0.092

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Table 5 Comparing Pretest and Posttest Scores within Each Group Groups

Experimental

Control

Pretest M (SD) 3.87 (.36) 3.98 (.39)

Posttest M (SD) 3.90 (.33) 3.82 (.42)

Mean Difference -0.024

-.717

.476

Cohan’s d 0.346

0.161

4.047

.001

0.284

Qualitative Findings (Research Question 2) There were four themes that emerged from the qualitative data of the self-report questionnaire to answer the second research question, “What are the perceptions of student teachers who participate in the poverty-simulation activities?” (see Table 6) Table 6 Themes and Subthemes from Collecting Qualitative Data for the Second Research Question Themes Deeper empathy

Subthemes Awareness of the effects of poverty on access to education and career paths

Gap between learners from different socio-economic statuses Expanded explanations of poverty

Inevitable situations of poverty

Poverty makes life more difficult

Poverty is a lack of opportunities

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Supporting quotes “I have experienced poverty firsthand. So, I literally understand poverty. The activities recall my feelings that my mother is a sole breadwinner in our family. She was a good leader who helped us overcome our struggles. I feel proud of her” (ST. 04). “Children come from families with varying financial circumstances. Some have a high quality of life, but others do not. Children in poverty have to struggle to survive” (ST 22). “Certainly, I am going to prepare myself both psychological and cognitive dimensions for supporting them” (ST 15). “From these poverty-simulation activities, poverty makes them have a difficult life. Their parents consider necessities expenses that sometimes it is not the education of children” (ST 33)” “Before I participated in this activity, I perceived that poverty is a lack of money or property. But when I experienced in these activities, I realized that poverty weakens students and their family broadly, such as a lack of access to education or getting part time jobs for helping their parent” (ST 30).

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Themes Selfdetermination to overcome poverty

Teachers’ professional devotion

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Subthemes Growth mindset toward academic achievement among students living in poverty

Receiving education, combined with internal factors, drives academic success The potential of teaching

Being an impartial teacher

Supporting quotes “I believe that every child can succeed in their goal, and in the education and career path although they live in a dissimilar environment. Opportunities come to them in various ways. It also depends on children’s ambition” (ST 09). “I believe that education is a tool of human development and accomplishment that drives children out of poverty” (ST 40). “If I work at a small school or rural school as a teacher, I will teach Thai and English literacy so that students can raise their skills to be equal to students in the city” (ST 22). “When I become a teacher at any school, I will create learning opportunities such as training job skills and tutoring Thai and English literacy” (ST 35).

Theme 1: Deeper Empathy Subtheme 1: Awareness of the Effects of Poverty on Access to Education and Career Paths. Most student teachers as participants in the poverty-simulation activities described that participating in the activities helped encourage deeper empathy and heightened awareness of the outcome of poverty in students living with the low socio-economic backgrounds, particularly loss of the educational opportunities, risk of school dropout, and focusing on earning income for financial survival rather than personal fulfilment or meaningful career paths. The following excerpts from self-reported questionnaires helped illustrate this subtheme: In the simulation, I took the role play of a mother-in-law of children. I had to work to cover basic expenses, including electricity, school fees, and food. These activities made me concerned about children in the poor family in the real life situation. I couldn’t afford my child’s education and poverty caused daily stress for my family. We fight poverty. These activities deepened my empathy for students living in poverty. I now better understand the stress, anxiety, and shame they faced. They have abilities for academic performance, but the external factors which cannot control by themselves affect their attention in the classroom or can lead to disruptive behavior. (Student teacher No. 54) I have experienced poverty firsthand. So, I literally understand poverty. The activities recall my feelings that my mother is a sole breadwinner in our family. She was a good leader who helped us overcome our struggles. I feel proud of her. (Student teacher No. 04) Subtheme 2: Gap between Learners from Different Socio-Economic Backgrounds. Many participants perceived that learners come from different socio-economic backgrounds.

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While some learners are born into high-income families and benefit from greater resources and opportunities, others from low-income families face significant obstacles. These inequalities can lead to divergent academic and professional trajectories. Children living in poverty have to resist the difficult life while children in high socio-economic status can success easily in the academic and professional life because they are supported by their family and had more opportunities. One participant explained that: Children come from families with varying financial circumstances. Some have a high quality of life, but others do not. Children in poverty had to struggle to survive. (Student teacher No. 22) Moreover, another student teacher remarked that: I have become more aware of how each family and child is different. Most children have a dream job, but they do not all start from the same place. Many children from the wealthy family reached their academic and career goals easily than children who deficit the financial support from their family. Thus, disadvantaged children must work much harder to achieve their goals. Moreover, the way to success is a tough progress. However, if children focus on their goals, they can succeed on their own. (Student teacher No. 32) Theme 2: Expanded Explanations of Poverty Subtheme 1: Inevitable Situations of Poverty. Many student teachers expressed that the simulation activities provided them with a clearer understanding of the realities of the educational landscape, particularly the inescapable impact of student poverty. They emphasized the importance of being open and prepared, both pedagogically and emotionally, to effectively support students living in poverty in their future teaching careers. One student teacher reflected that: Poverty of our learners in the future, we have to face with this problem. I will open my mind for them. If I can help them, I will help to provide the scholarship for them. (Student teacher No. 04) Another student teacher answered that: Certainly, I am going to prepare myself both psychological and cognitive dimensions for supporting them. (Student teacher No. 15) Subtheme 2: Poverty Makes Life More Difficult. Several student teachers reflected that students living in poverty face numerous life challenges, including limited parental time, insufficient financial support, debts, and recurring cycles of loans. In other words, poverty significantly contributes to the hardship and instability in their daily lives. One participant noted that:

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From these poverty-simulation activities, poverty makes them have a difficult life. Their parents consider necessities expenses that sometimes it is not the education of children. Their parent often take loans for their child education because many parents believe that education is the important thing, including getting scholarship can help them a lot. (Student teacher No. 33) Another participant explained that: The poverty-simulation activities make me aware that each learner come from different social class that dramatically effect students’ academic achievement. Some children seek to jobs for earning money or help parent for financial support instead of focusing on reading book. There are lot of problems in poor families such as a single mom/dad, old ager who is chronical ill, paying debt and public utility, paying for the meal etc. These problems are not easy to deal with for children. It is hard to live and study typically like other children from the high social classes or the elite. (Student teacher No. 40) Subtheme 3: Poverty is a Lack of Opportunities. Eleven student teachers recognized that poverty is not merely the lack of sufficient financial resources but also encompasses a range of life shortages and risks that affect individuals’ overall well-being. One quotation from a student teacher reported that: Before I participated in this activity, I perceived that poverty is a lack of money or property. But when I experienced in these activities, I realized that poverty weakens students and their family broadly, such as a lack of access to education, or getting part time jobs for helping their parent. The stress of parents or caregivers effects children’s emotions and time of studying at home. (Student teacher No. 30) In the same way, another explained that: In my role-play in the poverty-simulation activities, my younger sister (another participant) and me (participant as middle school ager) walk from school to go back home by ourselves. We live in the slum in the city. It is so dangerous! Our parents have no time to pick us from school. One of meaning of “poverty” is having no time for safe children. (Student teacher No. 15) Moreover, a few participants perceived the meaning of poverty in a similar way: Poverty encompassed deficient opportunities such as receiving quality of education, accessing health services, and living in a hygienic environment. (Student teacher No. 52) Poverty is not only a lack of money, but also influences opportunities in developing their lives. (Student teacher No. 51)

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Theme 3: Self-Determination to Overcome Poverty Subtheme 1: Growth Mindset toward Academic Achievement among Students Living in Poverty. Almost all participants believed that students from low-income family can achieve their academic life, including self-development. Some participant said that: Even I as a head of a family (a role-play in the poverty-simulation activities) lost a job and faced financial insufficiency, but my children can concentrate with their studies. Finally, my children received scholarships from their school because they attended in classroom. Children from impoverished family aren’t lazy or unwise, they can learn and achieve their academic achievement if they endeavor so much. (Student teacher No. 06) Another participant believed that: I believe that every child can succeed in their goal in the education and career path although they live in a dissimilar environment. Opportunities come to them in various ways. It also depends on children’s ambition. (Student teacher No. 09) Subtheme 2: Receiving Education, Combined with Internal Factors, Drives Academic Success. Almost all participants believed that receiving quality education and the controllability of internal characteristics are the path to success in life. According to one participant who revealed that: I believe that education is a tool of human development and accomplishment that drives children out of poverty. (Student teacher No. 40) We can address poverty through educational opportunities. Education that has quality can lead students to obtain positions and employment with higher income in the future. (Student teacher No. 45) Another participant raised that: We cannot select the family we are born into. If children use the poverty-related experiences to drive their life, they can possibly select the meaningful end of life. (Student teacher No. 14) Theme 4: Teachers’ Professional Devotion Subtheme 1: The Potential of Teaching. Many student teachers reflected that if they were to work in the outskirt or rural school areas after graduation, they would ameliorate students’ literacy skills in both English and numeracy, including creating a sense of trust and warmth within the classroom environment. As stated by, one participant stated that:

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If I work at a small school or rural school as a teacher, I will teach Thai and English literacy so that students can raise their skills to be equal to students in the city. (Student teacher No. 22) In a similar case, another participant reported that: I understand the economic and socio-cultural contexts of students more deeply. These contexts impact their academic life. I would like to develop my teaching skills to apply them in my classroom. My classroom in the future should be friendly and trustworthy to build students’ curiosity and confidence. (Student teacher No. 51) Subtheme 2: Being an Impartial Teacher. Most participants intended that if given better opportunities, such as receiving a higher salary, they would support students living in poverty by providing scholarships or financial assistance, and by enhancing students’ vocational skills through experiential learning. As a case in point, one student teacher stated that: If I get more salary (equal to the doctor), I would share my money with them as a scholarship. Furthermore, I will open for donation from the people. (Student teacher No. 24) In the future, when I am a teacher, I would like to support students in doing what they love. I will do charity for educational scholarships. (Student teacher No. 33) When I become a teacher at any school, I will create learning opportunities such as training job skills and tutoring Thai and English literacy. (Student teacher No. 35) Discussion The aims of this study were to examine the results of poverty-simulation activities for enhancing student teachers’ beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty by using quantitative data. Moreover, we employed qualitative data to enhance our understanding for how the poverty-simulation activities cultivated student teachers’ beliefs of learners from low socio-economic backgrounds. In accordance with Research Question 1, the quantitative results revealed that student teachers who participate in the poverty-simulation activities showed significantly higher beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty compared to those who did not participate. Thus, the results support H1 and reject H0. This indicates that, after participating in the poverty-simulation activities and controlling for pretest scores, student teachers who participated in the poverty-simulation activities scored higher on beliefs about the academic achievement of students living in poverty than those who did not participate. According to the quantitative results, these findings aligned with previous studies, using the poverty-simulation improved participants’ perception and attitude towards poverty in undergraduate students and

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teacher candidates (Briscoe, 2024; Goelman et al., 2017; Keeney et al., 2019; Patterson & Hulton, 2011; Sanko et al., 2021; Smith-Carrier et al., 2018). Notably, there was a significant difference between the pretest (M = 3.98, SD = .39) and posttest (M = 3.82, SD = .42) scores of the control group (t(51) = 4.047, p = 001, d = 0.284). In other words, student teachers who did not participate in the poverty-simulation activities had lower posttest scores of beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty than their pretest scores. In this issue, an explanation about the lower score of the posttest in the control group, using qualitative data was thus required further research and to discuss the limitation of this study. However, from our observations and interviews with student teachers who did not participate in the activities (the control group), some reflected that most of the content in their coursework emphasized learning theories, curriculum development, and the creation of teaching materials. Discussions on poverty, educational inequality, and fostering awareness or empathy toward students living in poverty had rarely been included in their classes. Furthermore, the mean score of the experimental group increased slightly from the pretest (M = 3.87, SD = .36) to the posttest (M = 3.90, SD = .33), although this difference was not statistically significant. This finding suggests that the poverty-simulation activities may have raised awareness and encouraged reflection among student teachers, but the short timeframe was insufficient to produce measurable changes on the scale. Nevertheless, the qualitative findings offer a more comprehensive understanding of the student teachers’ experiences and perspectives. The qualitative findings for answering Research Question 2 emerged four themes are deeper empathy, expanded explanations of poverty, self-determination to overcome poverty, and teachers’ professional devotion. The previous research founded that the poverty-simulation usually led to greater depth of empathy and awareness of poverty (Briscoe, 2024; Caniglia & Mupinga, 2021; Holland et al., 2024; Nickols & Nielson, 2011). However, the povertysimulation in this study helps expand the explanations of poverty broadly than these in previous research by revealing that students would regularly reduce their state of shock at the cruel realities of living in poverty (Archambault & Verduijn, 2024; Bandler, 2018; Briscoe, 2024; Layth, 2023); and after participants had role-played in the activities, they would reflect that people living in poverty were having a difficult time (Čavojská, 2023). Furthermore, Amartya Sen (1999) described that poverty is a lack of opportunities and the previous research also found that participants who had played the poverty-simulation would explain that poverty is not only a lack of monetary resources, but also opportunities (Patterson & Hulton, 2011). In the theme of teachers’ professional devotion, interestingly, many participants in this study were intent to donate their money to support the education and learning of students living in poverty. In other words, whether student teachers’ perspectives are far from the belief on the structural cause of poverty or not, this point indicates shortage of state’s policy, including the distribution of educational resources and the provision of the primary and foundational education should be the governmental or community administration’s policy. Moreover, rethinking how student teachers can clearly understand the differentiation between individual charity and structural responsibility through “saviourism” is essential. This can become a potential inquiry for designing the future research.

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Limitations In this study, the non-equivalent control group pretest-posttest design is appropriate with the manipulation without randomization in the educational research that participants were selected into either the experimental group and the control group within a natural setting. Selecting different majors in this design (Elementary education as the treatment group and Early childhood and Science as the control group) is criticized because there is a main threat to internal validity. Thereby, using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for comparing the posttest in the experimental and control group was applied to alleviate the internal validity threats by statistical controlling for pretest scores as covariates. Moreover, we used another strategy for alleviating its threats, it was collecting qualitative data that ensured to explain the effects of poverty-simulation activities in enhancing student teachers’ beliefs. Initially, testing assumptions of ANCOVA (equality of variances, residual normality, and homogeneity of regression slops) were satisfactorily met. But the scale may be analyzed by using factor analysis in the future research. Also, there were normalization scores in subscales in this study, the values of two subscales with a 4-point Likert scale (Perception of Students Living with Poverty’ Problems (PLP) and Confidence in Understanding Students Living in Poverty (CULP)) were normalized to a 5-point scale by using the interpolation formula. Hence, the future research should design the same point Likert response format in all subscales to ensure consistency in measurement, equal weighting of subscale contributions, and comparability across items. Moreover, analysis of the subscale of Attitude toward Poverty (ATP) showed that the mean inter-item correlations of pretest and posttest were lower than 0.20. Thus, improving tools of measurement, especially in dimensions of Attitude toward Poverty such as cognitive dimension, would enhance accuracy and interpretive power of future research in this area. A notable limitation of this study is the unexplained decline in posttest scores among the control group. To address this issue, future studies should include qualitative data collection from participants in the control group following the posttest to explore possible reasons for the observed decrease in beliefs regarding academic achievement in students living in poverty. Conclusion The results of this study revealed that student teachers’ beliefs on students from low-income families or socio-economically disadvantaged backgrounds became broader and more realistic through participation in poverty-simulation activities. The measurement for quantitative data used the scale of student teachers’ beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty in this study consisted of four subscales: perception of students living with poverty’ problems; attributing the causes of poverty in students living in poverty; attitude toward poverty; and confidence in understanding students living in poverty. The study also showed that student teachers believed that access to education and sustained effort, even within unequal educational contexts, can foster academic and life achievement among disadvantaged learners. Such findings suggest that promoting conceptualization of poverty reduction within the educational

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context could facilitate the differentiation between beliefs in individual charity and structural responsibility among student teachers.

Funding The author received research grant from Faculty of Education, Naresuan University (EDU2568-T04). This article is part of the issue “Developing poverty-simulation activities for enhancing student teachers’ beliefs of academic achievement in students living in poverty.”

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Sanguanngarm, N. (2020). Factors affecting the failure of Thai education to equip Thai students with 21st century skills. Community and Social Development Journal, 21(2), 1–19. https://doi.org/10.14456/rcmrj.2020.225593 Sanko, J. S., Matsuda, Y., Salani, D., Tran, L., Reaves, R., & Gerber, K. (2021). A comparison of learning outcomes from two poverty simulation experiences. Public Health Nursing, 38(3), 427–438. https://doi.org/10.1111/phn.12853 Secretariat Office of the Teachers’ Council of Thailand. (2025, October 27). Notification of the Teachers’ Council of Thailand: Regarding degree and diploma certification in education according to the professional standards to practice the profession B.E.2567 (2024). Government Gazette, 141(Special Part 35 Ngor), 15–19. Sen, A. (1999). Development as freedom. Oxford. Smith-Carrier, T., Leacy, K., Bouck, M. S., Justrabo, J., & Pierce, B. D. (2018). Living with poverty: A simulation. Journal of Social Work, 19(5), 642–663. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468017318766429 Steinberg, S., & Krumer-Nevo, M. (2020). Poverty-aware teacher education. European Journal of Teacher Education, 45(2), 266–281. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2020.1827390 Strasser, S., Smith, M. O., Denney, D. P., Jackson, M. C., & Buckmaster, P. (2013). A poverty simulation to inform public health practice. American Journal of Health Education, 44(5), 259–264. https://doi.org/10.1080/19325037.2013.811366 The National Institute of Educational Testing Service. (2025). Results of the O-NET. Retrieved from https://catalog.niets.or.th/dataset/p6_country Verbeek, M. C., van de Bongardt, D., Luijk, M. P. C. M., & Weeland, J. (2024). Make a move: A multi-method quasi-experimental study of a program targeting psychosexual health and sexual and dating violence for Dutch male adolescents. The Open Science Framework. https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/b9nv2 Weiner, B. (1985). An attributional theory of achievement motivation and emotion. Psychological Review, 92(4), 548–573. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-295X.92.4.548 Yun, S. H., & Weaver, R. D. (2010). Development and validation of a short form of the attitude toward poverty scale. Advances in Social Work, 11(2),174–187. https://doi.org/10.18060/437 Corresponding author: Chanadda Poohongthong Email: poohongthongc@gmail.com

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Appendices Appendix A (Table 7) Three Phases of the Poverty-Simulation Activities Based on Concepts for the Intervention Group Applied concept - Ethical consideration

- Concrete experience of Kolb’s Experiential Learning (EL) - Disorienting dilemmas of Mezirow’s Transformative Learning (TL)

- Active experimentation of Kolb’s EL - Disorienting dilemmas of Mezirow’s TL

- Reflective observation and abstract conceptualization of Kolb’s EL - Critical reflection and perspective transformation of Mezirow’s TL -

Phase Procedure Prior to activities Introduction into the aims of the (1 month before Phase I)* activities Informed consent Pretest: the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty Phase I Assigning to study an educational pre-briefing for povertycase study of the successful simulation peripheral school from a short video (1 week before Phase II) clip (30 minutes) Analyzing and presenting the average scores of O-NET in grade 6 students (30 minutes) Discussing the educational phenomenon from reading the articles (45 minutes) Phase II the simulation Icebreaker activities (3 hours): experience Height, birthday line-up; happiness rating; the poverty line activity; the freedom diagram; the mysterious painting Introducing and conducting the poverty-simulation activities (2.30 hours) Phase III Concluding and reflecting (45 debriefing/student minutes): The self-report reflecting questionnaire

After all activities*

Posttest: the Scale of Beliefs of Academic Achievement in Students Living in Poverty

Note. * denotes conducting the data collection in the control group.

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Appendix B Examples of Questions in Debriefing/Reflecting (Based on Mezirow’s and Kolb’s Concept) These were divided in six sections: 1) Emotional awareness and personal reaction • What emotions did you feel during the simulation? • Were there any moments when you felt particularly overwhelmed or powerless? Why? • Did any part of the experience surprise you? 2) Reflecting on perspective-taking • What perspectives do you think you gained from this experience? • How might real families’ experiences differ from or be more complex than this simulation? 3) Shifting from individual to structural understanding • When you were struggling in the simulation, what factors were beyond your control? • How did social systems, educational system, institutions, or policies shape the outcomes in the simulation? • What structural barriers were visible? 4) Challenging stereotypes • Before the activities, what assumptions did you hold about students living in poverty? • Did any of those assumptions shift after the activities? 5) Connecting to professional responsibility (Teacher Education in Thailand) • After participating in the poverty-simulation activities, what do you think about how poverty affects students living in poverty, particularly the academic achievement, learning behaviors in classroom, and their vocation in the future? • How have your beliefs (as student teacher) about students living in poverty changed? 6) Critical reflection for action • Based on this reflection, what should change in how we talk about poverty in education? • How can teachers and schools take on roles that contribute to systemic educational improvement?

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Exploring the Scientific Culture of Elementary School Teachers in Jakarta Musringudin Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof Dr Hamka, Indonesia Yulian Dinihari Indraprasta University, Indonesia

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Abstract This study examines the implementation of scientific culture among elementary school teachers in Jakarta, aiming to identify its strengths and weaknesses as a foundation for teacher professional development. Using a mixed-methods design, data were collected from teachers through questionnaires, interviews, document analysis, and classroom observations. The quantitative findings indicate that teachers demonstrate a strong scientific culture in two main areas: (1) the development of active, creative, and innovative learning plans that utilize the environment and information and communication technology, and (2) the application of varied learning strategies, models, methods, and media. However, several dimensions remain weak. Negative indicators were found in the areas of classroom action research and dissemination. Similarly, the sustainable professional development dimension, covering book and paper publication, module writing, implementation of best practices, and creation of innovative works, showed limited progress. These findings highlight that while teachers exhibit a generally positive scientific orientation, the culture of research and scholarly dissemination remains underdeveloped. Strengthening teachers’ research engagement and publication skills is essential to foster a more robust scientific culture in schools and to enhance their role as reflective practitioners and agents of educational improvement. Keywords: action research, publication, scientific culture, teacher’s professional development

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Scientific culture is a highly relevant topic in education because schools and universities are institutions where scientific activities and resources are deeply embedded. Teachers play a central role in shaping competitive and competent students who become high-quality human resources in various fields. Therefore, teachers must be at the forefront as role models, demonstrating the ability to think critically, engage in inquiry-based activities, and create works that embody a scientific mindset. A strong scientific culture helps teachers not only transmit knowledge but also develop it, ensuring that their teaching practices remain evidencebased and innovative. Scientific culture reflects rational and logical conceptual knowledge applied to the development of science and technology, maintained through strict procedures, norms, and traditions passed down across generations (Wang, 2018). It represents both a way of thinking and a continuous process of preserving scientific traditions within education. Practically, it is implemented by adhering to established procedures and values that guide scientific inquiry and the creation of new knowledge (Dewey et al., 2021; Maxera & AlvarezBlanco, 2022). Through this process, scientific culture enhances human skills and knowledge, which ultimately improve the quality of life (Costanzo & Golombek, 2020). Cultural and scientific activities also provide valuable lessons for shaping a better future (Eileen Carlton Parsons, 2013). Although there is no universally accepted definition of scientific culture, its indicators consistently involve individual and collective engagement in activities with scientific value (Shang, 2019; Godin & Gingras, 2000). Such participation, both academic and institutional, illustrates how science becomes a shared social endeavor. As Hester du Plessis explains (Marec & Schiele, 2018), scientific culture requires the active involvement of individuals, communities, governments, and institutions to support the development and utilization of scientific knowledge for the common good. Science as a culture cannot stand alone; it depends on collaboration among scientists, educators, communities, and policymakers (Costanzo & Golombek, 2020; Carty et al., 2014). Within this context, teachers are key agents who translate rational, logical, and empirical ways of thinking into meaningful educational practice. Scientific culture thus embodies rationality, criticality, objectivity, universality, skepticism, and empiricism (Yang Zhang & Liu, 2022; Yuan, 2022; Halim et al., 2009). These characteristics are closely related to research activities (Marec & Schiele, 2018; Dewey et al., 2021; Matosin et al., 2014), which, when internalized by teachers, can significantly enhance their professionalism and contribute to improving the overall quality of education. At the practical level, scientific culture is interpreted as a routine activity carried out personally or communally to obtain knowledge that has an impact on the development of science (Godin & Gingras, 2000); (Wang, 2018); (Dewey et al., 2021); (Shang, 2019). The process of obtaining knowledge is carried out through stages of logical, rational thinking and research activities (Yang Zhang & Liu, 2022); (Yuan, 2022); (Godin & Gingras, 2000). Scientific culture is a research activity whose results must be published to be used as a reference for further research. Even research with negative findings is still important to publish because it can be used as a consideration for other researchers in determining relevant research topics (Matosin et al.,

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2014). As a scientific activity, the process of formulating knowledge is guided by the rules, regulations, values, norms, and traditions of science that must be strictly adhered to by researchers in conducting research (Halim et al., 2009); (Dewey et al., 2021); (Wang, 2018). A society with a strong scientific culture can be identified by applying scientific knowledge and its methodology in gaining new knowledge (Carty et al., 2014). Scientific elements can be represented in research activities (Marec & Schiele, 2018). An activity that begins with a question continues to develop and use a model to explain phenomena, plan and conduct investigations, analyze and interpret data, use mathematical logic, construct explanations, adequate and relevant empirical evidence, logical or rational, and communicate research results clearly and persuasively (Costa & Broietti, 2021). It is emphasized by (Feuer et al., 2002) that research must meet the principle of having empirically investigable questions, using relevant theories, applying appropriate methods, stating clear and coherent arguments, research findings that can be replicated and generalized across studies, and the data and research methods used that are open to criticism and analysis by other researchers. Scientific culture has distinctive characteristics, including practicality. At this level, the development of science and technology is carried out through the scientific community’s activities with experts’ guidance, including publication and dissemination of knowledge. Second, precision and rationality: scientific culture is the best knowledge system regarding precision and systematics. Third, the objective is to focus on the objectivity of knowledge and avoid the influence of other social factors (Shang, 2019). Scientific knowledge views science as it is, not based on its value. At the axiological level, science must still have value for the benefit of the universe. Fourth, Inheritance: it takes place from generation to generation as a habit. Scientific culture is not only done once or twice but must become a habit. Fifth, Penetration: it refers to the application of scientific knowledge, methods, values and ethics (Wang, 2018). According to Shi-ran & Qi, scientific activities include translating books, publishing written works, and correspondence (Ambrosio et al., n.d.). Michel Claessens stated that a nation with a strong scientific tradition in the institutional structure to disseminate science and integrate it into the culture of society (Marec & Schiele, 2018). In addition to publication or dissemination, scientific culture is also expressed through the ability to use data and facts in processing information (Dragoş & Mih, 2015), which are characteristics of research activities and scientific spirit (Yiming Zhang & Zhang, 2018) to obtain the truth and build scientific knowledge (Halim et al., 2009). Furthermore (Lamanauskas et al., 2020) emphasize teacher activities in action research as an indicator of scientific culture. Based on research by (Salesman & Tapung, 2022), some Indonesians allocate reading time for only 59 minutes per day, a reading tradition below the UNESCO standard average of 4-5 hours per day. This is quite a sad situation compared to the globalization era, which demands high competitiveness. So it is important to prepare future human resources systematically, programmed, and comprehensively. In the context of education, Nail Ilham found that the

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learning process will be optimal if the evidence-based practice method is applied, especially in science teaching. In improving the quality of education, teachers need to practice action research to implement teachers’ knowledge and understanding of scientific research. Relevant research activities will support teaching activities (Ilhan, 2021). Strengthening scientific culture is expected to have a significant impact on society by promoting rational thinking and evidence-based decision-making (Yang Zhang & Liu, 2022). A strong scientific culture positively influences both social and personal aspects, such as individual decision-making and community engagement (Carty et al., 2014). Individuals with well-developed rational abilities, rooted in scientific culture, are better equipped to make logical decisions and link scientific knowledge with societal issues, including democratic participation. At the school level, teachers play a pivotal role in facilitating effective learning and achieving educational objectives. Studies indicate that learning processes are more effective when teachers adopt evidence-based practices, particularly in science teaching, compared to traditional methods (Ilhan, 2021). Such practices encourage teachers to engage in educational research, including action research and good practice documentation, to support and enhance teaching quality. To implement this effectively, teachers must possess knowledge of scientific research methods and the skills to apply them in educational contexts. Scientific culture in education is closely connected to scientific literacy. Holbrook and Rannikmae (2009) emphasize that scientific literacy can be improved through science education that integrates relevant scientific skills and knowledge into everyday life. Strategies to strengthen scientific culture include promoting communication that reflects the spirit of science, enhancing public understanding and participation, and embedding humanistic values in science learning (Yang Zhang & Liu, 2022). Moreover, fostering teachers’ understanding of educational research activities can enhance professionalism and stimulate positive changes in education (Lamanauskas et al., 2020). Building a research community and providing strong institutional leadership are also critical for sustaining scientific culture within educational institutions (Feuer et al., 2002). Despite these findings, most research has focused on general scientific literacy rather than on teachers’ scientific culture and their engagement in classroom-based research at the primary school level. This gap highlights the need to examine how primary school teachers adopt and implement scientific culture in their professional practices. Therefore, this study aims to investigate the scientific culture of primary school teachers and their involvement in educational research activities, with the following research questions: 1) How do primary school teachers perceive and practice scientific culture in their teaching? 2) To what extent are teachers engaged in classroom-based research to support teaching and learning?

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3) What factors facilitate or hinder the development of scientific culture among primary school teachers? Methodology Research Design This study employed a mixed-methods design with triangulation to explore the scientific culture of elementary school teachers. Quantitative data were collected through structured questionnaires, while qualitative data were obtained via interviews, observations, and document analysis. Triangulation ensured the validity and reliability of the findings by crossverifying data from multiple sources. The study focused on four dimensions of scientific culture: 1) active, creative, and innovative learning planning and use of the environment and ICT; 2) professional competence and performance development; 3) enhancement of knowledge, skills, and insights; and 4) development of creative learning strategies, models, methods, techniques, and media. These dimensions were operationalized into 41 indicators, derived from a combination of literature review, relevant educational policy frameworks, and pilot studies. Participants and Sampling The study involved 142 teachers from 12 state and private elementary schools in Jakarta, Indonesia. Schools were selected based on accessibility, administrative cooperation, and resource considerations. Participants included 78.9% female and 23.1% male teachers, with 90.2% holding a bachelor’s degree and 9.8% holding a master’s degree. No participants had a doctoral degree. The sample was purposive to ensure representation of diverse educational units while remaining feasible for data collection. Instruments Data were collected using a structured questionnaire for quantitative assessment of the 39 indicators. The questionnaire underwent reliability testing, showing acceptable consistency for each dimension. Some of the indicators in this research instrument were adopted from the criteria and accreditation tools for primary and secondary education issued by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology of the Republic of Indonesia. The rest were developed based on theoretical studies that served as references in this study. The following is a list of questions used to obtain data about scientific culture in schools.

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Table 1 Indicators of Scientific Culture at School 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39.

Writing a simple research design in the lesson plan. Assigning all students to conduct simple research according to the design. Giving project assignments to students. Utilizing the surrounding environment as a learning resource. Utilizing Information Technology & Computers (ITC) as a learning resource. Utilizing ITC as a teaching medium. Innovating beyond utilizing the environment and ITC in learning. Observing the teacher’s teaching activities. Developing questionnaires on teaching implementation. Creating audio or video recordings of teaching. Writing reflective notes on teaching. Conducting an evaluation of the teaching process in the classroom. Discussing and/or disseminating the results of evaluations and reflections. Conducting classroom action research (CAR). Disseminating the results of classroom action research. The school provides reading materials relevant to the learning material. Reading reference books relevant to the learning material. Discussing learning materials and/or teaching methods with colleagues. Participating in teacher workgroup/subject teacher meetings or similar activities at one’s own or other schools. Engaging in online learning activities. Attending training/seminars/workshops. Publishing books written independently. Publishing papers. Publishing scientific works resulting from research or best practices. Writing teaching modules. Creating innovative works. Sharing best practices within and outside the school, orally or in writing. Using a variety of teaching media. Using a variety of learning materials. Using a variety of teaching tools. Responding appropriately to students’ answers. Forming heterogeneous study groups. Providing positive feedback on students’ assignments. Applying the discussion method in teaching. Applying the question-and-answer method in teaching. Applying the simulation method in teaching. Implementing hands-on learning. Conducting project-based learning. Applying teaching methods that align with the learning objectives.

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Data Collection and Analysis Quantitative data were collected via Google Forms, while qualitative data were gathered through interviews, observations, and document studies. Ethical approval was obtained, and all participants provided informed consent. Quantitative responses were coded and analyzed to produce percentages for each indicator, providing a numerical representation of teachers’ scientific culture. Qualitative data were reduced, categorized, and compared with quantitative findings to confirm patterns and enhance validity. This integration facilitated a comprehensive understanding of scientific culture in the participating schools. Limitations The study is geographically restricted to Jakarta, which may limit generalizability. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported questionnaires introduces the potential for response bias. Furthermore, qualitative findings influenced by self-reporting tendencies and the crosssectional design limit the ability to track changes in scientific culture over time. Findings and Discussion Scientific culture in this study is measured in four major dimensions. Each dimension is broken down into several indicators according to the level of achievement. First, the dimension of active, creative, innovative learning planning and utilizing the environment and Information & Computer Technology is described in seven indicators. Second, the dimension of selfevaluation and reflection is described in eight indicators. Third, the dimension of Continuous Professional Development which is translated into thirteen indicators. Fourth, the dimension of Development of learning strategies, models, methods, techniques, and media which is represented in twelve indicators. The dimensions of active, creative, innovative learning planning development and utilizing the environment and Information & Computer Technology (ICT) present positive data. In this dimension, the indicators used as measuring tools are described in seven categories. Starting with whether teachers make simple research designs outlined in lesson plans, showing a figure of 92%,3 teachers have done so. Second, it is about how to implement simple research that has been formulated. Data shows 94.4% of teachers have carried it out together with students. Next, 95.1% of teachers stated that they gave students assignments in the form of projects. The fourth indicator, regarding the utilization of the environment as a learning resource, 97.9% of teachers have utilized it in their learning. Fifth, teachers have utilized information technology and computers as learning resources, 95.8% have utilized various media such as e-books, elibraries, social media, articles, and videos. Furthermore, regarding the utilization of information technology and computers as learning media, data shows that 91.6% of teachers have used it. This means that teachers, in accordance with the needs and availability of information technology and computer media, have implemented learning through learning management systems (LMS), e-learning, blended learning, Google Meet, Zoom, Google Classroom, or other similar media.

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Data obtained were generally positive in the dimensions of developing strategies, models, methods, and learning media used by educators in the learning process. For example, regarding the application of learning media in teaching activities, 97.9% of teachers have used various media. The indicator of teachers using various teaching materials was also identified as reaching 98.6% having implemented various variations of teaching materials in their learning. Likewise with learning aids, 93% of teachers have implemented them for learning success and not only relying on lectures in front of the class. Data on the implementation of project-based learning shows that 89.5% of teachers have implemented them and 10.5% indicated that they had not implemented the method. The indicator of teachers implementing learning methods in accordance with learning objectives reached 97.9%. Another method used is discussion, with an achievement of 95% of teachers having implemented it. The question-and-answer method was carried out by 98.6% of teachers, and 91.6% used simulation. The indicators still require intervention in the dimension of competency development and teacher performance improvement through self-evaluation and reflection activities. Starting with whether teaching and learning activities are observed, the results are that the principal, colleagues, or supervisors observe 99.3% of learning carried out by elementary school teachers at the research location. The second indicator shows that 80.4% of teachers reflect by asking for feedback on the learning process that has been carried out. Feedback is obtained through questionnaires distributed to students, colleagues, and parents of students to obtain input related to the learning that has been carried out. The analysis of evaluation activities on the learning process reveals that 99.3% of teachers have done it. The indicator regarding whether teachers make audio or video recordings of learning that can be used for self-evaluation and reflection by re-watching or re-listening to the learning process that has been carried out shows that 83.9% of teachers have done it. The remaining 16.1% stated they had not recorded audio or video. Furthermore, for the indicator of teachers making learning reflection notes, 89.5% have done it, and 10.5% have not done it. In general, teachers in elementary schools that were the samples in this study have conducted selfevaluation and self-reflection on the implemented learning process, with an average of 86.7% of teachers. Dissemination activities are needed as a follow-up to teacher self-evaluation and reflection results. The data that was successfully processed showed that 81.8% of teachers disseminated the results of evaluation and self-reflection to colleagues through discussions, seminars, or workshops. The findings regarding classroom action research (CAR) were that 62.2% of teachers had not conducted it and 37.8% stated that they had conducted it. Likewise, regarding the dissemination of the results of classroom action research, 66.4% of teachers did not conduct it and 33.6% stated that they had conducted it. The 33.6% who conducted dissemination were assumed to come from 37.8% of teachers who had conducted CAR. Compared to all teachers, the percentage of those who had conducted dissemination was very small, or around 12.7% of the total. This data also confirms that teacher performance on this variable needs more attention.

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Action research can improve teachers’ understanding of students’ needs and teaching practices (Connor et al., 2006) and help improve the quality of learning (Morales et al., 2016). In addition to improving teaching competence, action research also has a positive effect on the professional development of teachers in the future (H. Zhang et al., 2022). Teaching and learning activities whose implementation is based on the results of action research will significantly improve student learning outcomes (Meesuk et al., 2020), because by increasing the quality of teaching, students’ academic performance will improve (Huang, 2024). The following is a diagram of variations in teacher responses to classroom action research, classified into several categories. Figure 1 Reasons for Not Conducting Classroom Action Research

Based on the data that can be collected, the reason teachers do not conduct classroom action research is 33% only stating that they do not do it. It is still ambiguous, but referring to interview data and document studies, this reason points to the competencies that according to (Lamanauskas et al., 2020) teachers do not yet have in conducting classroom action research. “I’ve never felt fully equipped to conduct research on my own. We don’t receive enough guidance in training, and I often feel unsure about where to start with action research.” (Respondent 4) Another reason stated 27% due to time constraints, and 10% said they did not understand classroom action research. For time constraints, further study is needed whether it is due to the density of administrative tasks as teachers, teaching, or other reasons. “Because I still feel like I don’t understand it well, I’m still learning how to do it and need guidance in conducting classroom action research, especially with the curriculum

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changes. Furthermore, I’m faced with the dense material to complete and the relatively short time available to prepare for school exams.” (Respondent 9) In-depth data and information on the application of knowledge and competencies are explored through classroom action research dissemination activities and best practices carried out by teachers. Some teachers do not disseminate the results of classroom action research because they have never conducted research, which amounted to 59.52%, almost the same as the best practice, which is 61.29% has not been disseminated because they have never conducted best practice. As many as 20.24% of teachers only said they had not disseminated and the reason for not disseminating best practice was 16.13%. This data can mean that they have conducted classroom action research and best practices but have not been disseminated or there is a possibility that they have not conducted research so that nothing can be published. Another reason teachers do not disseminate action research results is that for personal consumption, the number is 7.14%, and for those who stated time constraints, it is 7.14%. Meanwhile, the reasons are that the problems that occur are resolved directly by the teacher 2.38%, making notes, remedial, and needing guidance are each 1.19% so that research does not need to be conducted. Teachers have not disseminated best practices because they are in the learning process and there is no plan; the number of each indicator is 4.84%. For the indicators of not understanding, needing guidance, and only for their circle, the number for each is 3.23%. Each 1.61% of the indicators do not publish or have time. The activity of sharing good practices indicates that it has not gone according to expectations. Based on the existing data, 53.1% have implemented it, while 46.9% have not. Dissemination of classroom action research results and good practices is not always in the form of written publications. Still, it can be done through seminars, discussions, conferences, presentations or other forms that essentially share information about learning success with the general public to become role models. It is hoped that teachers participating in the activity will be motivated to improve their professionalism, and student learning outcomes can be improved, thereby contributing to improving school quality ((NCB), 2017). The following describes the reasons for not disseminating classroom action research results and best practices.

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Figure 2 Reasons of Not Disseminating Classroom Action Research & Best Practices

In fact, research activities are a fundamental aspect of scientific culture (Prastowo, 2013) that educators are expected to carry out. However, the findings indicate that engagement in research and dissemination of results remains low and has not yet become a routine practice for elementary school teachers, especially in the educational units sampled in this study. The ability to conduct research is closely linked to the teaching and learning process (Bamroongkit, 2021), fostering collaboration among students and encouraging critical thinking. Research in any field requires creativity, and the process of generating and managing ideas is inherently tied to research activities (Martin, 2009). Despite this, most teachers reported that they simply did not conduct research, largely due to minimal institutional support, such as the lack of staff assistance, limited time allocation, and insufficient funding, as noted by (McGill & Settle, 2012). Interestingly, while engagement in research is low, teachers show very high involvement in ICT use and pedagogical practices. This discrepancy may reflect that professional development activities, such as access to reading materials and classroom resources, are more readily provided and integrated into daily teaching routines. For example, all respondents confirmed that their schools supplied reading materials relevant to their subjects, and 97.2% actively used these references in teaching. These indicators scored very highly, even reaching the maximum, suggesting that teachers are more inclined to engage in activities that have immediate classroom applications and observable outcomes. In contrast, research and writing require long-term commitment, independent initiative, and institutional incentives that appear less accessible or emphasized in the sampled schools. “It’s easier to use ICT in the classroom because the tools are available. But writing papers or conducting research? That feels like something far removed from our day-today responsibilities.” (Respondent 2) This contrast highlights a critical issue in teacher professional development: while pedagogical and ICT competencies are being cultivated effectively, fostering a sustainable culture of research and scholarly writing requires targeted support, structural facilitation, and recognition from educational institutions.

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Educators also discussed subject matter or learning methods with colleagues, which reached 96.5%. The indicator discussing teacher deliberation activities showed that 89.5% had implemented it and 10.5% had not. Most teacher deliberation activities were carried out at the sub-district and city levels. Educators carried out self-development through online independent learning activities, with a percentage of 77.6% carried out using platforms provided by the Ministry of Education. While the other 22.4% were carried out offline. Self-development activities were also carried out through Education & training, seminars, or workshops and had been carried out by 95.1% of teachers online and offline. The following interesting findings are about the publication activities of books produced by teachers, showing that 87.4% have not done it and 12.6% have done it. Furthermore, they have not published a book because they have never written a book, and the number reaches 77%. Other reasons such as still being in the learning stage, not knowing how to publish, and not being interested in writing a book, are on average 5%, and those who stated that there was no time were identified 4%. “the reason why I don’t write a book is because I don’t like writing and don’t understand the steps to making a book, and until now there has been no training for writing books facilitated by the school.” (Respondent 12) Another teacher said “Limited time: Teacher often have busy schedules with teaching duties, lesson preparation, grading, and other responsibilities. As a result, they have little extra time to devote to writing books.” (Respondent 3) Figure 3 Reasons for not Publishing Books, Non-Research Papers, and Research or Best Practice Publishing Books

Publishing Non-Research

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In addition to book publications, this study also collected data on the publication activities of papers, which, based on the results of the analysis, shows that 90.2% of teachers had never published a paper. Among the reasons that emerged were 60% stating that they had never published a paper. This statement is somewhat unclear and does not indicate what is actually behind teachers not publishing papers. Still, from other reasons that can be identified it indicates that teachers need guidance in writing papers. For example, 19% of teachers have never written a paper, 5% do not have time, and 4% cannot write a paper, so it can be interpreted that they do not yet have the intended competence. There are also 4% who stated that writing activities are only for their own interests. Other reasons are still in the learning stage at 2%, do not have an idea to write 2%, and 1% each for the indicator of no instructions from superiors, have never tried, and are in the process of writing. “I know writing is important, but I don’t know where to start. There’s no specific training on writing academic papers at our school.” Another teacher mentioned, “I’m already busy with teaching, so writing papers feels very distant from my daily responsibilities.” (Respondent 7) The paper referred to in this study is a scientific paper but not the result of research, including; editorials, letters to the editor, book reviews/movie reviews, case reports/case series, commentaries, and narrative reviews (Rezaeian, 2014) including opinion papers, review papers (George & Moreira, 2009). The high number of teachers who have never published nonresearch papers is a paradox that must be solved immediately because the variable of institutional support in providing reading sources reaches 100% and 97.2% of teachers actively read relevant references. Considering the reasons for not having published because they have never made non-research papers, are unable to write papers, are still learning, have no ideas, and have never tried, leads to the need to improve paper writing competency. “I read a lot, but when it comes to writing, I just don’t know where to begin. We’re not given much direction on how to start writing papers.” Another teacher added, “I don’t feel like I have the time or the skills to write something that others will read. I would definitely need guidance on how to write papers that would be published.” (Respondent 5) Writing skills are not innate talents but skills that must be developed and trained (Grogan, 2021) through extensive reading activities and developing drafts of writing are important first steps in writing. This means that intervention is needed to develop writing skills (Dorji, 2020) and training can be an alternative. Furthermore, data on publications of research results or best practices that have been carried out by teachers. Regarding the publication of research results or best practices, 79% of teachers stated that they had never published scientific papers. Among the reasons that can be identified are 71% because they have not conducted research or best practices. Meanwhile, 14% stated that they had never published, this is likely because they had never done research or best

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practice so nothing was published. 3% each for the reason of not having work, still in the learning process, and needing guidance, while 2% stated time constraints. Meanwhile, related to teacher activities in writing learning modules, data shows that 49.7% of teachers do not or have not written learning modules. Around 50.3% of elementary school teachers in Jakarta have written learning modules. This data is still far from expectations because every educator must create learning modules according to the subjects they teach. Teacher self-development in the form of innovative work relevant to the subjects taught is reflected in 38.5% who have not developed innovative work and 61.5% who stated that they have created innovative work. Discussion The proportion of teachers who have not disseminated their work corresponds directly with the number who do not engage in Classroom Action Research (CAR), despite CAR being a critical competency for enhancing teacher professionalism (Lamanauskas et al., 2020). The underdeveloped research culture among teachers can largely be attributed to their insufficient conceptual and procedural understanding of CAR. A substantial number of teachers remain unaware of how to systematically design, implement, and report CAR, thereby necessitating sustained and intensive academic support. Institutional reinforcement is therefore indispensable. Educational units, particularly through the strategic role of school leadership (Feuer et al., 2002), must cultivate an enabling environment for research-based professional practice. Likewise, the Department of Education plays a pivotal role in formulating regulatory frameworks that facilitate teachers’ capacity building in conducting CAR. This institutional responsibility echoes Hester du Plessis’s assertion (Marec & Schiele, 2018) that the development of a scientific culture requires active participation from individuals, communities, governments, and institutions to ensure the production and utilization of scientific knowledge for collective benefit. Strengthening teachers’ engagement in CAR ultimately enhances the competitiveness of their pedagogical competence. Their practice becomes grounded not merely in theoretical propositions but in empirical evidence that accurately reflects students’ learning needs in authentic classroom settings, evidence obtainable exclusively through systematic CAR. The common claim that teachers’ heavy workloads hinder their ability to conduct CAR warrants serious consideration, as it indicates the persistence of excessive administrative demands that significantly curtail the time available for research activities. A similarly weak pattern appears in the domain of publication, which remains a major indicator of scientific culture. Teachers’ involvement in producing scholarly works, books, research papers, practice-based articles, or instructional modules remains minimal, and written knowledge sharing with professional peers has not yet become a normative practice. Limited knowledge of publication processes is among the primary reasons for this low engagement. Importantly, such challenges are inseparable from teachers’ underdeveloped writing

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proficiency, which, as (Grogan, 2021) notes, does not constitute an innate capacity but must be cultivated through deliberate practice. Extensive reading and iterative drafting represent foundational stages in strengthening writing competence. These conditions suggest a pressing need for carefully designed interventions to enhance teachers’ academic writing abilities (Dorji, 2020), with professional development programs serving as viable forms of support. When viewed alongside indicators related to school support, specifically the provision of reading materials relevant to instructional content, it is evident that an ideal professional culture would encourage teachers to write actively and consistently until they are able to produce meaningful scholarly contributions. The findings indicate that the publication of books, papers, and other scientific outputs remains weak and has not yet developed into a consistent culture among educators, despite widespread access to reading materials and active participation in professional discussions. This discrepancy suggests that structural barriers, rather than individual motivation or access to resources, play a significant role. Specifically, limited time due to teaching loads, insufficient institutional support for research activities, gaps in research competence, and unclear policy incentives appear to hinder the transformation of reading habits into tangible scholarly outputs. Comparing these findings with studies from other national and international contexts, similar patterns emerge. In Malaysia and China, for instance, teacher research productivity is heavily dependent on structured institutional support, access to funding, and formal mentorship programs (Ng et al., 2019);(Hoffmann et al., 2023). In European contexts, systemic frameworks that provide reduced administrative burdens and incentivize publication have been shown to enhance scientific culture among educators (Hadjinicola & Soteriou, 2006). The Jakarta context aligns partially with these patterns: teachers demonstrate strong engagement with reading and peer discussions, but this does not translate into research outputs, highlighting a gap between individual initiative and structural facilitation. These observations imply that fostering a robust scientific culture among teachers requires systemic reforms. Professional mentoring and targeted research training can strengthen competencies, while the reduction of administrative workload would free time for sustained inquiry and writing. Institutional incentives—such as recognition, funding for classroom action research, and support for publication—are crucial to convert the positive reading and discussion habits into measurable scholarly productivity. By addressing these structural barriers, educational institutions in Jakarta could better align teacher scientific culture with international best practices, ultimately promoting a more consistent and productive research environment. Conclusion The analysis indicates that teachers demonstrate a generally strong scientific culture, which plays a crucial role in improving learning quality and, consequently, the overall quality of education. Across the four dimensions assessed, teachers showed high performance in active, creative, and innovative learning planning, utilizing the surrounding environment and ICT,

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with indicator scores ranging from 91.6% to 97.9%. In competency development and performance improvement, scores varied more widely, from 33.6% to 99.3%, with learning observation and evaluation activities showing lower implementation. Continuous professional development exhibited a broad range as well, from 9.8% to 100%, with the highest score reflecting institutional support in providing relevant reading materials for teaching duties. The development of strategies, models, methods, and learning media ranged from 89.5% for project-based learning implementation to 100% for teacher feedback and responses to student assignments. Despite these strengths, eight indicators, including classroom action research and its dissemination, publication of books, papers, best practices, writing modules, and creating innovative works, showed weak performance. Overall, teachers demonstrate strong pedagogical innovation but limited engagement in research and dissemination activities. Implications These findings suggest the need for targeted capacity-building programs to strengthen teachers’ skills in classroom action research and academic writing. Given that research and dissemination are currently weak, such programs could provide the guidance and training necessary for teachers to engage in scholarly activities more effectively. Additionally, collaboration among educators and consistent institutional support are essential for sustaining a robust scientific culture. Schools and educational institutions should facilitate mentoring, provide resources, and incentivize research activities to foster a more research-driven environment. Finally, future research should explore comparative studies across provinces or conduct longitudinal tracking to better understand the evolution of teachers’ scientific culture over time. These studies could offer valuable insights into the systemic changes needed to enhance teachers’ engagement in research, helping to inform policy and practice for fostering research engagement within educational settings.

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References (NCB), N. C. B. (2017). Dissemination of Best Practice in Teaching and Learning Department of Education Dissemination of Best Practice in Teaching and Learning Research (Issue 61). Ambrosio, U. D., Sebastian, J., Macioti, M., Goonatilake, S., Shi-ran, D. &, Qi, H., & Andre, M. (n.d.). Science and the meeting of two worlds Impact. In Impact of Science on Society (Issue 167). Bamroongkit, S. (2021). Factors Influencing Research Skills. Social Science Asia, 7(2), 37– 41. https://socialscienceasia.nrct.go.th/index.php/SSAsia/article/view/238%0Ahttps://socials cienceasia.nrct.go.th/index.php/SSAsia/article/download/238/191 Carty, A., Bly, A., Burke, K. A., Einsiedel, E. F., Franz-Odendaal, T. A., Ingram, J., Katz, S., & LePage, M. (2014). Science Culture: Where Canada Stands/The Expert Panel on the State of Canada’s Science Culture (Issue January). Connor, K. A. O., Greene, H. C., & Anderson, P. J. (2006). Action Research: A Tool for Improving Teacher Quality and Classroom Practice. Costa, S. L. R., & Broietti, F. C. D. (2021). Scientific Practices in Science Education Publications: An Analysis of Research Contexts. Science Education International, 32(4), 282–291. https://doi.org/10.33828/sei.v32.i4.1 Dewey, J., Roehrig, G., & Schuchardt, A. (2021). Development of a framework for the culture of scientific research. CBE Life Sciences Education, 20(4), 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1187/cbe.21-02-0029 Dorji, J. (2020). through Mini Revision Lessons and Feedback. Journal of English Teaching, 7(1), 56–66. Dragoş, V., & Mih, V. (2015). Scientific Literacy in School. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 209(July), 167–172. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.11.273 Feuer, M. J., Towne, L., & Shavelson, R. J. (2002). Scientific Culture and Educational Research. Educational Researcher, 31(8), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X031008004 George, S., & Moreira, K. (2009). Publishing non-research papers as a trainee: A recipe for beginners. Singapore Medical Journal, 50(8), 756–758. Godin, B., & Gingras, Y. (2000). What is scientific and technological culture and how is it measured? A multidimensional model. Public Understanding of Science, 9(1), 43–58. https://doi.org/10.1088/0963-6625/9/1/303 Grogan, K. E. (2021). Writing Science: What Makes Scientific Writing Hard and How to Make It Easier. The Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America, 102(1), 1–8. https://doi.org/10.1002/bes2.1800 Halim, L., Meerah, T. S. M., Osman, K., Buang, N. A., Othman, R., Samsudin, M. A., & Sugimura, M. (2009). The level of scientific culture among Malaysian and Japanese students. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 1(1), 2809–2813. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2009.01.499

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Hoffmann, K., Berg, S. A., Brancolini, K. R., & Kennedy, M. R. (2023). Complex and Varied: Factors Related to the Research Productivity of Academic Librarians in the United States. College and Research Libraries, 84(3), 392–427. https://doi.org/10.5860/crl.84.3.392 Huang, J. (2024). The Impact of Teaching Quality on Student Academic Performance : Student Engagement as a Mediator. 01009. Ilhan, N. (2021). The Effect of Research Evidence-Based Teaching Practices in Science Classrooms on Student Teachers’ Attitudes towards Educational Research. Journal of Science Learning, 4(4), 316–326. https://doi.org/10.17509/jsl.v4i4.32025 Lamanauskas, V., Augienė, D., & Makarskaitė-Petkevičienė, R. (2020). Primary school teachers’ educational research: Educational practice and professional development context. International Journal of Cognitive Research in Science, Engineering and Education, 8(3), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.23947/2334-8496-2020-8-3-1-18 Marec, J. Le, & Schiele, B. (2018). Culture of Science (J. Lebel (ed.)). ACFAS. Matosin, N., Frank, E., Engel, M., Lum, J. S., & Newell, K. A. (2014). Negativity towards negative results: A discussion of the disconnect between scientific worth and scientific culture. DMM Disease Models and Mechanisms, 7(2), 171–173. https://doi.org/10.1242/dmm.015123 McGill, M. M., & Settle, A. (2012). Identifying effects of institutional resources and support on computing faculty research productivity, tenure, and promotion. International Journal of Doctoral Studies, 7, 167–198. https://doi.org/10.28945/1581 Meesuk, P., Sramoon, B., & Wongrugsa, A. (2020). Classroom Action Research-based Instruction: The Sustainable Teacher Professional Development Strategy. Journal of Teacher Education for Sustainability, 22(1), 98–110. https://doi.org/10.2478/jtes-20200008 Morales, M. P. E., Abulon, E. L. R., Roxas-Soriano, P., David, A. P., Hermosisima, M. V. C., & Gerundio, M. G. (2016). Examining teachers’ conception of and needs on action research. Issues in Educational Research, 26(3), 464–489. Ng, Q. R., Renandya, W. A., & Chong, M. Y. C. (2019). Extensive reading: Theory, research and implementation. Teflin Journal, 30(2), 171–186. https://doi.org/10.15639/teflinjournal.v30i2/171-186 Rezaeian, M. (2014). The Necessity and Importance of Writing and Publishing Non Research Papers. World Family Medicine Journal/Middle East Journal of Family Medicine, 12(6), 43–44. https://doi.org/10.5742/mewfm.2014.92537 Salesman, F., & Tapung, M. M. (2022). The Quality Of Human Resources And The Scientific Culture Issue Post-Pandemic Covid-19 (A Case Study In Indonesia). Journal of Positive School Psychology , 2022(6), 8894–8900. https://www.journalppw.com/index.php/jpsp/article/view/9202 Shang, Z. (2019). On the Distinctive Features of the Modern Scientific Culture. Cultures of Science, 2(3), 193–202. https://doi.org/10.1177/209660831900200303 Wang, C. (2018). Scientific Culture and the Construction of a World Leader in Science and Technology. Cultures of Science, 1(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/209660831800100102

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Zhang, H., Han, C., Ma, H., & Wang, L. (2022). The quality enhancement of action research on primary school English instruction in Chinese rural areas: An analysis based on multimodality. Frontiers in Psychology, 13(September), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.1013021 Zhang, Yang, & Liu, X. (2022). Let scientific culture become the basic feature of social culture. Cultures of Science, 5(3), 146–148. https://doi.org/10.1177/20966083221117842 Zhang, Yiming, & Zhang, Z. (2018). ‘Kexue Wenhua’ in Chinese and ‘Scientific Culture’, ‘Science Culture’, ‘Culture of Science’ and ‘Science as Culture’ in English: The Meanings and the Structure. Cultures of Science, 1(1), 25–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/209660831800100104 Corresponding author: Musringudin Email: musringudin@uhamka.ac.id

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Shifting Education Systems and the Development of Third Culture Kids: An Autoethnographic Exploration Sanjukta Chakraborty Amity University, India Dhritiman Chakraborty University of Bristol, United Kingdom

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Abstract This study investigates effects of shifting educational systems on Third Culture Kids (TCKs), emphasizing the impact of a nomadic lifestyle on learning, identity, and personal development. It addresses key gaps in research on TCKs’ educational and emotional experiences, highlighting both strengths and challenges of a peripatetic upbringing. Using an autoethnographic approach, along with secondary data, this study integrates personal lived experience with existing literature to examine the effects of mobility on education and identity. Key findings indicate that frequent relocation can lead to identity tension, feelings of displacement and educational disruption, while simultaneously fostering adaptability, resilience, and cross-cultural competence. By capturing both the costs and benefits of a mobile childhood, the study provides a nuanced understanding of TCK experiences. Implications for educators and policymakers include the importance of culturally responsive curricula, targeted support strategies, and policies designed to meet the unique educational and emotional needs of globally mobile students. By foregrounding the TCK perspective, this research contributes to the development of inclusive, adaptive, and sustainable learning environments, informing practices that support educational continuity, personal growth, and cross-cultural competence in increasingly globally mobile populations. Keywords: autoethnography, globalized education practices, identity, policies, Pollock, sustainable education, third culture kids

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First coined by Useem et al. (1963), the expression “Third Culture Kids” (TCKs) was popularized by Pollock through his numerous published works (Pollock, 1987; 1988; 1997). It became universally acknowledged in academia through his popular book Third Culture Kids: The Experience of Growing Up Among Worlds (2010). TCK refers to a group of children and adolescents across the world who have been uprooted from their homelands and their parent cultures at a very young age only to relocate and immerse themselves in completely new, alien environments with their families (Pollock et al., 2010). While peripatetic adults experience culture shock, they are likely to have settled senses of self-identity and belonging (Pollock, 2001; Rafika, 2018). However, for children in their formative years, the transitions between cultures impacts a TCKs’ personal and cultural identity development (Pollock et al., 2010). Some of these children also experience relocation multiple times during their childhood and feel that they belong to multiple cultures (Tanu, 2015). Finding a true sense of identity becomes difficult and confusing for them (Fail et al., 2004; Useem et al., 1996). For a child just getting their bearing in the world, this ordeal has an impact on the development of their education, personal growth and world-view (Davis et al., 2010; Dewaele et al., 2009; Eidse et al., 2011; Ezra, 2003). In today’s era of increasing global mobility and cross-border educational experiences, studying TCKs is critical for understanding how constant movement influences childhood development and learning trajectories. The growing prevalence of international assignments, migration, and globalized education necessitates insights into how TCKs navigate complex cultural and pedagogical environments. Understanding TCKs not only informs educators and policymakers about the challenges and opportunities facing this unique demographic but also contributes to designing more inclusive, adaptive education systems that acknowledge diverse student backgrounds. As education becomes more global, supporting TCKs effectively is essential to cultivating global citizens equipped to thrive amid cultural diversity and change. Tanu (2015) elucidates that the reason behind this nomadic lifestyle is often their parents’ professions. Her research revealed that American businessmen who had to relocate for prolonged periods of time would take their families along with them. She claims that a large number of contemporary TCKs have parents from either the upper-middle to higher class communities, belong to particular professions such as the military, diplomatic corps, missionary families or belong to families from self-employed, business or NGO sectors (Kwon, 2019; Tanu, 2015; Useem et al., 1996). In other words, the requirements of professions that necessitate constant travelling creates a TCK. Further research shows that this phenomenon is not limited to America, but is global (Ittel et al., 2012; Peterson et al., 2009; Walters et al., 2009; Zilber, 2009). TCKs, subsequently, find it difficult to adjust to new schools they are rushed into (Devens, 2005; Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1976). On a basic level, even if the relocation is within the same country, the style of teaching and curriculum are slightly different in each school, even if the syllabus is largely similar (Morales, 2015; Tanu, 2015). However, more often than not, TCKs have to travel out of their passport countries and into countries whose policies on education are poles apart from their own (Dobbins et al., 2011; Hayden, 2011). In these

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situations, since these schools follow practices and policies of their own respective nations, TCKs face their next major hurdle of adjusting to new syllabi and curriculum, in addition to the new language and culture (Morales, 2015; Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1976). This work investigates the available data and literature on TCKs to provide a comprehensive review to identify the effects of constantly changing education systems on the development of TCKs and consequent impacts on their growth, education and identity. Particularly: a) Navigating multiple education systems: How does a multi-school experience impact the growth and development of TCKs during childhood? b) Educational outcomes and adaptation strategies: How do constantly changing education systems impact the educational development of TCKs? c) Emotional or identity development and belonging: What is the impact of the multicultural experience on the sense of identity and belonging of TCKs? The answers to the above will help academicians and educators better deal with challenges faced by TCKs during their formative years. Moreover, only a handful of literature exists on TCKs by TCKs themselves. While existing literature highlights the positive attributes of TCKs —such as adaptability, multilingualism and cross-cultural competence—this study also explores the less discussed challenges of a peripatetic childhood. By analyzing existing research, it investigates the potential negative effects of constant relocation, including identity loss, feelings of displacement, and cultural duality. This research adds a unique and personal dimension to this study, offering an insider perspective from a TCK. This study also underscores the emotional complexities TCKs face as they navigate multiple cultures and the ethical considerations in education that go along with it. In this day of globalized education, a deeper understanding of their unique challenges can help educators and counsellors develop more effective strategies to support TCKs, through educational policies and reforms, to create sustainable education practices. Along with the differences in school policies and practices, there are many factors that contribute to the educational and the emotional development of TCKs, especially when nomadic children come into contact with new and different schools with their own policies and practices every few years, which impacts their emotional development (Devens, 2005; Tanu, 2015; Useem et al., 1996). As a part of the TCK community, this autoethnographic study, through a qualitative paradigm, analyzes personal experiences while comprehensively cross-examining findings from previous research. From the standpoint of a person who has had the opportunity to attend seven different schools across six countries involving three different education systems, my own first-hand experiences as a TCK would, I believe, go a long way in enriching the content of this work. Thus, in addition to published research, I will gather information and analyse events from my own past—based on evidence collated in the form of diary accounts, personal journals and letters—as primary data in an attempt to understand and elucidate the impacts of a nomadic lifestyle on education and growth of TCKs during childhood.

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Theoretical and Empirical Background This study examines with the challenges faced by TCKs, focusing on the impact of mobility and education, identity and belonging and works of autoethnographic scholarship on TCKs. It explores how systemic factors intersect with personal narratives of belonging and adaptation. Drawing on both existing literature and autoethnographic reflections, combining secondary sources with lived experience, we seek to present a holistic view of the TCK phenomenon. Autoethnography, while a more reflexive and interpretive method, allows emotions, memory, and personal voice to contribute to scholarly discourse, thereby offering a more nuanced outlook on the research question(s) at hand (Ellis et al., 2000; Reissman, 2008; Sikes, 2015), bridging the gap between personal experience and global patterns. Custer (2014) further states that this transformative research method requires depth, creativity, courage and innovation while evoking empathy and vulnerability in both the reader and the author. As the issues explored involve human interaction, transitions, and evolving self-identity, reflexivity becomes a key ethical and methodological consideration (Fail et al., 2004; Jones et al., 2016). Mobility and Education Educational mobility forms the backbone of the TCK experience, deeply influencing both academic and social growth. Frequent relocations interrupt learning continuity, producing discontinuities in curricular exposure, assessment systems, and language proficiency (Hayden, 2011; Morales, 2015). Studies show that children moving across educational systems, such as the IB, AP, or CBSE, face not only administrative and curricular inconsistencies but also emotional setbacks during adaptation periods (Kumar et al., 2017). Constantly changing educational systems lead to initial difficulties with performance within the new academic system and makes TCKs feel marginalized by their own peers—that they don’t fit-in, and are “Othered” (de Beauvoir, 1972) in both their home and host countries (Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1996). Even when returning to their passport countries, they face “reverse cultural shock” (Pollock et al., 2010; Walters et al., 2009). Useem et al. (1996) furthers that this leads to TCKs becoming “out of sync” with their own age group throughout their lifetimes. International education systems often promote intercultural awareness, but the very mobility that promises exposure can fragment the learning process (Hayden et al., 2013). Morales (2015) and Dobbins (2023) observe that the absence of structured emotional and academic support during transitions often leads to temporary academic regression and social withdrawal. Halme (2019) emphasizes that early intervention, such as guidance counselling and culturally responsive pedagogy, can drastically improve adjustment outcomes. Moreover, access to flexible, globally oriented curricula, such as those offered by international schools, has been shown to support stability amid movement and cultivate intercultural competence (Hayden et al., 2013).

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One characteristic of TCKs that stands out is that a vast majority of them are committed to continuing their education beyond high school (Useem et al., 1996). Although there are many hurdles in the transition from adolescence to adulthood—more so for TCKs (Espada-Campos, 2018; Fail et al., 2009)—most TCKs become multilingual from an early age (Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1996) and are able to choose a University from the “global level” as opposed to their peers who only choose universities from their home countries (Wells, 2019) and are also able to adjust fairly quickly into this new relocation (Pollock et al., 2010). Identity and Belonging The identity formation process of TCKs unfolds in fluid intercultural spaces, often leading to feelings of in-betweenness (Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1996). Living across multiple cultures, TCKs internalize fragmented cultural markers that rarely coalesce into a fixed sense of home. They are simultaneously insiders and outsiders everywhere they go, developing hybrid identities that challenge traditional notions of nationality and belonging (Davis et al., 2010; Fail et al., 2009; Moore et al., 2012). This in-betweenness fosters both adaptability and ambiguity. While many TCKs leverage their multicultural competencies in adulthood— particularly in careers related to diplomacy, international education, and development (Kwon, 2019; Wells, 2019)—others struggle with reverse culture shock upon returning to their passport countries (Pollock et al., 2010; Walters et al., 2009). Research by Chakraborty et al. (2025) and Davis (2010) illustrates the lasting psychological impact of this oscillation, noting heightened susceptibility to existential displacement, loneliness, and self-doubt. At the same time, TCKs report greater tolerance toward diversity and stronger global mindedness (Fail et al., 2004; Moore et al., 2012). This paradox underlines how global mobility simultaneously enriches and complicates identity formation, leaving enduring traces on TCKs’ worldviews and interpersonal relationships. Autoethnographic Scholarship on TCKs Recent scholarship has moved beyond descriptive accounts to embrace autoethnographic inquiry, foregrounding the lived, emotional texture of global mobility. Tanu (2018), Halme (2019), and Custer (2014) demonstrate how first-person narrative can theorize global transitions by integrating emotion and self-reflection into academic research. Such approaches challenge positivist traditions by positioning the researcher as both subject and analytical observer, merging auto-narrative with cultural critique. This method situates mobility not merely as disruption but as a lens through which belonging, marginality, and identity negotiation can be re-examined. Autoethnographic accounts reveal that the TCK experience resists static definitions—its essence lies in flux, multiplicity and reinvention. By situating the researcher’s journey within broader sociocultural structures, these works expand the scope of traditional TCK research, emphasizing vulnerability as a legitimate mode of knowledge production (Adams et al., 2017; Holman Jones et al., 2013). Through such insider perspectives, the literature reflects a maturing

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field that not only analyses TCKs as subjects of mobility but recognizes them as co-authors of global narratives of identity and belonging. Research Methodology This study employs an autoethnographic methodology, through a qualitative approach in which the researcher systematically analyzes personal experience to understand cultural phenomena. As opposed to exclusively quantitative research methods (Chakraborty et al., 2015; Chakraborty et al., 2018; Chakraborty et al., 2019; Kurbanova et al., 2024; Narang et al., 2017; Neophytou et al., 2020), autoethnography uniquely suits the study of TCKs because it promotes insider narratives and subjective meaning-making, drawing on both the author’s personal journeys and the broader scholarship on mobility and identity (Ellis et al., 2011). Autoethnography, as the name suggests, contains an element of systematic analyzing (graphy) of the personal experiences of the researchers (auto) with respect to the cultural influences of their immediate surroundings (ethno) (Ellis et al., 2000). The style was introduced as a way to tell the “journey” of the researcher in the “quest” for finding the result to a particular thesis or research question (Ellis et al., 2000) exploring multiple the facets and nuances within one case study (or at most a handful of studies), going deeper into the particular case(s) (Chang, 2013; Jones et al., 2016). By becoming an “insider” to the research question at hand, the work produced is richer, deeper and more extensive (Hitchcock, 1995; Pavlenko, 2007). Hence this method is ideal for exploring both primary sources (personal writings and journals) and existing literature as sources to write about TCKs. In this research, autoethnography was operationalized through the systematic analysis of personal journals, diaries, and memory work, which were then triangulated with findings from existing studies on TCKs (Chang, 2013; Ellis et al., 2011). This method enables deep engagement with the nuance and particularity of lived experience while also connecting individual narratives to generalizable themes within the literature. The interplay between primary self-reflection and scholarly sources strengthens the analysis and provides a richer picture of TCK identity development. Ethical positioning and reflexivity are central to this approach which is present in the autoethnographic style of writing (Ellis et al., 2000, 2010; Jones et al., 2016). The researcher's positionality as a TCK is openly acknowledged and critically examined throughout the inquiry (Jones et al., 2016). Reflexive writing is used to study how the author’s background, values, and assumptions may inform both the selection and interpretation of data. This transparency not only foregrounds the subjective dimension of the research but also situates the inquiry within the ongoing dialogue in the field about researcher identity, vulnerability, and the politics of voice (Ellis, 2011; Holman Jones et al., 2013;). This approach deliberately avoids lengthy generalizations about the philosophy of qualitative research, focusing instead on why autoethnography is particularly well-suited to exploring the emotional, psychological, and cultural landscapes characteristic of the TCK experience. By

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centering personal experience, this method offers an authentic, emotionally resonant account that complements existing quantitative and qualitative research. The core of the data for this study comprises reflective entries from the author’s own life as a TCK, analyzed alongside secondary quantitative and qualitative data from peer-reviewed surveys and published research (Chakraborty et al., 2020; Chakraborty et al., 2023; Chang, 2013; Ellis et al., 2011) in the form of 8 independent research surveys, among others. As TCKs are private by nature and like to keep to themselves (Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1996) there continues to be little existing research conducted on TCKs by TCKs themselves making this work of some special relevance. This dual source approach exemplifies the strengths of autoethnography: it does not claim absolute objectivity but rather foregrounds meaningmaking, complexity, and affect, while deriving more context from established literature. This methodology is thus specifically chosen for its capacity to illuminate the interiority of the TCK condition, providing both context and depth to issues of mobility, adaptation, and identity construction as viewed through the lens of lived experience. Findings and Discussion The concept of the TCK was first articulated by sociologists John and Ruth Hill Useem (1963) in their seminal study of American expatriate families in India. Their pioneering research provided an early socio-cultural framework for understanding how mobility and cross-cultural exposure influence childhood development. Over subsequent decades, this framework has been expanded and refined, giving rise to a robust interdisciplinary field encompassing sociology, psychology, education, and intercultural studies (Halme, 2019; Kwon, 2019). The term “Third Culture Kid” has since evolved to denote individuals who spend a significant portion of their formative years in cultures different from their parents’ native culture, thereby constructing an identity that synthesizes elements of multiple cultural worlds. Various terminologies have emerged to describe similar experiences, including “global nomads” (McCaig, 1992), “nomadic children” (Eidse et al., 2011), “transculturals” (Willis et al., 1994), and “internationally mobile children” (McLachlan, 2007). Despite these conceptual variations, “Third Culture Kid” has become the most widely recognized and academically standardized term, largely due to the influential work of Pollock (et al., 2010). Pollock (1988) defines a TCK as: “… an individual who, having spent a significant part of the developmental years in a culture other than the parents’ culture, develops a sense of relationship to all of the cultures while not having full ownership in any.” This definition underscores the hybrid nature of the TCK identity—anchored everywhere and nowhere simultaneously—a state that reflects both the opportunities and dislocations of global mobility.

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TCKs are frequently bilingual or multilingual, shaped by early immersion in diverse linguistic and cultural contexts (Eidse et al., 2011; Pollock et al., 2010). Research indicates that they tend to exhibit elevated intercultural sensitivity, adaptability, and global-mindedness (Dewaele et al., 2009; Ezra, 2003). Their upbringing often nurtures intellectual curiosity about international relations, languages, and global affairs (Useem et al., 2011). Yet, alongside these strengths lies a complex emotional landscape marked by identity diffusion, a sense of rootlessness, and difficulty establishing long-term attachments (Davis et al., 2010; Fail et al., 2009; McLachlan, 2007). This study builds upon and extends these discussions by positing that the TCK experience represents not merely an adaptive strategy but an ongoing psychological negotiation between fragmentation and synthesis. Drawing upon both autoethnographic insight and existing scholarship, this research argues that the very factors that destabilize continuity—frequent relocations, shifting educational systems, and cultural transitions—also serve as catalysts for cognitive flexibility, resilience, and pluralistic identity development. The TCK’s lived experience thus embodies a paradoxical duality: loss and gain, instability and adaptability, alienation and belonging. This work highlights that the TCK identity is forged through continual reconstruction rather than static formation. Each relocation disrupts not only educational and social continuity but also the internal process of identity consolidation. However, through these disruptions, TCKs cultivate a unique form of global literacy and cross-cultural competence that increasingly aligns with the demands of an interconnected world. In this sense, the TCK experience represents both a microcosm of globalization’s psychological impact and a potential model for developing intercultural empathy and adaptability in the twenty-first century. Findings Educational Mobility and Its Psychological Consequences Frequent transitions across schooling systems create a dual impact on TCKs’ developmental trajectories. On one hand, exposure to multiple pedagogical frameworks—ranging from CBSE to IB to AP curricula—encourages intellectual versatility and openness to varied modes of learning (Kwon, 2019; Pollock et al., 2010). On the other, these same shifts disrupt continuity in academic progression and emotional security. Autoethnographic evidence from this study supports this duality: changing curricula within short intervals produced both frustration and enrichment, reflecting the paradox of a globally mobile education. The lived experience aligns with existing research by Fail et al. (2009) and Ebbeck et al. (2007), which indicates that while TCKs often excel in diverse academic settings, they also experience learning fatigue and emotional displacement from repeated adaptation. This tension underscores a broader psychological reality—mobility becomes both the source of alienation and the means of resilience. The adaptability that educators often celebrate in TCKs is not innate but rather cultivated through constant negotiation of new expectations and

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environments. Consequently, the TCK’s adaptability should be understood as a compensatory skill born of instability rather than as an effortless global competence. Identity, Rootlessness, and the Paradox of Belonging A defining feature of TCK identity is the experience of belonging everywhere and nowhere simultaneously (Fail et al., 2009; Pollock et al., 2010). The research and lived experience both affirm that the “rootlessness” commonly associated with TCKs is not simply an absence of belonging but the presence of multiple, often conflicting, affiliations. This creates a condition of cultural duality—where the individual internalizes several cultural frameworks without exclusive ownership of any. Autoethnographic evidence reveals that this duality is psychologically taxing, manifesting as a constant awareness of difference even within familiar settings. The recurring question— “Where are you from?”— captures this paradox, for it requires TCKs to construct identity narratively rather than geographically. As one poem excerpt in this study articulates (Chakraborty, 2025), this identity formation is a creative act born from fragmentation, echoing Fail et al.’s (2004) finding that re-entry into one’s passport culture often feels like an “earthquake”—a destabilization of self rather than a homecoming. Yet, this same fragmentation cultivates reflexivity and empathy. By navigating multiple systems of meaning, TCKs develop the ability to hold contradictory cultural positions simultaneously – a form of psychological pluralism that positions them as natural mediators in cross-cultural contexts. The experience of duality, therefore, should not be pathologized but reframed as an evolutionary adaptation to transnational modernity. Illustrative Evidence and the Educational Context The empirical and personal data in this study converge on the finding that education is both the most tangible and most disruptive site of TCK development. The constant recalibration of learning styles, assessment criteria, and linguistic expectations generates anxiety and discontinuity (Halme, 2019; Morales, 2015). However, it also fosters meta-cognitive awareness and intercultural competence. This paradox is central to understanding TCKs: instability and strength are intertwined. Illustrative examples from personal experience reinforce this dualism. Transitioning between international and national curricula led to temporary academic decline but long-term intellectual resilience. The structural misalignment of education systems, as evidenced in Useem et al. (1996), not only hinders academic performance but also compels TCKs to develop independent learning strategies and self-directed motivation. These strategies constitute survival mechanisms within unstable educational ecologies. Thus, rather than viewing the fragmented educational journey of TCKs as detrimental, this research argues for its potential as a pedagogical model for adaptability in an era of global

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learning. The skills that TCKs acquire—rapid assimilation of new systems, openness to divergent epistemologies, and intercultural literacy—mirror the competencies that 21st-century education increasingly values. Educational Implications and Theoretical Integration The findings suggest a pressing need for culturally responsive educational frameworks that both recognize and harness the complexities of TCK identities. Traditional schooling models, grounded in fixed national or cultural paradigms, often fail to accommodate the fluidity of globally mobile students. To address this gap, institutions must move beyond generic “international” labels and toward psychologically informed pedagogies that address transition anxiety, identity instability, and emotional displacement. Culturally responsive counselling, ongoing mentorship, and structured transition programs can mitigate the sense of fragmentation that pervades TCK lives (Halme, 2019; Schneider, 2013). Educators should also be required to undergo targeted professional development on the cultural-psychological dynamics of TCKs, enabling them to interpret behavioral patterns not as maladaptive but as expressions of cross-cultural negotiation. The establishment of such frameworks would transform education from a reactive institution into a proactive space of identity integration. Integrative Argument: Beyond Resilience The overarching argument emerging from this study is that TCKs embody a dialectical model of global identity formation—where resilience is not the mere overcoming of adversity but the creative reconfiguration of instability into strength. Their experiences reveal the necessity of rethinking educational and psychological paradigms within globalized contexts. Rootlessness and belonging, disruption and synthesis, loss and growth—all coexist within the TCK psyche, demanding an integrated approach to education and identity development. This research contends that the TCK experience should not be viewed as a marginal or exceptional phenomenon but as a prototype of emerging global citizenship. As transnational mobility becomes increasingly normalized, understanding how TCKs navigate identity, education, and belonging offers critical insight into the psychological and pedagogical future of global education. Discussion The Need for Identity-Affirming Curricula One of the central insights of this research concerns the deep connection between educational experience and self-concept among TCKs. As young learners are uprooted and re-situated within differing educational and cultural frameworks, the classroom becomes a primary site for both identity confusion and potential affirmation. Existing curricula, however, often fail to

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validate the fluid and transnational identities of globally mobile students, privileging monocultural narratives that leave little room for hybrid belonging (Fail et al., 2009; Pollock et al., 2010). An identity-affirming curriculum—one that incorporates multicultural perspectives, encourages autobiographical reflection and values transnational narratives—can act as a stabilizing psychological structure for TCKs. By integrating assignments that invite students to explore cultural multiplicity, educators can transform the classroom into a space of selfrecognition rather than alienation. Such curricula would not only support individual well-being but also foster intercultural awareness among non-TCK peers, building inclusivity within diverse classrooms. Educational Systems and the Challenge of Curriculum Shifts TCKs often navigate incompatible educational structures, moving from one national or international system to another—each with distinct assessment standards, languages of instruction, and pedagogical priorities. This study’s findings affirm that frequent curriculum shifts are among the most destabilizing factors in a TCK’s academic life. Students experience cognitive dissonance when transitioning between systems emphasizing rote learning, inquirybased methods, or divergent grading scales. While many international schools emphasize “global citizenship,” few have institutional mechanisms to ensure academic continuity for transient learners. This research argues for systemic reform in international education – specifically, the establishment of cross-recognized credit transfer systems and adaptive learning frameworks that can accommodate discontinuous educational trajectories. Without such systems, the global educational landscape continues to reward stability while penalizing mobility—a paradox in a world where transnational movement is increasingly common. Disruption, Displacement, and Academic Progress The data strongly indicate that emotional and cognitive disruption resulting from frequent relocations significantly impacts academic performance. Recurrent school transitions interrupt learning cycles, hinder social bonding, and delay academic adjustment (Davis et al., 2010; Walters et al., 2009). For many TCKs, each relocation requires re-learning both formal content and the unspoken “rules” of a new educational culture. While TCKs often develop strong adaptive mechanisms, these adaptations come at a cost. Students may appear outwardly resilient while internally struggling with anxiety, disconnection, or self-doubt—feelings that can manifest as inconsistent academic engagement or declining motivation (Halme, 2019). It is therefore essential to interpret fluctuating performance within this broader context of displacement rather than as individual academic deficiency.

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This research thus argues that disruption and displacement are not temporary obstacles but formative experiences shaping TCKs’ learning identities. Educators must recognize the psychosocial dimension of academic performance, integrating socio-emotional learning strategies and flexible assessment practices that reflect the realities of mobile education. Bridging Programs and Cross-System Integration To address the discontinuities produced by global mobility, the creation of cross-system bridging programs designed specifically for transient learners, is especially important and a vital area of future study. Such programs would facilitate smoother transitions between educational systems by offering preparatory modules on curricular expectations, academic language, and cultural norms. Bridging programs could operate at both institutional and policy levels – ranging from schoolbased orientation courses to international cooperative agreements on transferable credits and learning outcomes. This would allow students to retain academic momentum despite geographic relocation. These initiatives would also reduce the cognitive load of adaptation, allowing TCKs to reinvest emotional and intellectual energy into learning rather than survival. By institutionalizing transitional support, educators can transform what has traditionally been a reactive process—adjusting after each move—into a proactive pedagogical model that anticipates mobility as a norm rather than an exception. Early Guidance, Support Structures, and Long-Term Emotional Impact Perhaps the most critical finding from both the literature and lived experience is the absence of early intervention and consistent support structures for TCKs. The lack of culturally aware counsellors and teachers trained to recognize the psychological toll of mobility contributes to long-term emotional consequences, including identity diffusion, anxiety, and social withdrawal (Morales, 2015; Walters et al., 2009). Many Adult TCKs (ATCKs) retrospectively identify adolescence as a critical period during which empathetic guidance could have mitigated lasting emotional fragmentation (Fail et al., 2004; Pollock et al., 2010). Early guidance must therefore extend beyond academic adjustment to include structured mentoring, identity affirmation, and emotional resilience training. Schools should employ counsellors trained in intercultural psychology, capable of distinguishing between normal adaptation challenges and deeper issues related to displacement. Such interventions are not ancillary but essential components of holistic education for globally mobile students. Failure to provide this support risks perpetuating the silent emotional burden many TCKs carry into adulthood— manifesting as chronic “unbelonging”, relational instability, and difficulty forming lasting attachments (Useem et al., 1996; Tanu, 2015). Thus, the long-term well-being of this population depends on institutional acknowledgment of their unique psychosocial needs.

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Synthesis: Toward a Globally Responsive Educational Paradigm Integrating these findings, we can argue that the challenges and strengths of TCKs are inseparable, mobility generates both the instability that fractures identity and the adaptability that strengthens it. The goal of education, therefore, should not be to erase the effects of transience but to transform them into sites of growth. Identity-affirming curricula, adaptable systems, bridging programs, and culturally responsive counselling represent a cohesive framework through which institutions can transform global mobility from a destabilizing force into a developmental asset. When schools move from reaction to anticipation—from treating TCKs as anomalies to recognizing them as prototypes of future learners—they lay the groundwork for an education system aligned with global realities. This research again posits and advances the argument that TCKs are not outliers but forerunners of a new educational condition: one where movement, hybridity and multiplicity define learning itself. Supporting them effectively is not merely a moral or psychological imperative—it is a blueprint for the future of global education. Critical Analysis and Recommendations Critical Analysis This study highlights three key dimensions through which understanding and addressing the experiences of Third Culture Kids (TCKs) can contribute meaningfully to their development: (i) Supporting TCKs in building a stable sense of identity and belonging. (ii) Fostering greater awareness among peers to promote inclusion and empathy. (iii) Equipping educators and counsellors with culturally responsive strategies to guide TCKs more effectively. Self-Identity One of the most persistent challenges faced by TCKs is the formation of a coherent and stable self-identity. Research consistently indicates that the frequent relocations associated with globally mobile childhoods often occur during formative years, disrupting the process of identity consolidation (Davis et al., 2010; Fail et al., 2004; Pollock et al., 2010; Useem et al., 1996). The constant adjustment to new educational systems and cultural environments can create feelings of confusion, displacement, and social isolation (Devens, 2005; Moore et al., 2012; Walters et al., 2009). TCKs often internalize multiple cultural cues and behavioral norms, creating hybrid or “cosmopolitan” identities that blend different cultural influences (Kwon, 2019). While this can foster adaptability and global-mindedness, it can also lead to an ongoing tension between belonging everywhere and belonging nowhere. Interview data (Walters et al., 2009) reflect this

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struggle—many TCKs report difficulty relating to peers and an internalized need to suppress aspects of their identity to gain acceptance. Consequently, without guidance, TCKs may experience prolonged identity diffusion, loneliness, and self-alienation (Devens, 2005; Pollock et al., 2010). Other Student’s View of TCKs TCKs’ struggles with identity are often compounded by the way they are perceived and treated by peers. Due to their distinct cultural backgrounds, accents, or worldviews, they may be seen as “different”, leading to feelings of exclusion within school communities (Useem et al., 1996; Tanu, 2015). This dynamic positions TCKs as social “outsiders”, a pattern reinforced by frequent school transitions and short-lived peer relationships. Interviews conducted in previous studies (Walters et al., 2009) reveal consistent experiences of alienation, where TCKs express sentiments such as “I didn’t fit in” or “I was the new student all year”. These narratives illustrate the emotional toll of constant relocation and the lack of sustained peer support. The absence of peer understanding and institutional mechanisms to support transition further deepens the sense of social fragmentation and otherness. Educators’ and Guides’ View on TCKs Educators and counsellors often overestimate TCKs’ adaptability, assuming that surface-level adjustment equates to emotional well-being (Selmer et al., 2014; Walters et al., 2009). This misperception can lead to neglect of underlying emotional distress. As several studies suggest, while TCKs may appear well-adjusted externally, they often grapple with internal struggles such as loss of identity, confusion about belonging, and suppressed emotional expression (Davis et al., 2010; Devens, 2005). Walters et al. (2009) depicts in an interview that the TCK Sarah for instance “… didn’t have a very good impression at all, but [she] couldn’t say anything because if it’s gonna be hard for [her], it’s gonna be hard for [her] parents”. In another case we see how TCKs change on the outside, but suffer internally as can be seen in the following excerpt from the same research: “I think I almost had to deny myself just to be like one of them…I would try to fit-in, but that’s not me … I was getting more accepted, getting more culturally accepted by others, but because that’s not the real me, I would come home empty ... I think I felt empty because people accepted me for not being myself... it was a fake me.” When educators encourage TCKs simply to “fit in” without acknowledging these internal conflicts, it often results in emotional dissonance, where students conform outwardly but experience inner emptiness or self-denial (Walters et al., 2009). Respondents in Halme et al. (2019) emphasized the need for proper guidance and emotional support during their schooling years, underscoring the importance of educator awareness and sensitivity to the unique experiences of TCKs.

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Recommendations Schools should place strong emphasis on implementing culturally responsive counselling frameworks, continuous emotional support mechanisms, and structured transition programs specifically designed to meet the needs of TCKs. These initiatives are essential in ensuring that TCKs receive consistent psychological and academic support throughout their educational transitions. Educators, school counsellors and administrators should undergo specialized professional development and training focused on the unique psychological, social, and cultural challenges experienced by TCKs. Such training would enable educators to better recognize signs of identity tension, social withdrawal, or adaptation fatigue and to provide timely, tailored interventions. Schools should also establish peer mentorship programs and orientation sessions that facilitate smoother integration for newly arrived TCKs, reducing the stress associated with relocation and adjustment to new cultural and academic environments. Educator Support Educators and counsellors often mistake surface adaptability for holistic adjustment, expecting TCKs to assimilate smoothly (Lee et al., 2007; Pollock et al., 2010; Selmer et al., 2014). However, internal struggles are frequently ignored, resulting in emotional distress and impaired academic performance (Davis et al., 2010; Devens, 2005). When TCKs are pressured to ‘fit in’ without space for authenticity, acceptance often comes at the cost of genuine self-expression (Halme, 2019; Morales, 2015). Wrong or inadequate advice during developmental years leaves a lasting impact. It then becomes imperative to provide proper counselling and support to TCKs from a young age, at the school level. Practical Recommendation: Schools should prioritize culturally responsive counselling, ongoing emotional support, and structured transition programs. Educators must receive professional development on the psychological and cultural needs of TCKs, allowing them to deliver tailored interventions and guidance. Curricular flexibility and inclusivity must also be prioritized to reflect the diverse backgrounds and global perspectives that TCKs bring to the classroom. Embedding intercultural understanding within school curricula and fostering open dialogue about cultural identity can validate TCKs’ experiences and promote a sense of belonging. Collaborative engagement between educators, counsellors, and parents is also crucial to ensure continuity of care and support across transitions. These measures would not only enhance the educational experience of TCKs but also contribute to building globally competent, empathetic learning communities that reflect the realities of an increasingly mobile and multicultural world.

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Conclusion Through an in-depth examination of existing scholarship and primary data, this study illuminates the multifaceted psychological, educational and social dimensions of TCKs, highlighting the complex interplay between mobility, identity formation, and educational development. The findings demonstrate that while frequent relocations and transitions across diverse educational systems often lead to feelings of cultural dislocation, identity diffusion, and emotional instability, they also nurture adaptability, intercultural empathy and resilience— qualities that position TCKs as uniquely equipped to navigate an increasingly globalized world. On the other hand, this study underscores that the variability in curricula, pedagogical practices, and educational expectations across international systems poses significant learning challenges for TCKs, often resulting in academic discontinuity and cognitive strain. However, these same transitions expose TCKs to a rich diversity of perspectives and learning environments, fostering intercultural competence and open-mindedness. This research goes on to indicate that many TCKs consciously pursue higher education as a means of achieving personal stability, identity consolidation, and intellectual fulfilment (Chakraborty et al., 2023). This pursuit reflects both a coping mechanism and a form of agency through which TCKs reconcile their multicultural experiences and negotiate their sense of belonging. In light of these findings, it becomes evident that TCKs represent a distinct and growing demographic within contemporary education—one that necessitates intentional recognition and support. As globalization and transnational mobility continue to influence family structures and learning trajectories, there is an urgent need for further research into the long-term educational and psychosocial outcomes of TCKs. Future studies should explore how identity development, belongingness, and academic achievement evolve over time within this group, particularly in relation to factors such as language acquisition, peer relationships, and access to culturally responsive educational resources. As mentioned in the sections above, from a policy and practice standpoint, educational institutions and governing bodies must work collaboratively to design inclusive, adaptive, and context-sensitive frameworks that address the specific challenges faced by TCKs. These frameworks should prioritize curricular flexibility, transition programs, and culturally responsive counselling that acknowledge the emotional and intellectual complexities of globally mobile students. By integrating these strategies, schools can not only mitigate the effects of displacement and identity conflict but also leverage the inherent strengths of TCKs —their global awareness, resilience, and cross-cultural competence. This study thus contributes to a growing body of knowledge that seeks to humanize and contextualize the experiences of TCKs. Recognizing their unique position within an increasingly interconnected world invites educators, policymakers, and researchers alike to rethink traditional notions of identity, belonging, and education. In doing so, we can create more inclusive and sustainable learning environments that empower TCKs to transform their

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mobility from a source of disruption into a foundation for lifelong growth, empathy, and global citizenship.

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Halme, K. R. (2019). Belonging everywhere and nowhere: The struggle of Third Culture Kids and their need for support in early childhood education and care. 55. Thesis. Laurea University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved from https://www.theseus.fi/bitstream/handle/10024/172220/Halme_KirsiRebekka.pdf Hayden, M. (2011). Transnational spaces of education: The growth of the international school sector. Globalisation, societies and education, 9(2), 211–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767724.2011.577203 Hayden, M., & Thompson, J. (2013). International schools: Antecedents, current issues and metaphors for the future. International education and schools: Moving beyond the first, 40, 3–24. Hitchcock, D. H., Hitchcock, G., & Hughes, D. (1995). Research and the teacher: A qualitative introduction to school-based research. Psychology Press. Holman Jones, S. L. (2013). The performance space: Giving an account of performance studies. Text and Performance Quarterly, 33(1), 77–80. https://doi.org/10.1080/10462937.2012.746215 Ittel, A., &Sisler, A. (2012). Third culture kids: Adjusting to a changing world. Diskurs Kindheits-und Jugendforschung, 7(4). Jones, S. H., Adams, T. E., & Ellis, C. (Eds.) (2016). Handbook of autoethnography. Routledge. Kang, C. (2007). Classroom peer effects and academic achievement: Quasi-randomization evidence from South Korea. Journal of Urban Economics, 61(3), 458–495. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jue.2006.07.006 Kroll, B. M., 1984. Writing for readers: Three perspectives on audience. College Composition and Communication, 35(2), 172–185. https://doi.org/10.58680/ccc198414880 Kumar, T., & Sharma, N. (2017). Study Of E-Verification System Used in Past Era. Kwon, J. (2019). Third Culture Kids: Growing up with mobility and cross-cultural transitions. Diaspora, Indigenous, and Minority Education, 13(2), 113–122. https://doi.org/10.1080/15595692.2018.1490718 Kurbanova, B., Chakraborty, D., Abdullaev, A., Shamatova, A., Makukha, O., Belarouci, A., Lysenko, V., Azarov, A., Kuznetsov, A., Wang, Y., & Utegulov, Z. (2024). Multiscale phonon thermal transport in nanoporous silicon. Applied Physics Letters, 124(25), Article 252101. https://doi.org/10.1063/5.0205455 Lee, Y. J., Bain, S. K. and McCallum, R. S. (2007). Improving creative problem-solving in a sample of third culture kids. School Psychology International, 28(4), 449–463. Lijadi, A.A., & Van Schalkwyk, G. J. (2014). Narratives of third culture kids: Commitment and reticence in social relationships. The Qualitative Report, 19(25), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.46743/2160-3715/2014.1213 Martinez, C. (2019). Culture Shock and College Success. Professional Development. Paper 90. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.uttyler.edu/events/90/ McCaig, N. (1992). Birth of a notion. The Global Nomad Quarterly, 1, 1–2.

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McLachlan, D. A. (2007). Global nomads in an international school: Families in transition. Journal of Research in International Education, 6(2), 233–249. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240907078615 Moore, A. M., & Barker, G. G. (2012). Confused or multicultural: Third culture individuals’ cultural identity. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 36(4), 553–562. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.11.002 Moore, T. E. (Ed.), (2014). Cognitive development and acquisition of language. Elsevier. Morales, A. (2015). Factors Affecting Third Culture Kids’(TCKs) Transition. Journal of International Education Research, 11(1), 51–56. https://doi.org/10.19030/jier.v11i1.9098 Narang, J., Malhotra, N., Singhal, C., Mathur, A., Chakraborty, D., Ingle, A., & Pundir, C. S. (2017). Point-of-care with microfluidic paper-based device incorporated with nanocrystals of zeolite–GO for electrochemical sensing of date rape drug. Procedia Technology, 27, 91–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.protcy.2017.04.039 Park, D. B. (1982). The meanings of “Audience”. College English, 44(3), 247–257. https://doi.org/10.2307/377012 Pavlenko, A. (2007). Autobiographic narratives as data in applied linguistics. Applied linguistics, 28(2), 163–188. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amm008 Peterson, B. E., & Plamondon, L. T. (2009). Third culture kids and the consequences of international sojourns on authoritarianism, acculturative balance, and positive affect. Journal of Research in Personality, 43(5), 755–763. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jrp.2009.04.014 Pollock, D., & Reken, R. (2001). Third culture kids. Yarmouth, ME: Nicholas Brealey. Pollock, D. (1987). Being a third culture kid: A profile. In Understanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family: Compendium of the International Conference on Missionary Kids in Quito, Ecuador (Vol. 1). Pollock, D. (1989). Being a third culture kid: A profile. In Understanding and Nurturing the Missionary Family: Compendium of the International Conference on Missionary Kids in Quito, Ecuador (Vol. 1). Pollock, D. C. (1988). TCK Definition. Among Worlds, 8(4). Pollock, D. C. (1997). What about the missionary kids and attrition. In W. D. Taylor (Ed.) Too valuable to lose: Exploring the causes and cures of missionary attrition. William Carey Library Publishers, 303–312. Pollock, D.C., Van Reken, R.E. and Pollock, M.V. (2010). Third Culture Kids: The Experience of Growing Up Among Worlds: The original, classic book on TCKs. Hachette UK. Rafika, D. A., Syahri, I., & Susanti, R. (2018). Culture Shock Experienced by Foreign Workers. Archives of Business Research, 6(4). https://doi.org/10.14738/abr.64.4331 Schneider, T. (2013). School class composition and student development in cognitive and non-cognitive domains: Longitudinal analyses of primary school students in Germany. In: Windzio, M. (eds) Integration and Inequality in Educational Institutions. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-6119-3_8

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Selmer, J., & Lam, H. (2004). “Third-culture kids” future business expatriates? Personnel Review, 33(4), 430–445. https://doi.org/10.1108/00483480410539506 Selmer, J., & Lauring, J. (2014). Self-initiated expatriates: An exploratory study of adjustment of adult third-culture kids vs. adult mono-culture kids. Cross Cultural Management, 21(4). 422–436. https://doi.org/10.1108/CCM-01-2013-0005 Sharma, V., & Aggarwal, S. (2009). Ragging: A public health problem. Indian journal of medical sciences, 63(12), 561. https://doi.org/10.4103/0019-5359.59990 Sharp, L. W. (1987) Patterns of religiosity, worldmindedness and commitment to justice issues for Brazil-experienced missionary children. PhD thesis, Calgary, Alberta. Sikes, P. (2015). Ethical considerations in autoethnographic research. Specialist Research Ethics Guidance Paper. Song, J. (2009). Bilingual creativity and self-negotiation. Beyond Yellow English: Toward a Linguistic Anthropology of Asian Pacific America. 309–324. https://doi.org/10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195327359.003.0013 Sreekanth, Y. (2009). Bullying: An element accentuating social segregation. Education 3– 13, 37(3), 233–245. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004270802349463 Tanu, D. (2015). Toward an interdisciplinary analysis of the diversity of “third culture kids”. In: Benjamin, S., Dervin, F. (Eds.) Migration, Diversity, and Education. Palgrave Macmillan, London. https://doi.org/10.1057/9781137524669_2 Tarique, I., & Weisbord, E. (2013). Antecedents of dynamic cross-cultural competence in adult third culture kids (ATCKs). Journal of Global Mobility, 1(2), 139–160. https://doi.org/10.1108/JGM-12-2012-0021 Useem, J., Useem, R. H., & Donoghue, J. D. (1963). Men in the middle of the third culture: The roles of American and non-Western people in cross-cultural administration. Human Organization, 22(3), pp.169–179. https://doi.org/10.17730/humo.22.3.5470n44338kk6733 Useem, R. H., & Cottrell, A. B. (1996). Adult third culture kids. Strangers at home: Essays on the effects of living overseas and coming home to a strange land. Aletheia Publication, pp.22–35. Useem, R. H., & Downie, R. D. (1976). Third-Culture Kids. Today’s Education, 65(3), 103– 5. Vidal, X. (2000). Third culture kids: A binding term for a boundless identity. Senior Essay, April, 10. Walters, K. A., & Auton-Cuff, F. P. (2009). A story to tell: the identity development of women growing up as third culture kids. Mental Health, Religion & Culture, 12(7), 755–772. https://doi.org/10.1080/13674670903029153 Wells, L. (2019). 5 Things for TCKs to Consider When Choosing a University – TCK Training. TCK Training. Willis, D. B., Enloe, W.W. & Minoura, Y. (1994). Transculturals, transnationals: The new diaspora. The International Schools Journal, 14(1), 29. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ494667 Corresponding author: Sanjukta Chakraborty Email: s.chakraborty.phd@gmail.com

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A Ground-Based Study on School Management Committees: Insights from School Principals Abdul Rahim Wardak Maharshi Dayanand University, India Jagbir Singh Narwal Maharshi Dayanand University, India

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Abstract The School Management Committees (SMCs) are established under the Right to Education Act, 2009. The main objective of this paper is to know the perceptions of school heads regarding the working of SMCs in government elementary schools in an educationally backward district (Nuh) in the State of Haryana. The researchers applied an interview questionnaire technique to collect the data from School heads. The questions were both openended and closed-ended. The schools were selected systematically and the collected data is analysed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The key findings indicate that awareness level among the school heads was high, almost all school heads were satisfied with SMCs' activities, and the heads confirmed teachers’ accountability monitored by SMCs. However, cases of low awareness among SMC members regarding the Right to Education Act (2009), the nonacademic burden on teachers, physical punishment and sexual harassment of children were reported. The observational data disclosed corruption, high absenteeism among students, cultural obstacles to education, lack of women's participation in school governance and unequal distribution of resources in the educational blocks. This paper contributes to readers knowing more about hindrances to educational access in Nuh District and the effectiveness of SMCs. Based on the findings, this research recommends providing an awareness campaign to the parents and holding training programs for SMC members. Keywords: barriers to education, Nuh District, right to education, School Development Plan, School Management Committee

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Education is the commencement of all rights to promote human dignity, equity and sustainable development in a society (UNESCO, 2015). It can enhance productivity, employability and other abilities (Schultz, 1961). To foster critical thinking, improve creativity, and develop morality education is an essential need (Nussbaum, 2016). It is an instrument of skills development, potential improvement, personality development, and social prestige. Education means all-around quality within the human body, spirit, and mind and helps us to grow and understand things easily. In the modern world, education plays a significant role in the development of students’ lives. Education makes incompetent persons into competent ones (Jackson, 2011). Education is the capability to resolve life problems and socio-economic change and development without education is impossible. It is the process of transmitting culture to the upcoming generations through some scientific and non-scientific methods and ways to prepare the people of society to live life effectively and efficiently (Ballantine, 2017). The Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act is also known the RTE Act, (2009) that provides free and compulsory education to all children aged 6 to 14 years in India (Malhotra, 2018). The RTE Act came into effect on 1 April 2010, the second and fourth chapters of this Act mandate the establishment of School Management Committees (SMCs) in every school, even the private schools should reserve 25% seats for disadvantaged children (Lakshmi, 2006). Community participation in school governance increases the Inclusiveness, gender equality, responsiveness and accountability (Yamada, 2013). Community involvement in education governance can assist in curriculum development, monitoring the implementation of educational policies, and enhancing academic performance and student learning outcomes. Community participation in education includes various stakeholders such as parents, teachers, students and community members in the decision-making process. The concept of School Management Committee is a model of School-Based Management (SBM) and it is established under the mandates of RTE Act, 2009, in India. The concept of School-Based Management was born in Australia during the 1960s as an alternative to Bureaucratic School Management (BSM) (Gamage, 2006). The SMC strengthens the relationship between school and community to improve the quality of education (Rani, 2022). It helps students to access their fundamental rights, improves education quality, contributes curriculum development, and monitors the schools (Naz, 2023). It is introduced as the democratic participation of local community in education governance to make School Development Plan (Jayaram, 2013). Overall, the SMC is briefly described in the below table.

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Table 1 Overview of SMCs in India Features Legal mandates for SMCs

Description RTE Act, 2009 and state rules for the implementation

Enforcement

1 April, 2010

Payment

The SMC members are volunteers, not paid.

Gender and Parents’ quota of 75% Parents Inclusion 50% men and 50% women Appointment

Election for Teachers, Nomination of Parents, Selection of Educationists

Tenure of Reconstruction

The Tenure of SMC reconstruction is two academic years.

Composition Functions and Roles Training and support Sustainability and continuity feature

Parents, Students, Teachers, Educationists, Social Activists, School Heads, Teachers, Local Authorities Supervise the school, oversee the punctuality of teachers, ensure the enrolment, avoiding any violation of the rights of the child, assess the needs of the school, identify and enroll CWSN children, monitor the mid-day meal program, and prepare the annual accounts for schools. Structured training and the Indian Centre and state governments support the policy implementation financially. The government follows up and releases funds annually

Source: School Management Committee Constitution (Haryana)

Nuh District It has been identified and declared one of the most backward districts in the state of Haryana by the National Institute for Transformation of India (NITI) Aayog (Gaurav Bhati, 2024). The ratio between teachers and students shows that Punahana has the highest teacher-student ratio (1/50) and the Tauro block has the lowest ratio (1/28). Ferozpur Jhirka block is the second highest and Nuh block is at the third level. In the entire district, the teacher-student ratio in middle schools is 1:38 (District Elementary Education Office, Nuh, (May 2025).

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Table 2 Teacher-Students Ratio Block Wise Block Tauru Nagina Nuh F.p Jhirka Punhana

Students’ Strength 12019 12514 21994 13848 20586

Teachers’ Strength 423 383 660 298 411

Teacher-Students Ratio 28.41371 32.67363 33.32424 46.4698 50.08759

Source: District Elementary Education Office, Nuh, visited (May 2025)

Despite education is freely provided for 6 to 14 years of children in India, Nuh district still face various challenges including high dropout rate, poor quality education, and other socioeconomic issues. To remove or reduce these hindrances to education quality and access, the Indian government involved the local community in decision-making for their children. Therefore, the researchers wanted to know the perception of school heads regarding the activities of School Management Committees in government elementary schools. This study contributes to an in-depth understanding of the SMC and RTE Act in India. Literature Review Legislation on Education The Indian Constitution in its many articles defends the rights of Indian citizens to accessible, equal, and quality education. The primary education is discussed in Article 5th of the Indian Constitution (Rao, 2004). Article 45th of the directive principles of the state policy in India declares access to free and compulsory education for children until the completion of elementary education. Article 30th of the Constitution allows all minorities to establish and administer educational institutions. The constitution supports women's education equally to the boys’ education, meanwhile Article 15 (3) directs the state government to pay attention to women's education and create special provisions (Mothukuri, 2021). Studies on the implementation of RTE Act, 2009, in India addressed gap between the policy intent and the implementation of the Act at the ground level (Kumar, 2018; Kathad, 2018; Rachana, 2023; Prakash, 2024) School-Based Management The recent researches revealed that SBM improves the level of accountability, students’ learning outcomes and institutional programs (Briggs, 2003). The SBM as a school governance model is increases school autonomy and community involvement in decision-making (Komatsu, 2013). It provides the ground for distributed leadership to transfer responsibilities and authorities to all the stakeholders. The teachers, students, and parents take the responsibilities and maintain the school environment, and climate (Ehren, 2016). This initiative boosts the engagement of the community and parents in school development and creates a

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better teaching-learning environment (Bandur, 2021). Several researchers found that the devolution of authority and power to the school brought greater equity among schools and equality among the students (Bush, 2001). A case study was conducted in ACT showing that school leadership is important to fortify the SBM policy for students’ achievement (Caldwell, 2016). Theories of School-Based Management Decentralization theory (DT) moves the decision-making process closer to school heads, teachers, parents, and local communities, who are directly involved and have a better understanding of local needs. This theory supports schools' autonomy in planning, budgeting, curriculum, and the School Development Plan (SDP). The RTE Act (2009) promotes decentralization of school governance and empowers local communities to prepare School Development Plans and monitor the work of the school administration (Altrichter, 2014). Participatory governance theory (PGT) promotes democratic participation in the decisionmaking process to enhance accountability and outcomes. Parents, teachers, community members, and marginalized groups are empowered in collective decision-making. The SMCs in India include elected local authorities, parents, teachers, school heads, students and educationists to decide about the needs of local schools (Frank, 2012). Empowerment theory (ET) discusses the community empowerment to obtain control over decisions that affect their lives. This theory improves effectiveness and commitment toward responsibilities allotted. The RTE Act (2009) empowers marginalized groups, women and the local community through inclusion in SMCs (Joseph, 2020). School Management Committees Various studies on community participation in school governance and decision-making processes in India indicated poor community participation and the marginalized communities were deprived of their rights (Kumar, 2025; Duwarah, 2015; Sharma, 2023; Srinivasu, 2016; Alam, 2024). Another study indicated that the socio-economic and cultural constraints affected the participation of Muslim communities in educational governance (Sultana, 2023). The sociopolitical interferences also affected the community participation in education governance (Shrivastava, 2019; Trivedi, 2022). Women's participation in education governance is poor in rural India (Patnaik, 2021). Various studies on SMCs showed lack of awareness among SMC members play a symbolic role in managing the school environment and the actual decision is taken by the local officials (Wadkar, 2014; Pitaliya, 2016; Bernat, 2019; Rao, 2019; Reetu, 2012; Kumar, 2018). Studies on the role of SMCs in the development of the school environment disclosed poor knowledge and limited skills among the SMC members developing the School Development Plan (SDP) (Muralidhar, 2023). The infrastructures were found inadequate (Krishna, 2014; (Prabhunath, 2018). The students were engaged with traditional teaching learning methods (Sharma, 2021); and the stakeholders are not satisfied of SMC activities in the school (Kaur, 2023).

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SMC Conceptual Framework This conceptual framework presents the school autonomy and community participation in form of SMC in every school lead to accountability, effective education governance and improving the teaching learning outcome. Figure 1 SMC Conceptual Framework Inputs

RTE Act, 2009 & SMCs

Processes

Participatory Decision-Making & Collaborative Participation

Accountability in Service Delivery

Outputs

Improved School Governance Parents & Teacher Engagement

Outcomes

Teaching learning outcome & school achievement

Methods Research Design In this study, the researchers used a mixed-method approach, including closed-ended and openended questions to gather comprehensive and balanced data from school heads. This approach allows the researchers to capture detailed perceptions and experiences of school heads and the statistical insights (Leech, 2010). Almost all schools were from rural area throughout the district. Sampling The total sample size of the study was 30 government elementary schools. The study area included all educational blocks (Firozpur, Nagina, Nuh, Taoru, and Punhana). The schools were selected systematically and this sampling provides more precise estimators than simple random sampling (Mostafa, 2017). It is a type of probability sampling with a random starting point and a fixed period interval. There are total of 260 independent middle schools in the district, divided by 5 educational blocks, the average number of schools in each block is (52). These 52 schools are further divided by 6, so the interval point equals to (8.66 = 9). A number between (1) and (9) was selected randomly then every (9th) school was selected.

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Formula of Systematic Sampling Interval N= total population Size (total number of Units= 260) n = desired sample size (30) !

#$%

K = " + &% = 8.666 = 9 (round off) Data Collection The technique used for data collection was a semi-structured questionnaire. It contained both fixed and open-ended questions. The questionnaire comprised eight sections: school infrastructure and facilities, School Development Plan, non-academic burden on teachers, Monitoring activities of SMCs, physical punishment and sexual harassment, satisfaction of school heads with the performance of School Management Committees, and awareness about the Right to Education Act, 2009. Additionally, the secondary data was collected from PhD theses (SMCs, RTE Act, 2009 and Community participation), government reports, journals articles and books. The quantitative data is analysed through simple percentage method and the open-ended questions are analysed based on qualitative analysis method. For ethical consideration, the consent of respondents was taken before filling the interview schedule. Findings Respondents’ Profile In this study the gender, caste or social category, and age-range of respondents were considered. Figure 0.2 indicates that 83% of school heads were male and 17% were female, 77% of respondents were above 40 years of age and 20% were between 30 to 40 years and only 3% were of them were less than 30 years of age. The findings also reveal that 50% of respondents were from backward class, 27% of the respondents introduced themselves to be in general category, and 23% of respondents were from scheduled castes. Figure 2 Gender, Age and Castes

Gender Female

Below 30

17%

Male

83% 0

Castes

Age Range

100

scheduled

Between 30-40

20%

Above 40

General 77%

210

23%

Backward/Sc…

50% 27%

50%

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Awareness about RTE Act (2009) and SMCs The awareness of school heads is shown in Figure 3 and they were asked about the formation of SMCs in schools. Figure 3 indicates that 90% of respondents had knowledge about the SMCs and 84% of respondents confirmed that SMCs ensure the admission of students in Nuh District. 81% of respondents claimed regular meetings in schools and 84% of respondents acknowledged the recording of Minutes of the meetings. The findings of Figure 0.3 reveal that 78% of respondents were also aware of RTE Act, (2009). 81% of respondents knew about the tenure of SMC, and confirmed the utilization of fund in the schools. 75% of respondents claimed that the local communities are participating in the meetings and the participants are from different social categories. The findings of Figure 3 on an average level show that the awareness of respondents about RTE Act, 2009 and SMCs in government schools among the heads of school is 82%. Figure 3 Awareness of school heads about RTE Act, 2009 and SMCs

90% 84% 84% 81% 81% 78% 75%

Awareness about SMC SMC ensures Admission SMC records the minutes SMC holds regular meetings SMC utlize the Grants Awareness about RTE Act All groups are participating SMC meetings

Role of SMCs in School Development Plan The findings of Figure 4 reveals that all 30 school heads confirmed that School Management Committees (SMCs) prepare School Development Plan (SDP) and contribute for its implementation. The main challenges that SMCs are facing during the preparation and implementation of the School Development Plan are; limited fund and resources (77%), lack of awareness among the members of SMCs (45%), and lack of administrative support to the SMC members (7%). As a result, SMC active participation in preparing School Development Plan (SDP) was too high but their awareness was low and faced lack of financial resources. Figure 4 SMC Role in SDP Preparation and Implementation percentage SMC participation in SDP Preparation and Implemnetation

respondents 100% 30

percentage

Responds

Limited Resources or Fund

Lack of awareness among SMC Members Lack of administrative support

211

14 7%

77% 47%

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Monitoring Activities of SMC The findings shown in Figure 5 reveal that 7% of respondnets confirmed always monitoring of teachers’ attendance by SMCs, the often monitoring reponses were 3%, the sometimes responses were 47%, the responses for rarely monitoring were 17% and responses of never monitoring were only 3%. The findings also revealed that 7% of respondnets confirmed always monitoring of basic facilties by SMCs, the often monitoring reponses were 23%, the sometimes responses were 43%, the responses for rarely monitoring were 10% and responses of never monitoring were only 0%. Figure 6 indicates that 73% of the respondents reported quality of mid-day meal positively and only 20% respondents affirmed the students’ complaint. On an average level the findings show that 54.33% of respondents confirmed the monitoring of teachers’ attendance, basic facilities, and quality of mid-day meal by SMCs in the schools. Figure 5 Teacher’s Attendance and Basic facilities Teachers'attendance

Percentage 43

Percentage2

23 13

7 always

Basic Facilites

3 often

14 3

sometimes

5 rarely

10 3 1 0 never

Figure 6 Quality of Mid-day Meal and Students’ Complaint Percentage

Respondents

SMC is monitoring the qulaity of mid-day meal program Complaint reported about Mid-Day Meal prorgam

22 6

73%

20%

SMC Performance and Child Safety in School In this study Figure 7 shows that 90% of heads in the government elementary schools are satisfied from the performance of SMCs in Nuh District. The respondents reported physical punishment (23%) and only 3% of respondents acknowledged the sexual harassment of students.

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Figure 0.7 SMC Performance and child Safety in School Percentage

Responds

School Head satisfaction from SMC performace in the School

Physical Punishment of Children in School

Sexual Harasment in the school

90%

23%

3.3%

Burden of Non-Academic Duties on Teachers The findings of Figure 8 shows that 63% of the respondents reported less than 5 hours nonacademic burden per week on SMC teacher members, 33% of respondents reported from 5 to 10 hours weekly and only 3% of respondents reported more than 10 hours. The SMC teacher members besides teaching entertained with administrative work, supervision of mid-day meal program and even data entry duties allotted by the administration. Figure 8 Burden of Teachers with Non-Academic Duties Percentage Less than 5 Hours

5-10 Hours More than 10 Hours

Responds

63% 33%

Challenges in SMCs Face in Schools The findings of Figure 9 reveal limitations of funds 73%, insufficient training and lack of capacity building programs 50%, and limited participation of SMC members in meetings in the schools 47%. the findings also disclose that the majority of the school heads had complaints about receiving funds from the local government and a sharp half of the school heads claimed the training for SMCs is insufficient.

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Figure 9 Challenges School Management Committees Face in Schools Percentage

Responds

limited resources and Funds

73%

Insufficient training and lack of capacity builidng

Limited participation of members

50% 47%

Qualitative Questions There are some open-ended questions, which were asked of the respondents about the Right to Education Act (2009), Formation of SMC, Recording the Minutes of the meeting, the grants allocation from the government, frequency of preparing the School Development Plan and the cancelation of SMC membership. Table 2 is a brief description of the maximum responses to every question. Table 2 Open-ended Questions (Content Analysis) NO Open-ended Questions Outcome 1 Where do you know about RTE Almost all respondents knew about the RTE Act Act (2009) from? (2009) during training and capacity-making programs. 2 What is the process of SMC All respondents replied that SMC is formed formation? through the parents-teachers association. 3 What is the tenure of SMC 28 respondents replied accurately that SMC is reconstruction in the schools? reconstructed every two years. 4 Who records the Minutes of the 25 respondents confirmed that the SMC and meetings? school heads are recording the Minutes of meetings. 5 How does SMC receive the grants? All respondents acknowledged that SMC receives grants through a joint account with the school administration. 6 How often does SMC prepare the 15 respondents reported SDP preparation twice School Development Plan (SDP)? annually. 7 How the membership of an SMC Almost all the respondents agreed that SMC member is cancelled? passes resolution and the majority decide it.

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Discussion The present study was conducted in government elementary schools in Nuh district and it is one of the most backward districts of Haryana State (Gaurav Bhati, 2024). The elementary education is discussed in Article 5th of the Indian Constitution (Rao, 2004). To establish SMCs in every government school, the school head or the most senior teacher of the school will be the convenor of the SMC. According to the RTE Act, (2009), at least 50% of SMC members should be women; however, in Nuh district, women's participation in school governance remains poor and as observed by Patnaik (2021), women participation in rural India is limited in the educational governance. Every state has a separate SMC constitution and aims to ensure inclusiveness in the school governance. It allows participation of all groups in decision-making processes. In India, casteism (Jativad) continues to be one of the most harmful factors affecting children’s education and depriving many of their rights (Barman, 2020). The upper castes often declare themselves to be superior to the lower castes, and the Muslims make up 80% of Nuh district’s population, are considered a backward class. To enhance inclusiveness and empower the marginalized groups, the government established SMCs in every school, inviting all stakeholders (Joseph, 2020). Studies show that the marginalized communities are deprived of their rights in India (Kumar, 2025; Duwarah, 2015; Sharma, 2023; Srinivasu, 2016; Alam, 2024). Another study shows that the socio-economic and cultural issues affected the participation of Muslim communities participating in school governance (Sultana, 2023). The stakeholders of educational services include parents, students, teachers, school heads, and local authorities. These stakeholders must be involved in education governance (Rani, 2022; Yamada, 2013; Naz, 2023). The tenure for SMC reconstruction is for two years and the Education Department at the district level to improve capacity and capabilities, provides teacher training and SMC members training programs from time to time. The duties and functions of SMCs are given in the guidelines or rules for the implementation of the RTE Act (2009) prepared at the state level. One of the main functions of SMC is to prepare and implement the School Development Plan (SDP). The SDP includes improvement of the school environment, building and classroom reconstruction, and ensuring the availability of basic facilities in the schools for children. Our study is in consonance with the observation of Muralidhar (2023), who found that SMC members lack the necessary skills required for the preparation of a School Development Plan (SDP). Various studies show that there is gap between the policy intent and the implementation of the Act at the ground level (Kumar, 2018; Kathad, 2018; Rachana, 2023; Prakash, 2024). The second important task of SMC is monitoring the school functions or activities. SMCs are responsible for monitoring the teachers’ attendance, mid-day meal, facilities, and children's rights violations. Based on the findings of this study SMC monitoring function was positively reported but school infrastructures were found inadequate. The present study complies with studies of (Venkata Krishna, 2014; (Prabhunath, 2018). The facilities and welfare provided to the children impact the learning outcomes of children and our study is consistent with Bethell (2014), who affirmed that students’ welfare directly influences the academic achievements.

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To create a safe school environment where teachers can teach freely and students can learn without any discomfort is the key goal of every government. A safe school protects the rights of children and avoids the threats that endanger the well-being of the students (Duke, 2002). Everyone has a different experience and perception about the sexual harassment and school climate. A safe school plan is a prior concern of every stakeholder including the teachers, students, parents, politicians and academicians, not merely the school administration (Stephens, 1994). The provisions of RTE Act (2009) state that non-academic duties on teachers must be reduced to the minimum. The findings of this study indicated that SMCs members in Nuh district are burdened with non-academic duties and this research supports the study of (Kulal, 2022), revealed that non-academic duties influence the quality of education significantly. Another study conducted on teaching quality and non-academic responsibilities of teachers disclosed that non-academic burden leads to anxiety, depression, stress and lack of interest in teaching to the students (Vyas, 2023). The local government allocates grants based on the number of students available in schools. Our observations and research findings support studies conducted on financial embezzlement and misuse of funds (Banerjee, 2011; Mohammad & Sheikh, 2019). The findings of these studies revealed that there is corruption and misuse of funds in school governance in India. Implications of the Study This study enhances understanding of community participation in school governance by highlighting how school heads perceive and implement school-based management through SMCs in India. It also contributes to knowing about the effectiveness of SMC functioning. The findings of this study can guide local authorities and school administration to strengthen collaboration with SMC members for better decision-making. The findings can also help the school heads, teachers and local authorities to understand the challenges SMCs face in the schools. This research highlights areas where the state government can bring reforms and improve the monitoring mechanism. The future research can compare the Indian SMC to School Managing Bodies (SMBs) in other South Asian countries. Conclusion The core focus of the Haryana state is to provide quality and need-based education. The majority of residents in Nuh district of Haryana are Muslims (categorized as backward class). The School Management Committees (SMCs) are established under the Right to Education Act, 2009. It empowers the local stakeholders, such as parents, teachers, and community members, to participate in school governance. The SMCs have separate constitutions in every state describing the functions, structure, and tenure. The state government allocates funds and releases to SMCs and school administrations in a joint account. Each school level has its own SMC, and the number of SMC members depends on students’ strength in the schools (minimum 12, maximum 20). The SMC reconstruction is done every two years. Based on the findings of the study, the awareness about RTE Act (2009) and SMC formation in government schools among the school heads was good, however, the school heads felt that

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there is lack of awareness among the SMC members. To implement the RTE Act (2009) SMCs need funds and awareness and training programs for SMC members. The SMC members participate in the preparation of the School Development Plan; however, they have less knowledge of SDP preparation. The school heads stated that above 50% of SMC members monitor the teachers’ attendance, basic facilities, and quality of mid-day meal. The teachers are involved in less than 5 hours in non-academic duties, and students’ physical punishment and sexual harassment were also reported in some schools. To conclude the study, there is a gap between the legislation and its implementation at ground level, so strengthening of legal and institutional enforcement of RTE Act (2009) is required. Culture deeply influenced the education of girls and male spouses were not interested of women participation in school governance. Therefore, the government must launch the awareness and women's rights programs to remove barriers to women's participation in School governance. There is also need of capacity building and training programs for SMC members. Acknowledgement The authors acknowledge that local authorities and officers of the Education Department in Nuh district helped with some statistical data, including the number of elementary schools, the number of students Block-Wise, the number of teachers and the current-status of educational blocks. Research Ethics All the respondents were informed and prior consent was obtained. this study was conducted with ethical standards required for research. For confidentiality, their identity was not asked. Instead of the school’s name, its code was noted. Declaration of Funds The authors did not receive any funding for this research, and all the expenses were covered by the researchers. Declaration of Interests Between Authors The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest between them and equally contributed. Declaration of Originality This research paper has not been submitted elsewhere for publication and the manuscript is original. No part of this research has been published in any journal.

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References Alam, A. (2024). Problems and Challenges Faced by Managing Committees in the Functioning and Quality Control in Government Aided Schools of Delhi. Jamia Millia Islamia University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/655763 Altrichter, H. H.-A. (2014). School decentralization as a process of differentiation, hierarchization and selection. Journal of Education Policy, 29(5), 675–699. https://doi.org/10.1080/02680939.2013.873954 Ballantine, J. H. (2017). The sociology of education. Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315299914 Bandur, A. H. (2021). 21st-century experiences in the development of school-based management policy and practices in Indonesia. Educational Research for Policy and Practice , 21, 85–107. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-021-09293-x Banerjee, A. &. (2011). Shadows in the classroom: An in-depth analysis of corruption and challenges in India's modern education system. Barman, R. K. (2020). Casteism and Caste Intolerance in India: A Study on Casteism of Contemporary West Bengal. Contemporary Voice of Dalit, 12(2), 165–180. https://doi.org/10.1177/2455328X19898451 Bernat, L. (2019). School management committees of right to education act in Tamil Nadu: Awareness, functions and challenges. Tamil Nadu: Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/337401 Bethell, C. D. (2014). Methods to assess adverse childhood experiences of children and families: Toward approaches to promote child well-being in policy and practice. Academic Pediatrics, 17(7), S66–S76. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.acap.2017.04.161 Briggs, K. L. (2003). Key Elements of a Successful School-Based Management Strategy. School Effectiveness and School Improvement, 14(3), 351–372. https://doi.org/10.1076/sesi.14.3.351.15840 Bush, T. (2001). Models of self-governance in schools: Australia and the United Kingdom. International Journal of Educational Management, 15(1), 39–44. https://doi.org/10.1108/09513540110380604 Caldwell, B. J. (2016). Impact of school autonomy on student achievement: Cases from Australia. International Journal of Educational Management. 30(7), 1171–1187. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-10-2015-0144 Duke, D. L. (2002). Creating safe schools for all children. Allyn & Bacon. Retrieved from https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED456635 Duwarah, R. R. (2015). Community Involvement in School Processes and its Pedagogical Effect on Educational Attainment of Elementary Schools in North Eastern States . Assam University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/105759 Ehren, M. E.-S. (2016). School inspections in low- and middle-income countries: Explaining impact and mechanisms of impact. . Compare. A Journal of Comparative and International Education. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2016.1239188 Frank., F. (2012). Partiicpatory Goverannce: from theory to practice, oxford handbook of governance. Oxford University Press.

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Gamage, D. T. (2006). Decentralization and Devolution of Authority Towards SelfGoverning Schools. (eds) Professional Development for Leaders and Managers of Self-Governing Schools. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/1-4020-4929-3_2 Gaurav Bhati, N. G. (2024). Coverage of Antenatal Care Services in a Rural Area of District Nuh, Haryana. Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development, 15(1). Government of National Territory, D. (n.d.). School Management Committee. Delhi, India. Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/SMC% 20Constitution%20Delhi.pdf Haryana. School Management committee Constitution. (n.d.). Retrieved from https://www.education.gov.in/sites/upload_files/mhrd/files/upload_document/SMC% 20FORMATION.pdf Jackson, P. W. (2011). What Is Education? University of Chicago Press. https://doi.org/10.7208/9780226389394 Jayaram, K. (2013). Functioning of school management committees: What do its members perceive? Pedagogy of Learning, 1(2), 63–68. Joseph, R. (2020). The theory of empowerment: A critical analysis with the theory evaluation scale. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment, 30(1), 138–157. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2019.1660294 Kathad, J. M. (2018). Role of School Management Committee (SMC) in Context to School Development. Kachchh University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/228167 Kaur, S. G. (2023). Perceptions of school heads, teachers and management committee members towards implementation procedures of the Right to Education Act 2009 . Pnjab University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/352041 Komatsu, T. (2013). Why do policy leaders adopt global education reforms? A political analysis of School-Based Management reform adoption in post-conflict Bosnia and Herzegovina. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21(62). https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v21n62.2013 Kulal, A. P. (2022). Impact of non-academic responsibilities of teachers on teaching quality. Journal of Teaching and Education Research, 17(2), 5–12. doi:https://doi.org/10.36268/JTER/17202 Kumar, N. (2018). An Evaluative Study of School Management Committees of Haryana with Special Reference to Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan and RTE Act 2009. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/276584 Kumar, S. (2025). A Study Of School Management Committees SMCs At Primary Level In Reference to Enrolment Quality Involvement and Impact. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/663019n Kumar, V. (2018). School Management Committee: A Study of Delhi Schools. Shodhganga . Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/362437 Lakshmi, S. (2006). Final Right to Education Bill 2005. Government of India. Retrieved from https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/Centre-buries-Right-to-EducationBill/articleshow/1748745.cms

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Leech, N. L. (2010). Evaluating Mixed Research Studies: A Mixed Methods Approach. Journal of Mixed Methods Research,, 4(1), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.1177/1558689809345262 Malhotra, R. (2018). Right to Education: One-stop destination for all law students. LawJi.in. Retrieved from https://web.archive.org/web/20180927005340/https://www.lawji.in/2018/09/Right-toeducation.html Mohammad, S., & Sheikh, T. (2019). Development of elementary education under central sponsored flagship schemes in Jammu & Kashmir: Issues and challenges. Think India Journal, 22(17), 1151. Mostafa, S. A. (2017). Recent developments in systematic sampling: A review. Journal of Statistical Theory and Practice, 290–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/15598608.2017.1353456 Mothukuri. (2021). Constitutional provisions on education and inculcating values in India. International Journal of Research in Education, Literature, Psychology and Library Science, 6(3). Muralidhar, B. (2023). Implementation of Right to Education Act 2009: Role of School Management Committees – A Case Study of Warangal District. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/530048 Naz, L. Q. (2023). Pre and post assessment of school management committees: A case study of Sindh. Business Review, 18(1), 48–70. https://doi.org/10.54784/1990-6587.1497 Nussbaum, M. C. (2016). Not for Profit: Why Democracy Needs the Humanities (Updated Ed.). Princeton University Press. Retrieved from https://digital.casalini.it/9781400883509 Papa Rao, M. (2019). Functioning of School Management Committees at Elementary Level: A Perceptual Study. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/388552 Patnaik, S. K. (2021). Participation of the women members of school management committee SMC for management of primary schools in Koraput district. Berhampur University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/451882 Pitaliya, R. (2016). Assessment of The Performance of School Management Committee in Government Primary Schools of Surendra Nagar District. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/322245 Prabhunath, S. (2018). A Study of the Role of Headmaster, Teacher and School Management Committee in the Promotion of Quality Education in Government Secondary Schools of Patna. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/2 Prakash, J. (2024). Role Perception and Role Performance of School Management Committee Members in Implementation of the RTE Act 2009 in Bihar. Utkal University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/613963 Rachana. (2023). A Study of School Management Committee (SMC) in the Context of Right to Education Act 2009 in Enhancing the School Performance. Amity University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/576445

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Rani, P. (2022). Role of school management committees (SMCs) in building and strengthening the relationship between school and community to improve the quality of education in primary schools of India: Study of selected MCD (Municipal Corporation School). Journal of Research & Method in Education, 12(5), 61–69. Rao, D. B. (2004). Education in India. Discovery Publishing House. Reetu. (2012). A Study of the Functioning of Village Education Development Committees in Educationally Backward Districts of Punjab. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/8013 Schultz, T. W. (1961). Investment in Human Capital. The American Economic Review , 51(1), 1–17. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/1818907. Sharma, M. K. (2023). Quality Issues in Primary Education and Role of School Management Committee and Administration . Shri JJT University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/26958 Sharma, P. (2021). Quality Improvement Initiatives in Public Funded Schools of Delhi Through School Management Committees. Mangalam University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/397147 Shrivastava, A. P. (2019). Role of School Management Committee (SMC) in Improving the Quality of Education in Primary School of Madhya Pradesh. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/255355 Srinivasu, N. (2016). Community participation in elementary education: A study on school management committees in Adilabad district of Telangana state. Andhra University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/383845 Stephens, R. D. (1994). Planning for safer and better schools: School violence prevention and intervention strategies. School Psychology Review, 23(2), 204–215. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.1994.12085707 Sultana, G. (2023). A Study on Functioning of School Management Committees in Promotion of Education among Muslim Minorities. Osmania University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/561572 Trivedi, N. (2022). Influence of Parental Involvement on Functioning of School Management Committee. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/369179 UNESCO. (2015). Incheon Declaration and Framework for Action for the Implementation of Sustainable Development Goal 4. USA: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization. Retrieved from https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000244834 Venkata Krishna, R. (2014). A study on the functioning of school management committees at primary level. Andhra University. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/386058 Vyas, M. N. (2023). Teaching quality and non-academic responsibilities of teachers. . Empirical Economics Letters, 22(3), 343–353. Wadkar, S. B. (2014). Study of Empowerment of School Management Committee and its Effectiveness in Maharashtra. Shodhganga. Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/10603/26954

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Yamada, S. (2013). Determinants of Community Participation: The Tradition of Local Initiatives and the Institutionalisation of School Management Committees in Oromia Region. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 44(2), 162–185. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2012.746899 Corresponding author: Abdul Rahim Wardak Email: abdulrahimwardak070878@gmail.com, abdulrahim.rs22.pubadmin@mdurohtak.ac.in

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Teaching for Social Justice: Rethinking the Educator’s Role in Equity and Inclusion Tayyibah Roohi University of the Punjab, IER, Pakistan Shafia Baber Superior University, Pakistan Amber Jamshaid University of the Punjab, IER, Pakistan Naima Qureshi University of Education, Pakistan

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Abstract Social justice teaching is an educational approach that confronts systemic inequities, encourages students to become change agents, and establishes equitable learning environments. The current study explored teacher educators’ practices to explore how social justice teaching is implemented in higher education classrooms. The study aimed to understand the ideas, pedagogical approaches, and difficulties of incorporating social justice values in classroom settings. The main research objectives were (i) how teacher educators understand social justice, (ii) how they put social justice into practice in a higher education setting, and (iii) what obstacles they encounter while putting social justice into practice. Under the pragmatic paradigm, the study used “an explanatory sequential mixed-method design”. The purposive sampling was employed with an equal representation of male and female teachers. Teacher educators (n = 304) provided quantitative data via questionnaires, and factor analysis was utilized to assess the scale’s validity and reliability. To gather qualitative data, 32 semistructured interviews with teachers were conducted. NVivo 12 and thematic analysis were used to evaluate the qualitative data, while descriptive statistics (SPSS, 21) were used to analyze quantitative data. The data were additionally triangulated with the responses of the students (n=527). The data revealed teacher educators’ experience in implementing the social justice values of democracy, diversity, and equity in their classrooms. They highlighted that education is a potent agent for social advancement rather than being neutral. The movement towards a future characterized by justice, equity, and opportunity for all can be spearheaded by educators and students working together. Keywords: conceptions, challenges social justice teaching, pedagogy, practices

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Teaching for social justice has gained international prominence as an educational paradigm that challenges systemic inequities and transcends disciplinary boundaries. There is increasing pressure on universities to develop socially conscious graduates who can promote democratic, compassionate, and inclusive societies. This transformative teaching method requires commitment, empathy, and a deep belief in the power of education to advance justice and equality. However, social justice education is still a relatively new and unexplored field in Pakistani higher education. Even if national education regulations place a strong emphasis on equity and inclusion, there is still a divide between the principles of social justice and how they are actually applied in the classroom. The way that justice-oriented teaching is viewed and implemented is influenced by a number of factors, including institutional hierarchies, sociopolitical influences, and the perspectives of educators. Therefore, closing this gap requires an understanding of how teacher educators think about and implement social justice in their classrooms. Fairness, tolerance, and respect for human dignity are encouraged by social justice education, which is founded on the ideas of democracy, diversity, and equity (Dover, 2013; Cho, 2017). It includes cultural sensitivity, democratic engagement, and reducing inequalities in learning environments (Dover, 2016; Marilyn, 2020). Teachers’ social and political consciousness, as well as the learning environment they work in, frequently influence how much they adhere to these ideals. In higher education, active learning strategies are crucial for fostering transformative learning and critical awareness (Richardson, 2008; Roehl et al., 2013). Democratic education for social justice includes addressing real-world issues, encouraging critical thinking, and promoting cross-cultural dialogue (Dover et al., 2017). Likewise, promoting diversity in the classroom via the acceptance and appreciation of a variety of identities and perspectives prepares students to behave ethically in diverse societies (Guerra, 2012; Ferris, 2012). At the core of these efforts is equity, which ensures that all students, regardless of background, can participate and succeed (Andrew, 2017). The present study’s objectives are to: 1. Determine the opportunities and challenges of incorporating social justice into higher education classrooms. 2. Analyze how teacher educators in Pakistani higher education conceptualize social justice education. 3. Reflect on how these conceptualizations affect teacher educators’ pedagogical approaches. The study utilized mixed-method methodology to accomplish these objectives, based on questionnaires and semi-structured interviews with teacher educators from chosen campuses of Pakistani universities. The findings are expected to contribute to the broader discussion on

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social justice education by highlighting context-specific understandings and pedagogical implications for higher education in developing countries. Literature Review Conceptualization of Social Justice Teaching Fairness, equality, and the equitable allocation of opportunities and resources are all aspects of social justice in education (Dover et al., 2017; Cho, 2017). It entails recognizing and appreciating diversity, eliminating prejudice, and fostering inclusive and moral learning environments (Marshal & Oliva, 2006). Accordingly, social justice education seeks to guarantee that all students can engage completely and actively in the educational process in addition to ensuring that they are treated equally (Agarwal, 2010; Leibowitz & Bozalek, 2016). In order to make the educational scope of social justice teaching more clear, McDonald (2007) distinguished four orientations: addressing the needs of individual students; matching learning opportunities with social and cultural identities; addressing inequalities based on background, race, and class; and confronting more general structural injustices. Teachers who use this method link instruction to the moral obligation to advance justice and human dignity. Additionally, teaching for social justice integrates anti-oppressive practices, intercultural education, critical pedagogy, and democratic engagement (Hytten, 2011; Davis, 2017). Teachers can promote civic engagement, empathy, and critical thinking by including these principles in their lessons (Cho, 2017). In actuality, social justice education equips students to identify social injustices and take action to build more just societies. Democracy, diversity, and equity are the three interconnected pillars that form the foundation of social justice education (Dover, 2013; Cho, 2017). •

• •

Democracy prepares students to participate as active citizens by emphasizing engagement, discussion, and shared decision-making in the classroom (Beane, 2005; Adams et al., 2007). Diversity promotes intercultural understanding by valuing a range of identities, viewpoints, and cultural experiences (Guerra, 2012; Ferris, 2012; Nieto, 2017). Equity removes obstacles to inclusion by guaranteeing justice and support catered to each student’s unique needs (Banks & Banks, 1995; Salazar, 2013).

These ideas work together as the foundation of higher education’s social justice-focused pedagogy.

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Figure 1 Outline of Literature Review • Theories of Social Justice

• Social Justice in Education

Democracy

Diversity

Challenges

Equity

• Social Justice in Higher Education Classroom

• Teaching for Social Justice

Theoretical Perspective on Social Justice Philosophical traditions that emphasize equality, fairness, and human liberation have shaped theories of social justice. While Young (1990) reframed justice in terms of resisting structural oppression and dominance, Rawls (1971) defined justice as fairness, based on equality and impartiality. A critical educational perspective was put forth by Freire (1985), who maintained that education should make students aware of injustice and give them the tools they need to change their surroundings. In a similar vein, Dewey (1916) highlighted experiential learning and democratic involvement as essential components of education’s social mission. Postmodern and feminist ideas have shaped contemporary readings, emphasizing the need for justice to take context, culture, and power into account (Collins, 1998; Apple, 2007). Education should be co-created with students rather than imposed upon them, as knowledge is socially situated, besides being impartial (Wilson, 2015). These frameworks can be broadly categorized into two complementary perspectives: grounded theories of justice and Logocentric theories, as shown in Table 1. • •

Logocentric concepts, which emphasize the universal ideals of equality and neutrality, are a reflection of political liberalism. Grounded theories, on the other hand, place a strong emphasis on challenging dominance and recognizing underrepresented voices. According to Collins (1991) and Young (1990), they are context-sensitive and inductive.

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Table 1 Comparison of the Theories Aspect

Logocentric Theories

Grounded Theories

Approach

Empirical / Deductive

Contextual / Inductive

Core Concept

Equality and neutrality

Resistance and emancipation

Focus

Universal justice

Situated injustice

Key Thinkers

Rawal (1971)

Young (1990)

Kohlberg (1981)

Collins (1991, 1998)

Barry (1989)

Adams (2007)

All of these perspectives contribute to the research’s understanding of social justice education as both a moral philosophy and a pedagogical strategy. Empirical Research on Social Justice Pedagogy in Higher Education Empirical studies have examined how teachers perceive and implement social justice in higher education under a range of conditions. Roehl et al. (2013) and Richardson (2008) emphasized the value of active learning and reflective engagement in justice-oriented education. According to Tuters (2017) and Athanases & Oliveira (2008), equity pedagogy requires adapting education to students’ diverse needs and socioeconomic realities. Similarly, Estevez et al. (2017) argued that higher education can promote cross-cultural understanding and inclusive global citizenship. Social justice education promotes critical thinking, questioning of injustices, and cooperative problem-solving in heterogeneous cultures (Dolby, 2012; Davis, 2017). Sleeter (2014) and Rangnath (2013) point out that because of their ingrained prejudices and lack of training, instructors frequently find it difficult to put social justice principles into practice. In order to support justice-oriented pedagogy, recent scholarship emphasizes the necessity of continuous professional development and institutional commitment (Cochran-Smith, 2020; Ryan et al., 2020). Social Justice Teaching in the Pakistani Higher Education Context Education in Pakistan reflects deeply rooted social and economic disparities, making them worse rather than better. Social classes, such as working, middle, and elite, often dictate access to educational opportunities (Hoodbhoy, 2009; Abdullah, 2018). The ongoing use of teachercentered pedagogies further limits democratic involvement and critical engagement (Siddiqui, 2007).

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Pakistani universities are still struggling with hierarchical systems and low diversity in spite of official commitments to equity. In this context, equity is acknowledging the varied socioeconomic and cultural origins of students and offering them tailored support to help them achieve. Thus, teaching with a social justice focus can be a transforming tool to combat the injustices ingrained in the educational system and to advance democratic principles of respect, freedom, and justice (Marilyn, 2020). Not every student in Pakistan receives an education that meets societal demands through the country’s educational system. Instead of adopting a student-centered strategy, Pakistani educators continue to employ a teacher-centered approach. It is regarded as an antiquated teaching methodology. According to Siddiqui (2007) and Abdullah (2018), students are thought of as sponges whose only obligation is to take in the tutor’s lecture. In the classroom, pupils are taught democratic values such as justice, equality, and freedom. Teachers are essential to this challenging undertaking because they govern what will be imparted and how it will be taught about democracy, regardless of their subject area (Marilyn, 2020). Teaching for social justice entails consciously asserting the positions of activists and educators based on political consciousness and an ideological dedication to reducing social inequalities (Cochran-Smith, 2020). The study focused on teacher educators’ understanding and their ability to implement social justice in the classroom. Due to a lack of knowledge, preexisting attitudes, and ideas, it is difficult to consider diversity and justice in a short period. Figure 2 Conceptual Framework

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Social Justice and Democracy Democratic education for social justice encompasses understanding real-world issues, critical thinking, and questioning facts, taking into account several points of view, discussing a range of opinions, participating effectively in cross-cultural dialogue, and dissecting causal hypotheses (Dover et al., 2017). To create a fair environment, democracy is necessary. Social justice is fundamental to all societies because it instills in individuals the value of both their own and other people’s rights. People think carefully about how to deal with social issues and problems in their communities (Kleine & Lunsmann, 2019). Social Justice and Diversity Every person is different due to their distinct personalities. Personality, activity level, tolerance, introspection, individualism, avoidance, and mood are the components of diversity (Grossman, 2018). When different racial backgrounds or identities are present in the same classroom, it is referred to as diversity. It includes showing respect for each religion that the pupils bring to class. Similarly, diversity in the classroom has a purpose of its own since cross-cultural relationships foster the development of agreements that can result in unprejudiced variances and ultimately prepare pupils to live in a diverse culture (Guerra, 2012; Ferris, 2012). In the twenty-first century, diversity has changed (Gay, 2010). Because of the growth of ICT (information and communication technologies) and scientific discoveries that have transformed the globe into a global village, variety has become more well-known as a feature. We can observe a paradigm shift in our classrooms as a result of this advancement. Every classroom is a site of diversity in modern society. Therefore, future educators must receive training on how to implement diversity in the classroom under such circumstances (Hymel & Katz, 2019; Abdullah, 2018). The current state of the world necessitates diversity awareness to promote intercultural understanding among members of society. Social Justice and Equity In academic settings, equity pedagogy addresses justice, access, and inclusion. Higher education teaching necessitates manipulation because of the many student groupings. Meeting the requirements of the pupils is its main goal (Salazar, 2013). It requires cultivating an understanding of each student’s distinct attributes, particularly concerning aptitudes, personalities, and familial situations. It also demands that instruction be given in ways that efficiently address each student’s needs. Equity is providing for students’ needs in the classroom according to their social status (Athanases & Oliveira, 2008; Banks & Banks, 1995; Tuters, 2017). Conceptual Framework The conceptual framework for this study incorporates democracy, diversity, and equity. The three pillars of social justice education serve as the analytical lens, drawing on the examined

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literature. These ideas influence how social justice is conceptualized and applied by teacher educators in Pakistani higher education. Diversity embodies tolerance and respect for a range of cultural and social identities; democracy stands for dialogic and interactive teaching methods; and equity represents treating all students fairly, providing them with individualized help, and empowering them. The study’s exploration of how teacher educators perceive, comprehend, and implement social justice in their classrooms is informed by these characteristics taken together. The concepts of democracy, diversity, and equity are the foundation of the concept of social justice. Democratic education, equitable education, diversity education, and culturally responsive education are all traits of social justice education (Dover, 2013; Cho, 2017). Equity and equality for all sectors are not reflected in Pakistani education. The culture is being nourished by a system of class division. Class culture is introduced by society, and classes are further nourished by the educational system (Abdullah, 2018). Methodology Research Paradigm and Design The pragmatic research paradigm used in this study opposes the forced contradiction between positivism and constructivism and stresses workable solutions to complicated educational problems (Tashakkori & Teddlie, 2003). Methodological pluralism is made possible by pragmatism, which makes it appropriate for examining complex social and educational concerns (Creswell, 2014; Denscombe, 2008). Teaching social justice is a complex phenomenon, so a mixed-method approach was chosen. An explanatory sequential mixed-methods design was used due to the challenges of teaching social justice in higher education. In order to find patterns and trends, this approach first gathers and analyzes quantitative data, which is then followed by qualitative research to offer a more in-depth understanding and explanations (Creswell, 2005). By using this method, the researcher was able to investigate how teacher educators view social justice education and to increase the validity of the findings by triangulating data from both sources.

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Figure 3 Methodological Framework of Study

Participants and Sampling Teacher educators and students from the Pakistani University of Education campuses participated in the study. Teacher sample: The quantitative phase involved 60 teacher educators, 53 of whom were female and 7 of whom were male. 89 educators received institutional email invites to participate; 71 of them replied, and 60 of them finished the survey. Student sample: To triangulate instructor responses about classroom procedures, a purposive sample of students enrolled in the participants’ classrooms filled out a quick verification survey. A subset of ten teacher educators was chosen for semi-structured interviews during the qualitative phase to offer in-depth reflections on their comprehension and implementation of social justice in the classroom. This sampling technique made sure that the topic was explored in both depth (through interviews) and breadth (through a questionnaire).

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Instrument Quantitative Instrument A self-developed questionnaire based on existing social justice education frameworks (Dover, 2013; Cho, 2017) was created to assess educators’ perceptions and challenges in teaching for social justice. The instrument included 50 elements dispersed in four dimensions.

• • •

Social Justice Conceptions (24 items). Democracy (10 items). Diversity (6 items). Equity (10 items).

Responses were rated on a five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). SPSS version 21 was used to conduct reliability testing on data from 60 teacher educators. The Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was 0.910, showing strong internal consistency. Subscale reliabilities ranged from 0.714 to 0.875, indicating the instrument’s reliability. (Detailed reliability statistics are provided in Appendix A.) Qualitative Instrument During the qualitative phase, a semi-structured interview protocol was created to investigate how teacher educators understand and use social justice ideals (democracy, diversity, and equity) in the classroom. The interviews also focused on perceived institutional and pedagogical obstacles. Each interview lasted 45-60 minutes and was audio-recorded with participant permission. Data Analysis The quantitative data from the surveys were analyzed with SPSS v.21, which used descriptive and inferential statistics to investigate trends and correlations between variables. NVivo was used to explore qualitative data via thematic analysis. The analysis used Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic framework, which included familiarization, coding, theme identification, review, definition, and reporting. Themes were developed both inductively from the data and deductively from the conceptual framework. The findings from both phases were combined during interpretation to provide a holistic knowledge of social justice teaching strategies.

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Ethical Consideration The University of Education’s Research Ethics Committee provided ethical permission for the study. Before participation, all participants were informed of the study’s goal, informed of confidentiality and secrecy, and given their informed consent. Participation was fully voluntary, and respondents could quit at any moment without consequence. Data was securely saved and utilized only for research. Findings This section summarizes the findings from both a quantitative survey of teacher educators and qualitative interviews with selected participants. The poll looked at educators’ views, classroom methods, and problems when teaching for social justice. The qualitative phase investigated how these educators define social justice, implement it in their classrooms, and perceive institutional influences on their activities. Quantitative Findings Teachers n=304 answered the survey, and SPSS version 21 was used to display the results in percentage form. The responses provided in the teachers’ data set (N=304) were used to compute the percentages. (See Table 3 for demographics of teachers.) Democracy in Classroom Practice Quantitative research shows that the majority of teacher educators support democratic classroom approaches. A substantial majority of respondents believed that students should be able to voice their opinions, make decisions, and ask questions. For example, 60.5% of participants supported student questioning, whereas 52.3% emphasized respect for each viewpoint. These data point out that teacher educators embrace participatory and inclusive pedagogies, which align with democratic educational ideas. While many encourage open dialogue, fewer involve students in decision-making about evaluations or learning objectives, indicating a partial rather than entirely shared democratic culture. Summary Although teacher educators strongly support freedom of expression and involvement, the use of shared decision-making remains limited. (See Table 3 for detailed descriptive statistics.) Diversity Awareness and Inclusion The findings reveal that teacher educators have a high level of knowledge and sensitivity to diversity. Most participants reported giving all students with similar respect regardless of

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culture (47% agree; 51% strongly agree) and felt at ease engaging with kids from various ethnic backgrounds (49.3% agree; 40.1% strongly agree). Similarly, 52.3% felt secure in resolving cultural misconceptions in class. However, several participants voiced concern about addressing sensitive diversity problems and offering continuous learning opportunities on multicultural responsiveness. This shows that, while attitudes towards diversity are encouraging, actual techniques for addressing diversity in instructional design are yet undeveloped. Summary Teacher educators promote cultural tolerance and inclusion, but they require systematic techniques for incorporating diversity into practice. (See Table 4 for detailed descriptive statistics.) Equity Implementation in the Classroom The data on equity practices revealed a strong teacher commitment to fairness and tailored support. The majority of responders indicated giving all pupils with clear success criteria (43.8%) and particular assistance as needed (48.3%). Furthermore, 69.4% of instructors claimed that they provide meaningful support opportunities, while 66.4% reported employing numerous ways to improve equity. Nonetheless, fewer responders regularly diversified training or allocated responsibilities depending on individual skills, demonstrating that equality is frequently notional rather than firmly ingrained in instructional design. Summary Teachers exhibit egalitarian attitudes but vary in their consistent use of differentiated and inclusive teaching strategies. (See table 5 for detailed descriptive statistics.) Challenges to Teaching for Social Justice The survey findings indicated various challenges to successful social justice education. The top problems mentioned were: • • •

Time restrictions (65.1%), Restrictive administrative regulations (56.3%), Limited institutional resources (43.4%).

Teachers also stated that management’s participation in decision-making and a lack of institutional incentives limit their ability to fully integrate social justice ideas. These findings

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suggest structural impediments at the institutional and policy levels, not individual hesitation. Summary Structural and administrative restrictions limit the potential for adopting participatory and justice-oriented pedagogy in higher education. (See table 6 for detailed descriptive statistics.) Qualitative Findings Semi-structured interviews were conducted with 32 teacher educators (17 males and 15 females) from nine different campuses. (See Table 6 for detailed characteristics of participants.) Thematic Analysis Thematic analysis is a useful technique for attempting to extract information from a transcribed collection of qualitative data about people’s experiences, opinions, ideas, knowledge, and values. Thematic analysis of the data yielded three overarching themes, which combined overlapping subthemes from the first seven categories. The analysis resulted in the conclusion of the following themes with categories. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Teacher educators’ conceptualization of social justice. Social justice practices in higher education classrooms. The transformative power of democracy. The teaching for diversity. An equitable classroom atmosphere. The title role of institutions in advancing social justice Obstacles to social justice implementation in the classroom.

Theme 1: Conceptualization of Social Justice Participants described social justice as fairness, respect, and inclusion in schooling. They associated it with moral duty and the empowerment of underprivileged students. However, perceptions differed: some saw it as largely about equality of opportunity, while others stressed transformational education aiming at social change. “For me, social justice means making sure every student has a fair chance to learn, regardless of their background.” (Participant #4) “It’s not just equality; it’s also questioning structures that keep inequality alive.” (Participant 12.)

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Interpretation Educators conceptually support social justice, but their perspectives disagree on whether it is moral fairness or active reform. Theme 2: Practices in Higher Education Classroom Participants suggested several techniques for incorporating social justice ideals into teaching, such as holding inclusive conversations, fostering critical thought, and creating culturally relevant assignments. Many people mentioned using discussion and student voice as democracy. “I let my students lead discussions on controversial issues; it helps them think critically and understand multiple perspectives.” (Participant #8) However, numerous educators stated that curricular restrictions and evaluation requirements hampered their capacity to fully implement justice-oriented teaching. Interpretation Educators try to include social justice initiatives, yet structural and curricular rigidity frequently stifle creativity. Theme 3: Institutional and Structural Challenges Institutional culture emerged as a crucial influence on implementation. Participants identified strict regulations, a lack of administrative assistance, and insufficient professional training as impediments. “There’s goodwill among teachers, but no institutional framework that supports social justice pedagogy.” (Participant 20) Several respondents also stated that institutions’ concentration on topic coverage and uniformity limits the flexibility required for participative and inclusive education. Interpretation: Educators are committed to social justice education, but structural transformation and institutional support are needed to sustain it. (See NVivo figures in appendices for thematic analysis)

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Discussions Summary of Core Findings This study looked at teacher educators’ perspectives, behaviors, and hindrances when adopting social justice teaching in Pakistani higher education. The mixed-methods findings found that, while educators showed a general commitment to democratic classroom ideals, including student engagement and freedom of expression, their understanding and practice of social justice were limited and inconsistent. Teachers were more involved with democracy-related behaviors than with diversity or equity. According to qualitative data, this mismatch was caused by poor institutional support, a lack of training, and curriculum rigidity. Teachers perceived social justice primarily as moral fairness, rather than as transformative pedagogy aimed at addressing systemic disparities. Integrating Findings with Theoretical Perspective The findings are consistent with Freire’s (1970) concept of critical pedagogy, which contends that education should enable students to challenge oppression and actively participate in social reform. However, the majority of teacher educators in this survey understood social justice as interpersonal respect rather than collective freedom, indicating a surface-level engagement with Freirean values. The absence of dialogical and problem-posing pedagogies in practice shows that higher education in Pakistan is focused on banking methods of teaching, transmitting knowledge rather than co-constructing it. Similarly, Dewey’s (1916) notion of democracy in education promotes hands-on learning and active citizenship. This study’s somewhat larger emphasis on democratic involvement (e.g., encouraging questions, class debates) is consistent with Deweyan philosophy, but it lacks the critical consciousness required to translate participation into empowerment. Teachers promote discussion, but rarely link it to social critique or structural inquiry. This disparity between belief and practice supports Cochran-Smith’s (2004) claim that social justice education needs purposeful preparation and contemplation, rather than simply kindness. According to Dover (2016) and Gorski and Dalton (2020), educators’ conceptual clarity is a key predictor of their ability to teach equality and inclusion. The recent study indicates that, without focused professional development, even well-intentioned instructors may unintentionally perpetuate inequality. Institutional and Systematic Factors The low understanding of SJ demonstrated in this study can be attributed to systemic and institutional impediments rather than individual indifference. Participants identified tight administrative practices, stiff curricula, and a lack of time or institutional resources as significant impediments. These findings are consistent with Gorski and Swalwell (2015), who

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argue that neoliberal university systems frequently restrict education to measurable outputs while marginalizing justice-oriented behaviors. Pakistan’s National Education Policy (NEP 2017) stresses fairness and inclusion, but teacher education programs rarely put these goals into practice through curriculum design or evaluation systems. The lack of institutional incentives for social justice education fosters fragmented implementation, as educators attempt discrete democratic activities without systematic reinforcement. As Freire (1998) points out, transformation necessitates both institutional and pedagogical changes. Interpretation of the Results Pattern The higher scores for democracy relative to equity and diversity indicate that educators find participatory classroom practices more manageable than structural redistribution or cultural pluralism. Democracy, defined as fostering participation, is well-suited to current pedagogical norms, but equity and diversity necessitate curricular adaptation, individualized instruction, and critical reflexivity, all of which necessitate additional institutional support and teacher education. These findings imply that teacher education in Pakistan is procedurally democratic but not substantively egalitarian or inclusive. Educators may promote open conversation, but often lack frameworks for tackling socioeconomic, language, and gender gaps in the classroom. It is commonly recognized that social justice education includes a strong commitment to achieving equality and equity in society as well as to ending oppression. According to the teacher educators, social justice teaching methods have nothing to do with the subject matter. Social justice content and strategies for teaching how it might be practiced in classrooms are not conveyed in many disciplines or courses. It is necessary to have a policy framework for the implementation of social justice problems in everyday teaching practices. To meet social difficulties in teacher education, universities, particularly those that prepare future educators, should anticipate pedagogical developments. Implications for Research, Practice, and Policy For Research Future study could analyze student opinions on social justice teaching to supplement educator self-reports and investigate the long-term effects of social justice training. Comparative studies of public and private colleges could show contextual disparities in institutional readiness for equity-based reforms.

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For Practice Teacher education programs should include specific modules on social justice pedagogy, such as critical reflection, anti-bias training, and culturally responsive teaching. Continuous professional development opportunities should help educators relate democratic values to equitable classroom tactics. For Policy Universities and policymakers must create institutional structures to promote and support justice-oriented activities. The Higher Education Commission (HEC) and provincial governments should include social justice competencies in teacher accreditation criteria and curriculum development. Conclusion and Implications To sum up, this study shows that teaching for social justice in Pakistani higher education is conceptually recognized but structurally limited. Educators’ limited engagement with social justice reflects a larger contradiction between aspirational policy discourse and institutional reality. Moving forward, bridging this gap will necessitate coordinated policy support, critical pedagogical training, and institutional transformation so that social justice is no longer simply an educational ideal but a lived classroom reality. This study looked at teacher educators’ perspectives, behaviors, and obstacles when implementing social justice (SJ) education in Pakistani higher education. Using an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design, it was discovered that while educators typically valued fairness and democratic classroom engagement, their conceptual grasp of social justice remained restricted and fragmented. Social justice was frequently viewed in moral or interpersonal terms rather than as a revolutionary pedagogical framework aimed at addressing imbalances in educational institutions. The study adds to expanding worldwide evidence (Cochran-Smith, 2004; Dover, 2016; Gorski & Dalton, 2020) that teacher education programs frequently promote social justice verbally but lack cohesive institutional structures for execution. In Pakistan, the gap between policy goals and pedagogical realities underlines the critical need to incorporate SJ principles of democracy, diversity, and equity into the fundamental fabric of teacher education curricula and institutional structures. Curriculum Reform in Teacher Education Integrate social justice pedagogy into teacher education curricula through explicit modules and course components that emphasize critical pedagogy, equity, and culturally responsive teaching. Including social justice elements in all areas can help instructors move beyond surface-level understandings and into transformative activity.

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Encourage teacher educators and trainees to reflect on their biases and classroom practices using SJ principles through structured sessions and action research projects. Faculty development in global frameworks of social justice education can boost pedagogical confidence and coherence. Institutional Commitment and Policy Alignment Universities should prioritize social justice as a strategic priority in curriculum, assessment, and faculty evaluation. Effective implementation of the National Education Policy (NEP 2017) is crucial for promoting inclusion and equity. Policies must be carried out through funding incentives, resource allocation, and regular evaluation methods. Provision of equitable access and opportunity, funding for SJ efforts, like as teacher training, accessible curricular materials, and community involvement, should be spread equally among all higher education institutions, including those in underprivileged communities. Future Research Directions Future research might compare perceptions of social justice teaching at public and private institutions, or on urban and rural campuses, to identify contextual differences. Student Perspectives Investigating students’ experiences in social justice classrooms would yield a more comprehensive knowledge of how SJ pedagogies influence participation, belonging, and achievement. Longitudinal Research Tracking teacher educators over time could demonstrate if SJ training leads to long-term attitudinal and instructional improvements. Cross-National Collaborations Conducting collaborative research with universities in different Global South contexts can help to strengthen the global discourse on SJ education and highlight culturally relevant instructional innovations.

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Significance and Contribution This study emphasizes that incorporating social justice pedagogy into Pakistan’s higher education is both an ethical and educational necessity. Meaningful development necessitates not only teacher understanding but also institutional transformation and policy alignment. By identifying conceptual, structural, and contextual constraints, the study offers an empirically supported framework for integrating teacher education, institutional policy, and national education reform with social justice ideals. Finally, the work contributes to the global conversation about teaching for social justice by highlighting the experiences of educators in the Global South. It demonstrates that, despite ongoing challenges, Pakistani higher education has the potential to evolve into a system that not only teaches about justice but actively embodies it, cultivating future educators who are critically aware, culturally responsive, and committed to equity in every classroom.

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McDonald, M. (2005). The Integration of social justice in teacher education: Dimensions of prospective teachers’ opportunities to learn. Journal of Teacher Education, 56(5), 418–435. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487105279569 McDonald, M. (2007). The joint enterprise of social justice teacher education. Teachers College Record, 109(8), 2047–2081. https://doi.org/10.1177/016146810710900806 McDonald, M. (2008). The pedagogy of assignments in social justice teacher education. Equity & Excellence in Education, 41(2), 151–167. https://doi.org/10.1080/10665680801943949 Merriam, S.B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation (1st ed.). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdell, E. J. (2016). Designing your study and selecting a sample. Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation, 67(1), 73–104. Nieto, S. (2010). Language, diversity, and learning: Lessons for education in the 21st century. Retrieved September, 30, 2012. Nieto, S. (2000). Placing equity front and center: some thoughts on transforming teacher education for a new century. Journal of Teacher Education, 51(3), 180–187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0022487100051003004 Nieto, S. (2017). Re-imagining multicultural education: New visions, new possibilities. Multicultural Education Review, 9(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1080/2005615X.2016.1276671 Ryan, M., Rowan, L., Lunn Brownlee, J., Bourke, T., L’Estrange, L., Walker, S., & Churchward,. P. (2022). Teacher education and teaching for diversity: A call to action. Teaching Education, 33(2), 194–213. https://doi.org/10.1080/10476210.2020.1844178 Rehmani, A. (2005). Impact of public examination system on teaching and learning in Pakistan. International biannual Newsletter ‘ANTRIEP’, 8(1). 1–12 Siddiqui, S. (2015). Rethinking education in Pakistan: Perceptions, practices and possibilities. Journal of Education and Educational Development, 2(2), 2–7. https://doi.org/10.22555/joeed.v2i2.447 Siddiqui, S. (2019). Education Policies in Pakistan: Politics, Projections, and Practices (1st ed.). Oxford University Press, Pakistan. Subba, D. (2014). Democratic values and democratic approach in teaching: A perspective. American Journal of Educational Research, 2(12A), 37–40. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-2-12A-6 Taylor, M., & Diamond, M. (2020). The role of self-study in teaching and teacher education for social justice. International handbook of self-study of teaching and teacher education practices (pp. 509–543). Springer References. Tashakkori, A., and Teddlie, C. (2003). Handbook of Mixed Methods in Social and Behavioral Research. Thousand Oaks. SAGE. Yin, R. K. (2016). Qualitative research from start to finish (2nd ed.). New York, USA: Guilford Publications. Corresponding author: Tayyibah Roohi Email: troohi78@gmail.com

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Appendix A Statistics of Reliability Factors Social Justice Conceptions Democracy

No of Items 50 24

Cronbach Alpha .910 .851

Diversity

.714

Equity

.875

SJ challenges

.815

List of Tables Table 2 Demographics of Teachers N=304

Variables

Gender Male Female Professional Experience 1-4 Years 5-10 Years 11-15 Year 16-20 Years Age 20-30 30-40 Above 40 Qualification Masters M.Phil. Ph.D. Designation Lecturer Assistant Professor Associate Professor Professor

Percentage %

247

36% 64% 46% 28% 17% 9% 19% 56% 25% 21% 63% 16% 80% 16% 3% 1%

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Table 3 Democracy Statements

Agree %

S. D

21.4

Strongly Disagree % 5.6

2.33

1.336

Pupils can freely express their ideas in the classroom.

39.8

Strongly Agree % 20.4

Neutral %

Disagree %

12.8

Include students in decision-making in classroom activities (e.g., time of class test, assignment submission time, etc.). Deliver forums for debating/ Resolving classroom problems. Pupils can express their opinions regarding the delivered lecture. Create a supportive learning atmosphere that provides opportunities to infuse democracy in the classroom. Rotate classroom farm duties (in charge of students like cr and Gr). Students feel it easy to interact with you even from a different cultural background. Cultivate activities that boost critical thinking. Encourage students to ask questions. Respect each student’s voice and acknowledge it.

34.2

42.8

16.4

3.9

2.6

1.98

.915

29.9

61.2

4.3

3.6

1.0

1.85

.744

16.4

66.4

5.6

9.5

2.0

2.14

.873

26.6

46.1

15.1

8.2

3.9

2.17

1.038

18.4

59.2

9.9

9.5

3.0

2.19

.947

45.1

47.4

4.3

3.0

1.69

.823

36.8

42.4

10.9

6.9

3.0

1.97

1.001

60.5

29.9

3.5

1.3

5.3

1.55

.098

52.3

39.5

3.0

2.6

1.64

.875

Values: “Agree=1, strongly agree=2, neutral=3, disagree=4, strongly disagree=5”

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Table 4 Diversity Statements

Agree %

Neutral %

Disagree %

47.0

Strongly Agree % 51.0

S. D

1.6

Strongly Disagree % 0.0

Treat everyone with the same esteem, even if they have another culture. You feel easy to act together with students in your classroom who are from a different cultural background than your own. If pupils from different backgrounds struggle to get along in your class, you feel comfortable to arbitrate. When any sensitive issue like diversity arises in class, you think to easily make approaches to address the state. You give occasions to students to learn about people from different races, ethnicities, or cultures. High opinion for other cultures is essential for the classroom.

0.3

1.64

.99

49.3

40.1

5.3

3.0

2.3

1.69

.88

41.1

52.3

4.6

2.0

0.0

1.68

.73

15.5

68.4

12.8

1.6

2.06

.74

23.7

57.9

12.2

.43

2.0

.03

.84

64.1

28.0

5.3

2.6

0.0

1.49

.82

S. D

1.83

.96

Table 5 Equity Statements

Agree %

Deliver students with the criteria and standards for successful task completion. Provide specific help to all students. You differentiate class work depending on students’ necessities while maintaining mutual work and common objectives for all the pupils. You reinforce students’ competency expectancies to support their participation. You offer opportunities for meaningful participation. You assign roles according to students’ definite skills.

Neutral %

Disagree %

43.8

Strongly Agree % 40.1

8.9

3.6

Strongly Disagree % 3.6

44.1

48.3

4.6

1.6

1.7

1.65

.71

24.7

59.2

9.9

3.0

3.3

2.01

.86

28.3

58.9

5.3

4.6

3.0

1.95

.87

20.4

69.4

3.6

1.6

4.9

2.09

.95

21.1

63.5

7.6

1.6

6.3

1.96

.75

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You try to sustain equitable participation of all students in a heterogeneous classroom. You use multiple tactics to address equity in the classroom. You bracket prejudices about student classroom participation. You engage in reflective responses to support difficulties that students meet through learning process.

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19.4

72.4

4.9

3.6

0.0

2.30

.94

20.1

66.4

7.6

0.3

5.6

1.96

.82

13.8

49.4

27.3

5.3

4.6

2.28

.75

24.3

63.2

8.2

0.7

3.6

1.78

.84

Strongly Agree % 56.3

Neutral %

Disagree %

S. D

27.6

4.3

Strongly Disagree % 1.0

1.75

1.01

47.4

23.4

11.2

3.9

1.85

.84

48.4

21.4

18.4

1.3

2.01

.98

43.4

17.1

24.0

3.6

1.87

.85

54.9

20.1

6.6

4.9

2.35

.85

65.1

11.8

5.6

3.0

2.17

.85

56.3

27.6

8.6

0.7

2.40

.75

61.8

22.4

3.0

0.8

2.18

.66

61.5

15.8

6.9

3.6

2.29

.89

43.8

27.6

11.8

3.3

2.48

.97

Table 6 Challenges Statements

Agree %

Obstructive policies by 10.9 administration (e.g., teach courses with a critical lens). Management involvement in 13.8 decision-making. Creating chances for students to 10.5 speak reduces teaching/ learning time. Lack of chances from institutions 11.8 (insufficient resources). Teachers’ readiness to teach for SJ 13.5 even if it is not part of the progression. Limited time to apply the 14.5 participatory approaches. Learner multiplicity and 6.6 exceptionalities impede learning success. The belief is that inclusion is an 11.8 attempt to accommodate pupils with weaknesses. To exercise bell curve thinking (i.e., 11.8 a teacher can only meet the needs of average learners. Those at the two ends will need something different or extra). The elimination of students from 13.2 challenging learning practices.

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Table 7 Characteristics of Participants Campus

Department

Faculty Members

Designation

Male

Female

1: Attock Campus

Education

Lecture

Assistant Professor 2: Bank Road Campus, Lahore

Education

1 Lecturer

3: DG Khan Campus

Education

Assistant Professor

4: Faisalabad Campus

Education

Assistant Professor

5: Joharabad Campus

Education

2 Lecturer

3 Assistant Professor

2 Assistant Professor 6: Lower Mall Campus, Lahore

Education

7: Multan Campus

Education

Assistant Professor

Education

2 Professor

8: Township Lahore

Campus,

1 Lecturer 2 Assistant Professor

2 Associate Professor 4 Assistant Professor

9: Vehari Campus

Education

Total = 32

Assistant Professor

( Male = 17: Female = 15)

Figure 5 Steps in Thematic Analysis

Familiarize

Coding

Developing themes

251

Reviewin g themes

Labeling theme

Write up

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NVivo Description Figure 6 Teacher Educators’ Conceptualization of Social Justice

Figure 7 Social Justice and Democracy Practices

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Figure 8 Teaching for Diversity

Figure 9 Classroom Environment and Equity

Figure 10 Social Justice Challenges

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Reimagining Dignified Inclusive Higher Education: System-Level Strategies of a South African University Hilda Du Plooy University of Verona, Italy Riccardo Sartori University of Verona, Italy Francesco Tommasi University of Milan, Italy

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Abstract This case study draws from the macro psychology perspective and intergroup contact theory to identify the system-level strategies employed by the management of a historically White South African University to promote intergroup contact and inclusion between racially and ethnically diverse students. Different sources of data were collected, including N=8 openended interviews with purposively selected managers and representatives who played key roles in diversity management and transformation, website documents, shared organizational documents, visual materials (e.g., photos), and the main researcher’s field notes. Data analysis followed the methodology of situational analysis, which is an extension of Grounded Theory. The strategies identified displayed dynamic interrelationships across the different levels, namely, system-level (macro level), group-relational (meso level), and intra-individual (micro level). Overall, system-level intergroup contact practices between racially and ethnically diverse groups are the most effective when deliberate, value-driven, and supported by all the departments within the institution. Institutional practices that allocate resources to encourage and support student-led initiatives serve to advance the representation and empowerment of marginalized outgroups. In turn, this allows for active engagement between students and management to be more centered on the students’ needs to improve the campus culture. This study endeavors to provide learning points from a post-conflict South African context that remains relatively underexplored in the reimagining of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) from a macro level and intergroup contact perspective. South Africa can offer valuable insights to the Global North regarding best management practices of DEI focused on promoting intercultural contact and social inclusion. Keywords: case study, diversity, inclusion, intergroup contact, macropsychology, situational analysis

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At present, the field of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion (DEI) research in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) is at a critical juncture. This is largely due to the nature and effectiveness of diversity practices being the subject of ongoing political debate and criticism from academics, politicians, and policymakers. Just recently in the United States (US), the new incumbent president, President Trump, signed an executive order number 14151; “Ending radical and wasteful government DEI programs and preferencing”, halting DEI mandates, policies, programs, and activities on the federal level. This order states that existing DEI efforts fuelled illegal reverse discrimination rather than merit-based opportunities, and DEI training was too costly and ineffective (The United States Government, 2025). According to Finn and Kamerlin (2023), Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) have not been immune, with the decision by the US Supreme Court to outlaw explicit consideration of race in university admissions and many DEI offices and activities on state levels being defunded or banned on campuses. In Europe, findings from the European Universities Association (EUA) revealed that the majority of HEIs are still committed in developing and implementing equity and diversity knowledge, skills training, and management in their overall values and objectives (Claeys-Kulik et al., 2019). However, as in the US, there has been a surge in White nationalism (Grimm et al., 2016), which has been closely linked to anti-migration, xenophobia (Coenders et al., 2021), and racial entitlement (Reyna et al., 2022). These factors have been strongly linked to negative intergroup attitudes and outcomes against marginalized ethnic-cultural groups and immigrants, with increased risk of dehumanization, discrimination, and racially motivated hate crimes (Endevelt et al., 2020). It remains to be seen how changes to DEI management and White nationalism rhetoric in the Global North will ultimately impact HEIs and their student populations, which are diversifying due to increased social mobility and migration (de Wit & Altbach, 2020). In HEIs, initiatives such as internationalization and global citizenship are changing the diversity landscape of student communities (Gaitán-Aguilar et al., 2024). In light of this, DEI efforts remain pivotal in students’ academic journey to be prepared for active citizenship and employment in the future diverse workforce (Smith & Baik, 2021). Not surprisingly, HEIs are the ideal “microcosm of society” to cultivate a campus culture conducive to intercultural exchanges and sharing of diverse individual backgrounds, experiences, and perspectives (Claeys-Kulik et al., 2019). The benefits of student diversity can be seen at the individual, institutional, and societal levels. On the individual level, several advantages have been well documented in the cognitive (e.g., critical thinking, problem-solving, curiosity, flexibility), affective (e.g., empathy), and socio-interpersonal (e.g., intercultural competencies, cultural capital) domains (Gaitán-Aguilar et al., 2024; Portera, 2020). Institutionally, HEIs can enhance their financial position and derive economic benefits from initiatives to improve DEI. This is achievable by accessing financial support from funding agencies and diversifying the demographics of their benefactors (Chicas-Mosier et al., 2023). DEI values are also reflected in the global societal context, with access to higher education embedded as a human right and social justice imperative in the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (Dalton et al., 2019).

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Considering the current socio-political context calls for an in-depth scholarly discourse to reevaluate and re-imagine, not abandon DEI efforts in higher education. Even though there has been contradictory evidence on the impact and limitations of DEI in organizational and institutional settings (see Devine & Ash, 2022; Esparza et al., 2022), failed DEI policies and practices usually reflect problems with implementation and leave pervasive social inequalities unaddressed (Iyer, 2022). Ignoring the potential value of DEI will inevitably lead to already disenfranchised and underrepresented students feeling even more unseen and “othered”. To address the above, scholars in the field of DEI research have argued for a pivotal shift from diversity to dignity and inclusion (Craig & Loehwing, 2021). Dignity, which is the inherent worth of all human beings, irrespective of social status, such as race, gender, physical or mental state (Hughes, 2011), can be a vital institutional lever to ensure dignity-affirming experiences for the diverse groups of students. Fostering dignity-affirming experiences for students have been positively related to academic engagement, sense of belonging, and well-being (Menkor et al., 2021). This paper endeavours to provide insights from a post-conflict South African context that remains relatively underexplored in DEI research. In contemporary DEI research, an opportunity exists to recalibrate the way forward. Thus, a Global South perspective on how a post-Apartheid University had to develop strategies to promote intercultural contact and promote DEI might be welcomed. As the international and migrant student population in higher education is diversifying, examining the strategies from this case study can have transferable points for the Global North. Given the current issues faced by DEI scholars and practitioners, this study applies a macro psychological framework and intergroup contact theory to a case study. The objective is to identify system-level strategies implemented by the specific institution to promote intergroup contact and inclusivity among racially and ethnically diverse students. In this regard, the primary research question is: “How does a University’s system-level strategies recognize and promote intercultural contact and inclusion among diverse students?”, and in the SA context, namely, “How does a post-Apartheid historically White University promote students’ dignity and inclusion?” In the field of intergroup contact research, there have been calls to prioritize integration and inclusion through intergroup contact (Tropp et al., 2025). Indeed, a key aspect in the cultivation of global citizens, both within the general population and among students, is the promotion of intercultural learning and competencies through intergroup contact (Gaitán-Aguilar et al., 2024; Meleady et al., 2021). Intergroup contact theory, derived from the contact hypothesis of Allport (1954), has been widely supported in diversity literature. This theory suggests that positive contact between ingroup and outgroup members can reduce prejudice, prevent intergroup conflict, and enhance social connections and cooperation (Tropp & Barlow, 2018). However, the manner diverse students interact and how strategies at the system level in HEIs can be implemented between in- and outgroup members are less clear (Tropp et al., 2025).

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In addition, moving away from individual-level approaches, DEI institutional research should look at extensive systemic change to combat social inequalities and create meaningful change (Iyer, 2022). Traditional DEI research is largely informed by Westernized Educated Industrialized Rich Developed (WEIRD) countries. Broadening the research to include more non-Western perspectives allows for alternative insights that can be considered by the Global North. Racial segregation, known as Apartheid (“separateness”) in South Africa (SA) extended for over 46 years from 1948 to 1994. Now famously known as the “Rainbow Nation”, SA remains one of the most multicultural countries in the world. After the demise of Apartheid, radical transformation had to take place, specifically among the historically White HEIs. Discriminatory laws and practices needed drastic changes to give access, integrate, and include racial/ethnic minority students (Dalton et al., 2019). In the following paper, we first provide the main theoretical perspectives, namely, macropsychology and intergroup contact theory, that guided our study. Next, a brief historical background and context of the selected SA university follows. The methodology section includes the situational analysis approach used to conduct the case study, the data collection process, and the main findings. Finally, we present a discussion of the findings, identify the limitations, and provide recommendations for future research and practices. Literature Review Macropsychology and DEI Traditional psychology mainly focuses on intrapsychic processes (e.g., cognition, personality, emotions, and motivation) and “understanding down” to determine its influences on human behaviour on an individual level. In turn, individual traits are regarded as the roots of causing social problems (Hodgetts, 2017). Instead, the macro psychological perspective takes a more collectivist approach to emphasize the importance of history, society, culture, and politics as causes of societal problems, and for “understanding up” how psychology can affect and is affected by these sociopolitical structures and systems (MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021). MacLachlan (2014) defines macropsychology as “the application of psychology to factors that influence the settings and conditions of our lives” (p. 853). More specifically, this perspective sets out to explore the kind of social systems that are likely to promote a sense of worth, inclusion, and participation, and to what degree such social systems must be developed and sustained. The effects and mechanisms of dominant socio-political systems in the creation and maintenance of individuals and groups to be marginalized and oppressed are of particular interest to the field of macropsychology (MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021). It has also been applied to different areas (e.g., mental health, personality, educational leadership, disability rights, and work psychology; see MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021). Through macro-level analyses, new questions about how psychology can influence rather than simply react to certain settings receive priority (MacLachlan, 2014). Building on theoretical influences of the ecological systems model (Bronfenbrenner, 2005), social psychology, and cultural psychology,

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macropsychology examines the effects of social structures, institutions, systems, and institutional policies (i.e., macro level) on group-relational levels (i.e., meso level) and intraindividual (i.e., micro level). These levels are seen as embedded to form an open and interconnected loop system, both influencing and informing each other, creating a meta-system. On the macro level, factors such as the allocation of resources, implemented policies, and opportunities for collaboration and integration in institutions are investigated (MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021). Also, the same researchers have situated this approach as integral in challenging and changing social structures to enhance social inclusion by addressing social justice, equity, and human rights (MacLachlan et al., 2019). In higher education, this perspective is helpful to acknowledge the role of history, sociopolitical factors, institutional culture, educational policies, and societal norms in the racial integration of Black and White students in historically White universities. It also explores the impact on Black students’ lived experiences in a racialized environment (Cornell & Kessi, 2016). Ray (2019) refers to “racialized” organizations that perpetuate systemic and interpersonal racism, as well as racist hierarchies among members, even while striving for race neutrality. According to Ray (2019), racialized organizations consist of four elements, namely, 1) it diminishes the agency of racial groups; (2) it legitimizes the unequal distribution of resources; (3) being White is regarded as a qualification in itself; and (4) formal rules are racialized and separated from organizational practices. Overall, the holistic analysis of the system level can inform interventions and inquiries to enhance equity, inclusion, and wellbeing in higher education (MacLachlan et al., 2019). In summary, adopting a macropsychology perspective is in alignment with recent appeals by scholars from psychology and education to prioritize system-level practices for more effective and sustainable diversity management (Iyer, 2022; Tropp et al., 2025). Intergroup Contact Theory and DEI One of the most effective strategies to reduce prejudice and discrimination is based on intergroup contact theory (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011). Prejudice reduction through intergroup contact has been empirically validated, that is, a meta-analysis (Pettigrew and Tropp, 2006), an extensive review (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011), and a longitudinal study (Christ et al., 2014). Derived from the contact hypothesis based on a classical study by Allport (1954), it asserts that sustained positive direct contact between individual members of different racial, ethnic, or religious groups reduces prejudice, increases positive interpersonal attitudes, and has positive generalization effects toward the outgroup. This is largely due to the learning of new information about the out-group and is the most effective under certain optimal conditions, specifically, when everyone has equal status, when both groups work together to achieve common goals, and when there is institutional support (Allport, 1954). Other mechanisms through which prejudice is mitigated have been identified as the reduction of inter-group anxiety, the increase of empathy, and perspective-taking (Pettigrew & Tropp, 2008). Viewing intergroup contact research in HEIs through the lens of DEI, university settings are ideal environments for students to have positive and meaningful intercultural encounters,

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develop cross-friendships, and deal with preconceived stereotypes and prejudices around race and ethnicity (Halualani, 2010). Positive intergroup experiences predict better academic achievement for racial minority students by reducing social identity threats and promoting inclusion (Carey et al., 2022). Recently, some HEIs favored adopting a colorblind ideology (i.e., a perspective that promotes the idea of treating all individuals equally and focusing on similarities regardless of their racial or ethnic backgrounds) to change the discourse of DEI, with the hope that by ignoring racial and ethnic differences, prejudice, and discrimination would cease to exist (Toraif et al., 2023). However, this approach is widely criticized for denying the experiences of racial and ethnic individuals, a form of microinvalidations that negatively impacts intergroup relations between students (Toraif et al., 2023). Moreover, on an institutional level, it exacerbates systemic racism by minimizing incidents of racism as individual prejudices instead of structural inequalities and power imbalances (Toraif et al., 2023). International research demonstrates that students from different races and ethnicities in predominantly White institutions do not necessarily engage voluntarily with each other, with reports of less belonging and inclusion among minority groups (Carey et al., 2022; Corno et al., 2022; Hussain & Jones, 2021). This indicates that in a diverse environment, close proximity does not necessarily guarantee direct, frequent, and meaningful interactions, such as crossfriendships (Carey et al., 2022). At a US university, Plant and Devine (2003) demonstrated that a lack of positive interactions with ethnic minority group members (in this case, Black students) caused anxiety in the majority group (i.e., White students). This led to a range of responses among the White students from hostility to avoidance of intergroup interactions. A large-scale study involving 9,000 students at colleges reported greater benefits of positive direct contact with their racially diverse peers, as opposed to casual and superficial interactions (Espenshade & Radford, 2009). By way of example, in SA Universities, the majority of Black students perceive no true racial integration (Bazana & Mogotsi, 2017) and report high levels of racial discrimination and distrust (Selowa & Motileng, 2024). Bazana and Mogotsi (2017) raised the main challenge of Black students having to assimilate their social identities to that of the dominant White group of students and institutions. For White Afrikaans students, a strong identification with their ethnic identity coupled with perceived symbolic threats (i.e., the introduction of new values, culture, and expectations), reduced their willingness to seek out intergroup interactions with other racial groups (Nel et al., 2015). In contrast, sharing living spaces in residences on campus reduced negative stereotypes of White students toward Black students and fostered interracial friendships (Corno et al., 2022). The mental health burden on Black students due to negative intergroup experiences at predominantly White universities (Jochman et al., 2019) reflects a need for systemic changes to address these alienating interpersonal encounters. Overall, extant research highlights the need for HEIs to better understand racial relations and how positive interactions can reduce racial inequalities and promote inclusion for all racial groups (Carey et al., 2022; Johnston-Guerrero & Tran, 2018). As demonstrated in the relevant literature, positive direct encounters between ingroups and outgroups also generalize to larger

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outgroups, yielding societal benefits. This provides HEIs with a unique opportunity to enhance these interactions among students in preparation for the future diverse workforce. Consequently, HEIs are central to providing institutional support and strategies to facilitate interracial and intercultural exchanges (Carey et al., 2022; Selowa & Motileng, 2024). The application of a macropsychological perspective in parallel with intergroup theory will enable HEIs to move beyond focusing only on individual- and group-level strategies to address systemic factors that influence intergroup dynamics. Thus, by critically examining the historical context, power relations, and institutional norms affecting intergroup contact and inclusion, HEIs can anchor diversity and inclusion in their strategic frameworks to create a more equitable academic community. Context of the Case Study: A Post-Apartheid South African University SA is home to about 63.1 million people and is categorized into one of four major ethnocultural groups1 namely: Black African people (81.8%), Mixed Racial Heritage people (called “Coloured” in the SA nomenclature; 8.5%), Indian/Asian people (2.6%), and White people (7.1%) (StatsSA, 2024). These four major groups are further divided into several distinct cultural groups and 11 official languages (Afrikaans, English, Ndebele, Pedi, Sotho, Swati, Tsonga, Tswana, Venda, Xhosa, and Zulu). Although White Afrikaners are in the minority, this group exerted dominance through laws during the Apartheid years and identified as the ingroup with majority status. In contrast, Black people who are in the majority were politically and socio-economically segregated, oppressed, and treated as the non-dominant outgroup with minority status (Chetty, 2019). As for Higher Education, 1.3 million students are attending Universities in SA, of whom Black students constitute 76.4%, White students (11.4%), 5.7% Indian/Asian students, and 6.5% Coloured students (Statista, 2023). There are a total of 26 Public Universities, of which a few focus on vocational training. Even with a steady increase of Black students (5.5%) over the past years, participation remains higher among Indian/Asian students (19.6%), followed by White students (17.7%), and Coloured students (5.2%) (Statista, 2023). Socioeconomic inequalities, such as poverty and high unemployment, in conjunction with limited access to quality primary and secondary education (Muyambi & Ahiauku, 2025), remain ongoing challenges for the majority of disadvantaged Black communities. These factors not only affect their access to Universities but also lead to higher dropout rates and lower achievement of academic success compared to their counterparts (Dalton et al., 2019). The specific University was chosen as a case study for several reasons. Firstly, established in the early 1900s, it was historically a White institution, frequented by a large proportion of 1 The usage of these racial/ ethnic categories in the South African context is based on national-level statistics. The authors and their affiliation acknowledge that these terms still incorrectly maintain the discrimination, oppression, and inequality that took place during Apartheid. However, as this study is based in South Africa, we decided to use these categories as it is empirically supported in intergroup contact and diversity research to acknowledge ingroups/outgroups with minority or majority status.

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White Afrikaans males from the surrounding farming areas (referred to as “Boere”- farmers). Secondly, during the post-apartheid years from 1994, this University needed to transform and integrate the different ethnocultural groups in the campus environment, educational activities, and live-in residences. Unfortunately, this was met with resistance from mostly the White male students, perceiving it as “forced racial integration”, resulting in racially charged white-onblack incidents and violent clashes. Thirdly, national and local student-led protests and the #FeesMustFall movement in 2015-2017 were motivated due to an increase in tuition fees, highlighting the economic inequalities for access to this University for Black underprivileged communities (Griffiths, 2019). Another challenge for this specific University was to address the growing demand to decolonize education as the majority of students still perceived higher education in post-Apartheid SA to be influenced by the legacy of White supremacy, with economic privileges only benefiting and being protected by the White minority (Griffiths, 2019). This also formed part of a larger national movement starting already in 2015 at the University of Cape Town (UCT), for example, #RhodesMustFall (originally directed to the statue of Cecil Rhodes as being a symbol of oppression), to decolonize higher education. This movement aimed to expose, amongst others, systemic racism, lack of racial transformation, limited access to higher education, and inadequate student accommodation for the previously disenfranchised Black South Africans (Chantiluke et al., 2018). To address the economic burden among low-income students and families, the government launched the sliding-scale payment policy, ending the protest in December 2017 (Griffiths, 2019). In summary, all of the abovementioned events compelled the leadership of this specific University to address integration and transformation more swiftly and intentionally. Presently, the University has around 40.000 students with the majority Black African (91%), Indian/Asian (4%), White (3%), and Coloured (2%) with over 20 residences providing accommodation for undergraduate and postgraduate students. Methodology This case study entailed a situational analysis of a SA University using grounded theory as a framework (Clarke et al., 2022). Firstly, using case study qualitative research allows the researcher to select on purpose, that is, through purposive sampling (Creswell, 2013) a single case or multiple cases, with the main goal to provide a holistic in-depth description and analysis of the selected case (Ylikoski & Zahle, 2019). Secondly, situational analysis as an extension of grounded theory is the most suitable form of interpretive analysis in the social sciences and humanities for mapping the complexity of situations (Clarke et al., 2022). Through analysis, the researcher defines the situation of inquiry empirically and identifies key elements that are in the situation of inquiry. A main strength of this approach is the alignment of the method with concepts of complex systems by “locating the research process and product in historical, social and situational conditions and excavating the structural contexts, power arrangements and collective ideologies” in the study focus (Charmaz, 2016, pp. 34–35). The first author collected data from January to February 2024, consisting of qualitative openended interviews, analysis of the website and related documents, visual materials (e.g., photos), and field notes. Data collection adhered to the ethical guidelines as set out in the Declaration

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of Helsinki (World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki, 2013). In situation analysis, all data available is not case sensitive and is collected with respect to the rights of privacy of people and organizations. For example, public advertisements of the University initiatives and records that are publicly accessible. As the University’s name chosen are anonymous and confidential, all related documents will be de-identified and referred to in general terms in the findings section. N = 8 open-ended interviews were conducted with six senior personnel having key roles in diversity management and transformation within various departments dealing with aspects such as; student learning, development, residences, mental health services, human rights, and social justice. Two students were involved in the interviews, having previously been student representatives in leadership roles. The interviewees formed part of a multi-cultural group [n = 3 males, (n = 1 Black, n = 2 White), n = 3 females (n = 1 Black, n = 2 White), n = 2 student leaders (1 Black female, 1 Black male] that ensured in-depth and representative viewpoints. The interviewees gave consent to share strategies, policies, and procedures of their department’s collective practices to achieve integration, promotion of intergroup contact, and inclusion among the racial/ethnic groups. No personal information was obtained from the interviewees and all information shared was confidential. Furthermore, taking together all the different sources of data and informed by our specific research inquiry, the process allowed for recursive reflexivity to uncover the main findings. Positionality Statement Although the entire team played a role in shaping the direction of the research, the following reflection is from the perspectives of the main and the last author. The main researcher is a white heterosexual woman from South Africa and acknowledges that systems and structures allowed her privileges and opportunities compared to the other ethnic groups in South Africa. Through clinical experiences in diverse communities, she has seen firsthand the effects of structural- and socioeconomic inequalities on minority groups. As such, in this paper, she is dedicated to improving her macro-level understanding and practice around the presence of structural inequalities within HEIs that occur in both the developing and developed countries in the context of the increasing global diversity of student communities and a broadening concern for social justice. In the present study, the main researcher was aware of the risk and bias to focus on a narrative portraying only the success of the single case University. However, this was counterbalanced by following a formal, data-driven, and analytical discussion of these findings with the other researchers to maintain objectivity and a critical stance. The last author is a white heterosexual man from Italy and he acknowledges that systems and structures allowed his privileges and opportunities of being a Western White. He is expert in critical psychology, community psychology and critical work and organizational psychology. As such, he believes that studying the individual experience by considering the socio-political context promises a broad socially conscious domain of inquiry. He believes that the academic work is inseparable from the engagement in activism, maintaining that research in psychology can confront with social injustices. As such, he dedicated to understanding which conditions can

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facilitate or hinder inclusion and dignity in the HEIs context. While maintaining this position, he has also worked with the first author to follow a data-driven understanding. Findings The analysis of all the data available and the key informant interviews revealed the following seven (7) strategies driven from an institutional level to enhance intergroup contact and inclusion. These strategies could be allocated across the different levels as described from a macropsychology perspective (MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021), namely, the macro level (system), meso level (group-relational), and micro level (intra-individual) (See Figure 1). The macro level refers to the departments, units, strategies, and policies within the University. The meso level comprises students in groups as well as the larger student community, while the micro level focuses primarily on intra-individual factors (i.e., occurring within a person). The following strategies will be briefly described, followed by a discussion of how these findings fit within the existing DEI literature. Figure 1 Multiple-Level Strategies Aimed to Enhance Intergroup Contact and Inclusion among University Students

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Macro Level – Institutional Strategies and Policies Promotion of Accountability: Intentional Transformation of Policies to Reduce Intergroup Conflict and Change Behaviours “From 1994, a process of re-humanization at the University had to take place by allowing each student a voice.” Interviewee #2 At the institutional level, management responded to racially charged incidents between students to establish a unit for institutional change and social justice, a centre for human rights, and a dedicated unit for gender equality and anti-discrimination. These units are important to support and enforce institutional policies against racism and sexism and to promote accountability under guidance of the University’s anti-discrimination, promotion of equality, and social justice policy and procedures published in 2017). Additionally, it allows for more specific-oriented research to better inform policies and practices for example, the centre of human rights through research uncovered that students did not initially know their human rights and what it was. To this effect, one of the interviewees of this centre stated that: “We had to start asking, “Do you feel someone’s dignity is violated?” Only when breaking human rights down to dignity, inclusion, respect, value, fairness and values did the students become part of this discourse.” (Interviewee #6) Ultimately, the objectives of the abovementioned centre are to create a more socially just campus by reducing intergroup conflict and to change behaviours (such as violence, stereotypes, and hostility) in that the centre felt that they needed students on the ground to promote, educate and protect human rights of other students. To achieve this regular contact sessions, and workshops are conducted with students regarding their identity, inclusion, and student awareness of human rights. Towards Authentic Racial Integration and Cognizance of the Effects of Systemic Racism: Taking on an Ecological-Systems Approach The University on all levels (management and departments) strongly underscores the ecological-systems approach of Bronfenbrenner (2005) to be aware of the various influences on the different ethnocultural groups and individuals. Most key informants during the interviews mentioned that taking cognizance of the socio-historical backgrounds and context of the diverse students allows for better attunement to their needs (i.e., a student-centred perspective), therefore assisting with more authentic racial integration. On the institutional level, the awareness and opportunities to constantly challenge systemic racism form an integral part of intentional transformation strategies to counter racial inequalities and is also clearly stated in the new institutional transformation and strategic plan of the University. More specifically, in its internationalisation strategy for the period 2023-2028, it refers to

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africanisation and decolonization as important processes to prioritize previously disregarded knowledge paradigms. Macro Level to Meso Level – Institutional to Group-Relational Encouraging Social Cohesion and Belonging: Creation of Embedded Systems for Shared Values and Shared Identity “To create shared values and a shared identity in residences changed the behaviour and interactions between the different students.” Interviewee #5 One other advantage of the ecological-systems approach is that it allows for the creation of strong embedded systems across the ecological levels connecting the individual student to multicultural groups (i.e., friends and peers). One of the main challenges facing this University was the integration of Black students during the post-apartheid years in residences that were predominantly White. Initially, there was extreme resistance among the White male students in residences, calling it “forced integration”, and with the polarization of races still very much attached to the past of apartheid, initial attempts at racial integration were not successful. However, based on the University’s renewed transformation of the institutional culture committed to non-racialism and more effective management support to the students, it has developed more effective strategies for sustainable racial integration and increasing diversity in residences since 2007. The most important strategy is establishing platforms where, in each residence, the Black and White students were given the opportunity to develop shared values and residence identities, that is, “corridor identities”, with a new name, philosophy, and traditions. This has been built on and further driven by the student affairs and residence components in their newest strategic plan of 2023-2028, to realize this by fostering of communities by establishing different groups, nested into one another, starting from the smallest group consecutively to the largest entity. Through this strategy the objectives are to promote respect, cooperation, social cohesion, and inclusion among the diverse student groups. Increasing Representativeness of Cultural Groups in Leadership Roles “Student representatives must be inclusive of all voices.” Interviewee#1 “The concept of representativeness among staff to include diversity and among student leadership is needed to be representative of the student community at large.” Interviewee #4 On an institutional level, the University realized the importance and value of cultural representation in management and leadership roles. One important student led initiative namely the Student Representative Council (SRC), allows student leaders to provide a balanced perspective on ethnic-cultural influences on diversity-related issues while simultaneously creating trust among the students of the same racial groups that their voices and needs are being represented on their behalf. Through regular contact sessions between student groups and their

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representatives, theses student leaders can have a platform to communicate any concerns or needs to management on an institutional level. Meso Level to Micro Level – Group-Relational to Intra-Individual Promoting Interculturalism through Active Dialogue and Common Ground “To talk, to give a voice to someone is the most powerful tool for change.” Interviewee #5 The present University in its transformation-and strategic plan describes interculturalism as “the dynamic process of interaction and communication between different cultures that aims to create community, foster dialogue, and negotiate power dynamics”. This is a stance away from the term multiculturalism, which only refers to the co-existence of multiple cultures together. All the interviewees described that encouraging active dialogue between the different student groups, as well as management, allows for improved understanding and solutionfocused strategies to improve intergroup contact and successful diversity management. Establishing common ground, that is, reaching a mutual understanding among the different cultural groups, provides the ideal foundation for communication, problem-solving, and cooperation. Creating an environment where it is supported that cultural differences can be openly shared in pursuit of finding common ground lies in the interculturalism approach that the University is following, for example, the student residence affairs designation arranges several cultural diversity workshops and interculturalism days annually. Through the internationalisation strategy of 2023-2028, the university promotes and organises interdivisional celebrations of cultural diversity, including the celebration of Africa Day, Heritage Day, and national independence days relevant to university community members. In addition, the University adopted a language policy in 2023 and established an academy for multilingualism to recognize the linguistic diversity of students and staff as social assets and social justice and inclusivity. This language policy includes the languages representative of the culturally diverse students. Cultivating Empathy and Perspective-Taking through Intercultural Peer Support and Mentoring Institutionally supported initiatives from the various departments identified a need among students for sustainable peer support and mentoring services for example, the student affairs department offers a dialogues programme and peer mentor programmes, and the mental health services have aimed to create and promote opportunities for intercultural contact through specifically tailored workshops. Collectively, these departments aim to develop empathy and perspective-taking among the students to improve intergroup attitudes and reduce implicit biases. Other student led initiatives, such as student associations for LGBTQ+ and students with disabilities allow for intersectionalities of identities to exist and for students to express their needs to leadership.

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Macro Level to Micro Level – Institutional to Intra-Individual Collaboration in Changing and Transforming Racialized Spaces and Symbols “Certain racial groups have been removed from history. The question is how to reclaim their history knowing that it is not a clean stream.” Interviewee#2 Part of the primary objective on the institutional level was to be aware of how physical spaces and symbols in a historically White University campus can perpetuate the legacies of racism, social injustice, exclusion, and inequality among Black minority groups. The majority of the University’s infrastructure, such as buildings and streets, was named after White “Afrikaners” associated with the Apartheid government. A new institutional transformation and strategic plan of the University publicized in 2022 strives to reflect social justice and multilingual objectives by transforming and renaming these spaces and symbols to balance the history of the University and be more representative of the current multicultural and democratic society. Starting already form 2018, this was done through the active engagement of multiple stakeholders (students, academic staff, management, and community) to dismantle “racialized” spaces and symbols and create a more inclusive environment for all under the direction of a social justice unit. This engagement led to the removal and relocation of a prominent Apartheid figure in 2020, and in 2022, five residences were renamed. On an individual level, this system-level strategy aims to instill a sense of belonging and to re-create new spaces not associated with the historical legacies of racial segregation, oppression, and the power of one racial group over another. Discussion The main objective of this present paper was to identify the system-level strategies of a South African University that recognizes and promotes intercultural contact and inclusion among Black and White students. Drawing upon the perspectives of macropsychology and intergroup contact theory allows for the recognition of the systemic barriers and the role of history, sociopolitical factors, institutional culture, educational policies, and societal norms. These factors continue to challenge HEIs in post-Apartheid in their attempts to integrate students within historically White universities, where most Black students still experience racial integration not being authentic, which negatively impacts their sense of belonging (Bazana & Mogotsi, 2017). Extant literature also indicates a mismatch between HEIs in principle being committed to embracing DEI and actionable sustainable practices to create and promote opportunities for structured intergroup contact and inclusion (Tropp et al., 2025). In the interpretation of the findings, the strategies identified displayed dynamic interrelationships across the different levels, namely, system-level (macro level), grouprelational (meso level), and intra-individual (micro level). The advantage of the identified interrelationships across the various levels is an important aspect of the macropsychology perspective, where interventions or strategies are not isolated to a specific level but are

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transverse, meaning each level influences and informs the other (MacLachlan & McVeigh, 2021). On the macro level, intergroup contact practices between racially and ethnically diverse groups are the most effective when they are deliberate, value-driven, and supported by all the departments within the institution. System-level changes have the most potential to eliminate systemic barriers and address issues of discrimination, stereotypes, and implicit bias through policies that do not condone this behaviour (i.e., to enforce accountability). This confirms Ray’s (2019) view that institutions that are inherently racist should actively promote the agency of racially minority groups to reach effective transformation towards equity. On the group relational and intra-individual levels, it is integral that differences are welcomed, to promote active dialogue and find common ground to enhance intergroup relations. Through providing opportunities for mentoring and peer support across racial groups, the fundamental skills of empathy and perspective-taking assist students to improve intergroup attitudes and challenge their own implicit biases. The stance of the University not to follow a color-blind approach is in line with research indicating the negative effects of this ideology as it leads to microinvalidations, negative intergroup relations, and perpetuates systemic racism (Toraif et al., 2023). Moving beyond multiculturalism, which acknowledges the existence of multiple ethnic and racial groups within a society, the concept of interculturalism captures the dynamic process of interactions between diverse groups necessary to build a socially just society (Portera, 2020). University spaces and symbols that are reminders of oppression, violence, exclusion, and internalized inferiority, and therefore removed or renamed, indicate the institutional accountability and commitment to redress and use the opportunity to reinterpret such spaces to be more inclusive for all students (Cornell & Kessi, 2016; Van Marle, 2022). The findings show that institutional-level changes are vital for transformation related to DEI on group-relational and individual levels. However, it also illustrates that the institution should be dedicated to this process and be willing to constantly evaluate its progress in effecting systemic change. Freyd (2022) refers to this as “change through institutional courage”. Institutional courage requires institutions to commit to seeking the truth, engaging in action, protecting marginalized groups, and holding themselves and others accountable when racial inequalities and systemic racism persist (Gómez et al., 2023). Practical Implications This study provides several implications for future research and practice. More empirical and specifically, longitudinal studies and studies in real contexts are needed to understand how students experience institutional policies and strategies that promote aspects such as dignity, inclusion, and intergroup contact. Intercultural competencies as an outcome of intergroup contact are relatively unexplored in social psychology research and could provide valuable outcomes for institutions to develop strategies (Meleady et al., 2021). Intergroup contact may include several types of interactions, both direct and indirect, and can range from one-off, casual encounters with other groups to intimate relationships (i.e., cross-group friendships and

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romantic relationships) (Marinucci et al., 2021; Tropp, 2007). More research on the development of cross-race friendships among students can shed light on specific predictive factors that play a role. Lastly, our paper highlighted ethnic and racial differences related to intergroup contact in a post-conflict South African University. In the context of DEI, the significance of intersectionality can be extended to other student groups who vary in terms of sexual orientation, religion, and socio-economic status. In terms of implications for practice, this study might be of relevance to institutional leaders and managers in other HEIs. Using evidence-based theory, the findings in this study show the integral role at the level of the institution for sustainable change towards DEI. The identification of these central system-level strategies can inform policies addressing DEI from a multi-level perspective and demonstrate the importance of actionable and measurable practices. Furthermore, our findings suggest that institutional practices should allocate resources to a) encourage and support student-led initiatives, b) advance marginalized outgroups’ representation and c) focus on improving a sense of inclusion and meaningful intergroup interaction between diverse racial and ethnic students. These aspects seem pivotal to allow for active engagement between students and management, as well as to be more centered on the students’ needs to improve the campus culture. Limitations Although this study shows promise to contribute to the relevant discourse across the world about current DEI challenges in HEIs and how this could be reimagined, the use of a case study does pose certain limitations. As it is very context-specific and based on a single site, the most prominent limitations of this study were generalizability, the small sample of key informant interviews (i.e., N = 8), time-bound change (i.e., challenging to repeat over time), and the potential of social desirability in management accounts. Despite these limitations, the main strength lies in the opportunity it presents to include a non-Western perspective by obtaining a more in-depth description and understanding of the phenomenon. Broadening research to include more non-Western perspectives on aspects related to DEI, as well as social justice, can provide alternative insights to scholars from the Global North. The specific multi-level strategies identified can be transferable to other HEIs in the Global North under similar conditions of dealing with increasingly resources constraints and diverse student populations that require adaptive decision-making, proactive actions, coordination and collaboration across the different departments and management levels. Conclusion In this paper, we endeavoured to make a point that diversity, in its truest ideal and purpose (i.e., to rectify and restore access and equity to historically underrepresented minorities), should remain a discourse worthy of exploring and reimagining, by placing more emphasis on dignityaffirming and socially inclusive practices moving forward. This means that the diversity discourse within the research community should continue to focus on collaboration and collective reconstruction to define what diversity and inclusivity should signify. Taking on a

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macropsychology approach emphasizes the vital role of system-level policies and practices geared towards socially relevant principles such as social justice and human rights. A South African case study shows how a historically White university is proactively addressing change to create a positive, inclusive campus culture for all students. While contexts in the Global North and South might reveal different trajectories to diversity, the promotion of social inclusion and intergroup contact between multicultural groups can serve as a valuable example for the Global North.

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Muyambi, G. C. and Ahiaku, P. K. (2025), “Inequalities and education in South Africa: A scoping review”, International Journal of Educational Research Open, Vol. 8, pp. 100408, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100408. Nel, N., Nel, J. A., Adams, B. G., & De Beer, L. T. (2015). Assessing cultural intelligence, personality and identity amongst young white Afrikaans-speaking students: A preliminary study. South African Journal of Human Resource Management, 13, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4102/ sajhrm.v13i1.643 Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2011). When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup contact. Psychology Press. Pettigrew, T. F., & Tropp, L. R. (2008). How does intergroup contact reduce prejudice? Meta-analytic tests of three mediators. European Journal of Social Psychology, (38)6, 922-934. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejsp.504 Plant, E.A., & Devine, P.G. (2003). The antecedents and implications of interracial anxiety. Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, (29)6, 790–801. https://doi.org/10.1177/0146167203029006011 Portera, A. (2020). Has multiculturalism failed? Let's start the era of interculturalism for facing diversity issues. Intercultural Education, (31)4, 390-40. https://doi.org/10.1080/14675986.2020.1765285 Ray, V. (2019). A theory of racialized organizations. American Sociological Review, (84)1, 26–53. https://doi.org/10.1177/0003122418822335 Reyna, C., Bellovary, A., & Harris, K. (2022). The psychology of white nationalism: Ambivalence towards a changing America. Social Issues and Policy Review, 16, 79124. https://doi.org/10.1111/sipr.12081 Selowa, H., & Motileng, B. (2024). The experiences of race relations amongst student leaders at a historically white South African university. PINS-Psychology in Society, (66)2, 67. https://doi.org/10.57157/pins2024Vol66iss2a6720 Smith, C. D., & Baik, C. (2021). High impact teaching practices in higher education: A best evidence review. Studies in Higher Education, (46)8, 1696-1713. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2019.1698539 Statistics South Africa (StatsSA). (2024). Statistical release. Available at: https://www.statssa.gov.za/publications/P0302/P03022025.pdf (Accessed on 12 November 2025). Statista South Africa. (2023). Statistical release of student participation rates in South Africa. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/1115545/student-participation-ratesin-south-africa-by-population-group/ (Accessed on 12 April 2025). The United States Government. (2025, January 21). Ending radical and wasteful government dei programs and preferencing. The White House. Available at: https://www.whitehouse.gov/presidential-actions/2025/01/ending-radical-andwasteful-government-dei-programs-and-preferencing/ (Accessed on 12 November 2025). Toraif, N., Gondal, N., Paudel, P., & Frisella, A. (2023). From colorblind to systemic racism: Emergence of a rhetorical shift in higher education discourse in response to the murder of George Floyd. PloS one, 18(8), e0289545. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0289545

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Tropp, L. R., Abellera, C., Schreiber, J. A., Uluğ, Ö. M., & Burrows, B. (2025). Expanding intergroup contact research beyond prejudice reduction: Implications for diversity, inclusion, belonging, and support for equality. In V. Esses, J.F. Dovidio, J. Sekaquaptewa, K. West & J. Jetten (Eds.), Sage Handbook of Psychological Perspectives on Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion. Tropp, L. R., & Barlow, F. K. (2018). Making advantaged racial groups care about racial inequality: Intergroup contact as a route to psychological investment, Current Directions in Psychological Science, (27)3, 194–199. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1177/0963721417743282 van Marle, K. (2022). University spaces as sites of conscience. Space and Culture, (25)2, 205–218. https://doi.org/10.1177/12063312211065263 World Medical Association. (2013). World Medical Association Declaration of Helsinki ethical principles for medical research involving human subjects. JAMA: Journal of the American Medical Association, (310)20, 2191–2194. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.28105 Ylikoski, P., & Zahle, J. (2019). Case study research in the social sciences. Studies in History and Philosophy of Science, 78, 1–4. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsa.2019.10.003 Corresponding author: Hilda Du Plooy Email: hilda.duplooy@univr.it

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Appendix Practitioner Takeaway Box

Objective ●

This case study aims to identify system-level strategies that promotes intergroup contact and inclusion between diverse students at a historically White South African University.

Key Findings ● ●

Importance of implementing value-driven, deliberate, and institution-wide strategies to enhance intergroup contact and social inclusion. Allocation of resources to encourage student-led initiatives and actively engage with students to understand and address their needs.

Core Institutional Levers ● ● ● ● ● ●

Policy and Accountability: Develop and enforce clear anti-discrimination and transformation policies to ensure accountability across the institution. Residence Culture: Create inclusive residential environments that promote shared values and identity among the diverse students. Representative student leadership: Support diverse student leadership to represent and empower marginalized outgroups. Interculturalism: Encouraging intercultural connections trough active dialogue and common experiences. Socio-emotional skills: Developing empathy and perspective-taking through cross-cultural peer support and mentoring. Renaming of places and spaces: Review and revise campus symbols, names, and places to promote inclusivity.

● Contributions This study offers valuable insights for practitioners and leadership in HEIs aiming to reimagine DEI practices from a macro perspective to focus on dignity-affirming and inclusivity practices. Drawing on the unique experiences of a post-conflict South African context this study hopes to contribute to the global conversation on promoting intercultural contact and social inclusion in higher education.

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Qualified by Different Standards: Challenging Historical Narratives in Ontario’s Teacher Education Michael Owen Brock University, Canada

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Abstract Initial Teacher Education (ITE) is a highly contested professional training field. Critics question whether teachers produced by teacher education programs have the knowledge, aptitudes and skills to teach and whether their students achieve to academic, attitudinal, and employment outcomes expected of them. For Ontario, Canada in the 1960s and 1970s, ITE programs were too short and too crammed to provide prospective teachers with practical skills, subject matter content, and theoretical knowledge for a changing society. One approach to enhance elementary teacher training was transferring responsibility to universities. While a conceptually straightforward proposition, transitioning a one-year teacher training scheme to a four-year undergraduate and professional program posed difficult questions if there were enough qualified people to teach in these programs and if the inclusion of teacher education undermined the purpose and value of university education. In this paper, university leaders’ claim that Ontario’s teachers’ college masters were not qualified for university positions was tested. Academic qualifications of teachers’ college were compared to instructors to faculty at two institutional dyads, St. Catharines Teachers’ College/Brock University and Windsor Teachers’ College/University of Windsor during institutional mergers, showing that teachers’ college staff academic qualifications were equivalent to those of academic appointments in selected professional programs. The discussion on value and professionalism resonates with contemporary debates on the quality of teacher education and similar transfers of teacher training to university-affiliated programs in other nations. Keywords: Canada, human capital theory, initial teacher education, Ontario, teachers’ colleges

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Initial Teacher Education (ITE) or preservice teacher training is fraught with controversy. Debates focus on the inputs as well as outcomes of schooling; that is, whether the teachers have the knowledge, aptitudes and skills to teach and whether students acquire academic, attitudinal, and employment outcomes expected of them. These controversies have long-standing historical roots. For Ontario, Canada in the 1960s and 1970s, elementary teacher training needed reform. Mandated to satisfy the demand for elementary teachers created by a post-war baby boom and immigration (Watson et al., 1972), ITE programs were too short and too crammed (The OECTA Review, 1969) to provide teachers with practical skills, subject matter content, and knowledge of child development, classroom management, and pedagogy for a changing society. One approach to enhance quality of elementary school teachers was to transfer responsibility for ITE to universities, following models set by Alberta, British Columbia and American states. While conceptually straightforward, transitioning Ontario ITE programs from a one-year teacher training scheme to a four-year professional program opened difficult questions, including if there were sufficient “able gifted people” (Gibson, 1967) to teach in these programs. University leaders and academic staff claimed that teachers’ college masters were “underqualified for university positions” (Stamp, 1982, p. 209). To test this assertion, two questions were asked: “Were teachers’ college staff, compared to other university faculty, unqualified for academic positions?” and “How might university opposition to accepting teachers’ college staff as academic colleagues be linked to debates on the value of postsecondary education?” To do so, we compared academic qualifications of teachers’ college instructors were compared to faculty at two institutional dyads, St. Catharines Teachers’ College (SCTC)/Brock University (BU) and Windsor Teachers’ College (WTC)/University of Windsor (UW) during the mergers. This discussion resonates with contemporary debates on the quality of teacher education and similar transitions in other nations. Literature Review Only recently have scholars turned their attention to who taught in Ontario teachers’ colleges and examining the qualifications of teachers’ college academic staff. As Ogren (2013) asserted for the United States, “teacher preparation is peripheral in scholarship on the history of colleges and universities” (p.405). In the Canadian historiography of teacher education, scholars focused on teaching and teachers, not on the place of teacher education within the academy. The study of teacher education in Canada has evolved since the 1970s (Axelrod, 1996; Gaffield, 2018). Scholars examined the experiences of teachers-in-training as well as teachers in schools in Alberta (Brackett, 2016; Patterson, 1979, 1986; Stamp, 2004;), British Columbia (Calam, 1994, 2007) and Nova Scotia (Perry, 2013). Where scholars examined the contours of teacher education, focus often reverts to reports for and regulatory changes by governments, curriculum, and institutional leaders (Fiorini, 1978; Kitchen & Petrarca, 2014; Perlaza & Tardiff, 2016; Smyth, 2006; Smyth & Hamel, 2016; van Nuland, 2011; van Nuland, Clausen & Petrarca, 2022). The story is one of inevitable progress to professionalization of teaching, teachers, and teacher education. Yet, Smyth (2008/2009) argued that “a serious lacuna exists in the academic analysis of the history of professional preparation for teachers, and the institutions in which this occurred” (p. 3). One analytical hole

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is understanding who taught prospective teachers and their experience, particularly when teachers’ colleges were absorbed into universities (Calam, 1994; Claussen & Lemisko, 2024). Stamp’s (2004) study of Calgary’s normal school and the Faculty of Education, University of Calgary, offers glimpses into the experiences of instructors yet focuses on institutional and curricular change and the leaders of the Calgary normal school while Calam’s (2007) detailed examination of the founding of the UBC Faculty of Education reports resistance of UBC faculty who “viewed askance the harijans … who had come to masquerade as real professors”(MacPherson, 2009, p. 48). Feminist historians explored the gendered nature of the teaching workforce and the lives and working conditions of women teachers from the late 19th century through the mid-20th century (Llewellyn, 2012; Prentice & Theobold, 1990; Richter, 2006). School teaching and teacher training was highly-gender segregated (Gidney, 1999; Smyth, 2006; Stamp, 2004)—“a female ghetto run by men” (Sheehan, 1992). For those who taught in Ontario’s teachers’ colleges, most were males and, as Claussen and Lemisko (2024) illustrate for North Bay Teachers’ College, women teachers’ college staff were primarily allocated more feminine duties (Dean of Women) or taught domestic science and English pedagogy. Studies of Ontario’s teachers’ college tend to be descriptive (Gelman, 2002; Moase & McAuley, 1990; Savic, 2018). Few have examined teacher masters in the way that others studied the professoriate in Canadian universities (McKillop, 1994). Researchers examined who attended teachers’ colleges, regulations and policies governing admission to teachers’ colleges, the content of instruction, and educational thought leaders. Few studies examined transitions of teachers’ college instructors to university faculty roles (Bruno-Jofre, 2020; Calam, 2007; Claussen & Lemisko, 2023). Fleming (1971c) provided a contemporary account of the University of Toronto/Ontario Teachers’ College shambles, Bruno-Jofré (2020) and Bruno-Jofré and Cole (2014) examined the Queen’s University experience, highlighting the mixed credentials amongst Faculty of Education academic staff, and Claussen and Lemisko’s (2023) case study of North Bay Teachers’ College detailed of teaching masters’ qualifications and responsibilities up to 1959. This research extends these studies by assessing the idea that university opposition to mergers with teachers’ colleges was embedded in the debate on the value of university education as it transitioned from an elitist to a mass education model (Trow, 2007) and tensions between exchange value and use value in higher education intensified by this transformation (Labaree, 2008). It is argued that perceived lack of qualifications of teachers’ college instructors for university positions were proxies for anxieties about universities’ status, vocational function, and value in a changing society. These insecurities about universities’ status and mandate, the place of training for the workplace in the curriculum, the academic capacity of entering students, and the exchange/use value dichotomy pervade debates about postsecondary education (Kraus, 2025; Shelton, 2023). Although this study focuses on a period of rapid expansion in university-level education in Canada, these debates resonate with current critiques of initial teacher education.

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Assessments of teacher education and schooling place the spotlight on Human Capital Theory (HCT) and whether education meets the needs of the economy and workforce, focusing on utility (use value) rather than market (exchange) value of students’ and society’s investments in tertiary-level education (Pizarro Milian et al., 2019). ITE programs are judged through HCT lenses, particularly whether teachers have the knowledge, aptitudes and skills necessary to teach for a mid-21st century economy (O’Leary, 2025). Methodology History is a dialogue about what happened, why, how events unfolded (Paul, 2025), and how “ideas of the past … shaped the present” (Bowen, 2009, p.27). Methodologically rooted in document analysis and interpretation, this study corroborates findings using multiple sources (Bowen, 2009). Historians differ on evidence included in narratives and how evidence is interpreted. Yet, by employing Thorp and Persson’s (2020) notion of historical thinking to examine “the complex web of relationships between the past and present” and paying “attention to the source, the context of the source and the questions with which we approach the source” (p.893), this study illustrates how relationships between teachers’ colleges and universities may be understood: human capital theory and exchange value and use value. Historical Case Study Approach Informed by prior scholarship on the transitions of Ontario teachers’ colleges to universities (Bruno-Jofré 2020; Bruno-Jofré & Cole, 2014; Classen & Lemisko, 2023; Savic, 2018; Thompson, 1986), a historical case study approach of two institutional dyads (Buchnea, 2023; Petrina, 2020) is used to provide a contextualized explanation or interpretation of past events. In the history of education and higher education in Canada, a case study approach is not unusual. Like other studies, this case study draws on institutional archives, senate records, calendars, and government documents, to engage with macro-level arguments posited by historians of teacher education (Fiorino, 1978; Gidney, 1999; Stamp, 1982). Data Sources Following an ethics review, the researcher accessed records in the Brock University Archives (BUA), Brock Senate records (1964–1975), and university calendars (Brock University [BU], 1964-1975; University of Windsor [UW], 1963–1975). The institutional dyads, however, did not lend themselves to a perfect case study or comparison. SCTC became part of Brock in 1971, while WTC merged with UW in 1970. Unlike records of SCTC and Brock University, the University of Windsor Archives administrative records and senate records were not available online or for in person review (A. Seymour, personal communication, May 30, 2025). In addition to the data contained in these publicly available records the researcher drew on first person narratives of the SCTC principal and vice-principal, R. Moase and D. McAuley (1990) and Savic’s (2018) thesis on WTC, To ensure as much comparability as possible between these two institutional dyads, the analysis was limited analysis to publicly available data (university and teachers’ college calendars) to identify academic staff, dates of appointment, and academic

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credentials. While these records, all of which were accessible online, allowed the researcher to contrast academic qualifications of teachers’ college instructors with university colleagues, they limit the depth of analysis as the nuances available through senate debates or correspondence between leaders and government officials are not accessible. Although engaging with limited forms of records, this paper advances the scholarship on mergers of teacher education within those universities by questioning interpretations of who was qualified to become a university faculty member but are unable to explore fully the motivations of institutional actors. More specifically, for each institutional dyads, the annual academic calendar (BU and UW) or yearbooks (SCTC, WTC) were reviewed to identify additions to or deletions from the academic roster. For Brock, all university faculty, including senior administration, were incorporated into a file that noted their year of appointment, academic credentials, and academic rank from 1964 through 1974. For Windsor, a similar focus on professional programs (Nursing, Home Economics, Social Work and, after 1970, Education) for the same years was followed. For each program, a list of faculty members, noting their year of appointment, academic credentials, and academic rank was compiled and compared. For both Brock and Windsor, the fates of those teacher masters who became faculty and whether they were awarded tenure/tenure track appointments, and if they completed master’s and doctoral degrees were tracked. These data contributed to our understanding of the transitions their individuals made from teachers’ college staff to university faculty. By analysing these data, the researcher contested assertions that teachers' college staff were not qualified for roles as university faculty. Interpretating these comparisons requires an awareness of the Ontario academic marketplace in the 1960s (Fleming, 1971a, pp. 287–297). By engaging with the past in this way, the researcher explored why universities resisted integrating teachers’ college faculty and students. Recognizing that such phenomena are not unique to Ontario (Calam, 2007; Hoult et al., 2024; Larabee, 2004; Sheean, 1992; Sheean & Wilson, 1994) allows Ontario’s debate regarding the qualifications and status of teachers’ college staff and their suitability for university positions to be placed within a broader framework of human capital theory and the use of value of education in Canada and internationally. Theoretical Framework: Human Capital Theory Contemporary conceptualizations of educational value are influenced by Human Capital Theory, which gained prominence during the 1960s and framed education as investments yielding returns to individuals and society (Cote & Allahar, 2011; Crocker, 2006; Davies & Guppy, 2010; Holden & Biddle, 2017; Wotherspoon, 2009). In the 1960s, the Economic Council of Canada (ECC) shaped government policy and public acceptance of educational attainment as an economic driver and enabler for social and economic mobility for individuals. This belief in education as “an investment that can help foster economic growth, contribute to personal social development and reduce social inequality” continues to frame Canadian and international debates on the form and value of education across the lifespan (OECD, 1996, as cited in Crocker, 2006, p. 5). Within a HCT framework, Nilsson & Wihlborg (2011) argue that

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use value “represent[s] learning as something valuable ‘in itself’, whereas exchange value represents learning as an achievement of … credits to be ‘traded’ on a market” (p. 104). Moghtader (2021) argues that HCT conceptualized “education as one of the central means to increase (public and private) economic output” (p. iii). In its 1967 report, the ECC analysed the economic value of individual and societal investments in education at secondary and postsecondary levels (pp. 69–94). Such analyses shaped individual and societal behaviour as well as institutional investments. That not all investments in education by individuals, institutions, and the public were valued equally is examined by Sobel (1978), who noted: “Rates of return by subject vary …, but in general the higher rates can be obtained in … medicine, engineering, business administration, and economics[, while a]t the lower end of the continuum are primary and secondary teaching” (p. 289). It is proposed that university faculty who opposed incorporating ITE and teachers’ college staff as members of the professoriate acted rationally, reflecting assessments of the exchange value of these programs and the lowering the exchange value of all programs. University faculty focused on the intrinsic value of tertiary education not its extrinsic value. While government and educational leaders claimed benefits to teacher education being embedded in universities, faculty were unconvinced of the benefits, if any, to the academy. Incorporating ITE exposed tensions between professional and academic missions of the university, a balancing act that remains international in scope (Cortis, 1985; Labaree, 2018; Smith & Flores, 2019). Exchange value aligns with the signalling function of credentials, where university degrees indicate qualities and potential regardless of specific knowledge acquired. Employers and society treat educational attainment as proxies for personal traits that are valuable to the workforce and society (Pizarro Milian et al., 2019). For ITE, use value corresponds to enhancing productive capacities through the acquisition of practical teaching skills. Tensions between teachers’ colleges and universities mirrored broader societal shifts that saw education through economic lenses, a trend that continues to this day. In the 1960s, universities and teachers’ colleges offered competing value propositions to students who sought the prestige of a degree or teaching diploma for their exchange value, the opportunity to develop social and economic relationships, and to “cash in” these “for a good job and a comfortable life” (Labaree, 2004, p. 167). Exchange value traditionally views universities as places for personal and intellectual growth, where “[t]he value of higher education is derived from its core institutional goal of transferring advanced knowledge to those who can benefit” and its “value is derived from how much it can be traded or exchanged within what are essentially transactional relationships between individuals and institutions (i.e., between graduates, higher education and then employers)” (Tomlinson, 2018, p. 713). Teachers’ college training signaled the acquisition of “useful knowledge and skills” for future practicing teachers and employers whereas universities sold “the exchange value of [higher] education more than its use value” (Labaree, 2004, p. 167). Elementary school teaching, which had lower academic entrance requirements and was linked with women’s work, was a low status, low prestige occupation (Dilladough & Acker, 2008, pp. 149, 163) with low exchange value. For this research, while recognizing their limitations (Cote & Allahar, 2011; Davies & Guppy, 2010), concepts of exchange value and use value are explanatory tools to elucidate why university stakeholders

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prioritized academic credentials over practical teaching expertise when evaluating teachers’ college instructors’ suitability for university appointments. Situating Ontario Teacher Education By the late 1960s, Ontario had 13 government-managed elementary teachers’ colleges. Admission to teachers’ colleges was demand driven, with teacher supply “influenced by prospective teachers responding to market signals and ‘voting with their feet’” (The Hanson Group, 1978, p. 2). The application pool for teachers’ colleges fluctuated with the fortunes of the economy, job market, admission requirements, and government policy signals (Watson et al., 1972). Between 1960 and 1969, Ontario’s elementary teachers’ colleges trained annually between 4200 and 9000 elementary teachers, meeting 50-70% of the needs of Ontario’s elementary classrooms (Watson et al., 1972, p. 55). Most Ontario teachers’ college students were young women, recently graduated high school, who would complete an 8-month teacher training program, receive Elementary School Teacher’s Certificates, and obtain positions in elementary schools. These demographics, combined with entrance standards lower than those required for university, led to portrayals of teacher candidates as immature and academically underprepared. These factors created an environment in which university faculty pejoratively framed teachers’ college students and instructors as threats to the status and integrity of the university. These tensions reflected competing visions of the meaning and purpose of university education and of value. Universities contrasted the high status and exchange value of their education to teachers’ colleges’ low status and the use value (Labaree 2004, pp. 166– 168). Universities articulated their exchange value proposition by opposing teachers’ colleges’ integration under terms set by the Department of Education, that teachers’ college staff be appointed academic ranks linked to their experience and salary levels, not academic credentials. University academic staff resisted integrating ITE—a proto-profession—as weakening the exchange value of universities’ liberal education (McEwan & Trede, 2014). The Teachers’ College—University Nexus Relationships between teachers’ colleges and universities were characterized by “persistent ambivalence on both sides” (Labaree, 2008, p. 291). Discouraged by the relationships between universities and teachers’ colleges, Hodgetts (1968) claimed that both were “equally guilty” for the “lack of any real communication, the failure to understand each other, [and] petty jealousies and rivalries” (p. 103). These “petty jealousies” arose from doubts about admission standards to, the quality of teaching, the breadth and depth of courses in teachers’ colleges, and the academic credentials of teachers’ college instructors. Rather than acknowledge the use value of professional training in teachers’ colleges, faculty fretted about the negative impact of admitting teachers-in-training on university standards, as represented by the “quality” or academic preparation of students, and the exchange value of university education by diluting the value of a university experience and credential. Similarly, resistance to accepting teachers’ college instructors as university academic staff could be viewed as defensive—preserving the gatekeeping function of advanced degrees for university appointments by opposing an

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undergraduate degree and professional experience as qualifications for academic positions (Davies & Guppy, 2010, pp. 57–61). In general, Ontario university professors were unequivocal, teachers’ college instructors were “underqualified” for roles as professors. Underwhelmed by the academic preparation of these instructors, John Saywell (2008), Dean of Arts & Science at York University, claimed that “almost no member of a teacher-training institution … would have received an academic appointment in any other division of the university in 1960” (p. 170). Saywell’s sentiment mirrored that of J.T. Angus, dean of education at Lakehead University, who unflatteringly claimed that instructors led “relatively peaceful and unharried” existences, without any need “to take advanced degrees, conduct research, publish, assume leadership in professional organizations, serve on academic committees, deliver scholarly activity on which [university] promotion, tenure … are normally based” (Angus, 1970, as cited in Smyth, 2008/09, p. 10). Smyth (2006), however, provided some nuance to how teaching masters “worked through the summer delivering professional development courses to experienced teachers” and “engaged in textbook writing and research in the areas of child development” (p. 84). Fleming (1971a) too argued that higher salaries paid to masters accounted for “higher student-staff ratio,” longer academic years, and demonstrated professional expertise as teachers and administrators (pp. 297, 300). University faculty rejected arguments that higher teaching loads, longer terms, administrative experience, and applied research were proxies for advanced degrees and scholarly publications. Tensions in the relationships between universities and teachers’ colleges arose from university faculty’s desire to preserve academic prestige and control over academic programming (Labaree, 2008), while teachers’ college masters were concerned over their fates (Braun & Tamblyn, 1987) and feared loss of connections between teacher formation and the field once teachers’ colleges merged with universities (Angus, 1970; McCarthy, 1970). Like other professional programs, teachers’ college instructors who transitioned to university positions would deal with the Janus face of their new roles: as teacher educators maintaining links to the field and as scholars (Cortis, 1985; Hoult et al., 2024; Smith & Flores, 2019). Previous analyses of the attitudes of Brock faculty toward SCTC instructors (Owen, 2024) revealed deep-rooted “traditional university aloofness” (Stamp, 1982, p. 209) to education and anxiety whether SCTC students and staff would disrupt Brock’s “primary academic goals” to become “a fullfledged university” (BU, Senate, 1967, October 25). Faculty feared that SCTC students would undermine Brock’s academic standards (exchange value), as SCTC had lower admission requirements, and absorbing the SCTC meant “gradually becom[ing] a Teacher Training institution” (ibid.) Fear, territory protection, credentialism, and academic snobbery – teachers’ college instructors were civil servants (Faculty Board, 1967; Fiorino, 1978) – fueled faculty contempt of teachers’ college instructors and resistance to accepting teachers’ college students in an emergent university.

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Comparing Teachers’ College Instructors Ontario’s ITE policy shift (Ontario, Minister’s Committee on the Training of Elementary School Teachers [MCTEST], 1966) aimed to improve the academic and professional education and training of elementary teachers. In its report, MCTEST acknowledged that ITE programs were too short and needed greater academic content. MCTEST’s recommendation that ITE be transferred to universities would place control of the content of teacher education to be placed in the hands of university academics and ensure teachers had the academic preparation and professional training to be effective in the classroom. Implicit in these recommendations were an acknowledgement of the benefits of such university education to teaching as a protoprofession and a critique of teachers’ college masters. University faculty opined that teachers’ college staff lacked the academic training and research capacity to become members of the academy (BU Senate, Minutes, 1967, January 25). The root of this resistance to accepting teachers’ college instructors as university faculty lay in how university appointments were made (Heron, 2015), the exchange value of university education, and perceived threats to faculty members’ elitist standing. The rhetoric of academic leaders and faculty is revealing. Teachers’ colleges staff, who were appointed on “their reputed excellence as practitioners [not] … scholarly attainments,” were not “subject matter experts” (Fleming, 1971c, p. 72) and unsuited for delivering programs “envisaged” by universities (BU Senate, Minutes, 1968, February 28, p.2; Thompson, 1986; Saywell, 2008). University faculty considered “work done in faculties of education as second rate and useless” (BU Senate, Minutes, 1968, February 28, p.2) and “unworthy of respect” (Fleming, 1971c, p. 72), although some conducted applied research (Claussen & Lemisko, 2024; Smyth, 2006;). In contrast, academic credentials undergirded university appointment processes, with emphasis on research-based doctoral degrees and teaching experience. Few teachers’ college instructors had advanced degrees or scholarly publications (Braun & Tamblyn, 1987; Smyth, 2006) and, as SCTC and WTC calendars illustrate, doctoral degrees were absent until after mergers with universities. University faculty regarded the absence of these credentials as undermining academic standards. Faculty argued that appointing underqualified teachers’ college instructors to university positions undermined the status and exchange value of universities’ programming and credentials. For university administrations and faculty unions academic rank and linking academic rank to masters’ salaries were sensitive issues (Braun & Tamblyn, 1987; Fleming, 1971c). Although faculty were privileged and well-paid, Canadian universities struggled to maintain their competitiveness and attract highly qualified faculty during an inflationary period. Salaries of teachers’ college instructional staff overlapped Associate and Full Professor scales at Brock and Windsor (Fleming, 1971a). University faculty objected to “equating school administrative and teaching experience with scholarly achievement” (Fleming, 1971c, p. 93), particularly if it resulted in teachers’ college instructors retaining high salaries and receiving an equivalent or “assimilated academic rank.” BUFA objected to appointing teaching masters at salaries exceeding those of faculty and, in Senate, faculty members sought assurances that any agreement with the Province did “not imply that a person formally employed as a high school teacher or in Teachers’ College … would automatically be appointed in an academic rank …

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corresponding to his [sic] former salary” (BU, Senate, Minutes, 1968, February 28). Acknowledging the “intense opposition to integration of those instructors who by salary line would outrank some of our own people” (BU Senate, Minutes, 1969, June 1969), universities and the Province agreed that “rank would not be tied to salary” and transitional appointments would be designated “Special Lecturer” (BU Senate, Minutes, 1969, June 18). This arrangement mollified faculty at Brock. Similar opposition was not evident at Windsor (Savic, 2018), perhaps due to its long-standing professional programs (Nursing, Home Economics, Social Work) where faculty credentials more closely mirrored those of teachers’ college instructors as well as the lack of comparable archival records. Transitioning teachers’ colleges to university Faculty status was nuanced. These transitions, all on similar terms, encountered local academic, political and economic issues. Some transitions appeared seamless and non-controversial, others were fraught with acrimonious debates in senates and faculty unions (Thompson, 1986; Smyth, 2008/2009). While there may be validity in the assertion that teachers’ college masters were underqualified, this claim cannot be accepted as prima facie without comparing their qualifications to those of faculty employed in other academic units. To assess if teachers’ college instructors were underqualified for university faculty appointments, the researcher compared the credentials of teachers’ college instructors and new appointments in Brock’s College of Education and Windsor’s Faculty of Education to academic appointments made to other Faculties in the years 1964 through 1971. To contextualize this comparison, Wisenthal (1975) reported that full-time university teachers with doctorates ranged from 44 per cent to 57 percent between 1960 and 1974 (W486-503). Canadian universities in the 1960s were not preserves for those with earned doctorates (Kinnear, 1992). Braun and Tamblyn (1987) rejected Lakehead University faculty complaints about the absence of advanced degrees amongst teachers’ college instructors, noting that most Lakehead professional school faculty did not have doctorates, “yet many held the rank of Assistant Professor or above” (p. 107). An examination of academic appointments at Brock reveals that while doctorates were frequent, evidence of academic quality, including prior university experience or graduate degrees, was sufficient for academic appointment. Between 1965 and 1971, Brock faculty with doctorates ranged from 36% in 1967 to 58% in 1970, with some senior professors and associate professors holding master’s degrees (BU Calendars, 1965-1971). Moreover, as the SCTC instructor complement grew, appointments with master’s degrees outpaced those with bachelor’s degrees (SCTC, 1966-1971). At Windsor, with professional Faculties including Home Economics, Nursing, and Engineering, similar patterns emerged. When compared, the credentials of faculty members in professional programs such as Education, Nursing, and Home Economics, in which the majority of faculty and students were women, parallels are found with Brock’s College of Education. None had doctorates. From 1971/72 to 1974, all faculty in Nursing and Home Economics held masters’ degrees while in Education 6 of 17 held a masters’ degree. By 1974, three of 24 Education staff held doctorates and five held bachelor’s degrees. During the period

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leading up to and following amalgamation of the WTC with UW, faculty appointments to teacher education programming mirrored that of other Faculties. Discussion The tempest over teachers’ college instructors’ academic qualifications reflected a deep hostility amongst university faculty regarding teachers’ colleges and preparing elementary school teachers. Teacher education courses were dismissed as “uninspired,” too focused on pedagogy, and lacking rigorous academic content (Saywell, 2008, p. 109). Challenging this perspective, an editorial in Ontario Education (Wharton, 1969) asserted that “Education is a discipline” and insisted that academic critics harboured “personal bias or ignorance,” or “because quite rightly the college staff has not had sufficient time or space to do more than survey the topic” (p. 8). This claim reinforced observations that teachers’ college staff had significantly higher student-faculty ratios and additional assignments such as summer course teaching and leading professional development programs while university faculty allocated their time to research, conference attendance and publications (Fleming, 1971c). Other observers, employing a use value perspective, cautioned that professoriate bias against teachers’ college instructors risked “producing programs that are less relevant to the needs of the modern school than the ever maintained in the teachers’ colleges” (McCarthy, 1970, p. 7). These more nuanced perspectives of demands on teachers’ college staff were absent from the debates over integrating teachers’ colleges with universities examined in this study. That elementary teacher education was a primarily a female domain (McPherson, 1996; Davies & Guppy, 2010) when university attendance was a male preserve contributed to university faculty’s opposition to integrating ITE into the academy. In 1961/62, only on quarter of undergraduate degrees were awarded to women. Enrolment patterns reflected a gendered divide, with the prestigious professional, science, and engineering fields that had high exchange values dominated by male students, and nursing, household sciences and social work, fields with lower exchange value, overwhelmingly female (Davies & Guppy, 2010, p. 124). To test whether the disdain for teacher education stemmed primarily from its pedagogical focus or its association as a female sphere, teacher education was compared with other predominantly female professional programs—nursing and home economics. Like Education, Nursing and Home Economics were embedded in the “women’s sphere” yet, unlike teachers’ colleges, most academic staff were women. Such comparisons are fraught as each discipline has its own history and these histories are complex (Baumgard & Kirkwood, 1990; Innis, 1970; Ross-Kerr & Wood, 2003; Wood, 1984). Nursing and Home Economics had long traditions within the universities in Canada, while elementary teacher education was imposed on Ontario universities in the late 1960s. Prior to the 1970s, nurse training occurred in hospital-affiliated schools of nursing while university programs “educate[d] the teachers, administrators and public health nurses,” not those for the field (Baker et al., 2012, as cited in Landeen et al., 2020, p. 2). Non-university-based nursing programs, very practice focused and led by women instructors who were supervised by males (doctors), held “use value” akin to that of ITE. Home economics programs, established in the early 20th century, evolved into academically diverse disciplines—some with social science foci; others aligned with science-based departments in

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medicine or pharmacy (McGregor, 2019; Innis, 1970; Ross-Kerr & Wood, 2003; Wood, 1984). University Nursing and Home Economics programs held higher exchange value, while ITE remained mired in a use value proposition. In contrast to the opinions expressed about the suitability of teachers’ college staff for academic appointments, the researcher found little criticism of academic credentials of university nursing faculty. Bramadat and Chalmers (1989) identified quality issues in the academic preparation of Ontario community college nursing instructors and at university-based schools and faculties of nursing. Unlike teachers’ colleges staff, “75 per cent of the instructors in the hospital schools and 56 per cent in the university schools do not have even minimum … qualifications” in the 1960s (Royal Commission on Health Services, 1964, as cited in Fleming, 1971b, pp. 621, 625). Bramadat and Chalmers (1989) asserted that university nursing faculties “are hard pressed to recruit faculty with the academic requirements to meet the demands of existing programmes” (p. 723), while Fleming (1971b) claimed that shortages of qualified faculty was “the major obstacle to an improvement in nursing education” (p. 626). Unlike Education, these disciplines had few Canadian masters’ level programs and no doctorates in Canada (Bramadat & Chalmers, 1989). Nursing faculty obtained MEd degrees in lieu of MScN or MN degrees. At the University of Windsor, direct entry from high school into the BScN program underwent transitions like teacher education. Beginning in 1969 the BScN program became a four-year degree requiring high school matriculation (UW, General Calendar, 1969-70), reflecting recommendations by the 1966 Committee on the Healing Arts. The changes to university-based nursing programs (Fleming, 1971b, p. 627) paralleled MCTEST recommended changes to elementary teacher training, although most nursing education would occur in community colleges while all teacher training was to take place in universities. The comparison of the academic credentials of teachers’ college instructional staff to the academic appointments in women-dominated professional programs (Education, Nursing, Home Economics) at UW shows parallels of faculty members with master’s and baccalaureate degrees in the 1970s. While none of the academic staff in Nursing or Education had a doctorate, most had master’s degrees. Both education and nursing faculty were experienced practitioners. All Nursing faculty had a RN designation. All Education faculty had undergraduate degrees and were certified teachers with field experience as teachers, principals and superintendents. These comparisons prompt reflection of why Teacher Education faculty were perceived differently from their colleagues in Nursing and Home Economics. All three professional programs provided academic and field-based educational training. Nursing BScN programs were more science-based than Teacher Education and Home Economics, Home Economics programs combined both social sciences and sciences. All three programs’ student bodies were overwhelming female. Teacher education faculty was male dominated, whereas nursing and home economics faculties were mostly female. Comparing Nursing and Teacher Education, a difference might lie in the location of “initial” professional training. Unlike ITE, nursing training was transferred to Colleges of Applied Arts & Technologies (Fleming 1971b, pp. 631– 33) while graduate nurses (RNs) who would take on leadership or administrative roles attended a university program after their initial training and working in the field. While Nursing and

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Home Economics had existing, if small, footprints on Ontario university campuses prior to the 1970s, Teacher Education was mandated to be part of the university and became a significantly larger proportion of the student population, perhaps contributing to faculty resistance toward forced mergers. These differences bring this study back to the value proposition of university education. The education of graduate nurses in BScN, MScN and science-based Home Economics programs fit the exchange value proposition of the university degree and experience, whereas teacher education, with most students planning to be elementary classroom teachers, had low status and their education had “use value.” This perception buttressed the ambivalent and dismissive attitudes toward teacher education faculty. For ITE, the transition to university-based programs, when combined with arts and sciences degrees, held the promise of a shift to greater exchange value, while the professional component of these post-transition programs retained their use value. Findings This study shows that for two emergent Ontario universities a lack of traditional academic qualifications did not prevent teachers’ college staff becoming tenure track faculty members. This outcome recasts prior assumptions of who was qualified to be a university professor. As Bruno-Jofré (2020) demonstrated, at Queen’s University, academic staff and deans in professional programs such as Education, Nursing, Home Economics, and Social Work held only master’s or bachelor’s degrees, with professional designations. This study has shown that Brock and Windsor faculty members in professional and arts and science-based programs did not always have doctoral degrees. While the rhetoric in Brock’s senate stridently asserted a preference for such credentials, universities were pragmatic when appointing professional faculty. Perhaps university leaders were concerned that relying “completely on those who have risen through the university ranks without [field-based] experience … risk[s] producing programs less relevant to the needs of a modern school system” (Fleming, 1971c, p.73). This caution reflected the value the public placed on use value, at least in the elementary classroom. In professional fields like Teacher Education, Nursing, Engineering, and Home Economics, competition for faculty with advanced degrees was intense and few tenured faculty held doctorates (Braun & Tamblyn, 1987; Bruno-Jofré, 2020) and Canadian universities were unable to meet the demand. For Nursing programs (Brown et al., 2008; King, 1970; McPherson 1996), faculty pursued advanced training at American universities or obtained education graduate degrees (King, 1970). A review of Windsor’s Nursing faculty’s credentials found that none held PhDs (UW, General Calendars, 1964–1971) and only one-half held bachelor’s degrees (Ross-Kerr & Wood, 2003, p. 482). Historians of nursing education argue that post-RN and graduate degrees “signaled the professional elevation of graduate nurses” (McPherson, 1996, pp. 235), enhancing their prospects for higher economic and social returns. This claim links to the exchange value of university education which, it is argued, signals that more highly qualified faculty increased the prestige of the education received by students and the more theoretical the education, the more likely higher academic standards are required to access such tuition.

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The experiences of Windsor and Brock suggest that universities took a pragmatic ground regarding the merger of teachers’ colleges. Although their experiences were different, the outcomes were similar: both institutions integrated teachers’ college instructors, supported them in upgrading their academic credentials, and hired more faculty with doctorates or who were in doctoral programs to meet the growing demands of enhanced teacher education. At Brock and Windsor, teachers’ college instructors were accepted as tenure track faculty without open controversy in the post-merger era. Although behind-the-scenes tensions may have existed, they are not reflected Senate or faculty association records. Unlike the York University/Lakeshore Teachers’ College experience (Thompson, 1986), an analysis of Brock’s Senate and BUFA records do not show any misgivings that former teachers’ college staff were appointed as assistant professors within the planned four-year transition period. While there were undertows of dissent regarding the differential between salaries of Brock’s College of Education faculty and other faculty, BUFA supported former teachers’ college instructors’ interests (BUFA, General Meeting, October 1971). Similarly, WTC staff were appointed as assistant professors and transitions appeared to be smooth (Savic, 2018). At both institutions, former teachers’ college staff advanced through the tenure and promotion processes to Associate Professor and Professor, obtained master’s and doctoral degrees, and contributed to the academic culture of their universities by developing programs that supported other academic units as well as initial and graduate education. Windsor and St. Catharines teachers’ colleges staff used their professional and experiential qualifications, or lived experience, with their pedagogical knowledge and skills to create effective consecutive, concurrent and graduate programs for teachers. As individuals who were appointed on their applied knowledge and reputation as teachers, within a couple of years of their appointments as “instant professors,” teachers’ college instructors demonstrated their competence as university faculty and were “able gifted people” and “competent scholars and distinguished and successful teachers,” who capably served in teacher education programs and contributed positively to the academic reputation of the university and the education of future teachers (Moase & McAuley, 1990). Within the context of the exchange value/use value dichotomy, teachers’ college staff who transition to university appointments, contributed to the exchange value of university programs by introducing new disciplinary perspectives and for regionally based universities contributed to their financial stability by attracting students into concurrent education programs. Implications This emerged from a research project examining the St. Catharines Teachers’ College and its transition to the College of Education of Brock University in 1971. While examining the papers of Brock’s president, James A. Gibson, a phrase grabbed my attention. In a discussion related on the proposed merger with SCTC, Gibson asked where Brock would find enough “able gifted people” (Gibson, 1967) to teach in a university education program. As with similar serendipitous discoveries, this question challenged me, as an historian, to investigate why SCTC masters were unacceptable for university positions. As this issue was explored, it was realized that the period’s dominant economic theory, Human Capital Theory, shaped Ontario universities’ debates on the amalgamation of teachers’ colleges with universities and the acceptability of teachers’ college masters for academic positions.

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This examination of resistance to teacher training programs and the qualifications of teachers’ college masters raised questions about how to interpret university faculty and leaders’ opposition. The exchange value/use value dichotomy framework, derived from Human Capital Theory, offered an interpretative framework to assess such attitudes, although sociologists question the efficacy of HCT as a precisely-tuned explanatory tool (Cote & Allahar, 2011; Davies & Guppy, 2010). At a time when university education was viewed as a public good and a private good, for many students from working and lower middle-class families, university education’s sorting and credentialling processes were a pathway to economic security. The large infusion of students into Ontario universities in the mid-20th century was an economic security blanket for these institutions and their academic staff, a reaffirmation of their sorting role, and a threat to an elitist model of higher education. In his analysis of Ontario university education in the 1960s, Fleming (1971d) noted that changing attitudes amongst many students, especially in professional programs, challenged the status quo and undermined faculty’s perceptions of quality and the exchange value of degrees. For emergent universities, association with teacher training challenged faculty’s perspectives on quality and status. In the transition of university education from an elite to a mass form, “traditionalist professors complained that the university would be prevented from making the vital contributions to scholarship … if it had to deal with hordes of apathetic … students seeking the appearance of education but contemptuous of the substance” (Fleming, 1971d, p. 27). Such views are echoed in later literature on massification (Cote & Allahar, 2011; Scott, 2017; Trow, 2007; Usher, 2016), neoliberalism (Grimmett, 2018; Kuchapski & Rigas, 2018; Sharma & Sanford, 2018), proto-professionalism (Hopkins, 1971), vocationalism (Cote & Allahar, 2011; McEwan & Trede, 2014), and how education has failed society (Kraus, 2025). These frameworks help theorize university faculty’s resistance to teacher education as a form of vocationalism of higher education (Trow, 2007). Moreover, university faculty’s resistance to accepting teachers’ college master’s as equals was a proxy for protecting academic identity and privileges (clan membership) (White, 2025) and academic integrity (Clegg, 2008; Collini, 2022). However, it is not clear that Brock and Windsor education faculty experienced “a sense of separation from the rest of the university, which only grudgingly provided resources and respect to teacher education” (Acker, 2000, p. 144), a question that begs deeper archival research and an extension to other institutional dyads. This case studies in which notionally underqualified staff became professors posed symbolic threats to the scholarly identity of faculty at emergent universities should prompt scholars to rethink how academic clans are theorised, constructed, and evolve (Trowler, 2011). It is acknowledged that the gendered nature of elementary teacher training programs in Ontario may have prejudiced some university faculty opposition to ITE programs and their staff. In the mid-1960s most Ontario university students and academic staff were males, a pattern that would change significantly in later decades. Yet nearly three-quarters of teachers’ college students were female (Owen, 2024). These students were those whose academic records were deemed inadequate for university entrance (Savic, 2018). While most Ontario teachers’ college academic staff were males, their clientele were female whose chosen profession was viewed as an extension of the home, a female sphere (Davies & Guppy, 2012). The influx of female students in Education and Nursing, as well as students from social classes and ethnic

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communities that had not previously attended university in numbers, challenged the ethos but not the exchange value of university education. These gendered patterns persist today. Recent analyses of university data show that while women comprise more than 60% of students and nearly 50% of the professoriate, they are less likely to hold tenure track positions, have doctorates and are likely to be in academic positions in health-related fields and education (Kaufman & Colyar, 2022; Uppal & Hango, 2022). Thus, an important extension of this research is whether the opposition to including elementary teacher education was a form resistance to the feminization of university culture and male dominated professions, issues that continue to capture the public’s attention (Matulewica, 2009/10). Conclusion This study explored the transition of two teachers’ colleges and staff to universities in Ontario in the 1960s and 1970s from the perspective of Human Capital Theory and the exchange value/use value nexus. Applying this perspective to universities and their transitions from elite serving to mass institutions in the 1960s and 1970s is not novel, particularly in the context of professionalization of higher education, applying it to Canadian universities’ resistance to absorbing teachers’ colleges, we think, is novel. This paper demonstrated that despite objections of some university leaders and academic staff, converting teachers’ college staff to university academic status at two Ontario universities appeared uneventful. Staff at SCTC and WTC became tenure track faculty at Brock and Windsor and successfully filled their roles as faculty colleagues. However, tensions lingered and education as a discipline and profession encountered criticism for a lack of academic rigor and focus on the needs of a protoprofessional field, criticisms that were shared with applied professional programs dominated by women students. As Labaree (2024) reminds us, teacher education programs are viewed as low status vocational programs and while they prepare individuals for professional roles in the labour market (use value) are stigmatized with low status (exchange value). Future Research Directions Future research will aim to advance these interpretative streams to better understand transitions in Ontario’s teacher education from the 1960s through the 1980s by testing the alignment between HCT, exchange value and use value, and university-based teacher education. Teacher education continues to be contested by those who undervalue links between subject matter expertise, as credentialled through undergraduate or graduate degrees, and professional programs that bridges theoretical knowledge and experiential or workplace learning and skills development in classrooms. In these ways, this paper engages in a conversation with the past to “recapture the complex nuances, the people, meanings, events [that] that have influenced and shaped the present” (Bowen, 2009, p. 27).

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Holden, L. & Biddle, J. (2017). The Introduction of Human Capital Theory into Education Policy in the United States. History of Political Economy, 49(4), 537–574. https://doi.org/10.1215/00182702-4296305 Hopkins, D. (1982). The Problem of Change in Canadian Teacher Education. Canadian Journal of Higher Education, 12(2), 17–31. https://doi.org/10.47678/cjhe.v12i2.182853 Hoult, E. C., Durrant, J., Holme, R., Lewis, C., Littlefair, D., McCloskey-Martinez, M., & Oberholzer, L. (2024). The contribution of Teacher education to universities: a case study for international teacher educators. Teachers and Teaching, 31(3), 487–505. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2024.2320151 Innis, M. Q. (ed.) (1970). Nursing education in a changing society. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487599829 King, M. K. (1970). The development of university nursing education. In M.Q. Innis (Ed.), Nursing education in a changing society (pp. 67–85). University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487599829-007 Kinnear, M. (1992). Disappointment in Discourse: Women university professors at the University of Manitoba before 1970. Historical Studies in Education / Revue d’histoire De l’éducation, 4(2), 269–287. https://doi.org/10.32316/hse/rhe.v4i2.971 Kitchen, J. & Petrarca, D. (2013/14). Teacher Preparation in Ontario: A history. Teaching & Learning, 8(1), 56–71. https://doi.org/10.26522/tl.v8i1.426 Kaufman, A. & Colyar, J. (2022). Canadian Academia and the Faculty Gender Gap. Toronto: Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario. Kraus, N. (2025). Neoliberalism, Inequality and Reclaiming Education for Democracy. American Educator, Fall, 30–37. Kuchapski, R. & Rigas, R. (2018). Educating Preservice Teachers in a Neoliberal Era: Specialized Technicians or Public Intellectuals? Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 64(4), 393-410. https://doi.org/10.55016/ojs/ajer.v64i4.56361 Labaree, D. F. (2004). The Trouble with Ed Schools. Yale University Press. Labaree, D. F. (2008). An uneasy relationship: The history of teacher education in the university. In M. Cochran-Smith, S. Feiman-Nemser, J. McIntyre, & K.E. Demers (Eds.), Handbook of Research on Teacher Education (290–306). Routledge. Labaree, D. F. (2018), Public schools for private gain: The declining American commitment to serving the public good. Phi Delta Kappan, 100(3), 8–13. https://doi.org/10.1177/0031721718808257 Labaree, D. (2024). David Labaree on Schooling, History and Writing: Too easy a target: The Trouble with Ed Schools and Implications for the University. National Education Policy Center. Retrieved from https://nepc.colorado.edu/blog/too-easy

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Landeen, J., Fisher, K., Mujica, I., Carpio, B., Chen, R., Martin, L., Wahoush, O., & Bird, M. (2020). Lessons Learned from Historical Analysis of Seven Decades of Educational Scholarship at McMaster University School of Nursing. Quality Advancement in Nursing Education - Avancées en formation infirmière, 6(2), Article 4. https://doi.org/10.17483/2368-6669.1257 Llewellyn, K. R. (2012). Democracy’s Angels: The work of women teachers. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773586956 MacPherson, E. (2009). John Calam. Affecting Eternity: Origins of the University of British Columbia’s Faculty of Education. Historical Studies in Education / Revue d’histoire de l’éducation, 21(1), 106–110. https://doi.org/10.32316/hse/rhe.v21i1.1742 Matulewica, K. (2009/10). Frivolous Fear Over "Feminized" Medical Schools: Why Affirmative Action for Men is Not Justified. Canadian Review of Social Policy, 63/64, 116–124. McCarthy, J. R. (1969). The integration of Ontario’s teachers’ colleges. The OCETA Review, May 28(4), 6–7. McCarthy, J. R. (1970). From Teachers’ Colleges to Faculties of Education,” in W. Rees (Ed.) Teacher Education: A Search for New Relationships (pp. 3–11). Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. McGregor, S. L. T. (2019). Canadian Home Economics-Related Higher Education University Degree. Retrieved from https://consultmcgregor.com/documents/home_ec_links/canadian_home_ec_universit y_programs_2019_FINAL.pdf McKillop, A.B. (1994). Matters of Mind: The University in Ontario, 1791-1951. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487571795 McPherson, K. (1996). Beside Matters: The transformation of Canadian nursing, 1900-1990. Oxford. McEwan, C. & Trede, F. (2014). The Academisation of Emerging Professions: implications for universities, academics and students. Power and Education, 6(2), 145–154. https://doi.org/10.2304/power.2014.6.2.145 Moase, R. & McAuley, D. (1990). 25 years of teacher education at Brock University. Vanwell. Moghtader, B. (2021). Human capital theory of education. [Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation] University of British Columbia. Retrieved from https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/ubctheses/24/items/1.0402331 Nilsson, M. & Wihlborg, M. (2011). Higher Education as Commodity or Space for Learning: modelling contradictions in educational practices. Power and Education, 3(2), 104– 118. https://doi.org/10.2304/power.2011.3.2.104

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Ogren, C. A. (2013). The History and Historiography of Teacher Preparation in the United States: A Synthesis, Analysis, and Potential Contributions to Higher Education History. In M. Paulsen (Ed.), Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research. Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research (vol. 28). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-5836-0_9 O’Leary, J. (2025, October). Sizing Education Up. QS Insights Magazine, 34(October). Retrieved from https://magazine.qs.com/qs-insights-magazine-34/ Ontario. Department of Education. (1966). Report of the Minister’s Committee on the Training of Elementary School Teachers. Ontario Department of Education. Ontario. Department of Education. (1968). Living and Learning: Provincial Committee on Aims and Objectives of Education in the Schools of Ontario. Ontario Department of Education. Owen, M. (2024). “The classroom is a woman’s world”: Training Elementary School Teachers at the St. Catharines Teachers' College, 1965-1971. IAFOR International Conference on Education in Hawaii. Honolulu. January. Patterson, R. S. (1979). History of Teacher Education in Alberta. In D.C. Jones, N. Sheehan, & J. D. Wilson (Eds.), Shaping the Schools of the Canadian West (pp. 193–207). Detsileg. Patterson, R. S. (1986). Voices from the past: The personal and professional struggle of rural school teachers. In N. Sheehan, J. D. Wilson, & D. C. Jones (Eds.), Schools in the West: Essays in Canadian Educational History (pp. 99–111). Detsileg. Paul, T. (2025). The public history initiative. Los Angele: UCLA. Retrieved from https://phi.history.ucla.edu/nchs/historical-thinking-standards/3-historical-analysisinterpretation/ Perry, G. D. (2013). The Grand Regulator: The Miseducation of Nova Scotia’s Teachers, 1838–1997. McGill-Queen’s University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9780773588929 Personal Communication. A. Seymour (May 30, 2025). Petrarca, D., & Kitchen, J. (2017). A time of change in Ontario Initial Teacher Education. In D. Petrarca, and J. Kitchen. Initial teacher education in Ontario: The first year of four-semester teacher education programs (1–16). Canadian Association of Teacher Education. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-0366-0_4 Petrina, S. (2020). Methods of Analysis -- Historical Case Study. Retrieved from https://blogs.ubc.ca/researchmethods/files/2020/11/Historical-Case.pdf Pizarro Milian, R., Seward, B., Zarifa, D., & Scott, D. (2019). Skills, Signals and Labour Market Outcomes: An Analysis of the 2012 Longitudinal and International Study of Adults. Higher Education Quality Council of Ontario.

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Prentice, A., & Theobold, M. (1990), The historiography of women teachers: A retrospect. In A. Prentice & M. Theobold (Eds.) Women who taught: Perspectives on the History of Women and Teaching. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442683570-003 Richter, B. (2006). Part II of It’s elementary: A brief history of Ontario’s public elementary teachers and their federations. ETFO Voice. Winter. Retrieved from https://etfovoice.ca/feature/part-ii-its-elementary-brief-history-ontarios-publicelementary-teachers-and-their Ross-Kerr, J. C. & Wood, M. J. (Eds.) (2003). Canadian nursing: Issues and Perspectives. Mosby. Royal Commission on Education. (1950). Report of Royal Commission on Education, 1950. Baptist Johnston. St. Catharines Teachers’ College. (1966–1971). Compendium. Savic, A. (2018). From Windsor Teachers’ College to Faculty of Education, University of Windsor: A study of institutional change. [Unpublished master’s thesis] University of Windsor. Saywell, J. (2008). Someone to Teach Them: York and the great university explosion, 19601973. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781442689176 Scott, P. (2017). Mass Higher Education. In J. Shin, & P. Teixeira. (Eds.) Encyclopedia of International Higher Education Systems and Institutions. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-017-9553-1_12-1 Sharma, M., & Sanford, K. (2018). The Impact of Neoliberalism on Teacher Education in Canada, Alberta Journal of Educational Research, 64(4), 341–345. https://doi.org/10.55016/ojs/ajer.v64i4.61678 Sheean, N. (1992), Women and Education in Alberta: The rhetoric and the reality. In N. Kach & K. Mazurek. (Eds.), Exploring our educational past: Schooling in the North-West (pp. 119–122). Detselig. Sheehan, N. M., & Wilson, J. D. (1994). From Normal School to the University to the College of Teachers: Teacher Education in British Columbia in the 20th century. Journal of Education for Teaching, 20(1), 23–37. https://doi.org/10.1080/0260747940200104 Shelton, J. (2023). The Education Myth: How Human Capital Trumped Social Democracy. Cornell University Press. https://doi.org/10.7591/cornell/9781501768149.001.0001 Smith, K. & Flores, M.A. (2019). The Janus-faced teacher educator, European Journal of Teacher Education, 42(4), 433–446. https://doi.org/10.1080/02619768.2019.1646242 Smyth, E. (2006). Learning to Teach: Ontario's Elementary School Teacher Education 19601974. Educational research and perspectives, 33(2), 80–101.

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Smyth, E. (2008/2009). A Wedding Has Been Arranged? The unhappy courtship of the Hamilton Teachers’ College and McMaster University. History of Intellectual Culture, 8(1), 1–22. Smyth, E., & Hamel, T. (2016). The history of initial teacher education in Canada: Quebec and Ontario. Educação & Formação, 1(1), 88–109. https://doi.org/10.25053/edufor.v1i1.1606 Sobel, I. (1978). The Human Capital Revolution in Economic Development: Its Current History and Status. Comparative Education Review, 22(2), 185–365. https://doi.org/10.1086/445982 Stamp, R. M. (1982). The Schools of Ontario, 1876-1976. University of Toronto Press. https://doi.org/10.3138/9781487575427 Stamp, R. M. (2004). Becoming a teacher in 20th century Calgary. Detselig. Teacher Training or Teacher Education: A Question and Answer. (1969). The OECTA Review, 28(4), 8–23. The Hanson Group (1978). The Future of Teacher Education in Ontario. Commission on Declining Enrolments, Ontario Ministry of Education. Thompson, L.A. (1986). Breaking Away in Teacher Education: The Development of a Concurrent Teacher Education Program at York University, 1968-1980 [Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation], University of Toronto. Thorp, R. & Persson, A. (2020). In historical thinking and the history educational challenge. Educational Philosophy and Theory, 52(8), 891–901. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131857.2020.1712550 Tomlinson, M. (2018). Conceptions of the value of higher education in a measured market. Higher Education, 75(4), 711–727. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-017-0165-6 Trow, M. (2007). Reflections on the Transition from Elite to Mass to Universal Access: Forms and Phases of Higher Education in Modern Societies since WWII. In J.J.F. Forest & P.G. Altbach (Eds.) International Handbook of Higher Education. Springer International Handbooks of Education (Vol. 18). Springer. 243–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4020-4012-2_13 Trowler, P. (2011). Rethinking academic tribes and territories. University World News, 20 November. Uppal, S., & Hango, D. (2022). Differences in tenure status and feelings of fairness in hiring and promotions among male and female faculty in Canadian universities. Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/75-006-x/2022001/article/00007-eng.htm University of Windsor (1965-1971). University of Windsor General Calendar. Retrieved from https://uwindsor.scholaris.ca/collections/4e3cbd44-02cc-4172-b2d4eb33aedbbddd/search

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Usher, A. (2018). The allure of the (G)Olden Days. Retrieved from https://higheredstrategy.com/the-allure-of-the-golden-days/ van Nuland, S. (2011). Teacher education in Canada. Journal of Education for Teaching: International research and pedagogy, 37(4), 409–421. https://doi.org/10.1080/02607476.2011.611222 van Nuland, S., Clausen, K. & Petrarca, D. (2022). The (Re)shaping and (Re)constructing of Teacher Education in Ontario, Canada. In J. Madalinska, M.A. Flores, E.E. Low, & S. Van Nuland. (Eds.) Recruiting and Educating the Best Teachers: Policy, Professionalism and Pedagogy (129–153). Brill. https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004506657_008 Watson, C., Quazi, S. & Jones, R. (1972). The elementary teachers: A study of the characteristics and supply/demand relations of Ontario teachers. OISE. Wharton, P. (ed.) (1969). Trustees and teacher training. Ontario Education. 1(4), 8-23. White, S. (2025). Insights On and For Teacher Education: An International Teacher Educator Study. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 50(2), 41–55. https://doi.org/10.14221/1835-517X.6469 Windsor Teachers College (1963-1970), Magister: Windsor Teachers College Yearbook. Retrieved from https://scholar.uwindsor.ca/windsorteacherscollegeyearbook Wisenthal, M. (1999). Section W: Education. Historical Statistics of Canada. Issue Number: 1983001. Statistics Canada. Retrieved from https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-516-x/sectionw/4147445-eng.htm Wood, V. (1984). Nursing education: the move from hospital schools of nursing-an historical perspective. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 21(3), 183–192. https://doi.org/10.1016/0020-7489(84)90039-7 Wotherspoon, T. (2009). The sociology of education in Canada. Oxford. Corresponding author: Michael Owen Email: mowen@brocku.ca

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From Equity to Containment? A Critical Analysis of Compensatory Education in Portugal Hélder Ferraz University of Porto, Portugal Tiago Neves University of Porto, Portugal Gil Nata University of Porto, Portugal

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Abstract This article assesses the performance differences (2001/02-2015/16) among schools that integrate Portugal’s main compensatory education programme – Territórios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritária (TEIP). Drawing on a mixed-methods approach, the study combines a longitudinal analysis of quantitative educational data with semi-structured interviews conducted with headteachers and TEIP coordinators in 6 secondary schools selected for their contrasting trajectories. Although TEIP schools benefit from greater autonomy and additional human and material resources – factors often cited as enabling pedagogical innovation and community engagement –, the evidence indicates that school-level outcomes are associated with a) how autonomy and resources are translated into internal monitoring and organisational routines; b) the expansion of vocational education, which in some contexts coincides with reduced exam intensity and more limited routes into higher education; and c) structural inequalities and reputational dynamics that shape intake composition and partnerships. The analysis suggests that TEIP can align with broader changes in the Portuguese educational context; however, an equity-oriented discourse may at times coincide with patterns of social segregation, channelling disadvantaged populations toward less socially prestigious labourmarket opportunities. Accordingly, the results are interpreted as associational, not causal, and we note a key data limitation: the absence of comparable school-level indicators on highereducation transitions and long-term employment outcomes. Overall, the study is consistent with the hypothesis that compensatory education, while well-intentioned, may inadvertently reproduce social hierarchies unless accompanied by redistributive, recognition and representation policies that mitigate structural inequalities. These findings raise critical questions about TEIP’s transformative potential for upward mobility and social inclusion. Keywords: educational inequality, compensatory education, social mobility, school autonomy, teip, vocational education

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The Ongoing Educational Inequalities in Portugal The Portuguese educational system experienced substantial transformations during the past twenty years through: expanded compulsory education until age eighteen; the addition of vocational pathways to public secondary education, diversifying training options; and creating a compensatory education programme in 2006 – Territórios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritária (TEIP) – designed to mitigate socio-economic inequalities and to boost the educational and social opportunities of the most vulnerable groups. Over the same period, attainment levels rose markedly, particularly the share of 25-34-year-olds with higher education increased from roughly one fifth in the mid-2000s (19%) to nearly half by the early 2020s (47,5%), bringing Portugal closer to the European Union average (EUROSTAT, 2025). The overall educational progress in Portugal coexists with persistent barriers to equal access to upper-secondary and higher education. Three critical problems emerge in the educational system: a) evidence of grade-inflation dynamics in private providers that may advantage their students in higher education access (Nata et al., 2014; Neves et al., 2017); b) the overrepresentation of disadvantaged students in vocational programmes, pathways that statistically correspond to lower probabilities in higher education enrolment (DGEEC,2020, 2020a, Correia, 2022); and c) mixed or limited evidence that TEIP narrows performance gaps to nonTEIP public secondary schools (Ferraz et al., 2019; Abrantes, 2022). Secondary education in Portugal consists of scientific-humanistic courses oriented towards higher education progression and vocational courses oriented to practical training and labour market entry after secondary education completion (DGE, 2025). Diversified pathways can accommodate different student expectations; however, higher education remains a key route to upward social mobility, typically associated with better-paid employment opportunities and access to prestigious professions. The income difference between those who finished secondary school versus those who finished higher education is estimated at around 60% (OECD, 2022, 2023). Prior research consistently associates higher education with improved employment opportunities and occupational status (Martins et al., 2016; Neves et al., 2017; Abrantes, 2022; Sá et al., 2022). Against this backdrop, we examine school-level dynamics within TEIP programme, Portugal’s flagship compensatory education policy. We adopt three complementary conceptual lenses: Fraser’s triad – redistribution, recognition, representation (Fraser, 2003) – as a macro policy frame; Bourdieu (1986) and Bernstein (2003) to understand school (re)production and stratification processes; and a programme-theory account of TEIP that makes explicit the chain from inputs – mechanisms – outcomes. The Role and Limits of Compensatory Education The “compensatory education movement” started in the 1960s in the United States as a policy response to the persistent social inequalities in the post-segregation era (Silver & Silver, 1991), with the aim of promoting more equitable educational achievement across social and ethnic

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groups. Various countries, including the United Kingdom, Australia, the Netherlands, and France established compensatory education programmes premised the idea that additional resources would mitigate structural disadvantage, improve outcomes for vulnerable groups, and support labour market access (Karsten, 2006; Bénabou et al., 2009; Powers et al., 2016). However, several researchers have challenged the transformative potential of compensatory education by pointing out four main limitations: a) lack of scientific evidence to support the national expansion of small-scale experimental programmes; b) absence of complementary redistributive policies which ensure household income stability and social support; c) schools may reproduce social inequalities through the validation of middle-class cultural and linguistic capital according to Bourdieu (1986) and Bernstein (2003); d) the need for unified policies that combine redistribution with recognition and representation (Fraser, 2003; Power, 2008). The scepticism regarding the transformative potential of compensatory education, has been reinforced by studies reporting inconsistent or unsatisfactory effects on the performance of vulnerable students, with persistent gaps relative to more socio-economically advantaged peers (Slavin et al., 1989; Anderson & Pellicer, 1990; Silver & Silver, 1990; Reisner et al., 1992; Meuret, 1994; Driessen, 1997; Farkas et al., 2000; Karsten, 2006; Bénabou et al., 2009; Powers et al., 2016; Brown & James, 2020). This evidence underlines the need for more comprehensive approaches to educational equity. Territórios Educativos de Intervenção Prioritária (TEIP) TEIP programme, launched in 2006, drew inspiration from worldwide compensatory education models including, Zones d’Éducation Prioritaire (ZEP), in France, the Education Action Zones (EAZ) and Excellence in Cities (EiC) programes in United Kingdom. The TEIP programme aims to decrease educational inequality through four main objectives: a) better student achievement; b) reduce retention and dropout rates; c) improve school-family partnerships; and d) better articulation between educational pathways and labour market opportunities (Despacho Normativo n.º 55/2008). TEIP provides additional resources alongside expanded autonomy for resource management and support from external expert support and incentives for school-community partnerships. The framework requires TEIP schools to develop a strategic and pedagogical programme along with administrative, financial and organizational responses that address community needs, while using their autonomy and support to achieve long-term academic development and promote a stronger school-family and school community engagement, and labour market integration (Abrantes et al., 2011). Research conducted by Abrantes et al. (2011), DGEIDC (2011), DGE (2012, 2020), Rolo, (2012); and Abrantes & Ferreira (2014), indicates positive trends regarding decreased student misbehaviour, absenteeism and dropout rates. These achievements are echoed by Palmeirão and Alves (2021) who characterize TEIP schools as territories of pedagogical innovation.

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The evidence base for academic performance improvements resulting from pedagogical innovation remains mixed. Jesus and Azevedo (2020) pointed out that the educational transformation promoted by innovation discourse remains uncertain and sometimes aligned with consumerist framings of schooling. Also, the evaluation of TEIP remains limited by structural barriers: limited data comparison between TEIP and non-TEIP public schools, insufficient assessments of school-community relations, and scarce evidence on student trajectories and labour market integration (Frandji, 2012; Ferraz et al., 2018; Correia, 2022). In this sense, the literature identifies several essential challenges that coexist with TEIP programme: 1) the TEIP label may create a negative stigma associated with intensified social and educational inequalities through middle-class student departures to other non-TEIP schools while concentrating vulnerable populations in TEIP schools (Quaresma & Lopes, 2011); 2) the overemphasis on behavioral and attendance indicators may sideline academic achievement as a core educational objective (Rolo, 2012; Abrantes & Ferreira, 2014; Melo, 2016); 3) the lack of specific teacher training contributes to deficit-based perspetives, and relational work with families and communities is often delegated to specialized staff (Abrantes & Ferreira, 2014; Melo, 2016); 4) evidence from DGEIDC (2011), DGE (2012) and Ferraz et al., (2018, 2019) points to limited, or in some cases negative, impacts of the programme on students’ academic performance; 5) the growing number of TEIP school students who select vocational pathways is statistically associated with lower probabilities of higher education enrolment, with potential implications for social and professional opportunities (Correia, 2022). This study leverages a mixed methods design to examine how inputs (resources, autonomy, partnerships), mechanisms (monitoring, pedagogical practices, curricular and extracurricular options), and outcomes (exam scores, retention and dropout rates) unfold in TEIP secondary schools. The questions that oriented this study are: a) to what extent do school-level performance indicators (national exam scores, percentage of students with positive results in the 12th grade national exams after progressing without grade retention in the 10th and 11th grades, grade retention and dropout rates in 10th, 11th and 12th grades; the progression of student performance in Portuguese and Mathematics from the 9th to the 12th grade exams, compared to national averages; and the evolution of the number of exams undertaken) vary across TEIP schools between 2001/02 and 2015/16? b) is the share of vocational education provision associated with, and does it mediate, apparent differences in those indicators across schools? c) what organisational practices (assessment and monitoring cultures, resource use, partnership work) characterise schools with more favourable versus less favourable trajectories?

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We contribute by: a) linking school-level performance trajectories to differentiated organizational responses and the expansion of vocational education provision under TEIP, and b) articulating a programme-theory lens that clarifies how inputs may activate mechanisms consistent with observed patterns. We deliberately refrain from strong causal claims and acknowledge structural confounders (intake composition, feeder patterns, mid-years transfers, local labour markets, concurrent reforms). Methodology In Portugal, performance in secondary education plays a decisive role in access to higher education. The admission process is based on a weighted average of the internal grades awarded by schools (which must account for at least 50% of the final score) and the results obtained by students in national exams (which must contribute a minimum of 35% according to the specific criteria of the study programme and the institution selected) (Neves et al., 2017). We believe that this information is relevant in order to contextualise and justify the choice of methodological design that we consider most appropriate to answer the questions posed at the end of the introduction and which we will present below. We use an explanatory sequential mixed-methods design (QUANT – QUAL – Integration). In phase 1 (QUANT), we assemble a longitudinal school-year panel (2001/02-2015/16) for TEIP secondary schools and analyze the indicators national exam scores (NES), the percentage of students with positive results in the 12th grade national exams after progressing without grade retention in the 10th and 11th grades, grade retention and dropout rates in 10th, 11th and 12th grades; the progression of student performance in Portuguese and Mathematics from the 9th to the 12th grade exams, compared to national averages; and the evolution of the number of exams undertaken (definition below). Only the NES indicator was normalised using z-scores to ensure fairer comparability across disciplines and years, as detailed above. All other indicators were used descriptively in their original scales We then classify performance trajectories and draw a purposive sample of six schools with contrasting trajectories from a frame of 36 eligible TEIP schools (criteria detailed below and available in Appendix A). In phase 2 (QUAL) we conducted semi-structured interviews with school headteachers and TEIP coordinators in the sampled schools, following a guide organised around governance/monitoring, curriculum/time, resource use, vocational pathways and guidance, partnerships, and student trajectories. In phase 3 (Integration), we examine whether the vocational share statiscally mediates observed differences (model-based tests and descritive contrasts) and explain the quantitative patterns using qualitative themes (assessing and monitoring cultures, resource deployment, partnership functioning

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Table 1 Mixed-Methods Workflow Stage Data

Indicator Scale and Timeframe

School Selection Interviews

Integration

Description/Subcomponents Select indicators: National Exam Scores (NES); Percentage of students with positive results in the 12th grade national exams after progressing without grade retention in the 10th and 11th grades; Retention and dropout rates; Mathematics and Portuguese results; Number of national exams. NES: standardized (z-score) by discipline and school year: 2001/02-2015/16; Percentage of students with positive results in the 12th grade national exams after progressing without grade retention in the 10th and 11th grades: Percentage Points / 2013/14-2015/16; Retention and dropout rates: percentage points / 2008/09-2014/15; Mathematics and Portuguese results: -1, 0, +1 / 2011/12-2014/15; Number of National Exams: absolute number / 2001/02-2015/16; TEIP eligible frame (n=36)/Trajectories/ Sample (n=6) Headteachers and TEIP coordinators | Guide: assessment and monitoring; trajectories; time; resources; vocational education; partnerships Mediation: vocational share | QUAL explains QUANT patterns | Joint display (themes and indicators)

To enhance the comprehensiveness and robustness of the analysis, we drew on data from the Infoescolas1 portal, complemented by administrative data compiled by the Directorate-General for Education and Statistics (DGEEC) covering all secondary schools between 2001/02 and 2015/16. Five quantitative indicators were selected for each school year: national exam scores (NES) (between 2001/02 to 2015/16); the percentage of students with positive results in the 12th grade national exams after progressing without grade retention in the 10th and 11th grades (between 2013/14 and 2015/16); grade retention and dropout rates in 10th, 11th and 12th grades (between 2008/09 and 2014/15); the progression of student performance in Portuguese and Mathematics from the 9th to the 12th grade exams, compared to national averages (2011/12 and 2014/15); and the evolution of the number of exams taken (between 2001/02 and 2015/16). The core quantitative indicator used in this study is the National Exam Scores (NES), because exam subjects differ between schools and national grading patterns, we computed z-scores by discipline and year to allow fairer comparison between subjects and schools. For each school 𝑖, discipline 𝑑, and year 𝑡, the standardised value is:

Infoescolas - Estatísticas do Ensino Básico e Secundário

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𝑁𝐸𝑆!"# − 𝜇"# 𝜎"#

where 𝜇"# and 𝜎"# represent the national mean and standard deviation in that discipline and year. Each school’s annual NES indicator corresponds to the weighted mean of these discipline specific z-scores, using the number of exams per subject as weights. This procedure was applied exclusively to ensure greater fairness across disciplines and schools; no other indicators were standardized but used descriptively to contextualize patterns and as tie-break criteria when selecting schools. Each of the three authors independently interpreted the results and selected schools whose academic trajectories, relative to non-TEIP public schools, reflected either the most favourable or unfavourable performance trends. It should be noted that the selection of schools did not follow a purely quantitative ranking based on fixed thresholds. Instead, performance trajectories were interpreted qualitatively in relation to each school’s starting point and its outcome in the final year analysed. This criterion allowed the identification of schools that had improved, stagnated or declined relative to their own baseline, rather than privileging those with the highest absolut scores. It is important to highlight the challenge of reaching a consensus on the selection of schools with a favourable trajectory, due to the fact that no school had a consistent positive performance in all the selected indicators. Thus, the final group of “success trajectories” emerged from a comparative synthesis, favouring the indicators that provided longer time coverage, particularly those that allowed for pre- and post-TEIP analysis (NES and number of national exams), while the remaining indicators were considered with caution (some only presented data from the post-TEIP period, and the combined retention/dropout rate showed marked volatility between years and schools). For example, the indicator for successful progression from 10th to 12th grade without prior retention was only available for three school years (from 2013/14 to 2015/16) and was therefore used as a tiebreaker when necessary. After collective deliberation, we reached a consensus on a sample of seven schools: four with favourable trajectories and three with unfavourable trajectories. However, the refusal of one school to take part in the study resulted in a final sample of six schools (four favourable and two unfavourable). At the time of selection, 51 TEIP schools offer secondary education and were therefore eligible for the study. However, in order to ensure comparability of the data and the length of time schools have been in TEIP that could generate results, only schools with at least five years of participation in the TEIP programme (as of 2019) were considered eligible, resulting in a pool of 36 schools. After selecting the sample, semi-structured interviews were scheduled with school headteachers and TEIP coordinators, chosen for their in-depth understanding of institutional logics, dynamics, and practices (Kantek & Baykal, 2009). The interview guide focused on three main objectives: (i) assessing whether school performance aligns with the expectations of

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leadership teams; (ii) exploring perceived reasons behind success or failure; and (iii) understanding the role of the TEIP Programme played in the results obtained. Some sample questions from the interview guide included: a) How do you assess the differences between TEIP and non-TEIP public schools with regard to national exam scores, retention/dropout rates, number of exams undertaken? b) What activities/projects have been developed under the TEIP Programme? c) How do you assess their contribution to your school’s outcomes? d) Do you believe the TEIP Programme could be more effective in supporting schools? If yes, in what ways? (organization, resources, partnerships, family involvement, monitoring?) Six interviews were conducted across the selected schools, each lasting approximately 45 minutes. Interviewees were coded using a system where “D” refers to the school director, “C” to the TEIP coordinator, and “S” to the school. Schools were identified by letters A to F and categorised as “Favourable” or “Unfavourable” based on their trajectories. For example, “D_SA_Favourable” refers to the Director of School A with a favourable trajectory, while “C_SB_Unfavourable” designates the Coordinator of School B with an unfavourable path. The interview participants included three Directors (Schools C, D, and F), one Vice-Director (School B), and three TEIP Coordinators with additional roles: the Vice-Director of School A, the Assistant to the Director at School E, and a Coordinator with management responsibilities at School D. Additionally, two TEIP Coordinators without management responsibilities were interviewed at Schools B and D. In the case of School D, both the current and former TEIP Coordinators were present due to a transitional phase in coordination. All participants provided informed consent. All interviews were recorded, transcribed, and analysed using thematic analysis (Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006), with full assurance of anonymity and confidentiality. The analysis followed a primarily semantic approach, focusing on participants’ explicit accounts rather than latent meanings. Initial open codes were generated inductively by the three authors, discussed colectively, and then consolidated into broader themes that captured recurrent institutional mechanisms rather than isolated opinions. Coding consistency was checked through peer debriefing, and full anonymity and confidentiality were guaranteed. This process resulted in three core themes that structure the qualitative findings: (1) autonomy and human resources; (2) factors explaining TEIP schools’ success or failure; and (3) vocational education and the transition into higher education. The researchers’ stance was reflexive and non-evaluative: none of the authors were employed in the participating schools, though all had prior experience with educational policy research

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in disadvantaged contexts. To mitigate bias, analytical memos were maintained throughout data interpretation, and themes were validated collectively. All participants provided informed consents, and data were stored securely with anonymised identifiers (e.g., D_SA_Favourable) The selected schools have the following characteristics regarding their date of integration into TEIP and their geographical location: Table 2 Characteristics of TEIP Schools Selected Denomination

TEIP Integration

Localization

Results

School A

2006/07

North/Urban Periphery Favourable

School B

2009/10

North/Urban

Unfavourable

School C

2009/10

North/Rural

Favourable

School D

2006/07

South/Urban Periphery Favourable

School E

2009/10

South/Urban Periphery Unfavourable

School F

2009/10

South/Rural

Favourable

Despite the methodological robustness of this mixed approach, certain limitations must be acknowledged. The study is based on a small sample of six schools, with marked contrasts between two lower-performing and four higher-performing institutions. This asymmetry limits the generalizability of findings and highlights the need for caution when extrapolating conclusions beyond the studied context. Quantitative Analysis: Evolution of Key Indicators in TEIP and Non-TEIP Schools A concise summary of the main quantitative trends is presented below; detailed year-by-year series for each indicator and school are available in Appendix A (Figures 1-7 and Tables 3-6). Overall, the longitudinal analysis reveals a clear differentiation between schools with favourable and unfavourable trajectories. In schools B and E, academic performance measured by the National Exam Score (NES) steadily diverged from the national mean throughout the observation period, accompanied by increasing grade-retention and dropout rates and a sharp decline in the number of national exams undertaken. By contrast, schools C, D and F displayed gradual improvement in NES relative to non-TEIP public schools, with moderate reductions in retention and dropout. School A, despite an initially high NES, experienced a mild downward trend but remained within the group of favourable trajectories due to stronger performance in other indicators.

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The indicator of “positive Grade-12 results after progression without retention” was only available for three academic years (2012/13-2014/15) and was therefore used descriptively and as a tiebreaker. Taken together, these results suggest that TEIP schools have followed distinct institutional paths: some consolidating improvement in exam performance and retention rates, others showing signs of performance stagnation and/or decline and a growing shift toward vocational pathways. Results This section presents the three analytic themes emerging from the qualitative analysis, each addressing mechanisms that help explain the differentiated trajectories of TEIP schools. The first theme, “Autonomy and resources: similar strategies, divergent outcomes”, shows that while all schools received comparable support and autonomy under TEIP, only those that developed participatory management and internal monitoring cultures, translated these conditions into improved academic results. The second theme, “Explaining divergence in TEIP schools performance”, reveals how institutional capacity, leadership stability, and the ability to mobilise community partnership shaped contrasting patterns of success and stagnation. The third theme, “Vocational education and higher education transitions”, uncover how the strategic expansion of vocational programmes, though useful for short-term retention, risks reinforcing social segmentation and limiting access to higher education. Autonomy and Resources: Similar Strategies for Divergent Outcomes Although TEIP provides similar forms of autonomy and additional human resources, schools diverge in how they mobilise these resources. In favourable trajectories, autonomy is channelled into capacity-building (specialist staff, external expertise, and teacher development), whereas in less-favourable trajectories are used instrumentally to support exam preparation within classrooms, for example. These distinct uses are consistent with the different NES patterns reported earlier. The contribution [of TEIP] is obviously the fact that we have more human resources in schools, the fact that we have technical staff in schools, the possibility of having an external expert, the possibility of reinforcing training (...) (D_SD_Favourable). (…) we have two teachers in classrooms [provided by TEIP programme], particularly in the subjects in which students undergo national exams, precisely to bridge the gap between the students, but also to prepare them for the exam, because often students do not know well what kind of questions are asked in the exam, and therefore they are trained, in a manner of speaking, during classes, for the exam (D_SB_Unfavourable). Despite the value attributed to additional resources, most interviewees did not articulate a clear needs-based diagnosis or a strategic use of autonomy. In several cases, autonomy appeared administrative rather than developmental, with for example exam-oriented co-teaching

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substituting for broader capacity-building or reflective practice. This pattern reflects a recurring trend noted in the compensatory education literature, where resource enhancement is sometimes assumed sufficient (Carter, 1984; Karsten, 2006; Bénabou et al., 2009) and coincides with the NES trajectories observed (e.g., improvement in school D versus stagnation/decline in schools B and E). School leaders also frequently frame underperformance through as external determined, citing student disengagement, lack of motivation, or the misalignment between curricular flexibility and the national exam regime, such attributions tend to deflect attention from institutional practices (monitoring, time protection, curriculum alignment) that are within schools’ scope of action. (…) [regarding the low performance of students] more and more students also have divergent interests from school, and for many, as the education system is currently structured, it doesn’t resonate with them much. Therefore, they have other attractions, they are more inclined towards technology, right? Hence, perhaps lately, the Ministry of Education is more focused on curricular flexibility, which is excellent if applied in the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd cycles, but in secondary education with nationwide exams, it’s very difficult because they have to know this and that precisely. Therefore, curricular flexibility appeals to other skills, skills that, as the national exams are currently structured, do not apply (C_SB_Unfavourable). At the high school level, and that’s exactly what we’re talking about here, we have a somewhat pre-selected audience. In other words, the students who reach high school are practically those with no grade retentions, and they follow a clean academic path. However, when we reach the 10th grade, let’s say there is almost a natural selection. Those in the scientific-humanistic courses, which is essentially what we have—this year, for the first time, after three years without it, we have a vocational course. However, students who seek a more professional path have been leaving high school. The students who remain in high school are those who want to pursue a path that leads them to higher education. So, fundamentally, there is a first point here, which is motivation (D_SF_Favourable). These narratives surface two tensions: first, a policy tension: curricular flexibility coexists with a high-stakes exam regime, especially salient in schools struggling to improve; second, an analytic tension: explanations centred on motivation risk masking organisational levers, for example, backward planning from exam blueprints, formative feedback in co-teaching, and protection of instructional time (Hauge et al., 2014). Where flexibility is translated into routines that support teaching and monitoring, NES tends to improve; where flexibility is seen as inapplicable in upper-secondary, gains tend to plateau. Partnership orchestration emerges as a limiting condition. TEIP expects schools to mobilise community partners, yet the coordination burden often falls disproportionately on schools,

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where orchestration capacity exists, autonomy is more likely to convert into organisational capability. I think that TEIP Programme foresees partnerships and an insertion of the school in the community, and that there are several partners to help the school in its projects, but it leaves the school with this task, this responsibility, (…) we should have more support in that fight (D_SA_Favourable). This testimony clarifies the friction identified above: autonomy and resources are enabling conditions, but outcomes depend on internal coordination (monitoring, time protection, staff training and development), and external orchestration (partnership routines, clear goals, calendars). In favourable trajectories schools, partnership work is structured and complements internal monitoring; in less favourable trajectories schools, the coordination load and limited external support coincide with more instrumental responses (e.g. exam-coaching) and stagnant NES. Explaining Divergence in TEIP School Performance Schools with stronger and more consistent results tend to couple TEIP support with internal monitoring/assessment routines and leadership practices that make performance data actionable; underperforming schools more often emphasise structural constraints and the stigma associated with the TEIP label (Quaresma & Lopes, 2011) without detailing internal mechanisms. There are some results here [the research team provided the interviewees with the findings from their previous quantitative analysis] that are really important in terms of analysis. If I tell you that they are new to us it would not be true because we have an Observatory within the group to know what we are doing (…) being TEIP, I think, is a decisive factor for that to happen (…) (D_SF_Favourable). (…) There is always the stigma of the TEIP school. The best students, the families whose students were really committed, interested students, make their choices at the school level and therefore many parents felt the stigma of the TEIP school: «Oh, don’t go to that school because that school is TEIP, and therefore it is a problematic school» (D_SB_Unfavourable). The first account signals a monitoring culture (an internal “Observatory”) where TEIP support is embedded in cycles of evidence and follow-up; the second foregrounds stigma and competition as external pressures (Quaresma & Lopes, 2011). While both perspectives are valid, only the first specifies organisational practices that plausibly align with the favourable trajectories documented earlier, whereas the second leaves the mechanism of internal response less explicit.

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In schools with less favourable trajectories schools, leaders often describe changing intake and local competition (mobility to better resourced or more central schools) as headwinds, which can coincide with shrinking cohorts and reduced academic intensity. (…) The school has few students, they have been decreasing over time and most students prefer an environment with more students, a school in the city centre, a public transport pass to be able to go to the shopping centre, etc., a whole series of external conditions that end up taking students away from here (…) (C_SE_Unfavourable). This narrative points to structural confounders, feeder patterns, transport, proximity, reputational effects, that shape intake composition. Such pressures are consistent with the persistent gaps observed for some schools, and underscore why TEIP inputs alone may not translate into convergent outcomes without strategies to buffer intake volatility (e.g., targeted supports, timetable protection, partnership leverage). Vocational share appears as a mediating factor in apparent performance differences, but its effects are contingent on institutional strategy. In some schools, expansion of vocational tracks coincides with lower national exams intensity; in others, strong organisational routines offset this risk. (…) We haven’t had vocational education for 3 years. This is again the year zero, so to speak, in vocational education. The students that we had in secondary school were students motivated to continue their studies, that is, they were here with goals, with defined objectives, and we just had to help them on their path to university, which was what I wanted, because students who wanted a more vocational path were directed to professional schools by our vocational guidance office (D_SF_Favourable). (…) We are transforming our school gradually. We have mostly a school population for vocational education. Therefore, for regular students, we have fewer students, and this discrepancy and decrease will be noticed more and more, (…) we are able to have one student or another who stands out for good grades, but most of our students have some difficulties and will conclude the 12th grade, sometimes at cost, within their areas (C_SE_Unfavourable). Descriptively (Infoescolas), School F, reported no vocational enrollment between 2014/15 and 2017/18, coinciding with favourable exam results; School E, expanded vocational enrolment from 42% to 64% in the same period, while scientific-humanistic enrolment declined from 58% to 36%, coinciding with weaker exam outcomes. Yet, the association is not deterministic: School D, maintained a high vocational share(82% of its students enrolled in vocational tracks in 2014/15 and 75% in 2017/18), with only 18% and 25% in scientific-humanistic courses, respectively (Infoescolas), yet achieved the best exam results, suggesting that broader institutional routines (monitoring, staff development, partnership use) can sustain exam performance even with extensive vocational provision.

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Conversely, School A kept a balanced distribution between vocational and scientifichumanistic education (36% vs. 64% in both years), yet shows a decline in national exam results, indicating that composition alone does not explain trajectories. Overall, vocational expansion seems to mediate performance patterns in interaction with internal capacity and leadership ability. Echoing the first theme: Autonomy and Resources: Similar Strategies for Divergent Outcomes, partnership orchestration is work-intensive and often under-supported, where schools have clear routines for engaging external actors (goals, calendars, roles), partnerships appear to amplify internal monitoring and mitigate intake pressures; where orchestration capacity is fragile, school leaders tend to default to instrumental responses (e. g., exam coaching) or to external attributions (stigma, motivation). This integrated reading is consistent with the quantitative differentiation of trajectories and sets up the next theme on vocational pathways and higher education access safeguards. Vocational Education and Higher Education Transition Building on previous themes, which highlighted organisational capacity, monitoring cultures, and intake dynamics, the Vocational Education and Higher Education Transition theme, examines how the curricular mix, especially the vocational share, is associated with TEIP schools’ performance trajectories and students’ transitions. While vocational education is often positioned as a pathway to faster labour market integration (Hanushek et al., 2017), evidence in Portugal links higher education to stronger income prospects and mobility (Martins et al., 2016; OECD, 2022, 2023) and shows a social gradient in vocational participation (Correia, 2022). I think it may have to do with the context in which some TEIP schools may be located in which, in fact, students choose more professional courses because they need to earn money quickly, and for example here at the school we have catering courses in which students find temporary and part-time jobs that provide them with some economic comfort and I think that has to do with it. (D_SA_Favourable). (...) as we are a country of emigrant people, but also a city in the countryside, in which part of the families are already scattered around the world, we have many students who finish vocational education and go to work in European and non-European countries, and have a wide range of options where they go (D_SC_Favourable) (...) we have a range of offers [vocational courses] in which some students really like what they do, and are dedicated to that and we spend time telling them that this is not a course that is minor, of less importance, than the regular course, of whatever it may be, languages, humanities, or science and technology (...) (C_EE_Unfavourable). These perspectives reveal that vocational education in TEIP schools responds both to structural needs – economic insecurity, early entry into the labour market -, and to students’ genuine interests and identities. The findings align with research showing that vocational pathways in

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Portugal are predominantly chosen by socioeconomically disadvantaged students (Correia, 2022). While such courses can promote inclusion and completion, they may also reflect adaptative responses to limited academic opportunities rather than deliberate empowerment (Hanuschek et al., 2017). Across the six schools studied, the share of vocational students evolved unevenly, coinciding with distinct performance paths. This pattern indicates that the institutional configuration of each school mediates the association between vocational education and academic results. These contrasts are consistent with the idea that vocational expansion coincides with different organisational responses. School F’s restrictive offer helped sustain exam preparation for higher education, while School E’s expansion may reflect a strategic direction of lowerperforming students to less exam-intensive routes. However, School D demonstrates that strong leadership and institutional routines can counterbalance these effects, maintaining high performance even with extensive vocational provision. School F, with minimal enrolment in vocational education, consistently performed near the average of non-TEIP public schools. Conversely, School E, which expanded its vocational enrolment, shows a widening performance gap, from -1.72 points in 2009/10 to -3.65 in 2015/16. Notably, School D, despite its strong vocational focus, achieved the best results, improving from -2.77 points in 2006/07 to 0.05 in 2015/16, indicating that performance is not determined by curricular composition alone. Interviewees highlight how the decision to promote vocational education is shaped by local contexts, students’ economic pressures, and individual aspirations, rather than by a unified pedagogical rationale. The prominence of vocational pathways within TEIP schools may coincide with reputational challenges, reinforcing social segmentation and the symbolic boudary between schools oriented toward higher education and those focused on employability. (…) most TEIP schools consider vocational education because regular secondary education is not very attractive. Here is the stigma: if you want to go to university, you must leave TEIP schools. As we have schools nearby that are more dedicated to that type of education, to pursue studies [into higher education], it is not very strange that my students say that they go to secondary schools that are not technical, so to speak. I think this is a generalized thing (C_SD_Favourable). There it is, the perverse effect that the school has to transform itself and having more and more professional and CEF [Education and Training Courses] classes. For other students who want to continue their studies, it is not so appealing and ends up being almost a stigma (...) (C_SE_Unfavourable).

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These statements illustrate a reputational dilemma: TEIP schools’ emphasis on vocational education, while aiming at retention and inclusion, can inadvertently signal limited academic aspiration, thus deterring higher achieving or more advantaged students. This risk echoes earlier research on compensatory education’s dual mandate – equity versus containment – in managing difficult neighbourhoods (Rolo, 2012; Melo, 2016). The result is a self-reinforcing cycle where social composition, institutional perception, and curricular offer coincide to sustain educational stratification (Quaresma & Lopes, 2011; Correia, 2022). The evolution of vocational education within TEIP schools encapsulates the tensions of compensatory education itself: promoting equality of opportunity while managing the structural reproduction of inequality (Ferraz, 2025). (...) this school has a tradition in sports management, and we always have students to form at least two classes, and we ask the Ministry for authorization to open two classes, because we have students that come, but the Ministry does not authorize and so we have to do a selection of those students (D_SB_Unfavourable). (...) we have a vocational school side by side with us and with whom we have a good relationship, and we understand that in terms of vocational education it has much more advanced technology than us, much more state-of-the-art, and that it can promote better skills than us. (D_SF_Favourable). (...) the situation is: with the population we have, what they feel useful means, “I will have a job in 3 years, when it’s over I’ll have an occupation” (C_SD_Favourable) Taken together, these excerpts expose the structural constraints of the TEIP framework: while promoting autonomy and responsiveness, schools still operate within unequal ecosystems and resource hierarchies (Ferraz, 2025). Vocational programmes can support employability and short-term retention (Hanuschek et al., 2017), but without mechanisms for upward transition, they risk consolidating educational containment rather than mobility. This mirrors the dual role of TEIP identified by Rolo (2012) and Melo (2016) – to promote opportunity and to manage exclusion simultaneously. The available data confirm that vocational education expansion coincides with declining exam participation and a weaker presence in higher education-oriented courses, yet does not allow for causal inference regarding long-term labour market outcomes. This limitation should be explicitly recognize in policy and research design. Nonetheless, the observed trends suggest that, although vocational education supports retention and short-term completion, it may also contribute to educational stratification (Correia, 2022) and challenge the transformative promise of compensatory education. This pattern aligns with national policy developments promoting vocational pathways, which have led to a 40% increase in completions over the past 15 years (OECD, 2016), even as access to higher education remains the main route to social mobility (Martins et al., 2016; OECD, 2022, 2023).

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Discussion The results presented allow us to understand the dynamics of internal differentiation in TEIP schools based on an interpretation that combines longitudinal quantitative evidence with qualitative analysis of organisational structures, strategies and mechanisms. The triangulation between the plans confirms that the evolution of school results, measured through the NES and indicators of progression, retention and dropout, cannot be understood solely as a direct reflection of socio-economic conditions or the additional resources made available by the programme. On the contrary, the differences between schools with more and less favourable trajectories stem, to a large extent, from the way each organisation interprets and operationalises its autonomy, manages teaching time and mobilises human resources and partnerships. The quantitative component revealed the coexistence of three main patterns: a) schools with consistent improvements in NES and progression rates; b) schools with intermediate stabilisation; and c) schools with persistent decline. Qualitative analysis shows that this differentiation is associated with distinct institutional cultures: schools with favourable trajectories show a closer link between autonomy and diagnostic capacity, reflected in continuous monitoring and evaluation practices, intentional co-teaching and enhanced teacher training. In less favourable trajectories, on the contrary, autonomy tends to take on a more administrative character, with a focus on instrumental responses, for example, reinforcement of classes for exams, without systematic reflection on the mechanisms underlying performance. This reading is in line with the literature on school improvement in disadvantaged contexts, which highlights the importance of distributed leadership, self-assessment routines, and the pedagogical use of data (Ainscow et al., 2012; Harris, 2013). The interviews further reinforce the existence of a double disconnect between policies and practices. On the one hand, the coexistence of rhetoric about curricular flexibility and the rigidity of the national examination system creates organisational tensions that seem to legitimise the inability to innovate pedagogically, especially in schools where the pressure to achieve results is most intense. On the other hand, the emphasis on (dis)motivation or student profiles tends to shift responsibility to external factors, particularly to students and families, obscuring opportunities for internal intervention. Thus, while some schools use the autonomy provided by TEIP as a lever for organisational development, others reproduce a logic of remediation that reinforces dependence on external resources, confirming what Bernstein (2003) called the “restricted recontextualisation” of policies, a bureaucratic translation of instruments of autonomy that reduces their transformative power. The analysis also shows that the evolution of vocational education is a crucial mediator in the differences observed. Quantitative data indicate that the expansion of vocational pathways coincides, in several cases, with less intensive examinations and decreased participation in scientific-humanistic pathways, although there are notable exceptions (such as School D, where the expansion of vocational education had no impact on good performance in the NES). Qualitative evidence helps to understand this variation: when vocational expansion stems from

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instrumental strategies aimed at improving completion rates or managing student flows, it tends to be associated with weaker academic results and internal segmentation between pathways. Conversely, when based on strategic decisions and linked to monitoring and follow-up practices, vocational provision can coexist with good performance and promote successful alternatives. This distinction confirms that TEIP results do not derive from the nature of the courses, but from the way each school structures its “ecosystem of opportunities” (Reay, 2004) and manages its symbolic boundaries between educational pathways. The articulation between quantitative and qualitative dimensions also shows that school trajectories are constructed within a space of significant structural constraints: student composition, recruitment patterns, local employment dynamics, and school reputation. Schools located in more socially volatile contexts face higher turnover and less predictability in class sizes, which hinders the consolidation of collaborative work cultures. The international literature on compensatory education (Power et al., 2003; Demeuse et al., 2012) has highlighted precisely this vulnerability of territorial programmes: by acting on isolated school units, without changing the broader logic of student and resource distribution, there is a tendency to reinforce local management of inequality without structurally transforming it (Powers, Fischman & Berliner, 2016; Ferraz, 2025). The analysis developed here is consistent with this interpretation: TEIP provides enabling conditions (autonomy, resources, partnerships), but its effect depends on prior organisational capacities and the stability of the social context. From this perspective, the results can be interpreted in light of Nancy Fraser’s (2009) triad of justice. In terms of redistribution, TEIP introduces compensatory correction mechanisms, but the inequality of results shows that the redistribution of resources does not, in itself, guarantee equal opportunities and conditions for success, something that had already been pointed out in relation to US compensatory education programmes (Carter, 1984; Borman & D’Agostino, 1996), and which is naturally related at the macro level to localised intervention in deprived contexts and at the micro level to internal (school) structures. In terms of recognition, there is an ambivalence: the programme aims to strengthen, empower and value disadvantaged contexts, but the label “TEIP” is simultaneously a marker of stigma and symbolic differentiation (Quarema & Lopes, 2011), as the interviews illustrate. Finally, in terms of representation, TEIP schools have limited scope to influence national curriculum and examination policies, which restricts their institutional agency. Thus, Fraser’s (2009) framework helps to understand why the equity pursued by the programme often translates into containment rather than transformation. From a public policy perspective, the convergence between quantitative and qualitative data points to three main implications. First, the importance of protecting instructional time and curriculum intensity in exam subjects, preventing inclusion strategies from becoming forms of academic dilution. Secondly, the need to strengthen organisational capacity, monitoring, planning, and teacher development as a condition for autonomy to translate into innovation. And finally, the urgency of preventing vocational drift through monitoring and transition mechanisms to higher education, ensuring that professional pathways do not become pathways of social containment (Correia, 2022).

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In summary, the analysis shows that the impact of TEIP is contingent: the programme creates potential for organisational development and equity, but its implementation depends on the interaction between structural factors (context, composition, national policies) and institutional factors (leadership, monitoring, pedagogical strategies). This realistic and associative reading, consistent with the methodological design adopted, reinforces the idea that compensatory education policies only achieve sustainable results when they combine material redistribution, symbolic recognition, and participatory representation. It is precisely at this intersection between resources, practices and meanings that it is decided whether compensation becomes emancipation or containment. Implications for TEIP Policy and the Ministry of Education The findings suggest that while TEIP provides a necessary framework for equity, its effectiveness depends on how autonomy, resources, and vocational expansion are managed at the school level. To strengthen compensatory education and avoid stratification, the following safeguards are recommended: a) Redistribution: Targeted funding adjusted to student intake; guaranteed instructional time in exam subjects; and funding formulas that do not incentivise off-ramping to vocational tracks merely to raise completion indicators. b) Recognition: Public communication strategies to counter the stigma of TEIP schools; valorisation of both academic and non-academic outcomes; and community co-design in planning TEIP projects. c) Representation: Inclusion of school communities, parents, and local organisations in decision-making to ensure policies reflect contextual needs. d) Transparency and accountability: Reporting frameworks that include both exam-based results and broader educational outcomes (certifications, internships, transitions), avoiding narrow performance metrics. e) Bridging mechanisms: Support for hybrid academic–vocational pathways, guidance counselling, and credit recognition for students seeking to transition from vocational to higher-education routes. Together, these measures could align TEIP with broader redistributive, recognition, and representation principles (Fraser, 2003), ensuring that compensatory education contributes to equity rather than reproducing social hierarchies

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Conclusion

This study provides an integrated reading of why TEIP schools display divergent trajectories. Across six secondary schools, stronger results are associated with organizational routines that convert autonomy and additional staffing into monitoring cultures, protected instructional time, and structured partnerships; weaker results coincide with external attributions and a more instrumental use of resources. The vocational share functions as a mediating factor: its expansion often coincides with fewer exams and reputational risks, yet these effects are contingent on institutional strategy, some schools sustain exam performance despite extensive vocational provision. Given the small, purposive sample (n=6) and the exploratory mixed-methods design without counterfactual identification, the evidence should be read as indicative. Results may also be shaped by unobserved confounders (intake dynamics, mobility, local labour markets, concurrent reforms). Further research should combine school-level administrative data with longitudinal follow-up of student cohorts to track higher-education transition and labour market outcomes, enabling stronger inferences about trajectories beyond secondary school. At the policy level, the analysis supports a view of TEIP as a necessary but insufficient instrument. To advance equity, compensatory funding and autonomy may need capacitybuilding safeguards: a) the establishment of minimum standards of higher-education readiness, ensuring adequate instructional time and targeted support in examination subjects, as well as structured transition pathways for vocational students aspiring to enter higher education; b) the implementation of dual, transparent metrics capturing both academic outcomes (examination performance and completion rates) and non-academic outcomes (certifications, work placements, and post-school transitions), allowing for a more comprehensive assessment of educational effectiveness; and c) the strategic coordination of partnerships with local stakeholders - such as municipalities, employers, and higher-education institutions - to strengthen institutional capacity, diversify learning opportunities, and mitigate trade-offs between reputation and resources. These implications align with a broader logic, in which redistributive policies, recognition and representation are pursued jointly both within and beyond the school context. Within these limits, the study´s mixed-methods evidence is consistent with the hypothesis that organizational capacity and ecosystem strategy – not the vocational share per se – help explain why similar TEIP inputs are associated with different performance patterns. The central question for schools and policymakers remains whether TEIP coincides with patterns that reproduce socioeconomic inequality, or whether it can be steered to expand opportunities for the most disadvantaged students. Acknowledgements This research was funded by the Portuguese national science agency - Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia I.P. (FCT), grant number SFRH/BD/112741/2015, and partially supported by

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national funds through the Fundação para a Ciência e a Tecnologia, I.P. (FCT), under the multiannual funding awarded to the Centre for Research and Intervention in Education (CIIE) [references UIDB/00167/2020, UIDP/00167/2020, and UID/00167/2025].

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Fraser, N. (2003). Rethinking recognition: overcoming displacement and reification in cultural. Recognition struggles and social movements: Contested identities, agency and power, 21. Fraser, N. (2009). Scales of justice: Reimagining political space in a globalizing world (Vol. 31). Columbia university press. Hanushek, Eric A.; Schwerdt, Guido; Woessmann, Ludger; & Zhang, Lei. (2017). General education,vocational education, and labor-market outcomes over the lifecycle. Journal of Human Resources, 52(1), 48–87. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.52.1.0415-7074R. Hauge, Trond E., Norenes, Svein O., & Vedøy, Gunn. (2014). School leadership and education-al change: Tools and practices in shared school leadership development. Journal of Educatio-nal Change, 15(4), 357–376. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-014-9228-y. Harris, A. (2013). Distributed leadership: Friend or foe? Educational Management Administration & Leadership, 41(5), 545–554. https://doi.org/10.1177/1741143213497635 Jesus, Pedro, & Azevedo, Joaquim. (2020). Inovação educacional. O que é? Porquê? Onde? Como? [ Educational Innovation: What is it? Why? Where? How?]. Revista Portuguesa de Investigação Educacional, (20), 21–55. https://doi.org/10.34632/investigacaoeducacional.2020.9683. Kantek, F. & Baykal, U. (2009). Organizational culture in nursing schools in Turkey: faculty members’ perspectives. International Nursing Review, 56(3), 306–312. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1466-7657.2009.00721.x. Karsten, Sjoerd. (2006). Policies for disadvantaged children under scrutiny: the Dutch policy compared with policies in France, England, Flanders and the USA. Comparative Education, 42(2), 261–282. https://doi.org/10.1080/03050060600628694. Martins, Susana, Mauritti, Rosário, Nunes, Nuno, Romão, Ana L., & Costa, António F. da. (2016). A educação ainda é importante para a mobilidade social? Uma perspetiva das desigualdades educacionais da Europa do Sul no contexto europeu [Is Education Still Important for Social Mobility? A Perspective on Educational Inequalities in Southern Europe within the European Context]. Revista Portuguesa de Educação, 29(2), 261–285. https://doi.org/10.21814/rpe.7920. Melo, Benedita P. (2011). Contributos para a compreensão do «Efeito Professor TEIP»: propos-ta de um programa de pesquisa [Contributions to Understanding the "TEIP Teacher Effect": Proposal for a Research Program]. Sociologia: Revista da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto, 21, 159–169. Meuret, Denis. (1994). L’efficacité de la politique des zones d’éducation prioritaire dans les collèges. Revue française de pédagogie, 41–64. Nata, Gil, Pereira, Maria J., & Neves, Tiago. (2014). Unfairness in access to higher education: a 11 year comparison of grade inflation by private and public secondary schools in Portugal. Higher Education, 68, 851–874. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-014-9748-7. Neves, T., Ferraz, H., & Nata, G. (2017). Social inequality in access to higher education: grade inflation in private schools and the ineffectiveness of compensatory education. International Studies in Sociology of Education, 26(2), 190–210. https://doi.org/10.1080/09620214.2016.1191966 OECD (2016), Education at a Glance 2016: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris. http://dx.doi.org/10.187/eag-2016-en.

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OECD (2022), Education at a Glance 2022: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/3197152b-en. OECD (2023), Education at a Glance 2023: OECD Indicators, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/e13bef63-en. Palmeirão, Cristina, & Alves, José M. (2021). Escolas sobre os ombros de gigantes: desafiando os paradigmas mais tradicionais [Schools on the Shoulders of Giants: Challenging the Most Traditional Paradigms] [Online]. Universidade Católica Editora. Porto. http://dx.doi.org/10.34632/9789899058064 Power, S., Rees, G., & Taylor, C. (2003). Education and the middle class. Open University Press. Power, S. (2008). How should we respond to the continuing failure of compensatory education? Orbis scholae, 2(2), 19–37. https://doi.org/10.14712/23363177.2018.231. Powers, Jeanne M.; Fischman, Gustavo E. & Berliner, David C. (2016). Making the visible in-visible: Willful ignorance of poverty and social inequalities in the research-policy nex-us. Review of Research in Education, 40(1), 744–776. https://doi.org/10.3102/0091732X16663703. Quaresma, Luísa & Teixeira Lopes, João. (2011). Os TEIP pela perspectiva de pais e alunos [TEIP from the Perspective of Parents and Students]. Sociologia, Revista da Faculdade de Letras da Universidade do Porto, Vol. XXI, 141–157. Reay, D. (2004). ‘It’s all becoming a habitus’: Beyond the habitual use of habitus in educational research. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 25(4), 431–444. https://doi.org/10.1080/0142569042000236934 Reisner, Elizabeth R., & Haslam, M. Bruce. (1992). Effective compensatory education sourcebook: Effective educational practices in schools (Vol. 5): U.S. Dept. of Education. Rolo, Clara. (2012). Territórios educativos de intervenção prioritária: de onde vêm? Para onde vão? [Educational Territories of Priority Intervention: Where Do They Come From? Where Are They Going?]. Atas do V Encontro do CIED–Escola e Comunidade Escola Superior de Educa-ção de Lisboa, 18 e 19 de Novembro de 2011. Sá, Carla, Tavares, Orlanda, & Sin, Cristina. (2022). Who is left out? Inequalities in higher education admissions and placements in Portugal. In Equity Policies in Global Higher Education: Reducing Inequality and Increasing Participation and Attainment (pp. 171–193). Cham: Springer International Publishing. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-69691-7 Silver, Harold & Silver, Pamela. (1991). An educational war on poverty: American and British policy-making 1960-1980. New York, United States of America: (Cambridge University Press). https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511522352 Slavin, Robert E.; Karweit, Nancy L.; Madden, Nancy A. (1989). Effective programs for students at risk. Massachussets: ERIC. Vinovskis, Maris A. (1999). Do federal compensatory education programs really work? A brief historical analysis of Title I and Head Start. American Journal of Education, 107(3), 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1086/444215. Corresponding author: Hélder Ferraz Email: hnrferraz@hotmail.com

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Appendix A – Year By Year Series for Quantitative Indicators Quantitative Analysis: Evolution of Key Indicators in TEIP and Non-TEIP Schools Note: scales vary across figures to optimise the visibility of within-school trajectories. Since

the magnitude and dispersion of scores differ substantially between indicators and schools, fixed scales would have obscured relevant variation. All figures use absolute values consistent with the indicators’ original metrics, and trends are directly comparable in direction and timing. Figure 1 Differences Between the Average Score in National Exams (NES) by TEIP and Non-TEIP Public Schools (Z-Scores by subject and year), 2001/02 to 2015/16 X axis: School Year; Y Axis: NES Z-Score

Note: NES standardised by discipline and year (national mean = 0; σ = 1). School-level NES is the weighted mean of discipline-specific z-scores (weights = number of exams) Source: based on DGEEC databases (2001/02 and 2015/16)

Figure 1 shows that the performance in national exams of schools B and E had been worsening since the beginning of the time frame considered, a situation that did not change with their entry into TEIP. Between 2009/10 and the last year under review (2015/16), School B doubled the distance relative to the performance of non-TEIP public schools, from -0.25 to -0.55 standard deviation units, while School E went from -0.58 to -0.96 standard deviation units. In contrast, there was an improvement in the performance of schools C, D, and F, with School D presenting itself as the most relevant case, considering that between the year in which it entered the TEIP Program (2006/07) and 2015/16 it went from -0.87 to 0.06 units of standard deviation, an improvement in the performance of almost 1 unit of standard deviation, performing above non-TEIP public schools between 2012/13 and 2015/16. On the other hand, School A presents a decrease in its performance: between 2006/07 and 2015/16 it went from 0.20 to -0.31 units of standard deviation. And, although the decrease is similar to other schools, its selection as a school with a favourable path is due to its performance in the remaining indicators, as shown below.

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Figure 2 Differences in 10th Grade Dropout and Retention Rates – TEIP minus non-TEIP (pp), 2008/09 to 2014/15 X axis: School Years; Y Axis: Percentage Points (pp)

Note: indicator is descriptive (not standardized) Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2008/09 and 2014/15)

Figure 2, shows an increase, between 5% and 10%, in grade retention and dropout rates for schools B and E, between the year they entered TEIP (2009/10) and the last year under analysis (2014/15). We also note that School F is the only one that decreases grade retention and school dropout rates by 11%, compared to non-TEIP public schools. Both School A and School C increased them by 9% and 2%, respectively. Figure 3 Differences in Dropout and Retention Rates – TEIP and Non-TEIP Public Schools (pp), 2008/09 to 2014/15 X axis: School Years; Y Axis: Percentage Points (pp)

Note: indicator is descriptive (not standardizes) Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2008/09 and 2014/15)

Figure 3, shows a 10% increase in grade retention and dropout rates for Schools B and E between their entry into TEIP (2009/10) and 2014/15. School D records the greatest reduction

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(26%), followed by School F with an 11% decrease, while Schools A and C saw increases of 9% and 2%, respectively, compared to non-TEIP public schools. Figure 4 Differences in 12th Dropout and Retention Rates – TEIP minus non-TEIP (pp), 2008/09 to 2014/15 X axis: School Years; Y axis: Percentage Points (pp)

Note: indicator is descriptive (not standardized) Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2008/09 and 2014/15)

As in the previous figures, also in Figure 4 we can see that schools B and E increased grade retention and dropout rates. Between the year of entry into TEIP (2009/10) and the last year under review (2014/15), Schools B and E had an increase of 4% and 25%, respectively. Regarding schools A, C, and D we note that they improved 12%, 24%, and 30%, respectively, and School F had an increase of 11% between the year of entry into TEIP (2009/10) and the last year under review (2014/15). Figure 5 Percentage of Students with a Positive Score in National Exams in the 12th Grade After a Path Without Retentions in 10th and 11th Grades X axis: School Years; Y axis: Percentage Points (pp)

Note: Data available for three years only (2012/13–2014/15); used descriptively and as tie-breaker Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2012/13 and 2014/15)

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As we can see in Figure 5, after a slight increase in the percentage of students transitioning without grade retention, both schools B and E had a decrease, quite marked in the case of School E, from 28.5% in 2013/14 to 2.8% in 2014/15. Also, we note that both School A and School F show a downward trend in the number of students who transition without grade retention between 2012/13 and 2014/15, of approximately 40% and 50%, respectively. In another direction, schools C and D had an increase of approximately 40% and 20%. However, the fact that this indicator offers data only for three school years has led us to consider it only in cases where there was a need for a tiebreak. Figure 6 Number of National Exams (NES) Undertaken in Each TEIP School, 2001/02 and 2015/16 X axis: School Years; Y Axis: Count of Exams

Note: Descriptive counts (not standardized) Source: based on DGEEC databases (2001/02 and 2015/16)

Figure 7 Evolution of the Proportion of National Exams (NES) Undertaken in TEIP Schools Considering the Total Number of Exams Undertaken by Public Schools, 2001/02 and 2015/16 X axis: School Years; Y axis: % of public-school exams

Note: descriptive indicator (not standardized) Source: based on DGEEC databases (2001/02 and 2015/16)

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According to Figure 6, schools B and E had a decrease in the number of exams undertaken. School E has faced a decline since 2006/07 and even the entry into TEIP (2009/10) has not contained the drop: in 2006/07, School E recorded 642 exams and, in 2015/16, 107 exams. In 2009/2010, when entry into TEIP, School B undertook 837 national exams and, although it has seen a slight increase in the following years, since 2012/13 there was a gradual decrease from 877 to 348 national exams. In Figure 7, we find that School A is the one with the most relevant increase, considering that in 2001/02 it had 423 national exams, 621 in the year it entered TEIP (2006/07) and 858 in 2015/2016. School C, despite some fluctuations between 2001/2002 and 2007/08, shows an increase in the number of national exams in the first years after joining TEIP; however, since 2011/12 there has been a gradual decrease, from 736 to 514 national exams in 2015/16. School F, despite fluctuations, has maintained some stability in the number of national exams, particularly from 2006/07 onwards. As for School D, although with fluctuations, it has had a downward trend in the number of national exams, going from 308 in 2001/02 to 131 in 2015/16. As we can verify by comparing Figure 6 and Figure 7, the results are quite similar. In proportion to the national exams carried out in public schools, schools B and E show a decrease in the percentage of national exams, as can be seen in Figure 7, while School A maintains a trend in increasing the percentage of national exams carried out in proportion to the total exams carried out in public schools, School F maintains some consistency, decreasing the percentage of exams carried out since 2011/12, and School D has had a growing trend since 2005/06. Table 3 Performance in Mathematics of TEIP Schools With an Unfavourable Path, 2011/12 and 2014/15 Mathematics 11/12 12/13 13/14 14/15 School B -1 0 -1 0 School E 0 0 0 0 Note: −1 = below national mean; 0 = at national mean; +1 = above national mean. Annual coding based on NES distribution for the discipline Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2011/12 and 2014/15)

Table 4 Performance in Mathematics of TEIP Schools With a Favourable Path, 2011/12 and 2014/15 Mathematics 11/12 12/13 School A 0 1 School C 0 -1 School D 0 0 School F 0 0

13/14 1 -1 0 0

14/15 1 -1 0 0

Note: −1 = below national mean; 0 = at national mean; +1 = above national mean. Annual coding based on NES distribution for the discipline Source: based on Infoescolas databases (2011/12 and 2014/15)

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Table 3 shows that School E has been in line with the maths’ results of other students in the country, while School B reveals some inconsistency. Table 4 shows that Schools D and F also have results in line with national average, while School A has been the one with the best results, having been above the national average in the last 3 years under analysis. School C is the one with the worst results in the same period. Table 5 Performance in Portuguese of TEIP Schools With an Unfavourable Path, 2011/12 and 2014/15 Portuguese School B School E

11/12 12/13 13/14 14/15 -1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Table 6 Performance in Portuguese of TEIP Schools With an Unfavourable Path, 2011/12 and 2014/15 Portuguese School A School C School D School F

11/12 12/13 0 1 -1 0 0 0 1 1

13/14 1 0 0 0

14/15 1 0 1 0

Table 5 shows that the results of schools B and E are consistent with the results at national level. However, School B improved its performance, since in the academic year 2011/2012 it was below the performance registered at national level. Table 6 shows that School A, after an initial year (2011/2012) where performance was below the national average, had a better performance than that the national average for three consecutive years. School C also shows signs of improvement, since after being below the national level in 2011/2012, it managed to maintain a performance in line with the national results for the following three years. An improvement in performance can also be seen at School D, considering that after three years with results in line with the performance of schools at national level, in 2014/2015 it presents better results than the national average. School F is the one that after two years above the national average (2011/2012 and 2012/2013) worsened its performance, although it has remained in line with the national performance since 2013/2014.

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These quantitative results help frame the subsequent qualitative analysis, which explores the perspectives of school headmasters and TEIP coordinators in relation to school performance factors, establishing links with broader theoretical debates. Appendix B - Quantitative Sampling Frame and School Selection Criteria Supplementary Table B1 Trends in Key Performance Indicators Across 36 TEIP Secondary Schools (2001/02– 2015/16) – Six Schools Selected for In-Depth Qualitative Analysis Marked “YES” in the Column School

NES

Ret/Dro.10.º

Ret/Dro. 11.º

Ret/Dro. 12.º

Prog. w/ ret.

Maths

Number of national exams

Selection

A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X Y Z AA AB

↓↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓ → ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑↑

↑ ↓ ↑ ↑↑ → ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↑↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↑↑ ↓ ↑ ↑

↑ ↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓↓ ↑ ↓

↓↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↑↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↑ ↑↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↓↓

↓↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↑ ↑↑ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↑ ↑ ↑↑ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓

↑ → ↑ ↑ → ↓ ↓ → ↑ ↓ → ↑ ↓ → → ↑ → → ↓ → → → → → ↓ ↓ ↑ →

↑ ↑ ↓ → → → ↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ → ↓ → → → → → → → → → → → → ↑ → ↓ ↓

↑ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↑ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↓↓ ↑ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↑

YES YES YES YES YES YES NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

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AC AD AE AF AG AH AI AJ

↓↓ ↓ ↑↑ ↓ ↓↓ ↑ n/d n/d

↑↑ ↑ ↑ ↓ ↓ ↑↑ n/d n/d

↓ ↓ ↑ ↑ ↑↑ ↑↑ n/d n/d

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↓ ↓↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↑ ↑↑ n/d n/d

↓ ↓ ↑ ↓↓ → ↑ n/d n/d

→ ↑ → → → → n/d n/d

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↑ ↓ n/d n/d

↓↓ ↓ ↓ ↓↓ ↑↑ ↓ n/d n/d

NO NO NO NO NO NO NO NO

Note: This table presents summary trends across the main quantitative indicators used in the study. Arrows indicate overall directional tendencies between 2001/02 and 2015/16 — ↑ improvement, ↓ decline, → relative stability — with double arrows (↑↑/↓↓) denoting stronger patterns.

Indicators differ in temporal coverage and measurement scale (e.g., National Exam Scores [NES], retention/dropout rates, progression without grade repetition, and subject-specific exam results in Portuguese and Mathematics). As such, the synthesis captures general trajectories rather than year-by-year variations. Some internal fluctuations and context-specific differences within schools are not represented in this summary but were fully considered in the underlying analysis and visualised in the original graphs used for school selection.

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Cursed by Accuracy: Exploring Decolonial Practices in Undoing the Native Speaker Spell Mitsuyo Sakamoto Sophia University, Japan

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Abstract Focusing on one Japanese English learner Mami (pseudonym), whose pursuit of grammatical accuracy reflects Japanese English education which emphasizes morphosyntactic precision, this case study examines how raciolinguistic ideologies manifest in the language learning experiences of Japanese university students majoring in English. Mami’s experiences are contrasted with two other students in her class, those of Hayao and Ryota (pseudonyms), who have lived in non-English dominant countries. Drawing on questionnaires, writing samples, and a focus-group interview, the analysis shows how Mami's accuracy anxiety functions not simply as a cognitive or pedagogical concern but as an ontological and raciolinguistic effect, shaped by colonial histories of linguistic legitimacy, reinforced by Japanese education. Situated within scholarship on native-speakerism, English imperialism, decolonial pedagogy and raciolinguistics, the paper argues that learning environments outside the Anglophone "centre" can unsettle the association between English mastery and whiteness. By linking grammatical accuracy to colonial affect, this paper extends raciolinguistic inquiry and calls for a decolonial reorientation of English learning in Japan, one that values pluriversal encounters over proximity to so-called native speakers. Keywords: accuracy, decolonial pedagogy, English as a foreign language, English learners, Japanese native-speakerism

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It is often assumed that Japanese English learners struggle to produce oral output, their oral fluency often traduced as non-native and deficient, and their efforts in learning the language otiose (Sakamoto, 2017; Sakamoto & Furukawa, 2022a, 2022b). In particular, pervasive emphasis on morphosyntactic accuracy has long shackled Japanese English learners to be slaves to correctness, concomitant to entrance exams that students must pass for academic mobility (Sakamoto, 2012). Slightest deviance from the English taught at school is immediately discredited and denounced, often in the form of written tests, leading to academic failure and, hence, affecting students’ socio-economic mobility. In and outside class, students rarely have opportunities to have their English evaluated for its communicativeness per se; paper tests that assess their “correctness” in understanding text and writing English grammatically are most emphasized in Japanese English educational context (Sakamoto, 2012). This paper attempts to provide a subtle and complex portrayal of Japanese English language learners who are exposed to and affected by the ubiquitous accuracy discourse in Japan. The specific research questions asked are: (1a) Do highly proficient English learners nevertheless feel insecure about their language proficiency? (1b) What are the factors that affect their negative self-perception? (2) What can language educators do to address, if not reverse, negative effects as reported in (1a)? Literature Review In order to appreciate how Japanese English learner’s narratives come to be articulated in the way they are told (i.e., to understand the locus of their enunciation (Pennycook, 2021, p. 28)), various theoretical constructs are explored, including linguistic imperialism, native-speakerism, decolonialism, language assemblage which entails the notion of enregisterment and ontology, and raciolinguistics. Finally, pedagogical implications these constructs have to offer will be discussed. Sociohistorical Origin and Nature of English Education in Japan Today, Japan is subjected to the native speaker fallacy (Phillipson, 1992), purporting the importance of English language proficiency. While English education first began in the Edo period in the 17th century, English education in Japan was propagated in the Meiji era (18681912) when the nation was undergoing a turbulent change towards modernization based on western ideals. After its defeat in World War II against the US, English came to be equated to an international language necessary for globalization (Seargeant, 2009), and this English was conceptualized as belonging to white, monolingual, American/British male native speakers (Kubota, 2002). Today English was conceptualized as a necessary language for gurobarujinzai (global human resources) expected to mark Japan’s position and enhance Japan’s competitiveness in the global market (Kubota, 2017; Sakamoto, 2012). This prevalent discourse has been problematized and challenged by scholars (e.g., Rudolph, 2019; Lowe, 2020) addressing how essentialized nativeness and the resulting Othering of native English

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speakers reinforce homogeneity narrative (Rudolph, 2023) that ironically deems English as not belonging to the Japanese. Nevertheless, English educators in Japan are predominantly Japanese. This however does not represent their relinquishment of native English speaker ideals. Given its stringent hiring policy (i.e., all teachers must have a valid Japanese teacher license except in rare circumstances where special provisions are made) and logistics (e.g., high level of Japanese proficiency expected to take part in school administration and correspondence with parents) makes non-Japanese teachers in Japanese educational scenes rare. English education in Japan is shaped by its Japaneseness as well as Otherness, categorizing English speakers distinctly as those of inner-, outer-, or expanding circles (Kachru, 1985). This is a limited, essentialized, colonial outlook on English Japan that ignores the more nuanced and complex identity negotiation that actually takes in Japanese contexts (Hammine & Rudolph, 2023), yet unfortunately this distinction is still prevalent today, very much entrenched in Japanese psyche. Challenging Linguistic Imperialism and Native-Speakerism: Decolonial Turn Linguistic imperialism refers to the marginalization, replacement, and denial of rights of languages while the dominant language being promoted uncritically as a global language (Ansre, 1979; Phillipson, 1992, 2010, 2023) and native speakers imagined to embody standard language (Kramsch, 1988, p. 16). Over the years, such conceptualization of native speaker paragon has finally come to be questioned, challenged, and denounced (Holliday, 2006, 2013), yet this obsolete contention is still pervasive in Japanese public discourse today (Sakamoto, 2017; Seargeant, 2013). In response to such enduring hierarchies, applied linguistics is undergoing what Canagarajah (2024) calls a decolonial turn, relinquishing traditional, dualistic, western onto-epistemology, which has explored “language” on its own terms, instead of envisioning it as entangled in sociomaterial conditions (p. 10). Pennycook (2024) terms this shift a move away from language as structure epistemology (p. 7). Likewise, De Fina et al. (2023) calls for “re-seeing” applied linguistics from a novel perspective which does not rely on the traditional, Eurocentric Global North epistemes, giving rise to alternative pluriversal futures (p. 827). For them, decolonial work is that of not so much a reform but a revolution, imagining alternative realities anew, dismantling the colonial power. Canagarajah (2024) lists three constructs that have given rise to such western, detached conceptualization of language: i) logocentricism (language more important than other communication means); ii) cognitivism (mind controlling body); and iii) humanism (humans as agents enacting control over the environment and non-humans) (p. 4). Relinquishing these epistemes can afford us different ways of appreciating and evaluating English language learning, in turn realizing and actualizing decolonial pedagogy. Deumert and Makoni (2023) provides a concrete list in ways to actualize decolonial pedagogy, including a move away from an emphasis on logocentricism, encouraging a more transdisciplinary approaches to knowledge and reconceptualizing what can be scholarly texts and reimagining authorship of such texts (pp. 239-240). For example, they call for prioritizing

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texts and authors that have been marginalized, critically investigating colonial ontologies of disciplines, and establishing connections with non-academic communities, to name a few. Such a move is lacking in Japanese society in which white, Anglo figures are still deemed to represent English speakers (Seargeant, 2009, 2013). In appreciating and enacting a decolonial turn, Canagarajah (2024) describes language as entangled in a mesh of various semiotic and linguistic resources. That is, it is no longer sufficient to explore language on its own, but instead to look into the phenomena by questioning and problematizing the western epistemology that emerged from European Enlightenment (Silverstein, 2023, p. 20). By letting go of the traditional norms which have been envisaged as enregistered (Agha, 2005), we can discover novel ways of approaching English language teaching and use, in line with a call for dismantling of traditional understanding echoed by De Fina et al. (2023), Flores and Rosa (2023), and Pennycook (2024). Moreover, identifying and documenting sedimented, patterned, institutionalized emergent activities from successful decolonial practices will allow educators to teach ethical dispositions needed to engage in meaningful, inclusive communicative activities. In line with this perspective, Pennycook (2024) emphasizes how all languages should be understood not as fixed or preexisting entities but as dynamic configuration of communicative possibilities that speakers assemble from their own linguistic histories and experiences (p. 91). Because it reflects one’s own histories, Pennycook delineates the ontology one follows in arriving at a particular assemblage. In this paper, participants’ formation of ideological assemblages pertaining to languages, that is, how their beliefs about language interact and influence each other, shaping both their linguistic ideologies and communicative practices (Kroskrity, 2018, p. 134) is focused on. Barad (2007) also explains how things do not just simply come together, retaining their original features as is; rather, she notes how they intra-act, morphing the actants (be it people or things) upon coming together, giving rise to a novel outcome (p. 815). This study aims to show how the language ideological assemblages held by participants intersect and intertwine with other socio-material factors, (re)defining their identity as an English language user––a novel outcome that results from idiosyncratic intra-actions, and what pedagogical features can be identified that would be conducive to enacting desirable outcomes. Rosa and Flores (2017) also call for dismantling, or in their words, unsettling traditional enregisterment, in this case specifically that ties race to language, what they call raciolinguistics. Deficit perspectives permeate in raciolingulistics, locating inadequacies with English knowledge and use by the non-white, when in fact this discrimination stems from institutionalized hierarchies of legitimacy (p. 622). This discriminatory practice is often left unnoticed, perceived as the social norm. Race and language are enregistered as inseparable, feeds into and gives rise to particular identity formation that can discredit one’s linguistic repertoire and practice. Flores and Rosa (2023) (See also Rosa, 2019) call for the deuniversalizing of such modes of being and knowing, freeing ourselves from negative ascriptions of racialized personhood, such as non-European, primordial, unruly, deficient, a

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curse that is still pervasive among Japanese English learners. Communicative Activity as the Unit of Analysis Given that we are to deconstruct traditional enregistered concepts and instead realize that language knowledge and use are ensemble of various semiotic resources in addition to the language itself, that is, assemblages of various onto-semiotic elements (Pennycook, 2024), Canagarajah (2024) calls us to appreciate and assess language learning as a communicative activity. This way, our interest expands from only focusing on grammatical accuracy or fluency etc. to acknowledging and appreciating how language learners creatively access and utilize diverse semiotic resources to make and convey meaning. This means relinquishing, and even challenging, western, native-speaker norms, and instead embracing a more inclusive, dynamic, and complex understanding of language learning and use. In realizing decolonial pedagogy, an attempt was made in this study to envision how exactly this deconstruction and eradication of traditional Global North could be actualized in a Japanese English language classroom. To date, western onto-epistemology (Canagarajah, 2024, p. 2), understood by the Japanese as English belonging to native White English speakers, and that they were to aspire to acquire their norms (Holliday, 2013; Sakamoto, 2012; Seargeant, 2013), a result of raciolinguistic enregisterment (Rosa & Flores, 2017), is still very much entrenched in the Japanese society. While prior studies have analyzed these norms and their social implications (e.g., Seargeant, Kubota, 2017; Rudolph, 2022), this study contributes by providing how decolonial pedagogy can be concretely enacted in the classroom. Methodology This is a qualitative case study using reflexive thematic analysis, focusing on three students who are all English majors at a private Japanese university known for its English program. The researcher was also the instructor for one of the courses the participants took. This study obtained an ethics approval from the university, the purpose of study was explained orally on the first day of class, noting how participants will be referred to using pseudonyms to assure anonymity. The letter of information and consent form were then distributed, and informed written consent were collected from all participants. Participants In this paper, one particular advanced Japanese English language learner, Mami (pseudonym), is focused on, a non-returnee student who has received her entire English education in Japan. Her narratives are contrasted to those of her classmates, Hayao and Ryota (both pseudonyms), two returnee students. All three were English majors at the time of the interview, in their first year of university enrolled in the required English courses offered by the researcher. The English program streams their students based on their score on an English listening test administered at the beginning upon their entry into the university. As a result, the three were placed in the same class, a class that has a good balance of returnee and non-returnee students.

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Data Collected There are three data sources in this study: interview, questionnaire, and writing sample. Table 1 Data Sources and Timeline Spring 2021 Questionnaire 1 -semantic coding

Fall 2021

Winter 2022

Spring 2022

Writing samples -semantic coding Questionnaire 2 -semantic coding Interview -Transcribed; semantic coding then latent coding; codes from the three data sets were compared and categorized, resulting in themes Given the COVID-19 pandemic, Mami, Hayao and Ryota were all interviewed online together in March 2022. Their interview data are supplemented by their written work in a required English class over the course of one academic year (April-January). The three were also given a 14-item semi-structured questionnaire about their motivation and confidence in English at the end of the year. The interview took place after administering the end-of-the-year questionnaire, as the interview questions were formulated based on the responses given in the questionnaire. In the interview, the participants were allowed to use Japanese (L1) or English (L2), and while most utterances were in English (as English was the language used in class), occasionally it switched to Japanese. Japanese utterances are followed by English translations provided by the researcher. The interview lasted approximately two hours and was recorded, transcribed and sent back to the participants for member checking. While several writing samples were collected from the participants in the course of the year, a short piece in particular that they wrote in October 2021 was focused on, reflecting back on their group presentation activity. This reflection piece written in English, ranging from approximately 400 to 600 words, unlike other academic writing that they did, reveals their own self-appraisal of their English performance. The content of this writing was used to supplement

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the interview and questionnaire data. Analysis First, the transcription of the interview was done by the researcher to assure familiarization of data (Terry & Hayfield, 2021, p. 31), as it involved repeated listening to the recording and paying close attention to the actual words uttered as well as ellipsis. The interview transcript and questionnaire were then coded, first deductively, based on the theoretical concepts such as “race and language enregisterment” and “native speakerism”. This process largely involved semantic coding, paying attention on the surface level of what was said/written by the participants (Terry & Hayfield, 2021, p. 38). Key words/expressions found in the transcript/writing were highlighted. After the first round of coding, a second round took place, this time approaching the data inductively to see if there were important concepts being missed, referring not only to the raw data but also going back to the researcher’s analytic memos which were taken during and immediately after the interview in order to document any questions, thoughts and revelations. This process involved latent coding, which required more in-depth analysis to identify things that were less obvious, and analytic memos were used to help identify them. After the codes were identified, they were categorized, and finally seven themes emerged: building rapport with peers, gaining self-confidence, obtaining feedback for selfimprovement, gaining motivation to work harder, being aware of the perception of the Other, having the need to be validated by NSs, and feeling anxious about accuracy. The finished manuscript was then sent to the participants for member validation. In this paper, the notion of accuracy and its related feelings of anxiety (See also Furukawa, 2014) will be focused on, because this particular theme was not something that was expected to be so succinct, as the participants were all identified as advanced English learners who display comfortable, natural language use. Close analysis of the data shows how native speakerism and raciolinguistics, combined with institutionalized traditional norms, complexly intertwine and affect the focus participant Mami, who struggles to (re)figurate herself (Silverstein, 2023) shedding light on a complex, multifaceted issue for English learners in Japan. Findings In this section, Mami’s narratives are contrasted with Hayao’s and Ryota’s, the former entrenched in traditional enregisterment, while the latter two offering an alternative vision with respect to language learning and use. Mami: Accuracy as Anxiety It was discovered that Mami is the victim of institutionalized ideologies that have sedimented over years of Japanese English education system which relentlessly placed emphasis on accuracy over fluency. She admits that she would like to contribute to class discussions, but she makes sure to have the “correct” utterance composed in her head, while other returnee

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students volunteer to share their views: ⾃分の思いは出来たら⾔いたい。亮太とか駿が話している時、⼀⽣懸命頭で考えて、考え終わったら⾔える。

[I want to say my thoughts whenever I can. When Ryota or Hayao is talking, I try my best to think about what I want to say in my head, and when I’m done, I can say it] She utilizes the time to carefully compose what she would like to say while returnees such as Ryota and Hayao contribute to class discussions. Mami insists that she uses “correct” English, as that has been what she has been told for years: なんかできるだけ、なんか正解に、近い、ものを、出したい [I want to, produce, something that is, as close to, the correct form as possible]. During the interview, Mami was the only one who expressed her adherence to correctness, a feature that is emphasized in Japanese education system, an ontological impact she has had to endure. Despite her outstanding performance in class, Mami discredits her ability, saying, “I don’t think I am a fluent speaker”. This negative self-appraisal could not be eradicated by appraisals from those in her immediate surroundings, including her teachers and classmates: …everyone is like, Mami, your English is amazing! And I was kind of 恥ずかしい [hazukashii; embarrassed] to use English in front of everyone, when I was in junior high school in high school because like even when talking to the native speakers teacher, I couldn't use English because, like, even though I speak in Japanese to that native speakers teacher, they can understand me so なんか英語を喋ってる？となんかひけらかしてるみたいで恥ずかしくて[it was as if ‘are you saying something in English? Embarrassing, as if I was showing off]。先⽣になんかいつも[It was as if the teacher (was always saying)] Mami… your English is really good, but why you don't use English when you're talking to me? Like, but, so I was really happy that when I knew that I was accepted into the university and, like …most of the members in class didn't have experience of studying abroad or, like many of them are like ⽇本で英語を頑張って勉強してきた[(those who have been) trying hard learning English in Japan] type? So, like, I felt that I finally have a friends that can share, our feel… hear my feeling. Good language performance is not necessarily something that is openly celebrated in Japanese classroom, as one can appear “showing off”, possibly leading to negative consequences, such as ostracism and bullying (Furukawa & Sakamoto, 2023). It is notable how the word for “showing off” (ひけらかしてる [hikerakashiteru]) is specifically said in Japanese, a feature that is particularly socially denounced in Japan. It was discovered that this negative sentiment stems from her failed attempt at entering an elementary school of her choice: It was like なんだろう[how should I say]。私が⼩学校受験に失敗して、滑り⽌めに⼊った⼩学校に進学してここまできて [I failed the entrance exam to get into the

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elementary school and ended up going to a school of my second choice, which has led me to where I am now]. My school was a low level school, so there was like, so there were…most students could not use English fluently? And everyone is like and I was kinda 恥ずかしい[hazukashii; embarrassing] in using English in front of everyone in junior high and high school… Again, the notion of entrance exam, in which accuracy is paramount, and embarrassment, a social gaze that Japanese students are exposed to and having to endure, are both specifically expressed in Japanese. Mami’s narratives show how even a highly proficient English learner can feel anxious about their English abilities, an outcome of a long Japanese pedagogical tradition that has emphasized accuracy. Ryota and Hayao: Decolonial Awareness through Multilingual Experience In response to her negative self-appraisal, Ryota quickly intervenes with his objection: あのね、あのね。まじで⾃信ないとかいうけど、ガチで上⼿いからね

[You know what? Seriously, I know you say you're not confident, but you are so good]. What’s striking is that positive comments from her teachers and peers, however sincere they may be, do not appear entirely effective in undoing the recalcitrant negative self-appraisal, or the ‘curse’ Mami is under. However, in reflecting back on her presentation performance, Mami wrote: I think our presentation went very well. Although I was a bit apprehensive since it was my first time to give a presentation with more than 10 people, I think it turned out to be the best one. Personally, I was honored to be in charge of the introduction to the hourlong presentation. The introduction is an important part of engaging the audience. As for the content, I think I was able to give a good enough overview to kick off the presentation. In addition, I think that I could deliver the presentation in a professional atmosphere. She admits that she was apprehensive at first but accredits the presentation as being the “best one”. Having been appointed to start their group presentation, and having successfully delivered it professionally, Mami confirms her ability and potential by engaging in a communicative English activity to her satisfaction. While we see how affirmations from peers in Mami’s communicative success over correctness does not appear to make an immediate impact on Mami, her involvement with her peers shows her subtle but increased self-confidence. Mami: Earning for Fluent English User Status While instructor and peer feedback did not alter Mami’s self-appraisal, a comment from a

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native English speaker in a non-academic, authentic context seems to have had a positive effect on Mami in profound ways. Mami shared one emotional episode she had experienced at a café that she worked: なんか私、そのスターバックスでバイトしてて...この間、私が、ドリンクを作っていて、渡す時に、多分、きっとアメリカ⼈の⽅かだったと思うんですけど、渡すときに

Thank you so much って⾔ったんですよ。そしたら、めっちゃハッとした顔して Thank you!って⾔って、なんかテイクアウトだったので、⼊り⼝の前まで⾏って、出る直前で、こっちの⽅クルッて振り向いて、戻って来て、なんか Like, actually where are you from?って⾔われて。で、なんか I’m Japanese and I lived in Japan ever since I was born って⾔ったら、Oh but your English is really fluent and really good!って⾔われて I actually major in English in university って⾔ったら、Oh, you are doing great

job!って⾔われて、最後になんか胸に⼿を当てて Thank you so much!って⾔って帰ってったんですよ。そのお客さんが。なんかそれが、今、思い出しただけでも泣きそう

[I work part-time at Starbucks...The other day, I was making a drink, and when I handed it to him, I think he must have been an American, I said “Thank you so much” (in English). He looked really surprised and said, “Thank you!” He was about to leave the store but then he turned around and came back saying, “Like, actually where are you from?” I told him I'm Japanese and I’ve lived in Japan ever since I was born, and then he said with his hand on his chest, “Oh, you are doing a great job!” I feel like crying just remembering it.] This episode about her emblematic encounter with a native English speaker, in a position to endorse and impose standards, allowed her to align her performed intentional identity (i.e., to speak and behave like a native English speaker) with that of her imagined stereotypical legitimate English user self (Silverstein, 2023), leads to a positive effect on her confidence, yet, ironically, this episode can also be seen as furthering her native speaker ideology. While successful communication with native English speakers can have profound positive effects, it is argued that this needs to be balanced by exposure to other factors that are not dependent on native speaker endorsement. Ryota and Hayao: Acknowledging Semiotic Entanglement In contrast to Mami, Hayao and Ryota, who have both resided abroad in non-English-speaking countries (i.e., Europe and Asia) realize how majority of English speakers are actually not native speakers, and translanguaging experience or reliance on other semiotic means besides the language itself is in fact quite common. Ryota explains: でも海外って、それこそ、あ、これ部分的にオッケーだよ、みたいなことがあるじゃないですか。そのニュアンスを（クラスメートに）理解してほしいと俺は頑張ってたんですけど、この⼀年(笑)。あの、あってなくてもいいのっていう。

[But overseas, there are things like, “Oh, this is partially OK. I've been trying my best to

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make people (=his Japanese classmates) understand that nuance for the past year. (LAUGH) You know, it doesn't matter if it's correct or not] Ryota understands how English can be used in different ways by different people and is accepting of and sensitive to diverse ways of meaning-making: [I] had enough living abroad (experience so I don’t need more) but (I think all) students should go study abroad; so different ways of thinking; not just Japanese in the world; it helps a lot…not just for languages or seeing (the world) but understanding diversity For Ryota, studying abroad is not just something that prioritizes the mastery of L2, but rather to be exposed to different worldviews, or an alternative pluriversal, re-imagined world (De Fina et al., 2023, p. 826; Pennycook, 2024, p. 36). In such a vision, raciolinguistic ideology (Rosa & Flores, 2017; Flores & Rosa, 2023) can be questioned and challenged (Holliday, 2006), envisioning how English is not exclusive to White, native speakers but one of the semiotic resources that one can utilize to share and co-create different understandings of the world (Canagarajah, 2024). Hayao, who resided in southeast Asia for several years before returning to Japan, is also adept at distancing himself from Japanese normative ideologies and realizing benefits of having overseas experience is not so much about language learning but coming to cultivate different world views: 海外⾏った時に、海外から⾒た⽇本、⾃分の国を俯瞰的？第三者から⾒ることができるから。それが結構⼤事。⾃分の国で当たり前のことが他の国からだと違うということが結構わかる。

[When I go abroad, I can get a bird's eye view of Japan, my country, from abroad. I can see my country from a third person's point of view. That is quite important. I can see that things that are commonplace in my country are different from what I see in other countries] Hayao is not concerned about his English proficiency per se. Rather, his focus shifts to a more wholistic appreciation of what overseas experience can afford him. Because he is not under the “accuracy curse”, he is more interested in what language can do. Via a different language, Japanese ideologies can be questioned and contested, affording him to arrive at a new interpretation of what language learning could entail. The following table summarizes the thematic contrasts, presenting the participants’ orientation towards English use. It shows how learners’ experiences and ideologies range from internalized accuracy norms to decolonial, multilingual awareness.

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Table 2 Summary of the Findings Participants

Theme

Mami (1)

Accuracy Anxiety

Ryota Hayao (1)

Mami (2)

Ryota Hayao (2)

Orientation towards English as Internalized accuracy ideology Peer affirmation/ decolonial stance

& Decolonial Awareness through Multilingual Experience Earning Fluent External English User validation/ Status native-speaker ideology & Acknowledging Plurilingual Semiotic worldview/ Entanglement critical ideology

Key Findings Accuracy norms induce anxiety & self-censorship Multilingual peers affirm communicative success over correctness

Native-speaker praise affirms identity but reinforces native-speaker dependency Multilingual experience enables questioning of linguistic hierarchies & raciolinguistic ideologies

Discussion Without similar experiences and realizations, and with long-standing institutionalized racial and linguistic hierarchies in Japan that emphasize language over communication (logocentricism), mind controlling body (cognitivism), and individuals as agents for control of the surroundings (humanism) (Canagarajah, 2024), Mami discredits her own language variety despite her instructors’ praise for her excellent English. Indeed, Silverstein (2023) notes how “one does not simply become a type of person by uttering a shibboleth” (p. 136). Despite her excellent command of English, Mami struggles to let go of her imperfect self-perception and adherence to the native speaker myth, a by-product of socio-historical institutionalized normative discourse pervasive in Japan, leading to a “biographically unique self [that is] relationally figurated” (Silverstein, 2023, p. 136, emphasis in the original). Therefore, ascription of a “good English speaker” identity endorsed by a native English speaker at her workplace allowed her to connect this particular interaction with her imagined authorizing figure (i.e., a native English speaker), having a profound effect on her confidence, allowing her to align herself with a normative, ideologically informed English speaker identity. However, while this endorsement was encouraging and positive for Mami, this reinforces raciolinguistic enregisterment (Rosa & Flores, 2017; Rosa, 2019; Flores & Rosa, 2023) from which she needs to disconnect. In contrast, Hayao and Ryota, both with experience living outside Japan for a prolonged period of time, realize what Canagarajah (2024) calls communicative activity in which their reliance on language as the only semiotic resource is reduced, and creative meaning making is realized and achieved by bringing together various semiotic tools (e.g., artifacts,

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gestures, facial expressions, intonation etc.). Their overseas experience has also allowed them to reconfigure normative expectations defined by a particular context (Silverstein, 2023, p. 15), witnessing successful communication which is not excluded from nor marginalized by traditional native speaker norms. Furthermore, what is striking about the narratives of all three participants is that they readily, naturally, meaningfully, and often strategically engage in translanguaging (Garcia & Li, 2014). For them, utilizing various linguistic resources, be it of Japanese or English origin, to convey what they wish to express, is a natural feature, something Canagarajah (2024) would endorse as a communicative activity. Recommendations While realization of various semiotic means besides language is important and useful, at the same time, Canagarajah (2024) does not dismiss traditional grammar-focused instruction altogether, acknowledging that there are occasions that necessitate explicit grammar instruction (p. 9). What he is calling for, instead, is to encourage students to be sensitive and open to diverse semiotic resources available to them. And having explored Mami’s narratives, deconstructing traditional enregistered norms (Agha, 2005) is no easy feat. Yet, Hayao and Ryota’s narratives tell us that immersing oneself in a multicultural setting and communicating with those of various linguistic backgrounds, having the means to detach themselves from traditional native speaker norms, can lead to questioning and perhaps even dismantling the raciolinguistic enregisterment (Rosa & Flores, 2017; Rosa, 2019). This then allows learners to reconceptualize English as a language which does not necessarily belong exclusively to the socalled native speakers, and to appreciate various semiotic resources that are at their disposal. Thus far, contention within this area of applied linguistics has been on the linguistic and cultural benefits of study abroad (e.g., Segalowitz & Freed, 2004; Serrano et al., 2012) which takes place in the country that the target language is spoken as an official language, but in fact, there should also be a discussion about an alternative – the linguistic and cultural benefits of studying abroad in countries where English is not spoken as the first or official language. We have long assumed that English language is best learned in places where English is officially spoken by the so-called “native speakers”. This is an understandable, albeit contentious, conclusion to arrive at if we were to appreciate language solely as structure, a remnant of narrowly constructed Western/Northern epistemology that applied linguistics has relied on for too long (Pennycook, 2024, p. 148). English language learning need not necessarily be constrained by native speaker ideologies, especially for those who are being exposed to the language for the first time who could benefit most from early exposure to World Englishes (Kachru, 1985), and to realize the particular affordances that can be realized in particular places, with particular people and things, distributed and assembled in particular entanglements (Pennycook, 2024) which may not be ostensibly conducive to English language learning. This initiative could be envisioned as a decolonial step, an “ethical engagement with alternative ways of thinking about language and

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context” (Pennycook, 2024, p. 152). However, this does not mean that Japan should dismiss its explicit instruction on English grammar altogether (Canagarajah, 2024). It does mean, however, that grammar teaching should be done critically. That is, teachers and students should question their adherence to accuracy and native-speaker ideologies (Sakamoto, 2022), and explore other semiotic resources that can facilitate students to convey their thoughts meaningfully and creatively. Pedagogical Implications Based on the discussions, pedagogical implications of this study are as follows: • •

•

• •

Include diverse varieties of English in teaching materials rather than privileging native speaker norms; Encourage translanguaging and provide opportunities for students to use English for creative self-expression without prioritizing strict morphosyntactic accuracy. This however does not mean accuracy should be abandoned entirely in all activities; Facilitate interactions with, and exposure to, not only native English speakers but nonnative English speakers. Given this, study abroad in non-English speaking countries should be actively considered; Recognize nonnative English-speaking teachers as important role models for English learners; Promote dialogic reflections among students to foster better mutual understanding, uncover underlying language learning ideologies, and collaboratively address them. Conclusion

This study has illuminated three interrelated insights. First, Mami's experiences underscore the emotional and ideological burden of linguistic accuracy, a legacy of colonial discourses that continue to define legitimate English through native-speaker norms. Mami's desire for validation from native English speakers reflects the deep affective hold of raciolinguistic hierarchies that position Japanese learners as perpetually deficient, underscored by ideologies permeated by Japanese education. Second, contrasting Mami's case with those of Ryota and Hayao highlights the value of alternative study-abroad ecologies. Their time in non-inner circle environments allowed them to use English more freely, detached from native-speaker expectations. Such contexts function as decolonial spaces where linguistic legitimacy is negotiated through communication rather than conformity, expanding what counts as competent English use. Finally, the findings point to a broader decolonial imperative in Japanese English language teaching (ELT). Following Canagarajah (2024) and Deumert and Makoni (2023), English education in Japan must move toward faithful witnessing, attending to multiple ways of

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knowing and being, and recognizing that English, too, is an assemblage of diverse semiotic resources. Encouraging engagement with varied Englishes across contexts can unsettle inherited hierarchies, enabling students to imagine linguistic identities beyond colonial desire. While this study is a small-scale case study, we come to see how, by being exposed to different English varieties in various settings—a novel socio-physical space where various individuals, semiotic features, and objects can come to intra-act (Barad, 2007) and give rise to a new ontoepisteme—students can come to appreciate pluriversal worldviews (De Fina et al., 2023), which is so lacking in today’s Japanese society. Acknowledgement The author would like to express sincere gratitude to Gavin Furukawa for his time and effort in reading the draft numerous times and providing insightful feedback each time.

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References Agha, A. (2005). Voice, footing, enregisterment. Journal of Linguistic Anthropology, 15(1), 38–59. https://doi.org/10.1525/jlin.2005.15.1.38 Ansre, G. (1979). Four rationalisations for maintaining European languages in education in Africa. African Languages, 5(2), 10–17. Barad, K. (2007). Posthumanist performativity: Toward an understanding of how matter comes to matter. Signs, 28(3), 801–831. https://doi.org/10.1086/345321 Canagarajah, S. (2024). Diversifying “English” at the decolonial turn. TESOL Quarterly. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3306 De Fina, A., Oostendorp, M., & Ortega, L. (2023). Sketches toward a decolonial applied linguistics. Applied Linguistics, 44, 819–832. https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amad059 Demeurt, A., & Makoni, S. (2023). Decolonial praxis and pedagogy in sociolinguistics: Concluding reflections. In A. Deumert & S. Makoni (Eds.), From southern theory to decolonizing sociolinguistics: Voices, questions and alternatives (pp. 239–254). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Flores, N., & Rosa, J. (2023). Undoing raciolinguistics. Journal of Sociolinguistics, 27, 421– 427. https://doi.org/10.1111/josl.12643 Furukawa, G. (2014). ‘Stupidest of all primates’: The role of English in Japanese television. Journal of Asia Pacific Communication, 24(2), 196–220. https://doi.org/10.1075/japc.24.2.03fur Garcia, O., & Li, W. (2014). Translanguaging: Language, bilingualism and education. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. Hammine, M., & Rudolph, N. (2023). Perceiving and problematizing ‘invisibility’ in English language education and criticality: A duoethnographic dialogue. Asian Englishes, 24(3), 311–325. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2022.2081900 Holliday, A. (2006). Native-speakerism. ELT Journal, 60(4), 385-387. https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccl030 Holliday, A. (2013). ‘Native speaker’ teachers and cultural belief. S. A. Houghton & D. J. Rivers (Eds.), Native-speakerism in Japan: Intergroup dynamics in foreign language education (pp. 17–26). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Kachru, B. (1985). Standards, codification and sociolinguistic realism. In R. Quirk & H. Widdowson (Eds.), English in the world: Teaching and learning the language and literatures (pp. 11–30). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kramsch, C. (1988). The privilege of the intercultural speaker. In M. Byram & M. Fleming (Eds.), Language learning in intercultural perspectives: Approaches through drama and ethnography (pp. 16-31). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kroskrity, P. V. (2018). On recognizing persistence in the Indigenous language ideologies of multilingualism in two Native American communities. Language & Communication, 62, 133–144. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.langcom.2018.04.012 Kubota, R. (2002). The impact of globalization on language teaching in Japan. In D. Block & D. Cameron (Eds.), Globalization and language teaching (pp. 13–28). London, UK: Routledge.

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Kubota, R. (2017). Globalization and language education in Japan. In N. Van Deusen-Scholl & S. May (Eds.), Second and foreign language education: Encyclopedia of language and education (pp. 287-299). Cham, Switzerland: Springer. Lowe, R. J. (2020). Uncovering ideology in English language teaching: Identifying the ‘native speaker’ frame. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. Pennycook, A. (2021). Critical applied linguistics: A critical re-introduction. New York, NY: Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003090571 Pennycook, A. (2024). Language assemblages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic imperialism. Oxford, UK:Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009348638 Phillipson, R. (2010). Linguistic imperialism continued. New York, NY: Routledge. Phillipson, R. (2023). Language policy implications of ‘global’ English for linguistic human rights. In T. Skutnabb-Kangas & R. Phillipson (Eds.), The handbook of linguistic human rights (pp. 143–157). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley Blackwell. ttps://doi.org/10.1002/9781119753926.ch9 Rosa, J. (2019). Looking like a language, sounding like a race: Raciolinguistic ideologies and the learning of Latinidad. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780190634728.001.0001 Rosa, J., & Flores, N. (2017). Unsettling race and language: Toward a raciolinguistic perspective. Language in Society, 46, 621–647 https://doi.org/10.1017/S0047404517000562 Rudolph, N. (2019). Native speakerism (?!): (Re)considering critical lenses and corresponding implications in the field of English language teaching. Indonesian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14(1), 89-113. Rudolph, N. (2023). Narratives and negotiations of identity in Japan and criticality in (English) language education: (Dis)connections and implications. TESOL Quarterly, 57(2), 375–401. https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.3150 Sakamoto, M. (2012). Moving towards effective English language teaching in Japan: Issues and challenges. Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development, 33(4), 409– 420. https://doi.org/10.1080/01434632.2012.661437 Sakamoto, M. (2017). Challenging hegemonic discourse: Oral proficiency=English proficiency? In M. Sakamoto & Y. Watanabe (Eds.), Oyo gengogaku kara eigo kyoiku e [From applied linguistics to English teaching] (pp. 211–232). Sophia University Press. Sakamoto, M. (2022). The missing C: Addressing criticality in CLIL. International Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 25(7), 2422–2434. https://doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2021.1914540 Sakamoto, M., & Furukawa, G. (2022a). (Re)imagining oneself as an English user: Identity formation of Japanese English learners. Asian Englishes, 25(3), 407-420. https://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2021.1989547 Sakamoto, M., & Furukawa, G. (2022b). ‘Native speakers aren’t perfect’: Japanese English learners’ identity transformation as English users. System, 110, 102921. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102921

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Seargeant, P. (2009). The idea of English in Japan: Ideology and the evolution of a global language. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Seargeant, P. (2013). Ideologies of nativism and linguistic globalization. In S. A. Houghton & D. J. Rivers (Eds.), Native-speakerism in Japan: Intergroup dynamics in foreign language education (pp. 231–242). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Segalowitz, N., & Freed, B. (2004). Context, contact, and cognition in oral fluency acquisition: Learning Spanish in at home and study abroad contexts. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 26, 173–199. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263104262027 Serrano, R., Tragant, E., & Llanes, A. (2012). A longitudinal analysis of the effects of one year abroad. The Canadian Modern Language Review, 68(2), 138–163. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr.68.2.138 Silverstein, M. (2023). Language in culture: Lectures on the social semiotics of language. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/9781009198813 Terry, G., & Hayfield, N. (2021). Essentials of thematic analysis. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Corresponding author: Mitsuyo Sakamoto Email: mitsuy-s@sophia.ac.jp

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A Machine Learning Approach to Predict Technology Integration Among Mathematics Teacher Educators Churun L. Maknun Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Rizky Rosjanuardi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Dadan Dasari Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia

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Abstract This study aims to predict the willingness and proficiency of Mathematics Teacher Educators (MTEs) in integrating technology into mathematics instruction. This study employs a machine learning approach to predict the willingness and proficiency of Mathematics Teacher Educators (MTEs) in integrating technology into mathematics instruction. Secondary data from 104 MTEs were analyzed using a decision tree model to identify the most significant predictors of technology integration. The analysis revealed that familiarity with and perceived ease of use of technology were the primary determinants of MTEs’ willingness to adopt digital tools in teaching. Moreover, higher education levels and institutional support were associated with greater technological proficiency. Despite limited prior experience, many MTEs displayed a constructive attitude toward technology adoption, suggesting a readiness to engage in continuous digital learning. These findings provide actionable insights for policymakers and professional development designers in developing targeted training programs that enhance digital competence among teacher educators. Beyond its practical implications, this study contributes by showing how machine learning can extend TAM and UTAUT frameworks, revealing nonlinear relationships and offering data-driven insights into technology integration among mathematics teacher educators. Keywords: decision tree model, mathematics education, predictive analysis, teacher proficiency, technology integration

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The integration of technology in mathematics education has gained significant attention for its potential to enhance students’ conceptual understanding and learning outcomes (Cirneanu & Moldoveanu, 2024; Sunzuma, 2023). Digital tools can help visualize abstract ideas and promote more interactive classroom experiences (Irakarama et al., 2024). Mathematics Teacher Educators (MTEs) therefore play a pivotal role in preparing future teachers to effectively integrate technology into their pedagogical practice (Das, 2019; Jacinto & Carreira, 2023). However, despite the recognized benefits, the actual adoption of technology in mathematics instruction remains inconsistent. Many educators still face challenges such as limited access, inadequate training, and resistance to changing traditional approaches (Alenezi, 2017; Bauer & Kenton, 2005). Effective integration requires not only technical proficiency but also pedagogical understanding and institutional support (Ertmer et al., 2012; Lawrence & Tar, 2018). Consequently, identifying the factors that influence MTEs’ willingness and proficiency to adopt educational technology is essential for designing professional development programs and policies that promote meaningful technology integration in mathematics education. Researchers have proposed several models related to technology adoption. Two models that are often referred to in this context are the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Both models provide basic explanations for why someone adopts technology. Although the opportunities are great, these models largely focus on individual perceptions. For example, focusing on perceptions of usefulness and ease of use and ignoring other factors such as the wider school or institutional environment (Rençber, 2020; Wedlock et al., 2019). In addition, these models often rely on traditional statistical techniques that assume linear relationships, which may not find deeper patterns when dealing with large, complex, or nonlinear data (Bervell & Umar, 2017). While traditional regression-based approaches have been widely used to model technology adoption, they typically rely on assumptions of linearity and independence among predictors (Marikyan et al., 2023). Such models may overlook subtle interactions and nonlinear effects that shape educators’ behavioral intentions and competencies (Bervell & Umar, 2017). In contrast, machine learning techniques—particularly decision tree algorithms—are capable of identifying complex, hierarchical relationships between variables without requiring predefined functional form (Hsieh, 2023; C. Wang, 2024). This flexibility allows ML models to uncover hidden structures within data and to provide more accurate, datadriven predictions (Sarker, 2021). Hence, applying ML in this study is not merely a methodological alternative but a strategic approach to capture the multifaceted nature of MTEs’ technology integration behavior, extending beyond the explanatory scope of conventional statistical models. Building on the theoretical foundations of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), this study acknowledges that technology adoption behaviour among Mathematics Teacher Educators (MTEs) involves not only perceptual factors but also complex interactions between personal, institutional, and contextual variables (Ajibade, 2018). While TAM and UTAUT have provided valuable insights into perceptions such as usefulness and ease of use, their linear, perception-centred structure offers a limited view of actual technological proficiency (Venkatesh et al., 2016). To

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extend these frameworks, this study employs a machine learning (ML) approach—specifically a decision tree model—as an analytical complement capable of detecting nonlinear and hierarchical relationships among predictors (Li et al., 2025). In this way, ML serves as a datadriven extension that broadens the explanatory scope of existing acceptance theories by integrating additional contextual and demographic dimensions. Recent educational studies have demonstrated the growing potential of ML for uncovering hidden patterns and generating predictive insights that can inform instructional policy and professional development (Ersozlu et al., 2024; Hilbert et al., 2021). Among various ML methods, decision trees are particularly suitable for educational contexts due to their interpretability and ability to visualize complex relationships. Specifically, this paper addresses the following research questions in two areas: 1. What are the most influential predictors in predicting MTE willingness and proficiency to adopt educational technology? 2. How accurate is the decision tree model in predicting MTE ability and willingness in technology? By addressing these questions, this study contributes theoretically by extending the explanatory scope of TAM and UTAUT through a machine learning perspective that captures complex, data-driven patterns of technology adoption. Practically, the findings are expected to inform professional development programs and institutional policies aimed at enhancing Mathematics Teacher Educators’ digital competence and supporting effective technology integration in higher education. Literature Review The Technology Acceptance Model (TAM; Davis, 1989) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT; Venkatesh et al., 2003) continue to underpin research on technology adoption (Ali et al., 2024; Greener, 2022; Tamilmani et al., 2021)., with extensive applications in educational contexts, including mathematics teacher education (Mao & Li, 2024; Scherer et al., 2019). These frameworks foreground constructs such as perceived usefulness, ease of use, social influence, and facilitating conditions, and have clarified many determinants of educators’ intentions to integrate digital tools (Al-Adwan et al., 2025; Than et al., 2021). However, critics have argued that TAM/UTAUT’s linear, assumption-driven specifications limit their ability to capture complex, context-dependent interactions and to provide robust out-of-sample prediction (Bagozzi, 2007; Shmueli, 2010; Ajibade, 2018). Empirical reviews indicate that pedagogical beliefs, institutional pressures, and prior digital experience frequently moderate acceptance pathways, producing non-additive effects that standard linear models may miss (Ertmer et al., 2012; Stenbom & Geijer, 2024; Tondeur et al., 2017). These limitations motivate the present study’s data-driven approach (Kitchin, 2014; Shmueli, 2010). The reliance on traditional regression-based analyses (Holden & Karsh, 2010; Zeng et al.,

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2024), overlooks potential nonlinear interactions among behavioral determinants (RondanCataluña et al., 2015). For instance, the influence of perceived usefulness on teachers’ behavioral intention may vary depending on their prior digital competence or the level of institutional support (Alenezi, 2017; Yi et al., 2024), indicating more complex interaction effects than linear models assume. Furthermore, as highlighted by Bagozzi (2007) and Shmueli (2010), these theory-driven models often exhibit low predictive power, particularly in dynamic educational environments (Scherer et al., 2019). In technology integration studies, multiple pedagogical, institutional, and technological factors interact in unpredictable ways (Ertmer et al., 2012; Hsu et al., 2021; Tondeur et al., 2017), limiting the models’ ability to generate accurate predictions that could inform policy or practice. This limitation is compounded by their context-invariance, which fails to account for the diverse and evolving nature of educational settings (Olson et al., 2024; Teo & Noyes, 2014). Cross-cultural and institutional variations have shown that the relationships among TAM and UTAUT constructs differ significantly across contexts (Ammenwerth, 2019; Or, 2024). Consequently, models developed in one context may not hold true in another, reducing their generalizability and practical relevance. Therefore, a reevaluation of these frameworks is necessary to incorporate more flexible, context-sensitive, and data-driven approaches—such as machine learning—that can more effectively model the dynamic relationships underlying educators’ technology adoption (Kitchin, 2014). To address the limitations of traditional theory-driven models in explaining technology adoption behaviors, researchers have increasingly adopted machine learning (ML) approaches (Alwabel & Zeng, 2021; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Unlike conventional techniques that depend on predefined theoretical assumptions, ML provides a data-driven and inductive framework capable of uncovering complex and context-specific interactions, marking a shift from explanation toward prediction (Kamdem, 2024; Nwaimo et al., 2020). By employing ML, researchers can detect such intricate relationships and achieve greater predictive precision (Kyriazos & Poga, 2024; Nwaimo et al., 2020), thus addressing the limitations of theory-driven frameworks and offering a more nuanced understanding of how educators adopt and use technology. Decision tree models are particularly valuable in educational research for several compelling reasons, primarily their interpretability, ability to identify hierarchical patterns, and relevance to the educational context (Song et al., 2024; Yoo & Sael, 2021). One of the key advantages of decision trees is their straightforward visual representation (Le & Moore, 2021), which allows researchers and educators to easily understand the decision-making process behind predictions. This interpretability is crucial in educational settings, where stakeholders, including teachers and administrators, need to grasp the rationale behind technology adoption decisions (Tyler et al., 2021). Unlike more complex models, decision trees provide clear pathways that illustrate how different variables interact to influence outcomes (Lau et al., 2023), making it easier to communicate findings to non-technical audiences. Furthermore, decision trees excel at identifying hierarchical patterns within data (Li, 2024), revealing the relationships between various predictors of technology adoption. This characteristic is particularly relevant in the context of educational research, where understanding the priority of different factors—such as

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student engagement, perceived ease of use, and social influence—can inform targeted interventions (Chung & Pan, 2023; Enriquez et al., 2024; Liu et al., 2022). Such insights are pedagogically relevant, as they can guide teacher professional development programs or institutional strategies (Shah et al., 2024). By modeling these nonlinear relationships, decision trees extend the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Guo et al., 2025; Vukic & Delibas, 2013), which traditionally rely on linear assumptions (Bagozzi, 2007). Additionally, decision trees complement TAM and UTAUT by empirically prioritizing predictors of adoption based on actual data rather than solely theoretical constructs (Pasero et al., 2021). This data-driven approach shifts the focus from merely explaining technology acceptance to predicting it (Shmueli, 2010), thereby enhancing the practical application of these models in educational settings. Therefore, this study does not aim to replace traditional acceptance models but to enrich them through predictive analytics. By integrating theoretical insights from TAM/UTAUT with decision tree modeling, the study contributes to a more comprehensive understanding of mathematics teacher educators’ willingness to adopt technology, balancing theoretical explanation with empirical prediction. Materials and Methods Materials Dataset used in this study was obtained from the journal Data in Brief. The original study by (Mukuka & Alex, 2024) (see Table 1) aimed to investigate the interrelationships among four key constructs: proficiency, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and willingness to use technology among mathematics teacher educators. The data described in this article are openly available at Mendeley Data https://data.mendeley.com/datasets/3x8gs6nkk8/1. According to the authors’ ethical statement, informed consent was obtained from all participants, and ethical approval was granted by the Walter Sisulu University Research Ethics Committee (Protocol No. FEDSECC027-06-23). As this study involved secondary analysis of anonymized, publicly available data, no additional ethical clearance was required. The reuse of the dataset adheres to the open data license and the ethical guidelines established in the original publication.

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Table 1 Dataset Characteristics Topic area

Technology Integration in Mathematics Teacher Education

Data format

Raw Analyzed

Type of data

.csv file (raw numeric dataset for ordinal, categorical and scale variables) .csv file (raw textual dataset for all ordinal and categorical variables)

Data source location

Data were collected from 104 different MTEs. These MTEs are linked with a variety of institutions in Zambia, including 12 universities and 16 colleges of education. Notably, these institutions are geographically spread, with presence in all ten provinces of Zambia. This extensive coverage ensures a well-rounded perspective from MTEs throughout the country.

The dataset comprised ten features/attributes. Based on their data types, these attributes were categorized as Table 2. Table 2 Description and Type of the Data No 1. 2 3 4 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10

Attribute Gender Age Year Experience Institution Education Familiarity Proficiency Perceived of Usefulness Perceived Ease of Use Willingness

Type of Data Category : Nominal Numeric : Ordinal Numeric : Interval Category : Nominal Numeric : Ordinal Category : Ordinal Category : Ordinal Category : Ordinal Category : Ordinal Category : Ordinal

Description Male, Female Varied from 3 – 30 years Public, Private Bachelor, Master, Doctorate Less, Moderate, Good Less, Moderate, Good Low, Medium, High Low, Medium, High Low, Medium, High

Methods Model Overview This study uses a machine learning algorithm with a decision tree model to analyze data. Decision Tree is a data classification technique that builds a tree-like model. Each internal node in the tree shows the classification of an attribute, the branches formed show the test results, and the leaf nodes show the class or predicted value of the data object (Hamoud et al., 2018; Križanić, 2020). This model is relatively simple and easy to interpret, although simple this model is able to handle various types of data, both nominal and numeric (Hamoud et al., 2018;

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Huynh-Cam et al., 2021). Thus, regarding the type of data, this model does not require any assumptions. Unlike statistical techniques in general which require normality which has the potential to eliminate important data. Another advantage is that this model is more robust against outliers and missing values. This is very much in accordance with the data obtained in this study where there were several respondents who did not answer the questions. By using a decision tree, researchers do not need to worry about missing values and outliers that occur in the data. In several educational studies, this model has been applied effectively and shows high precision and efficiency. For example, to analyze student behavior and predict academic achievement, (Huynh-Cam et al., 2021; Yang, 2021). Decision trees are also easier to apply to categorical features (Xianjun, 2024). The presence of machine learning (especially decision trees) with all its advantages provides the best choice in processing data systematically technically without having to ignore important data. Thus, the Decision Tree classification model is a worthy choice. However, researchers realize that behind the advantages offered by this model in predicting technology adoption among MTEs, there are shortcomings that researchers need to be aware of in analyzing data, namely overfitting. Overfitting is a condition where the model is too good at predicting data so that the grouping results are very accurate but actually obscure more general conclusions. And makes it difficult to find out the pattern. Thus, in this study, researchers need to take action by pruning the decision tree model. Model Assumption In this study, a decision tree algorithm was used to predict mathematics teacher educators’ readiness to integrate technology. The decision tree model operates by splitting data into subsets based on the attribute that provides the highest information gain, which measures the reduction of uncertainty (entropy) after a split (Han et al., 2022; Quinlan, 1993). The process continues recursively until no significant impurity reduction occurs, resulting in terminal nodes (leaves). For simplicity, the splitting criterion used in this study follows the standard Information Gain and Gini Index approaches (Han et al., 2022). The Gini Index assesses the homogeneity of a node, where a smaller value indicates higher purity (Breiman et al., 1984; Han et al., 2022) Only the most relevant attributes were retained to optimize the model and prevent overfitting (Géron, 2023). Mathematical formulations of these criteria are well established and can be found in standard machine learning literature; therefore, only the conceptual basis is summarized here to enhance readability for educational research audiences. The decision tree implemented in this study was based on the CART (Classification and Regression Tree) algorithm (Breiman et al., 1984), which employs the Gini Index to determine the optimal split at each node. The model was developed using the Orange Data Mining 3.37.0 platform, which applies default pruning parameters to prevent overfitting. Specifically, the software uses post-pruning based on the minimum number of instances per leaf and automatic control of tree depth (see: https://orangedatamining.com/widget-catalog/model/tree/). The

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choice of CART was made because of its robustness in handling both numerical and categorical variables and its suitability for educational datasets containing missing values and moderate sample sizes(Popoola et al., 2025; Wong & Yip, 2020). Missing responses were handled automatically by the CART algorithm in Orange Data Mining 3.37.0, which applies surrogate splits to manage incomplete data without case deletion (Demsar et al., 2013). Model Evaluation In this study, models are evaluated by constructing the confusion matrix for test data. Confusion matrix is an assessment of the machine learning algorithm see the accuracy and how well the algorithm produced from the classification that has been made to classify and predict attributes from testing data. In the confusion matrix there are False Negative (FN), False Positive (FP), True Negative (TN), and True Positive (TP). The following is table 3 of the confusion matrix (see: Table 3) Table 3 Confusion Matrix Assumptions Prediction Class Positive Negative

Current Class Positive TP FN

Negative FP TN

TP is a condition where both the prediction and the actual value are correct; FN is a case where the predicted value is incorrect but the actual value is correct; FP is a case where the predicted value is correct but the actual value is incorrect. In evaluating model performance, there are various types of performance including accuracy, recall, and precision. In this case, precision is the primary metric of interest since we are more concerned with achieving True Positives (i.e., predicting teachers who are ready to use technology and who are indeed technologyready) and strongly desire to avoid False Positives (i.e., predicting teachers who are ready to use technology but in reality, are not). In other words, it is crucial to avoid misclassifying teachers as technology-ready when they are not, as this would lead to inappropriate educational policies. Accuracy, recall and precision of a classification model are defined as Table 4. Table 4 Method Performance Evaluation Formula Matrix performance Accuracy

Formula 𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 ∙ 100% 𝑇𝑃 + 𝑇𝑁 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁 𝑇𝑃 ∙ 100% 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑁 𝑇𝑃 ∙ 100% 𝑇𝑃 + 𝐹𝑃

Recall Precision

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Accuracy is the ratio of correct predictions to the total data. Recall is the ratio of correct positive predictions to the total positive actual data. Precision is the ratio of correct positive predictions to the total positive predicted data. The dataset used in this research will be analyzed to build a predictive model that can estimate the level of proficiency and willingness of teachers to integrate technology into teaching. The considered attributes include teacher demographic characteristics (gender, age, teaching experience), institutional background (type of institution), educational qualifications, and teachers’ perceptions of technology, which include familiarity, perceived benefits, and perceived ease of use. The Decision Tree Model metrics such as accuracy, precision, recall, F1-score, or area under the curve (AUC) will be tested to see the model’s accuracy. In the testing, the data is divided into training data (for training the model) of 70% and testing data (for evaluating the model) of 30% of the total data. Data selection is done randomly. To test the model, a random sampling validation technique with 100 iterations is used. Figure 1 Flowchart of the Data Analysis Procedure

To enhance transparency, the overall data analysis process is illustrated in Figure 1. The flowchart summarizes the sequential procedures, beginning with data acquisition from the Data in Brief repository, followed by data preparation and feature selection, model construction using the CART algorithm, model training and testing, and final evaluation using standard performance metrics (accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score).

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Results Influential Predictors of Technology Adoption (RQ 1) To address the first research question—What are the most influential predictorss in predicting MTEs’ willingness and proficiency to adopt educational technology?—the analysis examined the relative importance of predictors derived from the decision tree model. The Gini Index values were used to quantify each factor’s contribution, as summarized in Figure 2. Figure 2 combines the results of both decision tree models for willingness and proficiency, allowing direct comparison of predictor importance across the two outcomes. Figure 2 Ranking of Factors Influencing MTEs’ Willingness and Technology Proficiency to Integrate Technology, Based on Gini Index Values

Perceived Ease of Use Predictor Variables

Perceived Usefulness Age Education Qualification

MTE's Technological Proficiency MTE's Willingness

Familiarity Year of Experience Gender Institution 0

0.05

0.1

0.15

Gini Index (Feature Importance)

Figure 2 presents the relative importance of the predictors influencing mathematics teacher educators’ (MTEs) willingness and technology proficiency to integrate technology. For willingness, perceived ease of use (Gini = 0.056) and perceived usefulness (Gini = 0.051) were the strongest determinants, indicating that teachers who view technology as both manageable and beneficial are more inclined to adopt it. For proficiency, familiarity with technology (Gini = 0.142) and perceived ease of use (Gini = 0.089) were the leading predictors, suggesting that frequent and confident use of technology enhances competence. In contrast, demographic and structural attributes—such as age, educational qualification, and institutional type—showed relatively minor contributions. This overall pattern underscores that teachers’ perceptions and prior experiences play a more decisive role than their background characteristics. The results align with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), reinforcing that both readiness and competence stem from teachers’ perceived ease and usefulness of technology, supported by sustained familiarity and engagement.

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Model Accuracy in Predicting Technology Proficiency and Willingness Factors (RQ 2) Model Accuracy To answer the second research question—How accurate is the decision tree model in predicting MTEs’ ability and willingness to adopt technology?—The model’s performance was evaluated using several classification metrics, including AUC, accuracy, precision, recall, and F1-score (see Table 5). Table 5 Evaluation Result of Tree with High Willingness Model Tree Tree

Target Willingness Proficiency

AUC 0.660 0.792

CA 0.614 0.740

F1 0.660 0.725

Precision 0.620 0.718

Recall 0.705 0.740

MCC 0.220 0.340

The evaluation result of the tree model which focusing on high willingness and proficiency obtains some information. The Area Under the Curve (AUC) is measured at 0.660 and 0.792, indicating that generated model has a moderate proficiency in differentiating between the positive and negative classifications. The model’s Classification Accuracy (CA) has score 0.614, indicating that it successfully classified 61.4% and 74% of the instances respectively, which demonstrates a reasonable level of performance yet highlights the potential for enhancement. The F1-Score is 0.660, signifying a balanced evaluation of the model’s performance. The recall score of the model is 0.705 and 0.740, indicating that it accurately identified 70.5% and 74% of the genuine positive cases in recognizing true positive instances Precision score is 0.620 and 0.718, suggesting that 62% and 71.8% of the positive predictions generated by the model were valid, which signifies that while the model exhibits some reliability in identifying positive instances, it also generates a notable number of false positives. While the previous section reported the overall accuracy of the decision tree model (RQ2), the following analysis provides a more detailed interpretation of how the model performs these predictions. Specifically, the structure of the tree illustrates the decision rules and pathways used to classify MTEs’ willingness and proficiency levels. This interpretive view complements the model’s quantitative accuracy metrics by highlighting the key conditional relationships among predictors. Interaction Patterns Predicting Technology Adoption Willingness The model first splits the data based on the “Perceived Ease of Use” attribute. If MTEs have high Perceived Ease of Use, the model further splits the data based on “Education” level. If MTEs have master or doctorate degree, the MTEs are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (92,5%). On the other hand, If MTEs have low or medium Perceived Ease of Use, the model further splits the data based on “Perceive of Usefulness”.

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If MTEs have high perceived usefulness, the model will split the data based on “Age” and “Education”. Those aged 30-39 with a master’s or doctoral degree have a very high chance of having a strong willingness to adopt technology (100%). However, those who are not aged 3039, the model will split the data based on “Gender”, “Year of Experience” and “Institution” consecutively. MTEs who have taught for more than 16 years and are male are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (100%). MTEs who have taught for more than 5 years and are female are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (75%). MTEs who have taught less than 6 years and are male and teach at a public institution are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (66.7%). If MTEs have low or medium perceived usefulness, the model will further split the data based on “Year of Experience”. If MTEs have less than or equal to 11 years of experience, the model will split the data based on “Perceived Ease of Use”. MTEs with low perceived ease of use, the model will split data based on “Year of Experience”, “Age”, and “Education” consecutively. Those who have taught between 3-11 years, are not aged 30-39, and have a master’s or doctoral degree are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (100%). On the other hand, MTEs with medium perceived ease of use, the model will split data based on “Age”. Female MTEs are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (100%). Meanwhile, male MTEs, the model will split data based on “Familiarity”, “Year of Experience” and “Education” respectively. MTEs with good familiarity, with 8-11 years of experience and at least a master’s degree are predicted to have a high willingness to integrate technology (100%). The data indicates that “Perceived Ease of Use” is a primary contribution in predicting the willingness of MTEs adopting technology. The predictive model demonstrates that high perceived ease of use is insufficient to predict high technology adoption willingness among MTEs without a commensurate level of education. While low perceived ease of use is typically associated with lower adoption rates, MTEs with high perceived usefulness and within the 3039 age group can overcome this barrier. Interaction Patterns Predicting Technology Proficiency Figure 3 illustrates the decision tree model predicting mathematics teacher educators’ (MTEs) technological proficiency. The model identifies familiarity with technology as the root node, indicating it as the strongest determinant of proficiency. Among those with high familiarity, teaching experience becomes the next critical factor. MTEs with less than or equal to five years of teaching experience are predicted to exhibit high proficiency (100%), suggesting that earlycareer educators tend to adapt more readily to digital tools. For MTEs with longer experience, the model splits by perceived ease of use, yet proficiency remains consistently high (above 70%), emphasizing the enduring role of positive technology perceptions in sustaining competence. This hierarchical structure reinforces the findings from Figures 2 and 3, where familiarity and perceived ease of use consistently emerged as dominant predictors—aligning with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and highlighting experiential engagement as a foundation of proficiency.

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Figure 3 Decision Tree Representation of Predictors of MTEs’ Technological Proficiency

Note: -

Node colors represent predicted proficiency levels, with darker shades indicating higher probabilities PE: Perceived Ease of Use Inst_owner: Institution

If MTEs have high perceived ease of use, the model predicted that MTEs have a high proficiency in technology (85.7%). However, if MTEs have medium perceived ease of use, the model will split the data based on “Education” and “institution” feature respectively. If MTEs have a master’s degree and teach at a public institution, the model predicted that MTEs have a high proficiency in technology (62.5%). The main determining factor in predicting whether MTEs will have proficiency in technology is familiarity. When MTEs have good familiarity, the model predicts that these MTEs will have good proficiency in technology. However, MTEs who have moderate or low familiarity still have a fairly high chance, as long as it is supported by at least a moderate level of perceived ease of use. Collectively, Figures 2–3 reveal a consistent pattern: MTEs’ willingness and proficiency in integrating technology are primarily driven by attitudinal and experiential factors—particularly familiarity and perceived ease of use—rather than demographic characteristics. This convergence underscores the explanatory power of the TAM framework in modeling both readiness and competence among teacher educators. To facilitate interpretation, Table 6 summarizes the main predictors identified for both willingness and proficiency models which emphasize that Gini importance values in tree-based models represent relative rather than absolute measures of influence (James et al., 2021).

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Tabel 6 Summarize of the Main Predictors for Willingness and Proficiency Models Predictor

Gini Importance MTE’s Technological Proficiency

Interpretation

MTE’s Willingne ss

Perceived Ease 0.089 of Use

0.056

Education Qualification

0.060

0.036

Familiarity

0.142

0.035

Perceived Usefulness

0.047

0.051

Age

0.029

0.039

MTEs who perceive technology as easy to use tend to demonstrate both higher proficiency and stronger willingness to integrate it into their teaching practices. Higher qualifications (Master’s or Doctorate) are associated with stronger readiness in using technology Frequent exposure to digital tools strengthens teachers’ technological competence. MTEs who perceive technology as useful are more likely to develop a stronger intention to adopt it in their teaching. Age shows a modest influence on technology adoption, with teachers aged 30–39 demonstrating the willingness to integrate technology into their instructional practice.

Overall, the results address both research questions by identifying the key predictors of MTEs’ willingness and proficiency and by demonstrating that the decision tree model achieves moderate-to-high predictive accuracy. Together, these findings highlight that teachers’ attitudes and experiences are central to understanding technology adoption behaviors. Discussion Predictors of MTEs’ Willingness and Proficiency to Adopt Technology (RQ1) Predictors of Willingness to Adopt Technology Perceived Ease of Use. The results of this study indicate that in determining the willingness to adopt technology for mathematics educators (MTEs), the perception of ease of use of technology is the most influential factor. These results are in line with the TAM and UTAUT models which stated that the perception of ease of use and usefulness of technology are important factors in the willingness to adopt technology by educators (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003). It means that the easier the technology is perceived to be used, the greater the likelihood that individuals will be willing to adopt it. This is primarily because ease of use directly impacts the perceived usefulness of technology (Arthur, 2022; Ibili et al., 2019), which in turn affects teachers’ attitudes and intentions towards its adoption (Aurangzeb et al.,

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2024). In educational settings, this relationship can also be understood through the lens of selfefficacy and cognitive load theories: when technology is perceived as simple and manageable, educators feel more confident (Bandura, 1977, 1982) and experience fewer cognitive barriers (Sweller, 1988), which together enhance their willingness to adopt it. The direct empirical relationship between Perceived Ease of Use (PEU) and Willingness to Adopt Technology has also been demonstrated in empirical studies by Lu et al. (2024) and Walker & Kim (2015). Practically, the result underscores that institutional strategies should emphasize user-friendly systems and targeted professional training, especially for educators with lower exposure to digital platforms (Abel et al., 2022). Such alignment between perceived usability and institutional support could accelerate technology adoption in mathematics education. Furthermore, these findings add that in addition to these two factors which are in line with the TAM and UTAUT models, there are other contributing factors — education and age context. Education Context. MTEs with a master’s degree or higher who have a high level of comfort and ease of use of technology show a high likelihood of adopting new technology compared to those who only have a bachelor’s degree. This study is in line with previous research that the higher the level of education, the more likely MTEs are to adopt technology (Mann et al., 2018; Ono, 2006; Riddell & Song, 2017). This can be explained that postgraduate education can increase opportunities to access technology training (Abubakar & Kmc, 2017) for example during postgraduate studies there are many adequate facilities, gain greater professional experience (Klein & Rowe, 2008; McKinnon & Wood, 2012), and a wider network (Bell et al., 2013; Rosli et al., 2015). Where all of these privileges can increase selfefficacy (Alismail et al., 2024; Nazari et al., 2021) and greater confidence in technology adoption (Bouzar et al., 2024). In the UTAUT model, this is known as Facilitating Conditions (such as technical support, infrastructure) that facilitate the use of technology which conceptualized as external factors. Previous studies have typically treated educational level as a background or control variable (Ahn et al., 2012; Eikemo, 2024). In contrast, the present findings indicate that education may play a more functional role in shaping educators’ readiness to adopt technology. This relationship likely reflects the cumulative effects of greater digital exposure, academic engagement, and professional collaboration associated with higher education levels. This finding provides further insight that one of the supporting conditions that needs to be considered is the level of education. Perceived of Usefulness and Familiarity. Perceived usefulness (PU) emerged as a strong predictor of MTEs’ willingness to adopt technology. Educators who perceived technology as highly useful were substantially more likely to express willingness to integrate it into their teaching practices compared to those with moderate or low perceptions of usefulness. This finding aligns with the central premise of the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), which posits that perceived usefulness directly shapes behavioral intention (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003). Moreover, PU is also associated with increased self-efficacy, whereby educators feel more confident in their ability to implement technology perceived as useful (An et al., 2024; Jokisch et al., 2022). This confidence stimulates more effort in learning

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and integrating the technology, thereby strengthening the relationship between PU and willingness to adopt (Bandura, 1997). In other words, this phenomenon occurs because the perceived benefits of technology directly affect educators’ motivation and adaptive behavior to adopt it. Interestingly, even among educators with moderate or low perceptions of usefulness, willingness to adopt technology tended to increase when teaching experience was relatively limited (≤ 11 years). Willingness to adopt technology may reflect the greater flexibility and openness to innovation (Ley et al., 2022) typically found among early-career educators. Empirical evidence supports this interpretation: a study conducted in Chelyabinsk reported that young teachers (aged 22 to 30) with 1 to 10 years of teaching experience showed the highest readiness for innovative activities, with approximately 50% demonstrating strong innovation readiness (Dolgova et al., 2018). This finding suggests that technology adoption should not be viewed solely through individual perceptions of usefulness or ease of use, but also through educators’ career stages and professional adaptability. Thus, this study contributes to extending UTAUT’s explanatory scope within education settings. Familiarity, while positively associated with willingness, played a comparatively smaller role than perceived usefulness or ease of use (see Table 6). This indicates that familiarity alone does not guarantee willingness to adopt technology; rather, it operates synergistically with other predictors. For example, male MTEs with moderate ease-of-use perceptions and high familiarity were more likely to adopt technology when their teaching experience ranged between 8 and 11 years. This pattern suggests that technical familiarity alone does not ensure a strong intention to adopt technology. Familiarity may enhance educators’ confidence in handling digital tools, consistent with the concept of self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997), yet motivation to adopt largely depends on whether technology is perceived as useful and easy to implement (Davis, 1989). Hence, familiarity serves as an enabling rather than initiating factor—facilitating adoption once other motivational conditions are met. Notably, the relationship between familiarity and willingness was most pronounced among educators with moderate ease-of-use perceptions and 8–11 years of teaching experience. This pattern may reflect an optimal balance between pedagogical maturity and openness to innovation: educators at this career stage possess sufficient instructional experience to apply technology meaningfully but are still adaptable to change (Hsu, 2016; Dolgova et al., 2018). Familiarity therefore serves as a reinforcing factor—enhancing confidence and efficiency—but its impact depends on the alignment between perceived usefulness and contextual experience. Age Context. Furthermore, the data analysis revealed that mathematics teacher educators (MTEs) aged 30–39 with a bachelor’s degree exhibited a noticeably lower tendency to adopt technology compared to their peers in other age groups. This finding appears counterintuitive, given that previous research reported individuals in this age range generally use a wider variety of technological devices and demonstrate greater interest in technology than other age groups (Sander & Heiß, 2014). One plausible explanation for this counterintuitive pattern is related to the career stage and workload characteristics of MTEs in their thirties. Individuals in this age range are often in the early to mid-stages of their

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professional careers, where expectations for job performance and productivity are particularly high (Nwachukwu et al., 2022). Research indicates that job performance tends to peak during early adulthood and gradually declines with age (Alessandri et al., 2020). In the educational sector, indeed, excessive workload has been shown to negatively moderate the positive effects of transformational leadership on individual innovativeness, suggesting that even in supportive environments, high work demands may suppress innovative engagement (Uygur & Yıldırım, 2024). This interpretation helps explain why MTEs in their thirties—despite exhibiting strong technological interest (Sander & Heiß, 2014)—may show lower willingness to integrate technology into teaching. Nevertheless, research also suggests that a supportive work climate can mitigate the adverse effects of workload. For instance, in an organizational study conducted in Mexico, perceived work overload was found to hinder employees’ innovative behaviors, but this effect diminished when interpersonal harmony and knowledge sharing were strong (Clercq et al., 2016). Accordingly, educational institutions can play a pivotal role in sustaining innovation and technology adoption by fostering collegial communication, collaborative culture, and mutual support among educators. Predictors of MTEs’ Proficiency to Adopt Technology Familiarity. The main predictor of teacher proficiency in technology is familiarity. In detail, MTEs with a high level of familiarity with technology have a high probability of being proficient in using various technological tools and applications in learning. These results also confirm previous studies (Eskici & Çayak, 2023; Yeng, 2024; Yeng et al., 2023). Familiarity with technology develops through repeated and positive interactions that build comfort and confidence in its use. Positive attitudes and high self-efficacy have been identified as key precursors to such familiarity, as they encourage continued engagement with digital tools (Gleaton et al., 2023). These experiences are shaped by personal dispositions and interaction styles; individuals with a stronger affinity for technology tend to engage more actively and successfully in technology-rich environments (Attig et al., 2018). Over time, both experiential exposure and formal instruction contribute to refining these skills, enabling educators to identify and apply appropriate tools for their teaching needs (Sankaran & Saad, 2018). Collectively, these studies suggest that familiarity grounded in positive and sustained experiences serves as a pathway through which educators achieve technological proficiency. Further, this study reveals that MTEs who have high confidence in their familiarity with technology, despite limited knowledge, are predicted to still have high proficiency. This finding supports previous studies showing a significant relationship between self-efficacy and teachers’ digital competence (Şen & Yildiz, 2022; Z. Wang & Chu, 2023). MTEs’ confidence in their capacity to use digital tools effectively is critical to their technological proficiency. From a theoretical standpoint, the strong predictive power of familiarity can be interpreted as an experiential extension of both the TAM and UTAUT frameworks. This finding thus enriches existing acceptance models by emphasizing that technological proficiency emerges not only from attitudinal or perceptual beliefs (see: TAM/UTAUT) but also from experiential learning processes. In educational settings, this suggests that fostering familiarity through hands-on

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practice and collaborative exploration may be as crucial as shaping positive attitudes toward technology. Perceived Ease of Use. Teachers’ perceptions of ease of use influence their propensity to adopt technology consistent with the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). Both theories highlight the importance of perceived ease of use (PEOU) in influencing user acceptance of technology (Ma & Liu, 2004; Malatji et al., 2020; Zaineldeen et al., 2020). In the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM), perceived ease of use (PEOU) is a significant factor influencing user attitudes, which in turn influence behavioral intentions related to technology use (Zhu & Lin, 2008). This phenomenon may be explained by the tendency of users who perceive technology as useful to show higher acceptance, even toward new innovations (Chau, 2016; Kirlidog et al., 2011) even though it is a new innovation. In UTAUT, the concept parallel to perceived ease of use is “effort expectancy,” which is integrated with other determinants such as social influence and facilitating conditions (Sun, 2003; Venkatesh et al., 2003). This finding highlights the importance of prior familiarity as a consideration in designing professional development programs. Participants who already possess higher levels of technological familiarity may acquire skills more effectively than those with limited prior exposure. This perception of familiarity, according to Wang and Chu (2023) shows selfefficacy. Where this acts as a mediator in the relationship between a conducive situation and teacher digital competence. Education Qualification and Age Context. Education level appears to play an important role in shaping technological proficiency, particularly when perceived usefulness (PU) is moderate to high. Interestingly, mathematics teacher educators (MTEs) holding a master’s degree tended to demonstrate higher proficiency than both bachelor’s and doctoral degree holders. This pattern diverges from the findings related to willingness to adopt technology, where doctoral-level educators were more likely to express an intention to adopt but not necessarily to demonstrate higher proficiency. Interestingly, all doctoral-level participants in the dataset were male and aged between 40 and 59. However, neither gender nor age appeared as significant predictors of technological proficiency in the decision tree model. This pattern cannot be fully explained within the current set of predictors and may involve unmeasured contextual or psychological factors, such as institutional expectations, workload, or self-efficacy dynamics. Future studies could therefore benefit from incorporating additional variables—particularly those related to professional identity, organizational culture, and technology exposure—to better understand this phenomenon. Furthermore, age-related dynamics may also contribute to this pattern. Mathematics teacher educators (MTEs) aged 30–39 demonstrated the highest likelihood of technological proficiency, regardless of their perceptions of usefulness or ease of use. This result differs from the pattern observed for willingness to adopt technology, where the same age group showed greater readiness to adopt new tools. Although not specific to the educational sector, Karol (2024) reported that workers aged 30–39 exhibit the highest exposure to artificial intelligence

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(AI) technologies across professions, suggesting that this life stage is associated with broader technological engagement. Such proficiency may therefore stem less from cognitive perceptions—such as perceived ease of use or usefulness—and more from accumulated workplace experience and sustained interaction with educational technologies. Supporting evidence from Zahoor et al. (2022) indicates that experiential learning and organizational support in real work settings strengthen employees’ technological competence, even beyond the effects of individual psychological perceptions. From a theoretical standpoint, these findings extend insights from the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). While both frameworks primarily emphasize perceptual and motivational constructs—such as perceived usefulness, ease of use, and effort expectancy—as key predictors of adoption (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003), the present results highlight the complementary role of experiential and contextual influences in shaping actual technological proficiency. Predictive Accuracy of the Decision Tree Model (RQ 2) The decision tree model in this study performed quite well in predicting the willingness and ability of MTEs to adopt educational technology. These findings highlight both the potential and limitations of decision tree models in educational research. Their interpretability makes them especially suitable for policy or institutional use, where decision-making transparency is essential (Murdoch et al., 2019). However, the model’s sensitivity to data structure and risk of overfitting underscores the need for careful validation and contextual understanding when applying machine learning to human behavior (Darwish et al., 2024; Lavelle-Hill et al., 2025). In educational settings, this means that predictive accuracy must be balanced with pedagogical interpretability—models should inform, not replace, professional judgment. From a theoretical perspective, the results illustrate how machine learning can complement theory-driven frameworks such as the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT). While these models emphasize perceptual and motivational constructs (Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al., 2003), the decision tree approach identifies nonlinear interactions and contextual dependencies that may be overlooked in traditional linear modeling (Ersozlu et al., 2024; Hilbert et al., 2021. For example, the model’s ability to detect threshold effects—such as how combinations of familiarity, education level, and experience jointly predict proficiency—extends the explanatory reach of TAM/UTAUT by revealing how multiple predictors interact dynamically rather than independently. Implications and Contribution Practical Implications The findings of this study provide useful insights for designing mathematics teacher professional development and institutional strategies related to technology integration. The

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decision tree analysis suggested that perceived ease of use and familiarity play distinct yet complementary roles in shaping educators’ willingness and proficiency. Educators who perceive technology as simple and manageable may enhance their readiness to adopt it. Therefore, professional development programs could emphasize user-friendly systems and scaffolded training, especially for educators with limited exposure to digital platforms. Moreover, familiarity grounded in positive, sustained experiences appears to serve as an important pathway toward technological proficiency. This implies that professional training should balance cognitive understanding with experiential engagement—through hands-on workshops, peer collaboration, and reflective activities—to cultivate both confidence and competence. Institutional policies could also promote a collegial culture that supports experimentation and shared learning, as such environments may help mitigate workloadrelated barriers and encourage sustained innovation in mathematics education. Theoretical Contributions Theoretically, this study offers empirical support for extending the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) and Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) by highlighting the role of experiential and contextual factors. While traditional models focus primarily on belief-based constructs such as perceived usefulness and ease of use, the present findings suggest that familiarity, age, and education qualification influence educators’ technological proficiency. This challenges the commonly held assumption that perception alone predicts technology adoption and, instead, underscores the potential mediating influence of contextual support. Further, the integration of a machine learning approach—specifically the decision tree model—illustrates how data-driven analysis can uncover nonlinear interactions and threshold effects that may be less visible in traditional linear models. Conclusion This study identified perceived ease of use, perceived usefulness, and familiarity as the most influential predictors of Mathematics Teacher Educators’ (MTEs) willingness and proficiency in adopting educational technology. Education level and age further shaped these outcomes, indicating that demographic and experiential contexts interact with perceptual factors in determining adoption behavior. The results reinforce and extend the TAM and UTAUT frameworks by demonstrating that technology adoption is not solely driven by individual perceptions but also by contextual enablers such as postgraduate exposure and professional experience. The decision tree model achieved moderate predictive accuracy, offering interpretable patterns that highlight how combinations of familiarity, education, and experience jointly predict MTEs’ technological proficiency and readiness. These findings underscore the value of interpretable machine learning as a complement to theory-driven approaches, allowing nuanced insights into educators’ technology adoption dynamics. This study is not without limitations. The sample was limited in size and drawn from a specific geographic context, which may constrain the generalizability of findings. Furthermore, the use

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of a single algorithm—the decision tree—limits comparative performance analysis. Future research could address these limitations by incorporating more diverse samples across institutional and regional settings, employing multiple algorithms such as random forests or support vector machines to enhance robustness, and combining ML interpretability with qualitative teacher interviews to generate richer, context-sensitive insights into MTEs’ technological engagement. Such extensions could refine predictive frameworks and deepen understanding of how mathematics educators develop technological readiness over time.

Acknowledgment The first author gratefully acknowledges financial support from the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (Lembaga Pengelola Dana Pendidikan, LPDP) under grant number SKPB2898/LPDP/LPDP.3/2024

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Jacinto, H., & Carreira, S. (2023). Knowledge for teaching mathematical problem-solving with technology: An exploratory study of a mathematics teacher’s proficiency. European Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 11(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.30935/scimath/12464 James, G., Witten, D., Hastie, T., & Tibshirani, R. (2021). An Introduction to Statistical Learning: with Application in R (Second Edi). Springer. Jokisch, M., Schmidt, L., & Doh, M. (2022). Acceptance of digital health services among older adults: Findings on perceived usefulness, self-efficacy, privacy concerns, ICT knowledge, and support seeking. Frontiers in Public Health, 10. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2022.1073756 Kamdem, Y. S. (2024). Integrating machine learning with causal inference for enhanced system dynamics modeling: A framework for predicting complex interactions. International Journal of Science and Research Archive, 13(1), 3160–3167. https://doi.org/10.30574/ijsra.2024.13.1.2047 Karol, Ma. (2024). The relationship between Artificial Intelligence ( AI ) exposure and returns to education. Central European Economic Journal (CEEJ), 11(58), 461–474. https://doi.org/10.2478/ceej-2024-0029 Kirlidog, M., Africa, S., & Kaynak, A. (2011). Technology Acceptance Model and Determinants of Technology Rejection. International Journal of Information Systems and Social Change, 2(December), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.4018/jissc.2011100101 Kitchin, R. (2014). Big Data, new epistemologies and paradigm shifts. Big Data & Society, 1(1), 2053951714528481. https://doi.org/10.1177/2053951714528481 Klein, H. K., & Rowe, F. (2008). Marshaling the professional experience of doctoral students: A contribution to the practical relevance debate. MIS Quarterly: Management Information Systems, 32(4), 675–685. https://doi.org/10.2307/25148866 Križanić, S. (2020). Educational data mining using cluster analysis and decision tree technique: A case study. International Journal of Engineering Business Management, 12, 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1177/1847979020908675 Kyriazos, T., & Poga, M. (2024). Application of Machine Learning Models in Social Sciences: Managing Nonlinear Relationships. Encyclopedia, 4(4), 1790–1805. https://doi.org/10.3390/encyclopedia4040118 Lau, M., Schikowski, T., & Schwender, H. (2023). logicDT: a procedure for identifying response-associated interactions between binary predictors. Machine Learning. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10994-023-06488-6 Lavelle-Hill, R., Smith, G., & Murayama, K. (2025). Bridging Traditional-Statistics and Machine-Learning Approaches in Psychology: Navigating Small Samples, Measurement Error, Nonindependent Observations, and Missing Data. Advances in Methods and Practices in Psychological Science, 8(3), 25152459251345696. https://doi.org/10.1177/25152459251345696 Lawrence, J. E., & Tar, U. A. (2018). Factors that influence teachers’ adoption and integration of ICT in teaching/learning process. Educational Media International, 55(1), 79–105. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523987.2018.1439712

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Murdoch, W. J., Singh, C., Kumbier, K., Abbasi-Asl, R., & Yu, B. (2019). Definitions, methods, and applications in interpretable machine learning. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 116(44), 22071– 22080. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1900654116 Nazari, N., Salahshoor, M. R., Özdenk, G. D., Zangeneh, A., Lebni, J. Y., Foroughinia, S., Kianipour, N., Fattahi, E., Azizi, S. A., & Ziapour, A. (2021). A study of the components of research self-efficacy in postgraduate students at Kermanshah University of Medical Sciences in 2018. Journal of Public Health (Germany), 29(5), 1243–1250. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10389-020-01194-2 Nwachukwu, C., Chládková, H., Moses, C. L., & Vu, H. M. (2022). Work-to-family conflict, family satisfaction and engagement nexus: insights from millennial managers. Industrial and Commercial Training, 54(3), 413–428. https://doi.org/10.1108/ICT-10-2021-0071 Nwaimo, C. S., Oluoha, O. M., & Oyedokun, O. (2020). Machine Learning Applications in Predictive Analytics: Trends and Challenges. 1(1), 89–104. https://doi.org/10.54660/.ijfmr.2020.1.1.89-104 Olson, J., Pochinki, N., & Zheng, Z. (2024). Contexts Matter but How? Course-Level Correlates of Performance and Fairness Shift in Predictive Model Transfer. https://doi.org/10.1145/3636555.3636936 Ono, Y. (2006). Technology adoption in a community of heterogeneous education level: Who are your good neighbors? Economics Bulletin, 15(1), 1–11. Or, C. (2024). Watch That Attitude! Examining the Role of Attitude in the Technology Acceptance Model through Meta-Analytic Structural Equation Modelling. International Journal of Technology in Education and Science, 8(4), 558–582. https://doi.org/10.46328/ijtes.575 Pasero, H. M., Colmenarejo, G., Aguilar, E. A., Molina, A. R. De, Reglero, G., & Kohen, V. L. (2021). Ranking of a wide multidomain set of predictor variables of children obesity by machine learning variable importance techniques. Scientific Reports, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-81205-8 Popoola, P. A., Tapamo, J.-R., & Assounga, A. G. H. (2025). Effective and efficient handling of missing data in supervised machine learning. Data Science and Management, 8(3), 361–373. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dsm.2024.12.002 Quinlan, J. R. (1993). C4.5: Programs for machine learning. Morgan Kaufmann. Rençber, H. (2020). United theory of acceptance and use of technology. Consumer Behavior Models, 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-10576-1_300692 Riddell, W. C., & Song, X. (2017). The Role of Education in Technology Use and Adoption: Evidence from the Canadian Workplace and Employee Survey. ILR Review, 70(5), 1219–1253. https://doi.org/10.1177/0019793916687719 Rondan-Cataluña, F. J., Arenas-Gaitán, J., & Ramírez-Correa, P. (2015). A comparison of the different versions of popular technology acceptance models: A non-linear perspective. Kybernetes, 44(5), 788–805. https://doi.org/10.1108/K-09-2014-0184 Rosli, N., Ambak, K., Daniel, B. D., Prasetijo, J., Tun, U., Onn, H., & Pahat, B. (2015). Jurnal Teknologi. Jurnal Teknologi, 76(1), 329–334.

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Yang, Y. (2021). The Evaluation of Online Education Course Performance Using Decision Tree Mining Algorithm. Complexity, 2021. https://doi.org/10.1155/2021/5519647 Yeng, E. (2024). The Influence of Teachers Familiarity on Competency in Integrating Instructional Technology in Mathematics Teaching. September 2023. https://doi.org/10.47772/IJRISS Yeng, E., Ali, C. A., & Adzifome, N. S. (2023). Relationship between familiarity and competency in integrating information and communication technology into mathematics instruction. Contemporary Mathematics and Science Education, 4(2). https://doi.org/10.30935/conmaths/13405 Yi, Y., Li, G., Chen, T.-W., Wang, P., & Luo, H. (2024). Investigating the Factors That Sustain College Teachers’ Attitude and Behavioral Intention toward Online Teaching. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su16062286 Yoo, J., & Sael, L. (2021). Gaussian Soft Decision Trees for Interpretable Feature-Based Classification (pp. 143–155). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-75765-6_12 Zahoor, N., Donbesuur, F., Christofi, M., & Miri, D. (2022). Technological innovation and employee psychological well-being: The moderating role of employee learning orientation and perceived organizational support. Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 179, 121610. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.techfore.2022.121610 Zaineldeen, S., Hongbo, L., Koffi, A. L., Mohammed, B., & Hassan, A. (2020). Technology Acceptance Model’ Concepts, Contribution, Limitation, and Adoption in Education. Universal Journal of Educational Research, 8(11), 5061–5071. https://doi.org/10.13189/ujer.2020.081106 Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education – where are the educators? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0 Zeng, E., Liu, R., & Feng, Y. (2024). Analysis of User Usage Trends of AI-Assisted Customized Fashion Design Software in the Dimension of Interaction Design — An empirical study on Chinese user willingness to use based on an extended TAM model. ICADI ‘24: Proceedings of the 2024 International Conference on Artificial Intelligence, Digital Media Technology and Interaction Design, 478–483. https://doi.org/10.1145/3726010.3726085 Zhu, D., & Lin, C. (2008). Using Technology Acceptance Model To Evaluate Users’ Attitude and Intention of Uses. International Conference on E-Business, 1, 384–389. https://doi.org/10.5220/0001908003840389 Corresponding author: Rizky Rosjanuardi Email: rizky@upi.edu

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Unpacking Philippine Madrasah Education Pedagogies: A Case Study of Asatidz’ Pedagogical Practices Abdul Haiy A. Sali Far Eastern University Manila, & Philippine Normal University Manila, Philippines

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Abstract The Asatidz, or madrasah teachers, are not necessarily graduates of education courses nor passers of the Philippine Licensure Examination for Teachers. However, they are expected to be adept in both content knowledge, as expressed in the learning competencies of the intended curriculum, and the pedagogical content knowledge needed for the implementation of the instruction. As program implementers, they are expected to perform the tasks of a regular teacher. Thus, this study explored the factors influencing the pedagogical practices of Asatidz in the Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education program in selected schools in Metro Manila. The study was anchored in a case study research model. Data were gathered from ten madrasah teachers through semi-structured individual interviews, classroom observations, and the collection of artifacts. Analysis of the data revealed several salient factors influencing the pedagogical practices of Asatidz: self-efficacy in teaching and learning; Islamic education’s conception of traditional teaching methodologies and practices; teacher training in enhancing instructional practices; and mentoring. Based on these findings, the study recommends providing professional development programs for the Asatidz focused on high-quality instruction grounded in their context and needs assessment. Keywords: ALIVE Program, Asatidz, Madrasah education, Pedagogical practices, Philippines

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The Madrasah Education Program (MEP), particularly the Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE) of the Department of Education (DepEd), highly depends on the effectiveness of Asatidz or madrasah teachers who serve as program implementers (DepEd Order No. 41, s. 2017). As emphasized by Arsad (2025), the MEP was introduced in public schools to bridge the educational divide between the formal state education system and the traditional madrasah system in Muslim communities—a gap that has long disadvantaged Muslim Filipino learners. Consequently, the teacher quality and competence of Asatidz remain crucial to the successful implementation of the ALIVE Program across selected public schools in the Philippines (Andang-Alaiden et al., 2025; Harad & Arriola, 2022; Marasigan, 2019; Solaiman, 2017). An effective madrasah teacher must possess a mastery of the subject matter and apply appropriate teaching strategies and assessments to translate the intended curriculum effectively. However, most Asatidz of the ALIVE program are untenured and not necessarily graduates of teacher education courses nor passers of the Philippine Licensure Exam for Teachers (LET). In 2018, despite the training and customized program for the Asatidz, the madrasah teachers garnered only a 9% passing rate in the LET (DepEd Teachers’ Support Program, Madrasah Education Program Slide, 2018, as cited in Sali & Marasigan, 2020). This highlights a significant gap in the program implementation, as most madrasah teachers had low levels of proficiency. As program implementers, Asatidz are expected to be competent in performing regular teaching tasks with sufficient unpacking skills (Fahmi et al., 2022). As a fundamental aspect of teacher competence (Darling-Hammond, 2000), for instance, in instructional design, selecting appropriate pedagogical practices is crucial for creating relevant and holistic learning experiences. In this study, pedagogical practice is defined as instruction or the “whole process as the sum of teaching and learning processes” (Akdeniz, 2016, p. 61). This includes, but is not limited to, the teacher’s pedagogical beliefs, instructional strategies, methods, and tactics in the classroom. However, in the implementation of the ALIVE program, Muhlisin et al. (2023) note that many madrasa teachers in the Philippines possess limited professional qualifications, which consequently hinders the effectiveness of their instructional practices. Despite relevant reforms over the past two decades, gaps in the implementation of the ALIVE program persist (Arsad, 2025; Boransing, 2006; Eder, 2010; Final Report of Muslim Education Initiatives, 2014; Harad & Arriola, 2022; Lacar, 1994; Majul, 1978; Marasigan, 2019; Milligan, 2005, 2006; Muhlisin et al., 2023; Nunag, 1970; Review Report on the Three Years Implementation of ALIVE Program, 2008; Rodriguez, 1986; Solaiman 2017; Sali & Marasigan, 2020; Sattar & Arriola, 2020; Sali, 2020; Sali & Ancho, 2021). In the existing literature, the Asatidz is recognized as one of the most critical factors in its program’s success. In 2004, MEP was institutionalized through DepEd Order No. 51; however, pertinent studies on the pedagogical practices (instructional process) of Asatidz in the Philippines remain limited. Therefore, this study explored the factors that influence the pedagogical practices of Asatidz implementing the ALIVE program. This study will enrich the existing literature on the instructional process (Akdeniz, 2016) and will contribute to a comprehensive understanding of

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Philippine madrasah education pedagogies. The findings are expected to benefit key stakeholders, including DepEd (at the national, regional, and division levels), school principals and head teachers, education leaders, policymakers, and Asatidz themselves. Literature Review The Madrasah Education program (MEP), particularly the ALIVE Program of DepEd, is considered a subsystem of the Philippine education system. Operating within this framework, the ALIVE Program incorporates Arabic language and Islamic Values Education as additional subjects beyond the national curriculum (Harad & Arriola, 2022; Sali, 2020; Sali & Marasigan, 2020; Sattar & Arriola, 2020; Solaiman, 2017). The ALIVE program aims to provide culturally appropriate educational opportunities that respect the cultures, customs, traditions, and interests of Muslim learners (Arsad, 2025; Sali & Marasigan, 2020). Furthermore, according to the Institute for Autonomy and Governance (2019) there are four types of Madrasah Education programs in the Philippines: (1) Integrated Madaris, private sectarian schools accredited by the government; (2) the Tahdiriyyah Program aimed at learners aged five and below; (3) Traditional Madaris, private Islamic schools operating independently of the formal Philippine education system; and (4) Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE), a DepEd program for Muslim Filipino learners enrolled in public schools nationwide, which serves as the focus of this study. The ALIVE program represents a significant curriculum innovation within the Philippine education system. The unique features of the program include the universality aspect of the values being taught to the learners within the context of Islam. Additionally, the inclusion of the Arabic language as an essential component of the Refined Elementary Madrasah Curriculum (REMC) aims to enhance Arabic functional literacy, which is crucial for performing religious obligations among Muslim Filipino learners. Thus, the program seeks to develop competent and productive Muslim Filipino learners through context-based and culturally appropriate education rooted in Islam (REMC, 2010, p. 1). The distinct learning goals and competencies outlined in the REMC or the ALIVE curriculum emphasize the importance of understanding madrasah education pedagogies among Asatidz for effective and efficient implementation of the ALIVE Program. Abdullah (2018) emphasized the importance of developing a hermeneutical approach to Islamic education suited to the contemporary world. As such, there is a need to reexamine and reinterpret Islamic educational principles and practices to remain relevant and meaningful in recent contexts (Alkouatli, 2018). In the Philippines, madrasah education pedagogies range from traditional approaches rooted in Islamic pedagogical traditions to non-traditional or progressive teaching philosophies (Fahmi et al., 2022; Redocto & Sumayo, 2024; Sali, 2021; Sali & Ancho, 2021). From an epistemological standpoint, the pedagogical practices of Asatidz can be better understood by examining how various Islamic schools of thought shape their underlying pedagogical praxis, as an enduring connection between knowledge and sacredness remains evident today (Hardaker, 2015; Sali, 2020).

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The convergence of traditional and progressive views on teaching methodologies is evident in today’s implementation of madrasah education (Harad & Arriola, 2022; Sali, 2020; Sali & Ancho, 2021; Sali & Marasigan, 2020). Significant changes have been observed in the shift from a traditional, mostly teacher-centered approach to a more progressive one, where studentcentered and active learning are prioritized. According to Sali (2021), the pedagogical practices of the Asatidz are influenced by both secular and non-secular orientations. While existing studies on Philippine madrasah education have primarily focused on policy implementation and program challenges, limited research has examined the pedagogical dimension— particularly the factors that shape Asatidz’ pedagogical practices. By situating madrasah education pedagogy in the local context, the study contributes to a deeper understanding of the interplay of traditional and progressive pedagogies in shaping Philippine madrasah education in recent times. Related Studies In curriculum implementation, the pedagogical competence of madrasah teachers plays a pivotal role in the teaching and learning process. According to Olsson and Roxă (2013), teaching skill is the central part of pedagogical competence. Therefore, teachers’ pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), as reflected in their pedagogical practices, is regarded as one of the key determinants of student learning. The Asatidz’ ability to integrate Islamic concepts and Arabic content in the instructional process is tantamount to effective teaching and learning (Ní Ríordáin et al., 2019). In developing pedagogical competence, Asatidz are mostly influenced by the following determinants: (1) teacher self-efficacy (Edwards et al., 2006; Pekkarinen & Hirtso, 2017; Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy, 2001) (2) pedagogical praxis influenced by Islamic pedagogical traditions (Alkouatli, 2018; Kemmis, 2012; Sabki & Hardaker, 2013; Sali, 2020; Sali & Ancho, 2021), and (3) professional development ( Arsad, 2025; Alwadai, 2014; Andang-Alaiden et al., 2025; Avalos, 2011). Teacher Self-efficacy Teacher self-efficacy refers to teachers’ beliefs in their capacity to implement effective instructional practices that promote student achievement (Edwards et al., 2006). TschannenMoran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) highlighted that in-service teachers’ sense of self-efficacy is shaped by three core beliefs: confidence in using effective instructional materials, ability to manage classroom behavior, and capacity to engage students in the learning process. At the core of teaching, self-efficacy significantly contributes to designing instructional plans, implementing lesson plans, and choosing appropriate assessments. In learning, self-efficacy influences how a teacher manages and engages students’ behavior to maximize the learning experiences. However, the self-efficacy of madrasah teachers remains one of the most pressing challenges in implementing the ALIVE program. In practice, effective teachers need to develop teaching skills and mastery of content knowledge (Borowski et al., 2011). It should be noted that some Asatidz do not have a background in formal teaching, and challenges are evident in designing instructional plans—a skill that classroom teachers are required to possess as prescribed by DepEd. For emphasis, several Asatidz did not graduate with a four-year

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education degree, nor have they been exposed to such a formal educational setting. Notably, pedagogical practices are associated with teachers’ beliefs, as they influence one’s pedagogical competence (Pekkarinen & Hirtso, 2017). Pedagogical Praxis Influenced by Islamic Pedagogical Traditions According to Sali (2020), pedagogical praxis enables teachers to discern their pedagogical choices as a form of experience-based professional learning (Sirotová, 2016). The pedagogical praxis is formed through the various interplay of different factors during the madrasah teacher’s formative years in schooling and their current development of teaching experiences. Islamic pedagogical traditions are evident in Asatidz’ instructional strategies, particularly in the transmission of knowledge in instruction. Sabki and Hardaker (2013) emphasized that Islamic pedagogy, which incorporates orality, memorization, and a didactic approach to the sacred, was relevant in learning Islamic education. Furthermore, Ishomuddin and Bin Mokhtar (2017) studied twenty Islamic educators in Singapore trained in Middle Eastern institutions and found that traditional, teacher-centered methods, particularly lectures—dominated classroom instruction. The role of their previous mentors remains an influential factor in shaping the madrasah teacher persona of the Asatidz. The mentor-mentee relationship is pivotal in sharing best practices, collaborating with colleagues, and enhancing self-reflection, which is crucial for improving teachers’ instructional processes (Little, 2006; Vieluf et al., 2012; DarlingHammond et al., 2017). Remarkably, the formative years of the madrasah teachers, along with the gradual development of their pedagogical content knowledge in the program implementation, shape the amalgam of teaching styles and their pedagogical decision-making in the classroom (Rosele et al., 2024; Sali, 2020; Sali & Ancho, 2021). This reflective praxis allows madrasah teachers to assess their pedagogical practices and evaluate their overall performance in the teaching and learning process (Kemmis, 2012). Professional Development The Asatidz undergoes several processes before being deployed to their assigned schools. As part of DepEd’s effort to professionalize Asatidz, a Qualifying Examination in Arabic Language and Islamic Studies (QEALIS) is administered by the Bureau of Educational Assessment (BEA) as an entry-level requirement for individuals applying. After passing the exam, they must undergo pre-service training such as Language Enhancement and Pedagogy (LEaP). However, despite undergoing several professional development programs, Sali and Marasigan (2020) revealed that Asatidz are in dire need of continuous professional development programs anchored to their contexts and needs. Specifically, topics on (1) effective use of teaching strategies; (2) creating lesson plans with SMART objectives; and (3) filling out promotional reports and forms, and so forth. The seminars and enrichment activities conducted by DepEd and their school showed a variety of teaching strategies in actual practice (Redocto & Sumayo, 2024). Most of the Asatidz during the classroom observation followed didactic and lecture methods as their instructional strategies (Ahmadzhai, 2015; Rusthman et al., 2012). Therefore, there is a necessity to create more customized professional development programs for madrasah teachers (Alwadai, 2014; Arsad, 2025). Avalos (2011) asserted that not

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every form of professional development, despite having relevant evidence and being impactful in some context during implementation, is itself applicable to all teachers (p. 1). Conceptual Framework Figure 1 Madrasah Education Pedagogy Framework

The conceptual framework explains how Philippine madrasah education pedagogies develop through a process called pedagogical amalgamation. This process represents a stage of interplay and convergence of Asatidz’ relevant lived teaching experiences, largely influenced by Islamic pedagogical traditions and the development of self-efficacy. These experiences include lessons learned during their formative years in schooling with their mentors. In pedagogical praxis, the ongoing negotiation between past and present teaching realities shapes their current pedagogical practices (e.g., professional development programs, Islamic education background, and mentoring). These elements come together to influence how teaching is carried out in the implementation of the MEP. The entire process—from personal experience and teaching practice to the amalgamation and development of madrasah education pedagogy—occurs within and is continuously influenced by both internal (intrinsic) and external (extrinsic) factors, including the context or educational setting in which Asatidz belong. Methodology Research Question This research aimed to examine and analyze the pedagogical practices of the Asatidz involved in implementing the ALIVE program in selected schools across Metro Manila. Specifically, it

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aimed to address the following question: What relevant factors influence the pedagogical practices of the Asatidz? Research Design The study employed a qualitative research method with its framework anchored in the Case Study Research Model, utilizing multiple case study analyses (Creswell, 2007; Yin, 2014). In this study, the researcher focused on the factors influencing the pedagogical practices of ten Asatidz as research participants across Metro Manila. According to Miles and Huberman (1994), the inclusion of multiple cases enhances the precision and validity of the research findings. The study used multiple case study analyses, which are primarily inductive and comparative (Merriam, 2009). Data Gathering Procedures and Methods of Analysis This study gathered data from two primary sources: in-depth semi-structured interviews and actual classroom observation. Three experts validated the interview tool and conducted a pilot test before data collection. Additionally, the classroom observation tool was adapted from the Classroom Observation Worksheet of the University of Minnesota Center for Teaching and Learning. The observation tool captured the necessary areas needed to analyze the factors influencing the pedagogical practices of the Asatidz. The qualitative data were gathered through 35 to 45-minute interviews, which were audiorecorded, and 40 to 45-minute actual classroom teaching observations. The documents and transcripts of the interviews were coded to maintain the anonymity of the participants and schools, particularly by designating pseudonyms or codes as part of the confidentiality. Furthermore, the triangulation of multiple data sources was based on pertinent documents and information, including journal articles, participants’ profiles, and the researcher’s observation notes. The thematic analysis framework of Miles and Huberman (1994) was employed, encompassing three concurrent flows of activity: data reduction, data display, and verification or conclusion drawing (p. 10). Data collection continued until data saturation was reached, ensuring that no new themes or insights emerged from the participants’ responses. A cross-case analysis was conducted to examine the audio-recorded interviews from ten participants representing diverse backgrounds and affiliations. The study was purely qualitative, with no statistical treatment of the data. Research Ethics Consideration The study received ethical clearance from the Institutional Research Ethics Board (REB) under REC Code 112219-450. Furthermore, data collection officially started after the researcher secured the necessary approval from the Department of Education - National Capital Region. Throughout the study, the participants’ rights and confidentiality were upheld. First, the nature

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of the study was thoroughly explained to the participants, including the research purpose, the kind of participation solicited from them, and their right to withdraw at any time. Second, before the actual data gathering, the researchers were asked to provide their consent without any form of coercion or undue influence. Lastly, the researcher was cautious to guard against any personal biases. Thus, to ensure that there was no conflict of interest in the study, analytic memoing was used to prevent it from affecting the data’s authenticity. Participant Profile Ten participants were purposively selected based on the inclusion and exclusion criteria: each Asatidz must have at least one year of teaching experience, have taught both component subjects (Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education), and be a madrasah teacher based in Metro Manila. Consistent with Creswell’s (2007) recommendation for qualitative studies, a sample size of around ten participants was deemed sufficient to provide in-depth, informationrich data. Furthermore, most participants taught at lower grade levels (Grades 1 to 3) and had an average of seven years of experience as program implementers. All had attended various DepEd-sponsored trainings and seminars in pedagogy and instruction at the national, regional, and school levels. The ten participants represented a diverse group of educators, predominantly female (9 out of 10) and varied widely in their professional experience, ranging from 1 to 15 years of service. Academically, the group held a mix of secular and non-secular qualifications. While the secular attainment ranged from a College to a Master’s degree (including BSED and BEED graduates), the non-secular attainment was primarily at the Thanawi (High School) level, with three participants having graduated from Kulliyah (College). The majority of the Asatidz (7 out of 10) were QEALIS passers. However, none possessed teaching eligibility or a professional teaching license (LET). Limitations The study’s results identified relevant themes on the factors influencing the pedagogical practices of madrasah teachers in the Philippines. However, the generalizability of these findings is limited, as the sample size included only ten Asatidz, which is unlikely to be representative of all madrasah teachers in the entire National Capital Region. Despite this limitation, the insights gathered offer valuable perspectives on the unique context of Asatidz teaching in urban madrasah settings. Results Following qualitative data analysis, four main themes emerged regarding the factors influencing the Asatidz’ pedagogical practices (see Table 1). The description of the themes provided a synopsis of the various factors that influence Asatidz’ development and adaptation of pedagogical practices within the context of Philippine madrasah education. It highlighted the dynamic interaction between their lived experiences, Islamic educational background, and contemporary teaching approaches that shape their pedagogical practices at present.

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Table 1 Codes, Sample Verbatim Responses, and Clustering of Themes Codes and Sample Verbatim Response In being prepared, you cannot instruct the [learners] to be prepared all the time if you are not prepared [as a teacher]. So, that is the first thing to ensure being a teacher of ALIVE.) - (9)

Subthemes

Teacher Preparation

That is why a lesson plan is very important. Before you enter the classroom and before you teach, you must prepare your lesson plan. It serves as a guideline on what to teach.) – (P2) (Before we go to school, we are preparing ourselves at home. We prepare all the instructional materials. Everything [instructional materials] that we will present in front of the class tomorrow, we prepared all of those and made sure to bring them tomorrow.) - (P8) First, you need to attend a seminar or Teaching training in pedagogy and other training Implementation on strategies of teaching – (P1) (What I do [as a teacher] to get the attention of the learners, I do not teach if they are not yet ready or prepared. You need to have a daily routine established for them [learners].) (P12) It is also very important. Before you start your presentation, you need to review it first. How will you move on [to the next topic] if they cannot

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Main Themes

Description of Themes

Theme 1: Teacher selfefficacy in teaching and learning

The Asatidz viewed a teacher’s instructional competence as the most crucial element in shaping the self-efficacy of a Madrasah educator.

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understand [the previous lessons]) – (P6) (I aspire that at the end of the school year, I want all of them [learners] to be readers in Arabic. That’s the most important for me before the year ends that all of them [learners] know how to read Arabic so that they will learn how to read the Qur’an.) (P12) Yes. You will only write. You need to write everything written on the blackboard. If my teacher says, my Ustadz [teacher or mentor], ―You need to memorize this ―For tomorrow? [asking the teacher]. Okay. Hmm. You have to read and read. - (P8)

Conception of Traditional Teaching Methodologies and Practices

The strategy of Ustadz [teacher or mentor], he would fill the blackboard with writings... However, you need to memorize everything written on the board (Like rote learning more on memorization?) ―Yes, memorization. (P12) He [teacher/mentor] will read the book; sometimes, others [teacher/mentor] did not write anything [lecture]. They will keep on talking continuously, it is up to you to take note of what they said... If you cannot catch up, you will have to squat [smiled]. (P4) He [teacher/mentor] will just sit since he [former teacher/mentor] was already old. I mean, he is an alim [Muslim scholar who specializes in knowledge of Islam]. He will just sit

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Theme 2: Islamic education’s conception of traditional teaching methodologies and practices

The background and foundation of Islamic education among Asatidz are essential for carrying out important competencies in the curriculum during classroom instruction.

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and read the lessons to be learned, and then if there is someone who does not understand the lesson, he will write it on the board and explain it afterward.) - (P5) (You will have to explain to Foundation of the learners about the concepts of Islamic Islam in summary. If the learners do Knowledge not know, how will you explain [Islamic concepts] to them? That is why our Kulliyyah [high school education], of course, gave us that [knowledge] - (P4) (Of course, when you handle Arabic [language] and Islamic [values], sometimes you will think ―Oh, I wasn’t able to study Arabic [concepts], how will I teach these Islamic values?ǁ Islamic values do not fall to only one subject, sir. There are Tarikh [History] and Fiqh [Islamic Jurisprudence] also. - (P8) (Our last training was held in Davao. What we did [studied] was the 21st-century skills and more on technology. All of our [worksheets] were computer-aided, and even in the evaluation, we used our cell phones. That is why I appreciate it so much, and as a teacher in the 21st century, I feel so excited to use that strategy [ies], how much more the learners?) - (P12)

Enhancement of Teachers’ Instructional Practices

First, you have to assess [the learners]. As teachers, we need to be versatile—we should practice multitasking and apply the concept of multiple intelligences in our teaching. That’s what truly matters, sir. That’s the biggest help [learned] from the INSET during summer, such kinds of

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Theme 3: Teacher training in the enhancement of teachers’ instructional practices

The Asatidz explained the importance of teacher training on their pedagogical practices.

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seminar, sir.) – P9 It is a big help. We learned how to create [learning] devices such as visual aids and how to deliver instruction [using the devices and visual aids] to the learners... In the university I graduated from, there was none. There were no devices.) - (P4) I learned how to create visual aids and how to teach even without a classroom. [I] have learned how to write lesson plans and do group activities.) - (P7) (That. . . It should be weekly... [Interviewer: Aah, the lesson plan] our lesson plan. You should have [instructional] materials in your teaching. Also, you must not be late during your teaching hours. Those things will be checked by Ma’am [Madrasah coordinator]) - (P8)

Professional Collaborative Practices

If there is no [mentoring], what is the value of this group [Asatidz] or of our society if there is no one to guide you? There is none. We will be disunited. However, because of mentoring, we are here. We are one.) - (P9) (It is the most important [Mentoring]. There are things that we do not know But they know. They [mentors] have ample knowledge in teaching that they [mentors] need to share with us. Also, we somehow lack knowledge [teaching]) - (P10)

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Theme 4: Teacher mentoring

Most of the Asatidz agreed that mentoring as part of Professional collaborative practices is essential to the overall development of being an ALIVE teacher.

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Discussion Theme 1: Teacher Self-Efficacy in Teaching and Learning Most of the Asatidz view a teacher’s competence as a key element in building one’s selfefficacy as Madrasah educators. As curriculum implementers, preparedness to teach ALIVE classes reflects readiness to utilize a variety of teaching strategies and methods to support student learning. As Ní Ríordáin and colleagues (2019) emphasize, teachers must develop not only the mastery of content knowledge but also the practical skills needed to teach effectively and efficiently. For the Asatidz, the various trainings and seminars offered by the Department of Education (DepEd) helped them understand the ALIVE curriculum more clearly and teach the required learning competencies with confidence (Redocto & Sumayo, 2024). Interestingly, seven out of ten participants have formal academic backgrounds. Some have already earned a college degree, while others are currently pursuing higher education in secular institutions. Many of them are skilled at translating and contextualizing Arabic concepts using the local language, making lessons more appropriate and meaningful for their students. However, unpacking the curriculum by chunking competencies into teachable parts is always a challenge. Consistent with the study conducted by Sali and Marasigan (2020), the deficiency in instructional design skills of a mostly English-written instructional plan affects how Asatidz manages instruction. Most of the participants believe that a strong sense of efficacy influences how educators manage classroom behavior and engage learners (Olsson and Roxă, 2013). Based on the classroom observation, the Asatidz exercised different essential skills in their pedagogical practices before the planned implementation of instruction: organizing the physical set-up of the learning environment, practicing classroom management, implementing techniques to motivate the learners, preparing instructional materials and different learning devices, and establishing rapport using the classroom daily routine. As Tschannen-Moran and Woolfolk Hoy (2001) highlighted, the importance of in-service teachers’ self-efficacy lies in the effective use of instructional materials, managing classroom behavior, and engaging students in the learning process. However, in three out of five ALIVE schools, learning spaces such as permanent classrooms or edifices are often inadequate in supporting better teaching and learning processes for effective MEP implementation (Nunag, 1970; Review Report on the Three-Year Implementation of ALIVE Program; Sali & Marasigan, 2020; Muhlisin et al., 2023). According to the data analysis, since most participants taught Arabic Language and Islamic Values Education in lower levels (Level 1 to 3), most of their instructional methods, as observed in the classroom, were teacher-centered. Based on the observation notes, the instructional methods were mostly teacher-aided, as lower-grade learners are oriented toward mastering subject matter and language proficiency, especially learning Arabic as a foreign language. Furthermore, the most frequently used instructional methods by the Asatidz were reading, question-and-answer sessions, lectures using keywords, lectures using graphic association, drill, and traditional assessment. In contrast, the least instructional methods employed included compare and contrast, interactive games, songs, lectures using PowerPoint

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presentations, storytelling, and video presentations. To support effective and efficient curriculum implementation, there is a pressing need to enhance madrasah teachers’ skills in unpacking learning competencies and designing an instructional plan (Sali, 2022). This enables them to effectively break down the intended curriculum and deepen their understanding of constructive alignment (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2018; Print, 1993). As emphasized, pedagogical competence can only be achieved when madrasah teachers are well-equipped with pedagogical content knowledge, complementing their mastery of the subject matter, which in turn strengthens their sense of teacher self-efficacy. Theme 2: Islamic Education’s Conception of Traditional Teaching Methodologies and Practices The pedagogical practices of the Asatidz are primarily a combination of traditional and contemporary approaches to teaching and learning as observed in the classroom. Reflections on these qualities and practices suggest an interplay between Islamic knowledge and the two pedagogical approaches, suggesting a pedagogic amalgamation (Sali, 2020). The findings align with Rosele et al. (2024), emphasizing that teaching methods specifically designed to align with the distinct features of Islamic education can significantly enhance students’ comprehension of religious content. The findings suggested a dynamic relationship between pedagogical theory and classroom practice, which guides the Asatidz in deciding which teaching approaches to use and how to carry them out during classroom instruction. As praxisoriented educators, their teaching reflects what Edwards-Groves et al. (2018), drawing from Kemmis (2012), describe as “interplay, reciprocity, and delineation” (p. 142) of pedagogical practices. The term pedagogical amalgamation (Sali, 2020) captures “not just a simple blending but a dynamic interaction of various factors” on the teaching and learning process (p. 117). This amalgamation reflects the Asatidz’ ability to integrate different pedagogical ideas in a way that fits both their role as classroom teachers and as implementers of the Madrasah program. Interestingly, the Islamic educational background of the participants varies from local to international schools. In addition, six out of ten participants were high school graduates in Islamic education. At the same time, two were trained in Metro Manila, and the remaining two graduated from international universities in the Arabian Peninsula, one of whom holds a master’s degree. All participants possess a deep understanding of Islam and are adept at teaching Arabic language and Islamic values education. Interestingly, all of them agreed that obtaining an Islamic education must be a prerequisite to becoming a competent madrasah teacher. Five out of ten Asatidz identified the foundation of Islamic knowledge as an essential factor in determining the desired competencies to teach and in translating the said competencies into classroom instruction. However, most participants explained that their Islamic teachers were traditional in their approaches to transmitting knowledge, consistent with the studies of Ahmadzhai (2015), Ishomuddin and Bin Mokhtar (2017), Rusthman et al. (2012), and Sabki and Hardaker (2013). Remarkably, the conceptualization of the traditional teaching methodologies and practices was greatly influenced by their previous educators. This narrative was evident based on the

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classroom observation, where most of the Asatidz performed direct instruction. These findings also align with the work of Sabki and Hardaker (2003), which emphasizes that a teacher’s approach to pedagogy is an interplay between orality, memorization, and engagement with sacred texts as part of the spiritual development of the learner (p. 77). Furthermore, echoing the study of Alkouatli (2018), across various contexts of Islamic education worldwide, pedagogical qualities and practices of madrasah educators have remained diverse and contextualized. As posited, Philippine madrasah education pedagogies are highly influenced by Islamic pedagogical traditions (e.g., Ta’līm (Instruction and Transmission of Knowledge), Tarbiyah (Holistic Nurturing and Character Formation), Talaqiy (Face-to-Face Learning and Oral Recitation), Ittibā’ (Following the Example of the Prophet), and Shafawiy (Performing Recitation Orally), so forth. In principle, these Islamic pedagogical traditions are suitable for the context of the Muslim learners. However, these traditional pedagogies are not yet fully integrated and maximized as part of the instructional approaches in implementing the intended curriculum. Theme 3: Teacher Training in the Enhancement of Teachers’ Instructional Practices Despite the challenges in 21st-century education, the Asatidz employed a combination of constructivist and more direct instructional approaches, as most participants observed during their classroom observation (Rosele et al., 2024). The involvement of the Asatidz during teacher training broadens their professional practices. Remarkably, all participants agreed that teacher training is an essential factor in the development of their pedagogical practices. This aligns with Alwadai’s (2014) dissertation, which explored the perspectives of Islamic teachers, suggesting that enhancing critical thinking skills through professional development is essential. Furthermore, pre-service and in-service professional training programs for madrasah teachers are recommended (Fahmi et al., 2022). The rapidly changing educational landscape demands a deeper and more complex understanding of student learning, more so, emerging competencies relevant to madrasah teachers and learners. Twenty-first-century learners must develop relevant competencies for critical thinking, complex problem-solving, effective communication, collaboration, and technology literacy (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017). While traditional teaching methodologies are essential, inevitably, teachers must also refine their pedagogies to teach these skills effectively. However, more than the integration of technology and developing emerging competencies, teacher training programs must be responsive and suited to “the needs and capacities of ALIVE teachers” (Arsad, 2025, p. 8). As argued, a onesize-fits-all approach in teacher training doesn’t accommodate the competency gaps that must be addressed among madrasah teachers. In addition, the in-service training (INSET) for most participants helped mold their pedagogical practices as madrasah teachers. Some of the Asatidz diversified their approaches to instruction to better implement their plan with ease and effectiveness (Sali & Marasigan, 2020; Sali, 2021; Sali & Ancho, 2021). Since the pedagogical background of most Asatidz leans toward traditional teaching methodologies, the various training and seminars funded by DepEd helped enhance their instructional practices to include the introduction to progressive teaching

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practices. Certainly, professional development is about teachers’ metacognition and transforming their knowledge into effective instructional practice for students’ growth and achievement of educational outcomes (Avalos, 2011). Most importantly, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD, as cited by Vieluf et al., 2012) emphasized that teaching quality is imperative for enhancing education outcomes. However, it is argued that there should be no dichotomy between traditional and progressive teaching approaches. Both approaches serve distinct purposes depending on the learning goals; hence, purposeful complementation is encouraged. Furthermore, aligned with Pekkarinen and Hirsto (2017), the conduct of pedagogical training has led to significant development in teachers’ pedagogical competence. The INSET provided the Asatidz a platform to assess and evaluate the relevance of their different pedagogical practices. However, according to Avalos (2011), in-service teacher training (INSET) is considered a traditional approach to professional development. In crafting the professional development courses for madrasah educators, it is imperative to conduct a needs assessment to assess their specific needs and learning gaps. This ensures that the training being developed is relevant, appropriate, and responsive to their actual professional growth needs. Therefore, tailoring professional development programs to the specific needs of the Asatidz is encouraged since not all generic training programs address the unique contexts and challenges they face. Relevant professional development programs (e.g., trainings, workshops, and research conferences) should be decentralized, in contrast to the current highly centralized approach. As such, the DepEd Division Office should conduct training needs assessments to identify the competency gaps, including the contextual needs of where Asatidz belong to design relevant, appropriate, and responsive teacher training programs. Furthermore, strengthening partnerships with local teacher education institutions (TEIs) is encouraged. For instance, TEIs can provide expertise in the field of education to help ensure effective and efficient implementation of the curriculum. Theme 4: Teacher Mentoring Most of the Asatidz agreed that mentoring as part of professional collaborative practices is essential to the overall development of being an ALIVE teacher. Professional collaborative practice among the school head, their Madrasah coordinator, and other teaching personnel in school can further establish strong professional development communities for instructional improvement and to initiate school reform (Little, 2006, p. 936). Struyve et al. (2016) emphasized that mentors play a crucial role in supporting early career teachers. A dire need for social integration within the school community and help them build a meaningful professional relationship provides a sense of belonging, which is beneficial in developing a positive school culture. Furthermore, Darling-Hammond et al. (2017) highlighted that effective professional development heavily relies on the following key components: providing timely feedback and opportunities for reflective practice. Furthermore, collaborative practice with learners enhances the motivation of the Asatidz to engage in self-development, thereby improving their self-efficacy in teaching and learning.

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Barni et al. (2019) also argued that specific motivational conditions provide valuable resources for enhancing the overall quality of a teacher’s professional experience, which provides more leeway in impacting student learning (p. 5). Mentoring is a key component of professional learning, which encompasses any activity that provides teachers with the necessary tools to deliver high-quality instruction (Vieluf et al., 2012). Several documented benefits have been found in novice teachers’ participation in well-designed and well-funded programs with qualified mentors (Fantilli & McDougall, 2009). A mentor is defined as a person who assists students by being their guide, advisor, leader, or tutor (Akdeniz, 2016). The relationship between mentor and mentee in the context of the Asatidz applies to both the madrasah coordinator and madrasah teachers. However, cultural variances are present, of which most ALIVE coordinators didn’t have adequate knowledge of the Arabic language and Islamic values (Sali & Marasigan, 2020). As argued, capacity-building initiatives focusing on basic Arabic language proficiency, Islamic pedagogy, and cross-cultural understanding would enable coordinators to support teachers and learners within the Philippine madrasah context. According to Hylan and Postlethwaite (1998), the provision of mentorship opportunities offers significant benefits for all participants, including both teachers and learners. Most of the Asatidz agreed that mentoring, as part of professional collaborative practices, is essential to their overall development as ALIVE teachers. As part of the school’s teaching personnel under a contract of service, the Asatidz are directly supervised by the school principal. For instructional matters, they report to the madrasah coordinator. Therefore, the relationship between the madrasah coordinator and the madrasah teachers is crucial to the continuous development of the Asatidz’ pedagogical practices for effective and efficient program implementation. According to Arsad (2025), it was determined that “education and equity were underlying causes of curriculum issues” (p. 6). The school principal assigned a teacher as the ALIVE program coordinator in the implementing school following a selection process, such as years of experience and commitment to the program, among others. Remarkably, all of the madrasah coordinators in the participating schools are non-Muslim. A significant challenge lies in the cultural and religious differences, as none of the ALIVE coordinators are Muslim (Sali, 2021; Sali, 2023). Unfortunately, none of them has in-depth knowledge of Islam or even the Arabic language (Sali & Marasigan, 2020). Despite the challenges, Asatidz finds the mentoring process helpful in developing their pedagogical practices, especially in enhancing their instruction.

Conclusions and Recommendations The findings highlight Asatidz’ pedagogical practices, which shape the Philippine madrasah pedagogies, are influenced by interrelated factors, notably instructional competence as madrasah teachers, grounding in Islamic education, mentoring, and professional development experiences. The madrasah teachers’ practices reflect a synthesis of Islamic pedagogical traditions in instruction and contemporary teaching approaches, revealing the dynamic nature of faith-informed instruction within diverse educational contexts where the Asatidz belong. Furthermore, the study contributes to the discourse on Islamic pedagogy as a contextual and

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evolving practice, highlighting its adaptability within the formal education system in the context of the ALIVE program of the DepEd. Practically, it emphasizes the need to strengthen teacher capacity through sustained mentoring, collaborative learning, and contextualized professional development that is anchored to needs, realities, context, and competency gaps. Lastly, the study recommends: (1) implement enhancement programs that promote highquality instruction through diverse teaching strategies supporting both teacher-directed and self-regulated learning; (2) foster mentoring and collaboration by building strong professional learning communities that encourage reflective inquiry and teamwork; (3) develop an integrative instructional framework that embeds relevant Islamic pedagogical traditions into the ALIVE curriculum and trainings; (4) reinforce feedback and appraisal systems to ensure sustained pedagogical improvement and active participation in professional development; (5) provide training on digital literacy, including the use of operating systems, research skills, and technology-enhanced teaching tools; and (6) design a customized Accelerated Teacher Education Program (ATEP), in collaboration with Commission on Higher Education, Professional Regulation Commission, and partner Teacher Education Institutions, to formalize and enrich Asatidz’ professional qualifications based on identified needs. Overall, these implications call for an inclusive and responsive professional development framework rooted in Philippine madrasah education pedagogies, upholding Islamic pedagogical traditions while fostering instructional excellence. Declaration of Generative AI and AI-Assisted Technologies in the Writing Process The author acknowledges the use of AI-assisted tools to enhance the grammatical accuracy and clarity of the manuscript.

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Merriam, S. B. (2009). Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation. JosseyBass. Miles, M. B., & Huberman, A. M. (1994). Qualitative data analysis (2nd ed.). SAGE. Milligan, J. A. (2005). Faith in school: Educational policy responses to ethno-religious conflict in the southern Philippines. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 36(1), 67–86. https://www.jstor.org/stable/20072629 Milligan, J. A. (2006). The Islamization of education. Comparative Education Review, 50(3), 410–430. https://doi.org/10.1086/503883 Muhlisin, M., Sofi, M., Shobirin, M., & Deporos, S. R. (2023). The quality improvement assistantship program for madrasa education in Mindanao, the Philippines. Dimas: Jurnal Pemikiran Agama untuk Pemberdayaan, 23(1), 19–40. https://doi.org/10.21580/dms.2023.231.14950 Muslim Education Initiative Review Final Report. (2014). Research and Development Foundation of the College of Education – University of the Philippines. Ní Ríordáin, M., Paolucci, C., & Lyons, T. (2019). Teacher professional competence: What can be learned about the knowledge and practices needed for teaching? In L. Hobbs & G. Törner (Eds.), Examining the phenomenon of “teaching out-of-field” (pp. 129– 149). Springer. Nunag, D. (1970). The madrasah schools in Marawi City: Their educational objectives, practices, and institutional societal role [Master’s thesis]. University of the Philippines. Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development. (2009). Creating effective teaching and learning environments. OECD Publishing. Olsson, T., & Roxå, T. (2012). A model promoting conceptual change in higher education – an integrated approach. In N. Brown, S. M. Jones, & A. Adam (Eds.), Research and development in higher education: Connections in higher education, 35 (pp. 213–223). HERDSA. Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2018). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues. Pearson. Pekkarinen, V., & Hirsto, L. (2017). University lecturers’ experiences of and reflections on the development of their pedagogical competency. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 61(6), 735–753. https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2016.1188148 Print, M. (1993). Curriculum development and design (2nd ed.). Allen & Unwin. Redocto, S. B., & Sumayo, G. S. (2024). The teaching–learning process in madrasah multigrade classes during the pandemic: A phenomenological investigation. AlIshlah: Jurnal Pendidikan, 16(1), 14–26. https://doi.org/10.35445/alishlah.v16i1.5110 Review Report on the Three Years Implementation of ALIVE Program. (2008, January 27). https://deped.academia.edu/AsecNoorSaada/Researches Rodriguez, L. D. (1986). Madrasah general education program for Muslim Mindanao [Doctoral dissertation]. Philippine Normal University.

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Rosele, M. I., Mansir, F., & Aisyah, N. (2024). Islamic education method in improving the religious learning quality in madrasah ibtidaiyah. Auladuna, 11(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.24252/auladuna.v11i1a1.2024 Sabki, A., & Hardaker, G. (2013). The madrasah concept of Islamic pedagogy. Educational Review, 65(3), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2012.668873 Sali, A. H. A., & Marasigan, A. (2020). Madrasah education program in the Philippines: An exploratory case study. International Journal of Comparative Education and Development, 22(3), 201–217. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJCED-06-2019-0034 Sali, A. H. A. (2020). Pedagogical praxis: Muslim-Filipino madrasah teachers’ conceptuality of instructional process. IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education, 8(4), 115–131. https://doi.org/10.22492/ije.8.4.07 Sali, A. H. A., & Ancho, I. V. (2021). Pedagogical reflections of Muslim-Filipino madrasah teachers: A phenomenological study. Journal of Research, Policy & Practice of Teachers and Teacher Education, 11(1), 25–39. https://doi.org/10.37134/jrpptte.vol11.1.3.2021 Sali, A. H. A. (2021). Posner’s curriculum analysis framework towards the development of Philippine madrasah education. JATI: Journal of Southeast Asian Studies, 26(1), 163– 185. https://doi.org/10.22452/jati.vol26no1 Sali, A. H. A. (2022). Democratization of curriculum development: Theorizing naturalistic model in Philippine madrasah education. International Journal of Curriculum and Instruction, 15(1), 566–581. https://ijci.globets.org/index.php/IJCI/article/view/1128/605 Sali, A. H. A. (2023). Sociological understanding of Muslim education in multicultural Philippines. Dinamika Ilmu, 23(1), 105–122. https://doi.org/10.21093/di.v23i1.6255 Sattar, A. R., & Arriola, B. H. (2020). Contributions of madrasah education program to counter violent extremism. American Journal of Educational Research, 8(7), 450– 457. https://doi.org/10.12691/education-8-7-1 Sirotová, M. (2016). Pedagogical praxis as a process of developing professional competencies in university education of future teachers. Procedia: Social and Behavioral Sciences, 228, 529–534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.07.081 Solaiman, S. M. (2017). Implementation of Arabic language and Islamic Values Education (ALIVE) in Marawi City, Philippines: Unveiling the perceptions of ALIVE teachers. Education Journal, 6(1), 38–46. https://doi.org/10.11648/j.edu.20170601.15 Struyve, C., Daly, A., Vandecandelaere, M., Meredith, C., Hannes, K., & De Fraine, B. (2016). More than a mentor. Journal of Professional Capital and Community, 1(3), 198–218. https://doi.org/10.1108/JPCC-01-2016-0002 Teacher’s Support System on Madrasah Education Slides. (2018, July 4–5). Exploring best practices in madaris and Islamic studies education between Indonesia and the Philippines [Slide presentation]. University of the Philippines, Diliman. Tschannen-Moran, M., & Woolfolk Hoy, A. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing an elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17(7), 783–805. https://mxtsch.people.wm.edu/Scholarship/TATE

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Vieluf, S., et al. (2012). Teaching practices and pedagogical innovation: Evidence from TALIS. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/education/ceri/TalisCeri%20InnovativeTeachingPractices%20F inal.pdf Wahyuni, E., Rifa’i, A., & Khisbiyah, Y. (2022). Learning model design to strengthen the value of religious moderation for madrasah teachers. Nazhruna: Jurnal Pendidikan Islam, 5(2), 646–658. https://doi.org/10.31538/nzh.v5i2.2497 Corresponding author: Abdul Haiy A. Sali Email: ahasali@feu.edu.ph

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Family–School Relationships in Contexts of Social Vulnerability: Perspectives from Chilean Teachers Héctor Cárcamo Vásquez Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile Marcelo Gallegos Fuentes Universidad del Bío-Bío, Chile María José Cares Geoffroy University of Concepción, Chile

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Abstract Existing literature primarily highlights family–school relationships as a key indicator in students’ educational development as well as the relevance of family involvement in the school process. However, there remains a gap in research regarding teachers’ perspectives and real participation practices in contexts of socially disadvantaged educational contexts. This research aims to explore teachers’ views on fulfilling the educational role of parents in contexts of social vulnerability, understood as the varying levels of risk faced by individuals. The study employs a qualitative approach, with data collected through semi-structured individual interviews conducted with twenty-four elementary school teachers from the south-central region of Chile. Data analysis was carried out using the Argumentative Action-Situation Analysis Model. The findings reveal that teachers conceptualize vulnerability from multiple perspectives, but the actions to address it are modelled in a homogeneous and standardized way. In other words, it is conceptualized in plural terms (vulnerabilities), and the actions defined by the school are established homogeneously and singularly (vulnerability). Finally, the study contributes to highlighting the need for more context-responsive family-school relationships, shifting the focus from bureaucratic approaches to equity-oriented educational practices. Keywords: educational parental role, elementary school, qualitative research, teachers, vulnerability

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The role of families in children’s educational development is fundamental (Epstein, 2005). The family system plays a crucial role in the generation of basic conditions that serve as support for a stage that involves high demand for emotional, relational, motivational, and academic effectiveness resources. Studies exploring the relationship between family and academic performance are abundant (Bazán & Castellanos, 2015; Coleman, 1966; González, 2021; Schueler et al., 2017). According to Razeto (2016), one of the first studies on the subject was conducted by James Coleman. He concluded that the academic performance of students was largely influenced by family and social factors, not only by economic and material factors. Aspects such as the educational level of parents, the interest in education shown to their children, daily involvement in academic conversations, and social resources such as support and collaboration networks are key resources for academic achievement. In this same sense, Márquez and Gaeta (2017) demonstrate that children who live in family contexts with parents committed to education and the educational process, who have expectations about academic success and communicate them assertively, generate the conditions to talk naturally about the subject and concretely support their children, positively influencing the way they relate to education and the educational experience. It is indisputable that how families fulfill the educational parental role1, defined and the effectiveness with which they accompany the children's process is affected by the vicissitudes of life they face (Backhoff, 2011). Consequently, realities characterized by lack of economic resources, low parental schooling, unassertive communication, low expectations of family and academic achievement, difficulties in reconciling work and educational accompaniment of children, among others, constitute stressors that impact the performance of the educational parental role (Bazán-Ramírez et al., 2021; Benavides-Moreno et al., 2020; Betancur et al., 2024). Certainly, family problems constitute challenges for the proper fulfillment of the intrinsic and extrinsic functions of the family; in the latter case, the family-school relationship may be compromised (Ortiz-Ruiz et al. 2018). Barudy and Dantagnan (2010) point out that families living in psychosocial risk contexts see the development of essential functions for the accompaniment of children affected. Indeed, these groups have difficulties in managing the stressors present in daily life, which ultimately affects the installation of the necessary conditions to create a safe environment for the growth and well-being of children. When this occurs, external support can help the family lower the stress level and facilitate the exercise of the parental role (Santana & Cáceres, 2023). In this scenario, an adequate family-school relationship, which recognizes the different realities from which the educational parental role can be exercised, can be fundamental to achieving a synergic relationship between the different actors in favour of the educational development of boys and girls (García-Bacete, 2003). Based on the above, this article analyses the views

According to Cárcamo and Rodríguez (2021), the educational parental role is understood as the set of actions, attitudes, and responsibilities that families assume to support and accompany their children’s formal learning process, in alignment with the guidance provided by the school and teachers.

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teachers give to fulfilling the educational parental role in families in contexts of social vulnerability. Literature Review Parental Role and Educational Parental Role Parental role can be defined as the set of responsibilities, obligations, and functions that fathers, mothers, and parental caregivers must fulfill in the upbringing of children (Copano et al., 2013). In general terms, it includes care and protection tasks, emotional support, modelling of behaviours, development of communication, and social relations. Fulfillment of the parental role must guarantee children and adolescents the provision of all the necessary satisfiers to meet the needs involved in living, growing, and relating to others in society. On this basis, the educational parental role is understood as the set of actions performed by fathers, mothers, and parental caregivers in the schooling process of children and adolescents, aimed at promoting school success. The construction of the educational parental role requires a high level of involvement in the educational process of the children; being involved undoubtedly makes a significant difference concerning the option of not being present (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). Sandoval et al. (2015), reviewing the work of Hoover-Dempsey and Sandler (2005), state that both the current conditions of the family and the experiences that parents have lived in the educational process, either as students and as parental caregivers, have an impact on how they configure the role and play it daily. Indeed, parents who have had positive experiences in this area throughout their lives are more willing to relate to the school and participate in its activities. This highlights the importance of the role played by institutional educational actors, especially teachers, in the way parents relate to the school and their children's educational process. Based on this consideration, teachers can become facilitators of meaningful experiences for mothers, fathers, or parental caregivers, especially when family contexts are adverse. Educational Parental Role in Contexts of Vulnerability Vulnerability is understood as a set of situations that endanger the stability of a family, generating damage and affecting its capacity to respond to internal and external demands in a particular sphere or in more than one (Benavides-Moreno et al., 2020; Infante et al., 2013; Vargas et al., 2017). Under these circumstances, the family loses the capacity to respond to the demands of the members of the nucleus itself, but also to the communities and institutions with which the family is related. The condition of family vulnerability can have different expressions. In the educational sphere, it can manifest itself as a type of concrete difficulty for parents to assume an active role in their children's education, even when they express their intention to do so. Therefore, it has the potential to become a determining factor in the experience of parents, children, and schools.

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Benavides-Moreno (2020) points out that the conditions of vulnerability do not remain in the context of the family, but are transferred to the school system, affecting the work of teachers. When the exercise of the role cannot be performed adequately, the family-school relationship becomes fragile, which interrupts the continuity of the shared educational function. In this way, the mutual and bidirectional relationship that engages both dynamic systems is hindered. In this way, the link between the teacher and the daily life of the child and the family can be significantly compromised and lead to a fragmented perspective of the family-school relationship. The participation of parents is a permanent challenge for teachers, but the involvement of those who live in vulnerable contexts is even more so. Teachers working in vulnerable schools must deal with various family problems; among them, we can mention the lack of economic resources of families, scarce parental time, parents' mistrust because of previous experiences, and differences between the expectations of the different agents involved. To face these peculiarities, some authors propose that a deeper knowledge of families, the recognition of their particular and differentiating characteristics (Acuña-Collao, 2016), and the deconstruction of the traditional family as a reference for the school (Cárcamo, 2020; Cárcamo & Garreta, 2020) contribute to the development of strategies that better meet this challenge. Methodology Considering the object of study that guided the development of the research, it was considered pertinent to approach it from the comprehensive paradigm, since it was sought to access the views that teachers have regarding the educational parental role and its fulfillment by families in contexts of vulnerability. For these purposes, the qualitative methodology was used to rescue the perspectives of the subjects themselves concerning the object of attention (Beltrán, 2018; Flick, 2015). The method that guided the research corresponded to the socio-phenomenological one, which facilitates access to senses and meanings that the subjects grant to the constitutive elements of the experienced reality (Schutz & Luckmann, 2009). For these purposes, we worked based on the principle of axiological neutrality to safeguard the credibility and reliability of the results obtained (Toledo, 2014). Context and Subjects The research was conducted in the city of Chillán, capital of the Ñuble Region, located in central-southern Chile. The participants were elementary school teachers working in public and subsidized private schools, all of which have a School Vulnerability Index above 90%. The selection of the participating subjects was carried out intentionally (Kvale, 2011). The profile includes teachers who work in public and private urban subsidized educational establishments in the city of Chillán, who are course leaders in elementary education, with a minimum experience of one year of professional practice.

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Regarding access to the subjects, in the first stage, we worked with key informants in different schools in the city to access the field; in the second stage, we used the snowball strategy (Valles, 2009). A total of 24 participants were interviewed, comprising 15 female and 9 male teachers. Among the total number of subjects interviewed, 10 work in public schools and 14 in subsidized private schools. The subjects are distributed in a total of 8 educational establishments (four public and four private subsidized) (see Table 1). Table 1 Characteristics of the Participants Gender

Age

Profession

Type of Educational Institution

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Years as a Head Teacher 14

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Public

Male

Primary School Teacher

Public

Male

Primary School Teacher

Public

Male

Physical Education Teacher

Public

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Female

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

English Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

History and Geography Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

History and Geography Teacher

Subsidized Private

Male

Primary School Teacher

Subsidized Private

Source: Own elaboration.

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Data Production Techniques The technique used was the semi-structured interview since it is the most appropriate technique for accessing the meanings that subjects attribute to various objects of attention (Kvale, 2011). For its application, an interview script was used, based on deductive categories of a theoretical nature (educational parental role; performance of the educational parental role; strategies for the promotion of the fulfilment of the educational parental role). The instrument underwent a validation process through expert judgement, in which these specialists were asked to give their opinion regarding the relevance, clarity, and consistency of the interview script concerning the objectives of the study (Flick, 2015). Three experts participated in this process, two of whom correspond to researchers with experience in the thematic area and one expert in qualitative research methodologies. The data collection was carried out in individual sessions lasting between 40 and 75 minutes. The place and time of the meeting were previously arranged with the participating teachers. The period in which the interviews took place was between March and August 2024; they were translated by a university professor specializing in English linguistics. Data Analysis Technique The Action-Situation model proposed by Merlino (2010) was used for data analysis. This technique guides the analysis in order to access the meaning of social action from the subject's point of view, focusing on expressions of an argumentative nature; since from there, inferences can be made about the subject's attitudes and specific behaviors. An example of this can be found in the following logical expression: “I believe that, therefore I do this”. The purpose of this procedure is to access the meaning of the discourses and the underlying argumentative logic. This objective is achieved through the reconstruction of a dominant syllogism (based on the enunciative regularity of the collective). This analysis is carried out based on the recognition of at least two premises that lead to a particular action as a conclusion. The premises, whether implicit or explicit, are contextually situated (such context is made explicit). The argumentative premises leading to the conclusion (action) are articulated with the recognition of the predominant belief system and the self-perception of the subjects. In this way, it is possible to recognize the meanings that serve as a basis for the arguments of the collective. The corpus analyzed corresponds to the transcription of the interviews conducted. This transcription gives a total of 355 pages of analyzed material. During the transcription process, consistency between audio and text was safeguarded (Gibbs, 2012). The steps for the analysis were carried out in the following sequence. First, the interviews are read for coding based on the deductive categories (expression of vulnerability in the educational parental role, expressions of vulnerability, teacher practices in contexts of vulnerability). The coding process is carried out by the research team and subjected to crosschecking to ensure thoroughness and completeness. To recognize the coding density, the

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following formula X/Y-Z/Z' was used. Where X refers to the number of coded fragments; Y represents the total number of codes within the total corpus; Z represents the number of interviews in which the code appears, and Z' represents the total number of interviews carried out (see Table 2). Coding density refers to the recurrence of each code in relation to the general discourse corpus. Moreover, it facilitates the recognition of discursive regularity insofar as it makes its presence explicit in each participant's discourse. Second, the premises (implicit and explicit) as well as the self-image of the participating subjects are identified. Third, the dominant belief system in the group is identified. Fourth, the dominant premises are identified (by way of enunciative regularity) and the syllogism is graphically reconstructed. These stages are developed by combining the vertical analysis strategy (interview by interview) with the horizontal strategy (thematic). Table 2 Coding Process of Categories Coding density Category

Code

Expressions of vulnerability in the educational parenting role

Code recurrence

Total coding

Total number of interviews

175

Number of interviews in which the code appears 18

VULRPE

Forms of expression of vulnerability

EXPVUL

175

Teaching practices in vulnerable contexts

PRACPROF

175

Source: Own elaboration

Regarding ethical provisions, it is worth noting that the article is based on a research project approved by the Directorate of Research and Artistic Creation of the University of Bío-Bío. This evaluation assesses both the quality and internal consistency of the proposal, as well as its ethical aspects. On a practical level, the informed consent protocol is activated to ensure the anonymity of participants and the confidentiality of information. It is also important to highlight the role played by the research team's reflexivity throughout the process, as this ensures the axiological distance that contributes to the reliability of this work. Findings Expressions of Vulnerability in the Educational Parental Role In consideration of the elements exposed in previous sections, it is worth remembering that vulnerability, as a construct, refers to a situation or set of situations that condition the capacity

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that the family possesses to adequately respond to the demands of the subjects that integrate it (Benavides-Moreno, et al., 2020); as well as, to the specific demands that emanate from the institutions with which said family unit is related, among these, the school (Vargas, et al, 2017). Regarding the specific demands of children and adolescents towards the school system in the teachers' discourses, vulnerability is configured as a product of the absence of guidance or accompaniment by adults responsible for the children and adolescents. This absence can precipitate the abandonment of studies by children and adolescents, because of favouring the world of work to generate economic resources for support and survival. An illustrative account is presented in the following fragment: I listen to the students in the third and fourth grades, very autonomous children; maybe not with so many skills, but autonomous because it was their turn. There is no one behind them; some of them in third grade already say they want to drop out because they must work. Adolescents from sixteen- and seventeen-year-olds. There is no adult behind them to guide them, to tell them the benefits and disadvantages. (Informant 9, teacher, 27 years old, subsidized school, March 2024) The conditions of social and economic vulnerability affect the exercise of the roles of care and accompaniment of children; the focus of attention of the family is directed towards the development of practices linked to survival, especially in contexts of low economic income (Betancur, 2024). Thus, according to the same author, children must adapt to this context by developing skills for autonomous living. This personal project, although part of a family strategy, is built intuitively. Low parental involvement does not occur exclusively in families with a deprived economic situation. Low involvement is present even in families with a medium or high socioeconomic level; in this case, the precariousness of the educational parental role can be expressed in indulgent or negligent practices. In this regard, informant 12, based on her teaching experience, maintains the following: We have a case of a child that you see all week like that, unkempt, and he has a mother who is a nurse, a tremendous house with a swimming pool, with everything. There, you can see that there is no commitment to the child; he does not arrive with the materials, he does not arrive with a pencil, he arrives without notebooks, he does not know what class he has the next day. (Informant 12, teacher, 25 years old, subsidized school, April 2024) Márquez and Gaeta (2017) point out that when parents are committed to education, frames are generated that favor an enabling approach of the children to the educational process. In this sense, the findings indicate that expressions of low family commitment run the spectrum of social class, configuring a multidimensional phenomenon (Ñanculeo et. al, 2016). The family-school relationship has historically been woven from an arbitrary imposition by the school system. In this context, teachers give a transcendent value to disciplinary aspects that

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allude to the expected behavior of children and adolescents for a positive school coexistence. Therefore, behaviors linked to obeying orders, complying with rules, controlling disruptive behavior, and others become not only desirable but also a normative framework of duties. Bearing in mind this framework, the conditions of family vulnerability could jeopardize the normality expected in a school system that still intensely monitors disciplinary aspects. This is how informant 1 expresses it: The adolescents who are more abandoned at home, they are in fights, they arrive with strange things at school, for example, sharp weapons, cigarettes, and other things. (Informant 1, teacher, 34 years old, subsidized establishment, March 2024) The Impact of Family Vulnerability on School Life The impact of family vulnerability on the normalcy of school life not only revolves around interactions among children and adolescents but also extends into a relational dimension involving parents, parental caregivers, and teachers. The following excerpt serves as an illustration: During parent-teacher meetings, we no longer go alone. It’s no longer just the homeroom teacher handling it; you go with someone to support you, with your classroom team, because we need to protect ourselves. Many times, we face very violent situations. (Informant 4, teacher, 40 years old, public school, March 2024) As evidenced by the narrative above, the conditions of vulnerability experienced by families and their daily manifestations permeate the educational system, influencing the concrete dynamics of various actors (Benavides-Moreno, 2020; MINEDUC, 2008). When this occurs, schools face needs that diverge from those presented by families adhering to normative ideals of education (Rodrigo et al., 1998). This presents a significant challenge for teachers, as working with both students and families requires not only mediation regarding the goals of formal education but also engagement with the psychosocial factors that shape and become integral to the relationship. From the teachers' accounts, the implementation of a new school selection system that embraces the notion of educational inclusion has transformed classrooms into much more heterogeneous spaces. In this way, vulnerability begins to affect various types of educational institutions2, leading to the inclusion of students from increasingly diverse familial backgrounds. As previously noted, this situation introduces additional challenges to the normal development of the educational process. In this regard, Informant 5 states, “Previously, the academic aspect was easier because the segment of parental caregivers was different—a higher

In Chile, starting from 2017, a new admission system for educational institutions receiving state funding was implemented. This aims to gradually eliminate any form of selection. This decision is part of the School Inclusion Law.

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cultural spectrum—because there was selection” (Informant 5, 52 years old, subsidized school, March 2024). As inferred from the narrative, schools were structured based on an arbitrary set of behavioural and academic norms, consistent with the relationship between classroom climate and learning (Lozada et al., 2021). The narratives suggest that this relationship is weakened when classrooms become more socially and culturally heterogeneous. The same informant continues to discuss the consequences of eliminating selectivity, highlighting that the challenges arise from the diversity of cultural capital now present in schools. “Whoever remained was admitted; hence, the sociocultural levels of the students are vastly unequal, ranging from a parent who is an engineer to one with no formal education, without undermining anyone” (Informant 5, teacher, 52 years old, subsidized school, March 2024). It can be asserted that the research participants understand family vulnerability as a multidimensional phenomenon (Cornejo, 2005). Based on this notion, they construct an image of families through differentiated role expectations. These expectations distinguish “vulnerable families” from others who are not subjected to comparable stigmatization. “The thing is, there are vulnerable families here, vulnerable children. Often, one cannot imagine the problems they face. Sometimes a parent is in prison, and other times, both parents are incarcerated” (Informant 18, teacher, 41 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024). Expectations associated with families in vulnerable contexts are shaped by the criteria of functionality/dysfunctionality, particularly when juxtaposed with the institutional framework of the educational system (Acuña-Collado, 2016). One finding reveals a discourse consistent with the idealization of the traditional nuclear family: In the past, families were well-structured. Do you remember? Father, mother, siblings, and in some cases, the grandmother lived at home. Now, children are under the care of parental caregivers (grandmother). Those poor elderly women, just by feeding them and sending them to school, are doing a lot. (Informant 7, teacher, 62 years old, public school, March 2024) Forms of Vulnerability Expression The study participants organize the notion of vulnerability based on the difficulties families face in meeting the needs of their children, as well as the demands arising from the educational institution. Vulnerability is recognized as a barrier to the proper fulfillment of the parental educational role across various domains and dimensions, manifesting concretely in the educational process (Bazán-Ramírez et al., 2021; Benavides-Moreno et al., 2020; Betancur et al., 2024). Regarding the needs expressed by family unit members, particularly concerning children and adolescents, teachers indicate that vulnerability is evident in the areas of care and the fulfillment of basic needs (such as food, shelter, and protection), as well as in the provision of

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emotional care. Additionally, accounts converge on a perceived weakness in fostering attitudes such as respect, responsibility, and healthy coexistence. In terms of basic needs and caregiving (Copano et al., 2013), teachers highlight vulnerability in situations where, during emergencies—such as a significant injury—parents remain uninvolved. From the teachers’ perspective, this is interpreted as an externalization of responsibilities, especially since, if such an incident occurs while the child is at school, it is the teachers who must take responsibility. Thus, the limitations faced by vulnerable families create dynamics in which everyday parenting functions are disrupted (Ortiz-Ruiz et al., 2018), rendering them unable to respond to the regular and ongoing needs of children and adolescents, let alone to emergent demands. This is illustrated in the following excerpt: Just yesterday, a student fell during recess, his hand became swollen, and he was in distress. We called his parental caregivers, but there was no response. We called an ambulance, but none were available. We went to the administration to explain that he needed medical attention. When we returned to the school at four in the afternoon, the mother finally woke up and answered, saying that his sister would come. The boy was in distress and was hospitalized. He is being operated on today, but the mother wasn’t there. (Informant 24, teacher, 36 years old, public school, May 2024) Another manifestation of vulnerability in this dimension relates to neglect in meeting children’s nutritional needs. Informant 19 notes that challenges stemming from vulnerability are evident in this area despite significant efforts by the state to expand coverage. This is illustrated in the following excerpt: There are times when children come without snacks, but what’s worse is that sometimes they come without lunch. In those cases, we have to manage among ourselves— between different teachers—to resolve the situation, but if it happens repeatedly, we escalate the matter. (Informant 4, 40 years old, teacher, public school, March 2024) Regarding the inculcation of habits, teachers report that vulnerability is contextually mediated (Benavides-Moreno et al., 2020). Informants indicate that children and adolescents normalize forms of verbal expression prevalent in their families but inconsistent with school norms. Additionally, they have been exposed to risky behaviors such as drug and alcohol consumption, which, through modelling, they might reproduce in their own lives. “Their context is like this— they are born and raised in an environment where profanity is normal, and unfortunately, alcohol and drugs are also sometimes normalized” (Informant 22, teacher, 32 years old, public school, May 2024). The misalignment with school norms mentioned above correlates with a lack of essential habits for proper schooling, as noted by García-Bacete (2003). Examples of these habits include regular attendance and the provision and maintenance of study materials. Regarding this, Informant 16 states: “There is another group of students who don’t attend classes regularly. They often miss school, lack organization in their materials, bring books or notebooks one day,

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and then don’t bring them back the next” (Informant 16, teacher, 64 years old, public school, April 2024). Teachers also identify emotional dimensions of vulnerability. Three predominant manifestations are recognized: one associated with the impact of long caregiver absences due to extended working hours and the resulting fatigue; another linked to attachment styles established by significant adults toward the child or adolescent; and lastly, the presence of mental health conditions among primary parental caregivers. Regardless of the specific unmet needs, the significance of these issues lies in their potential impact on academic performance, as noted by Benavides-Moreno (2020). Unmet needs become a risk factor in educational trajectories, turning children and adolescents living in vulnerable contexts into students embodying that vulnerability, thereby diminishing their ability to engage with the educational system effectively (Beltrán, 2014; Cornejo et al., 2005; Julio, 2009). When considering school demands on families, vulnerability manifests in several dimensions, as highlighted by Ortiz-Ruiz et al. (2018). The most frequently mentioned relates to the provision of materials, which directly impacts classroom activities. Another dimension concerns peer and staff interactions within the school community. Regarding materials provision, while the Chilean government supplies textbooks and some basic materials (notebooks, pencils, paper, etc.), there are additional supplies that families must provide. These are often insufficient in vulnerable families, hindering the implementation of planned classroom activities. Study participants emphasize the importance of addressing this issue: What happened? Why didn’t you bring the materials? – ‘Miss, my mom didn’t buy them for me.’ – Why didn’t she buy them? – ‘She forgot, didn’t want to, or didn’t have the money.’ – ‘She was angry and didn’t want to buy them. (Informant 19, teacher, 36 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024) Another sensitive aspect raised by teachers is creating conditions that foster appropriate coexistence within the educational community. Teachers recognize the family as a highly influential system in shaping the behaviors expressed by children in school. Vulnerable contexts often exacerbate issues in peer relationships, as noted by Informant 1: “They really struggle to relate to others, especially if the family is violent. They’re constantly fighting with classmates or students from other classes, having issues during recess, not just in lessons” (Informant 1, teacher, 34 years old, subsidized private school, March 2024). The challenges of coexistence highlighted by teachers also affect the school teams tasked with addressing these issues. As illustrated in the following excerpt, these problems are frequent and severe, often overwhelming the capacity of school staff:

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The school coexistence team becomes overwhelmed because there are too many issues—too many problems, too many offensive, harmful, or dangerous behaviours, whether self-directed or toward others. The team simply cannot keep up with everything happening daily.” (Informant 6, teacher, 26 years old, subsidized private school, March 2024) Furthermore, these difficulties extend to the relationship between schools and vulnerable families, particularly due to legal and protocol requirements mandating schools to report cases of child rights violations. The following excerpt illustrates this dynamic: If a parental caregiver isn’t present at school, we must send a social worker, sometimes refer them to the OPD3 (Office for the Protection of Rights), or involve programs that require the child to have a tutor. Psychologists are also involved in conducting interviews with these programs. We work closely with organizations like Padre Chango4. (Informant 19, teacher, 36 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024). In the national context, all educational institutions are obligated to report cases of child rights violations. This obligation often creates tension between teaching staff and families. A paradoxical perception of vulnerability emerges within families: on the one hand, schools must address non-compliance with institutional expectations to foster family adjustment (Rodrigo et al., 1998); on the other hand, as García-Bacete (2003) emphasizes, it is necessary to develop close, trusting, and mutually understanding relationships with families to implement situated and appropriate strategies. Teachers’ Practices in Contexts of Vulnerability Regarding actions undertaken by teachers in contexts of vulnerability, these can be categorized into those targeting children and adolescents directly and those aimed at fostering connections between educational institutions and families facing vulnerability. Concerning the specific needs of children and adolescents, a key aspect is the resources available to parents to meet the demands of children and adolescents based on their developmental stages. According to teachers, vulnerability highlights the limited emotional and affective tools parents must create spaces of trust with their children, as reflected in the following excerpt: Sometimes children can’t tell [their parents] things because of how the parents react. That’s where we step in with workshops for parents, to teach them—teach them to be parents. I’ll teach them that everyone does the best they can with the resources they 3

Office for the Protection of Rights (OPD) is responsible for promoting and protecting the rights of children and adolescents in Chile. 4 Non-governmental organization dedicated to the support and protection of the rights of children and adolescents in vulnerable situations who live in conditions of poverty and/or marginalization, corresponding to the city of Chillán, Chile.

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have and that I will never criticize them here at school. (Informant 2, teacher, 31 years old, subsidized private school, March 2024) This excerpt reveals an analytical perspective rooted in the notion of cultural deficit. Vulnerable families require formative support and assistance from other institutions to compensate for this deficit, given the importance they attribute to the socio-emotional dimension (Márquez & Gaeta, 2017) and their evident fragility in fulfilling their parental role (Barudy & Dantagnan, 2010). This understanding contextualizes teachers’ dialogue within institutional paternalism, where schools adopt a corrective rather than collaborative approach towards families. Additionally, it is recognized that vulnerability is not a homogeneous condition requiring standard interventions, as Backhoff (2011) suggests. Instead, protocols are established to address vulnerability based on its degree of complexity. For instance, Informant 4 illustrates the protocols activated when child rights violations are identified: The management team became highly involved in processes with families facing more severe problems or rights violations. The school leadership summoned the parental caregiver, the social worker, the psychologist, and the homeroom teacher to form a team. We worked together without punitive intentions. I loved that because it was a conversation, and we achieved so much. (Informant 4, teacher, 40 years old, municipal school, March 2024) To provide support and network activation for health-related needs, as stated by Informant 2: If we can support them, we do it with our psychosocial team. Those parental caregivers who lack much education see that there’s another support network beyond their family—our local health centre, CESFAM5 Isabel Riquelme, or the Ultraestación6, with their psychosocial teams collaborating. (Informant 21, teacher, 41 years old, public school, May 2024) The activation of protocols by schools and subsequent referrals to child protection institutions is a reality (Rodino, 2010). Strategies are designed not only to stop harmful situations but also to foster conditions that enhance educational development. However, this is not a mechanical or automatic decision; it often involves evaluative processes based on the recurrence of child rights violations. One initial strategy is to alert parents about the situation. Informant 12 comments:

Primary public healthcare center in Chile that provides comprehensive, preventive, and curative medical care to families and the community. 6 Ultraestación is a residential district in the city of Chillán, in Chile’s Ñuble Region. The area is recognized for its historical and heritage value but also characterized by limited accessibility and urban segregation.

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Unfortunately, even if it sounds like an accusation, we sometimes need to scare them, draw their attention somehow, because they don’t worry if their child isn’t learning, doesn’t bring supplies, or lacks materials. So, let’s scare them with something that does concern them. When this becomes a recurrent issue, we activate external protocols like OPD, police, or prosecutors. (Informant 12, teacher, 25 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024) Another aspect of teachers’ actions in these contexts involves assuming responsibilities traditionally considered familial, such as instilling hygiene habits. Informant 16 observes: “There are many children I try to teach basic things—like bathing, brushing their teeth, changing clothes, and even underwear—because no one tells them” (Informant 16, teacher, 64 years old, public school, April 2024). These actions underscore the significance teachers place on promoting proper parental educational roles (Hoover-Dempsey et al., 2001). These initiatives manifest on two levels: first, by educating the adults responsible for children and adolescents, and second, by actively fostering habits among students. Regarding schools’ expectations for parents and parental caregivers, it can be stated that teachers’ actions aim to strengthen family-school bonds, fostering positive interactions that benefit the educational process. Conventional strategies, such as parent meetings and individual conferences, are commonly employed for this purpose (Razeto, 2016). Informant 5 emphasizes the importance of parental education during meetings: I dedicate half the meeting to formative aspects—teaching them. For example, I’ll show them how to help their child study, teach certain skills, or identify emotions. Sometimes I even use videos or collaborate with parents to dramatize classroom scenarios. (Informant 5, teacher, 52 years old, subsidized private school, March 2024) Informant 7 elaborates on how parent meetings serve to communicate and reinforce key elements for the schooling process—school activities, habit formation, and curricular aspects—each allocated specific time and structure: Parent meetings always have three parts: first, school updates, because there’s always information to share. Second, reinforcing habits—addressing weaknesses, exam schedules, and subjects where children struggle. Lastly, we discuss study strategies and upcoming curricular content, so parents know what to focus on. (Informant 7, teacher, 62 years old, public school, March 2024) Individual interviews are recognized as a space to address more sensitive topics for specific cases. This is illustrated in the following excerpt: Fortunately, I haven’t had to activate any protocols of that kind because I first try to solve the issues myself, as I am the homeroom teacher. That’s what individual

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interviews are for—discussing topics that cannot be addressed with everyone in the parent-teacher meetings. (Informant 12, teacher, 25 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024) However, it should be noted that in vulnerable contexts, the attendance of parents at individual interviews convened by teachers is not consistent. Indeed, frequent absences often lead to the activation of protocols aimed at safeguarding the rights of children and adolescents, highlighting the challenges faced by families in vulnerable situations, as noted by Barudy and Dantagnan (2010): You call them once, twice, three times, but if there’s no response, you escalate. In many cases, parents don’t attend or don’t justify their absence. Then we request the intervention of the social worker or the school coexistence team, all to try and make that mother or father aware of what is happening. (Informant 9, teacher, 27 years old, subsidized private school, March 2024) Communication is considered more of a practice than a mere instance. Generally, and particularly in vulnerable contexts, communication between families and schools is framed as one of the fundamental demands within the educational field. Teachers emphasize the importance of establishing fluid communication. When they refer to “fluid communication,” they typically mean informational exchanges that meet the school’s operational needs (Cárcamo & Garreta, 2020): I don’t like it when students show up to work without materials, so I am constantly communicating with the parents. I often send emails like: ‘Dear parents, remember that next week we’ll work on technology with the following materials. Let me know if there’s an issue because I understand there are sometimes financial difficulties—we have significant needs at our school, but we’re here to help cover that. (Informant 17, teacher, 42 years old, subsidized private school, April 2024) As evidenced in the excerpt above, communication is primarily aimed at ensuring the smooth functioning of planned activities within and by the school (Márquez & Gaeta, 2017). Conclusion Family vulnerability is a significant factor shaping the professional practices of the teachers who participated in this study. Participants acknowledged various manifestations of vulnerability, each influencing their pedagogical work, their role as homeroom teachers, their efforts to foster strong family-school relationships, and even their obligation to activate protocols that safeguard the rights of children and adolescents, now protected by law in Chile. Vulnerability is perceived as a multidimensional and diverse phenomenon. However, within the school context, it is often addressed in homogeneous ways. This duality reveals that schools conceptualize and define actions to address vulnerability through the lens of bureaucratic

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norms and structures. In other words, while schools recognize and consider vulnerabilities in plural terms, their interventions are framed and implemented in singular and uniform ways. Consequently, the discourse of teachers focused on the institutional bureaucratic approach leads to the modelling of a representation that results in the production and reproduction of actions aimed at addressing vulnerabilities under monocultural, homogenizing, and normalizing principles. Consequently, the discourse of the participating collective implies that families and children, and adolescents must adapt to the school’s arbitrary standards, always to promote what is considered an appropriate educational process. These conclusions emerge from the Action-Situation Analytical Model employed in this study. This model represents a methodological innovation applied to the phenomenon of familyschool relationships, as it allowed for an exploration of the meanings that participants attribute to their actions. These meanings reveal a monolithic argumentative structure based on the logical articulation of two implicit premises within teachers’ discourse, leading to declared actions (teachers' practices in vulnerable contexts). This logical articulation (premise, premise, conclusion) is situated in a specific context. It reflects both the collective’s self-perception of social sensitivity and a belief system emphasizing the necessity of safeguarding children and adolescents’ rights, particularly when their potential violation affects the educational process and its stakeholders (teachers and students). These elements are graphically represented through a syllogism (see Figure 1). The findings presented in this study highlight the need to address the wide range of vulnerabilities present in the school system and their diverse and complex manifestations. Thus, there is a recognized urgency to articulate the analysis of specific realities (acknowledging their particularities) with elements of regional and national scope and the modelling of public policies aimed at strengthening the family-school link, to provide input to teachers, administrators, and decision-makers.

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Figure 1 Syllogism. Recognition of Vulnerability and Actions for its Addressing

Source: Own elaboration. Note: The figure illustrates the reasoning process through which participants link social sensitivity with the protection of children’s and adolescents’ rights within the educational context.

Limitations Although the possibility of conducting a mixed-methods study was considered, a qualitative approach was chosen as an initial exploration of the topic and the proposed analytical strategy. Notably, the Action-Situation analysis has not been applied in other studies within the field of education, which limits the ability to compare results with other contexts. Recommendations Expand the scope to the regional level (Ñuble) to explore discursive nuances based on the socio-cultural characteristics of specific territories. Additionally, undertaking a quantitative approach to characterize in-service teachers demographically, by specialty, and by career trajectories, to correlate these variables with their conceptualization of vulnerability and the strategies employed to address it. Acknowledgments The research reported here was supported by the Research and Artistic Creation Directorate of the University of Bío-Bío, Project RE2350318. The opinions expressed are those of the authors and do not represent the views of the Faculty of Education and Humanities or the Chilean universities.

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References Acuña-Collado, V. (2016). Familia y escuela: Crisis de participación en contextos de vulnerabilidad [Family and school: Participation crisis in contexts of vulnerability]. Revista Brasileira de Estudos Pedagógicos, 97(246), 255–272. https://doi.org/10.1590/S2176-6681/267830331 Backhoff, E. (2011). La inequidad educativa en México: Diferencias en el aprendizaje de la comprensión lectora en educación básica [Educational inequality in Mexico: Differences in reading comprehension learning in basic education]. Profesorado. Revista de Currículum y Formación de Profesorado, 15(3), 87–102. https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=56722230006 Barudy Labrín, J., Dantagnan, M., & Comas, E. (2010). Los desafíos invisibles de ser madre o padre: Manual de evaluación de las competencias y la resiliencia parental [The invisible challenges of being a mother or father: Manual for the assessment of parental competencies and resilience]. Gedisa. Bazán, A., & Castellanos, D. (2015). Parents’ support and achievement in a Mexican elementary school: Children’s perception and parents’ self-evaluation. International Journal of Psychological Studies, 7(4), 59. https://doi.org/10.5539/ijps.v7n4p59 Bazán Ramírez, A., Márquez Ibarra, L., & Félix López, E. G. (2021). Apoyo familiar en el estudio de escolares en un contexto de vulnerabilidad [Family support in students’ learning in a context of vulnerability]. Revista Educación, 46(1), 32–47. https://doi.org/10.15517/revedu.v46i1.44903 Beltrán, M. (2018). Manual de investigación cualitativa [Qualitative research manual]. Ediciones UCSH. Beltrán Véliz, J. C. (2014). Factores que dificultan la gestión pedagógica curricular de los jefes de Unidades Técnico-Pedagógicas [Factors hindering curricular pedagogical management of heads of technical-pedagogical units]. Revista Mexicana de Investigación Educativa, 19(62), 939–961. Benavides-Moreno, N., Donoso-Díaz, S., & Reyes-Araya, D. (2020). Vulnerabilidad en escuelas privadas subvencionadas chilenas: Desafíos docentes desde la visión directiva [Vulnerability in subsidized private schools in Chile: Teaching challenges from the management perspective]. Educação & Sociedade, 41, e230812. https://doi.org/10.1590/es.230812 Betancur, L., Arango, M., Casas, N., Velásquez, S., Parada, A., & González, A. (2024). Vulnerabilidad social y rol parental en cuatro escenarios, Medellín, Colombia [Social vulnerability and parental role in four scenarios, Medellín, Colombia]. Jangwa Pana, 23(1), 1–12. Capano, A., & Ubach, A. (2013). Estilos parentales, parentalidad positiva y formación de padres [Parenting styles, positive parenting, and parent education]. Ciencias Psicológicas, 7, 83–95. Cárcamo Vásquez, H., & Garreta Bochaca, J. (2020). Representaciones sociales de la relación familia-escuela desde la formación inicial del profesorado [Social representations of the family–school relationship in initial teacher education]. Revista Electrónica de Investigación Educativa, 22, 1–14. https://doi.org/10.24320/redie.2020.22.e11.2406

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Cárcamo-Vásquez, H., & Rodríguez-Garcés, C. (2015). Rol parental educativo: Aproximación a las percepciones que poseen los futuros profesores [Educational parental role: An approach to pre-service teachers’ perceptions]. Educación y Educadores, 18(3), 456–470. https://doi.org/10.5294/edu.2015.18.3.5 Coleman, J. (1966). Equality of educational opportunity. Government Printing Office. Cornejo, A., Céspedes, P., Escobar, D., Núñez, R., Reyes, G., & Rojas, K. (2005). Una nueva visión en la construcción de igualdad de oportunidades en la infancia [A new vision in building equality of opportunity in childhood]. SINAE, Gobierno de Chile. Epstein, J. L. (2005). A case study of the Partnership Schools Comprehensive School Reform (CSR) Model. The Elementary School Journal, 106(2), 151–170. https://doi.org/10.1086/499196 Flick, U. (2014). La gestión de la calidad en investigación cualitativa [Managing quality in qualitative research]. Morata. Flick, U. (2015). El diseño de investigación cualitativa [Qualitative research design] (T. del Amo & C. Blanco, Trans.). Morata. García-Bacete, F.-J. (2003). Las relaciones escuela-familia: Un reto educativo [School– family relationships: An educational challenge]. Infancia y Aprendizaje, 26(4), 425– 437. https://doi.org/10.1174/021037003322553824 Gibbs, G., Amo Martín, T., & Blanco Castellano, M. del C. (2012). El análisis de datos cualitativos en investigación cualitativa [Qualitative data analysis in qualitative research]. Morata. Hoover-Dempsey, K. V., et al. (2001). Parental involvement in homework. Educational Psychologist, 36(3), 195–209. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326985EP3603_5 Infante, M., et al. (2013). Narrando la vulnerabilidad escolar: Performatividad, espacio y territorio [Narrating school vulnerability: Performativity, space, and territory]. Literatura y Lingüística, 27, 281–308. https://doi.org/10.4067/S071658112013000100014 Julio, C. (2009). Diversidad educativa en educandos del sistema de protección social “Chile Solidario” de la comuna de Valparaíso [Educational diversity among students in the Chile Solidario social protection system in Valparaíso]. Estudios Pedagógicos, 35(1). Kvale, S. (2011). Las entrevistas en investigación cualitativa [Doing interviews] (C. Blanco & T. del Amo, Trans.). Morata. Schütz, A., & Luckmann, T. (2009). Las estructuras del mundo de la vida [The structures of the life-world]. Amorrortu. Lozada García, R., & Tomasini, G. A. (2021). Problemas de conducta en el aula: Construcción del concepto desde la perspectiva de las maestras de primaria [Behavior problems in the classroom: Concept construction from elementary teachers’ perspective]. Revista Iberoamericana de Psicología, 14(3), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.33881/2027-1786.rip.14312 Márquez Cervantes, M. C., & Gaeta González, M. L. (2017). Desarrollo de competencias emocionales en preadolescentes: El papel de padres y docentes [Development of emotional competencies in preadolescents: The role of parents and teachers]. REIFOP, 20(2), 221.

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Merlino, A. (2010). De la argumentación a los modelos de acción/situación en el discurso sobre el tráfico vehicular en Argentina [From argumentation to models of action/situation in discourse on traffic in Argentina]. Discurso & Sociedad, 4(2), 257– 293. Ministerio de Educación de Chile. (2008). Planificación y diseño de la enseñanza [Teaching planning and design]. MINEDUC. Ñanculeo Raguileo, M. (2016). Una aproximación a la vulnerabilidad en el sistema de educación parvularia en Chile [An approach to vulnerability in early childhood education in Chile]. Nóesis, 25(50), 51–90. Ortiz Ruiz, N., & Díaz Grajales, C. (2018). Una mirada a la vulnerabilidad social desde las familias [A look at social vulnerability from the perspective of families]. Revista Mexicana de Sociología, 80(3), 611–638. Razeto, A. (2016). El involucramiento de las familias en la educación de los niños [Family involvement in children’s education]. Páginas de Educación, 9, 184–201. Rodino, A. M. (2010). Un espacio para ejercer y aprender derechos humanos en la escuela [A space to exercise and learn human rights at school]. Revista IIDH, 52, 247–266. Rodrigo, M. J., & Palacios, J. (1998). Familia y desarrollo humano [Family and human development]. Alianza. Sandoval, R., Echeverría, S., & Valdés, Á. (2015). Construcción del rol parental y participación de los padres en la educación de sus hijos [Construction of the parental role and parental involvement in children’s education]. Educación y Salud. Fontamara. Santana, A., & Cáceres, N. (2023). Calidad de las intervenciones con familias en el ámbito escolar [Quality of school-based family interventions]. In Gubbins & Santana (Eds.), Relación entre familias y escuelas en un mundo cambiante (pp. 303–339). Universidad Finis Terrae. Schueler, B. E., et al. (2017). Measuring parent perceptions of family–school engagement. The School Community Journal, 27(2), 275–301. Toledo, U. (2014). El programa sociofenomenológico de investigación [The sociophenomenological research program]. En Epistemología y ciencias sociales. LOM. Valles Martínez, M. S. (2009). Técnicas cualitativas de investigación social [Qualitative techniques in social research] (4th ed.). Síntesis. Vargas Rubilar, J., et al. (2017). Programa de fortalecimiento parental en contextos de vulnerabilidad social [Parental strengthening program in contexts of social vulnerability]. Interdisciplinaria, 34(1), 157–172. Vidal, I. M. G. (2020). Influencia de las TIC en el rendimiento escolar de estudiantes vulnerables [Influence of ICT on the academic performance of vulnerable students]. RIED, 24(1), 351. https://doi.org/10.5944/ried.24.1.27960 Corresponding author: María José Cares Geoffroy Email: macares@udec.cl

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Employability Skills for Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder/Intellectual Disabilities: Gaps and Expectations Lisfatul Fatinah University of Tsukuba, Japan Hiroki Yoneda University of Tsukuba, Japan

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Abstract Individuals with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and/or intellectual disability (ID) in Indonesia face persistent barriers to meaningful employment despite completing postsecondary education (PSE). The absence of structured, inclusive career education tailored to their needs contributes to high rates of unemployment and underemployment among this population. This study aims to identify the employability skill gaps faced by individuals and analyze the expectations of key stakeholders, including parents and employers, regarding career readiness. Using a mixed-method design, this study incorporated a literature review, semi-structured interviews with 23 individuals with ASD, ID, and ASD with ID, and questionnaires completed by 31 stakeholders. Employability skills were analyzed across eight domains inspired by Rosenberg’s 46-skills framework. The results indicate that, while individuals show strength in work ethics and interpersonal skills, they experience major deficits in management, systematic thinking, and technology use. Stakeholders emphasize the importance of developing social skills, fostering independence, and gaining exposure to realworld work environments. Self-employment is often chosen out of necessity because of workplace stigma and a lack of support. These findings underscore the urgent need for an inclusive, individualized, skills-based career education curriculum that aligns with the local work culture and socioeconomic contexts. This study provides a foundation for future research and underscored the value of stakeholder-driven approaches to bridge the school-to-work transition gap for individuals with ASD and/or ID in Indonesia. Keywords: autism, career education, employability, intellectual disabilities, Indonesia, postsecondary education

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Employment is framed as a fundamental right and route to societal participation. It is crucial for financial independence and fostering social inclusion, self-esteem, and long-term wellbeing (Seda et.al, 2023). Across Southeast Asia, including Indonesia, people with disabilities (PwD) experience significantly lower employment rates. Individuals with intellectual and psychosocial disabilities, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and intellectual disability (ID), often experience the lowest employment rates among people with disabilities (UNESCAP, 2021). Individuals with ASD or ID are often excluded from mainstream employment and are placed in segregated or sheltered work environments. In turn, this affects career growth and income. Approximately 1.3 billion people, or 16% of the world’s population, experience significant disabilities, most of whom are of working age (ILO, 2022). Globally, approximately 70% of persons with disabilities are inactive in the labor force compared with 40% of those without disabilities (ILO, 2022). Across 32 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) countries, the employment rate for persons with disabilities is 44%, which is 25 percentage points lower than the 75% employment rate for those without disabilities (OECD, 2022). According to the Disability Labour Market Indicator (DLMI) database for 2021 by the ILO (2022), 89% of people with disabilities in Indonesia are unemployed. In 2022, the proportion of employees with disabilities to total employees in Indonesia according to employment status, the most employees with disabilities are 0.8% entrepreneurs, then 0.78% as entrepreneurassisted non-permanent staff or family employees or unpaid employees, 0.67% working in a family or unpaid employees, 0.66% as a farmer, 0.55% as a farmer assisted labor or paid labor, 0.39% working freelance in non-farm fields, and 0.23% as company employees (Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia/Indonesian Central Statistics Agency, 2023). In 2023, according to the Decent Work Indicators in Indonesia 2023 reported by the Indonesian Central Statistics Agency, the proportion of employed individuals with disabilities in Indonesia increased slightly to 0.55% compared to 0.53% in 2022. This increase was driven by an increase in females from 0.52% to 0.57%, while the proportion of males decreased from 0.54% to 0.53%. Geographically, urban areas saw a growth in the proportion of workers with disabilities from 0.44% to 0.47%, whereas rural areas remained constant at 0.64%. Regarding employment status, most workers with disabilities were self-employed, with their share increasing from 0.81% in 2022 to 0.85% in 2023. Those assisted by unpaid workers or temporary labor also saw a slight rise, from 0.78% to 0.79%. By contrast, the share of regular employees (paid workers) increased from 0.23% to 0.26%, whereas that of free workers in nonagricultural areas declined from 0.39% to 0.32%. The Indonesian Central Statistics Agency has reported notable employment patterns among individuals with disabilities by the year 2023. Agriculture remains the dominant sector, employing 42.82% disabled workers, which is an increase of 42.35% by 2022. The manufacturing sector saw a slight decline, with employment dropping from 17.70% to 17.55%, whereas the service sector accounted for 39.63%, a marginal decrease from 39.95% in the

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previous year. These statistics provide a foundational understanding of sectoral shifts in employment for people with disabilities, reflecting broader structural trends influenced by factors such as sex, geographic location, and employment status, as shown in Table 1. Table 1 Comparison of Employment of People with Disabilities in Indonesia between 2022 and 2023 Category Total Proportion (%) By Sex - Male - Female

2022 0.53

2023 0.55

Change +0.02

0.54 0.52

0.53 0.57

-0.01 +0.05

By Location - Urban - Rural

0.44 0.64

0.47 0.64

+0.03 No Change

Employment Status (%) - Self-employed - Assisted (unpaid/temp.) - Regular employees (paid) - Free workers (non-agriculture)

0.81 0.78 0.23 0.39

0.85 0.79 0.26 0.32

+0.04 +0.01 +0.03 -0.07

By Sector (%) - Agriculture - Manufacturing - Services

42.35 17.70 39.95

42.82 17.55 39.63

+0.47 -0.15 -0.32

The employment landscape for individuals with disabilities is characterized by a higher prevalence in informal sectors and lower participation in formal employment, with education playing a crucial role in determining employment prospects. Educational attainment is a crucial factor in determining employment opportunities for individuals with disabilities. Many individuals with disabilities in Indonesia have not completed elementary education, reducing their bargaining power in the job market and limiting their access to formal employment opportunities (Layyinah et al., 2022). This limitation extends to their access to higher education institutions, including universities, vocational education, and training (VET), as well as their transition from school to employment. A 2023 policy analysis comparing Indonesia, Singapore, and the US indicates that only 1.48% of Indonesian universities offer formal Disability Services units, compared to 4.7% in the US (Amnesti et al., 2023). In 2021, UNICEF reported that approximately 43.1 million children with disabilities aged 0–18 years were living in East Asia and the Pacific (ERIA, 2022). This

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emphasizes that inclusive education must extend to the post-secondary and vocational levels, although the focus of education in these countries is currently only on pre-primary to secondary levels. Targeted skill development programs are required to enhance the employability of individuals with disabilities. Training in areas such as electronics, computers, and weaving can help bridge the gap between education and employment (Jaya et al., 2024). Due to limited educational qualifications, many individuals with disabilities are employed in the informal sector, which often offers low wages and limited job security (Tryana et al., 2024). This sector includes small business operators and artisans, who do not necessarily require formal education. Despite the disability employment data, specific employment statistics and educational levels of employment for individuals with ASD and/or ID within the national labor statistics remain limited. Although the Indonesian government has made progress in increasing access to higher education for students with disabilities, challenges remain. The limited availability of accessible services and facilities hampers the ability of individuals with ASD and/or ID to succeed in educational environments (Rahajeng et al., 2024). In addition, negative stereotypes and a lack of understanding of the capabilities of individuals with ASD and/or ID contribute to their marginalization in both educational and employment contexts (Rahajeng et al., 2024). This research gap is significant, particularly considering the Indonesian government’s emphasis on disability rights and policy inclusion. Previous studies in Indonesia have typically focused on a single perspective: employer attitudes, parental expectations, or self-perceived aspirations of individuals with disabilities. There remains a critical need to triangulate these perspectives to understand where expectations align and diverge and where systemic misalignments may block pathways to sustainable employment. Therefore, this study investigates the career development of individuals with ASD and/or ID in a PSE setting in Indonesia. It addresses gaps in employability skills, explores stakeholder perspectives, and proposes targeted interventions to support inclusive career development. The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: The next section presents a literature review of employability skills and barriers to employment faced by individuals with ASD and/or ID. Subsequently, the method section describes the study design, participant demographics, and data collection techniques. The findings are presented in two sections: skill gap analysis and stakeholder expectations. This discussion links our findings to broader educational and policy implications. The paper concludes with a summary and recommendations for future research and practices. Literature Review Employability skills are abilities that make a person suitable and capable for a job, enhancing their career prospects (Arif et al., 2023). Employability is distinct from employment in that it encompasses the skills required not only to secure a job but also to maintain and advance in it (Majid et al., 2022).

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Eight Dimensions of Basic Employability Skills Rosenberg posits that employability can be organized into eight skill domains: basic academic skills, critical thinking, resource management, information use, communication, interpersonal skills, systems thinking, and technology use. These eight employability skill domains play crucial roles in enhancing the job readiness and employability of graduates and professionals by equipping them with essential competencies highly valued by the modern workforce. These domains encompass a range of skills beyond technical knowledge, focusing on soft skills and personal attributes critical for success in diverse professional environments. The integration of these skills into educational curricula and professional development programs is vital for preparing individuals to meet the demands of the 21st-century labor market. The following sections explore the significance of each domain and its impact on employability. Basic literacy and numeracy skills encompass the fundamental abilities to read, interpret, communicate information, and perform basic computations. These aspects significantly impact employability and career development, as they are foundational competencies that enhance an individual’s ability to perform in the workforce. These skills form the foundation for effective communication and problem-solving that are expected to perform and understand complex information (Majid et al., 2022). Furthermore, these skills increase the likelihood of obtaining employment and contribute to career advancement and stability (Stijepic, 2020). Critical thinking is vital for problem-solving and decision-making in the workplace. It involves the ability to recognize and solve problems, acquire and apply new knowledge from various sources, understand underlying principles, and make informed decisions. It includes the ability to specify goals, consider risks, evaluate options, and select an optimal course of action. Leadership skills are crucial for facilitating meaningful employment. These include the ability to demonstrate self-worth, maintain a positive self-view, exert effort, persevere toward goals, set personal goals, monitor progress, exhibit self-control, take responsibility, and choose ethical actions. Management skills refer to the ability to select goal-relevant activities, allocate time effectively, follow schedules, maintain accurate records, adjust to meet objectives, store and use materials efficiently, delegate work appropriately, evaluate performance, and provide constructive feedback. Effective management skills are essential for organizing and executing tasks efficiently. Interpersonal skills involve the ability to contribute to and cooperate in group efforts; work with diverse backgrounds; resolve divergent issues through open discussion; and demonstrate understanding, friendliness, adaptability, empathy, and politeness in group settings. Interpersonal skills are crucial for successful collaboration and interaction in a professional environment and are highly valued by employers for effective teamwork.

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Information technology skills encompass the ability to select relevant tools, applications, software, and procedures; organize, process, and maintain information; identify and resolve problems using technology; and utilize computer software to acquire, analyze, and communicate information. Information technology skills are necessary for navigating modern digital workplaces. Systems thinking skills involve understanding how social, organizational, and technological systems work; distinguishing trends; predicting the impact of actions on system operations; and comprehending the interaction and interrelationship of systems within an organization and in a global economy. Systems thinking skills enable people to understand complex organizational and global dynamics. Work ethics are vital for demonstrating professionalism and commitment at the workplace. Work ethics encompass the ability to attend organizational meetings and events on time, independently achieve both organizational and personal goals, understand organizational protocols and procedures, and demonstrate a positive attitude toward work. Employability Barriers for ASD and/or ID Individuals with ASD and/or ID face numerous barriers to employability, which are multifaceted and deeply rooted in societal, organizational, and personal factors. These barriers hinder their ability to secure employment and affect their capacity to maintain and progress in their careers. These challenges are compounded by discrimination, lack of resources, and inadequate support systems, which collectively contribute to underrepresentation in the workforce. Economic and Resource Barriers Economic constraints such as poverty and lack of resources significantly limit the participation of individuals with ASD and/or ID in advocacy and employment opportunities. Several positions in advocacy organizations are unpaid, further marginalizing these individuals from active participation and representation (Petri et al., 2021). Discrimination and Stigma Discrimination and stigma are significant workplace barriers for individuals with ASD and/or ID. These negative perceptions often lead to exclusion from job opportunities and affect job retention (Black et al., 2020). Employers’ attitudes and management styles can reinforce these barriers as they may not fully understand or appreciate the abilities of individuals with ASD and/or ID. Specifically, for individuals with ASD, discrimination manifests in various forms, including during the job application process and workplace interactions, which can lead to social deprivation and a lack of equal treatment (Lorenz et al., 2021)

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Educational and Social Barriers Access to education and training are crucial for skill development and employment opportunities. However, many individuals, particularly in low- and middle-income countries such as Southeast Asia and Indonesia, face significant barriers in this regard (Bialik & Mhiri, 2022). This denial not only stifles economic growth but also limits the potential of those who could contribute meaningfully to the workforce. For individuals with ASD and/or ID, these challenges are often compounded by social barriers such as communication difficulties and interpersonal interactions. Such obstacles can undermine employees’ confidence and impact their self-perceived employability (Lorenz et al., 2021). Addressing these issues requires a multifaceted approach, one that not only enhances access to educational resources, but also promotes inclusive environments in which all individuals can develop their skills and thrive in the labor market. By fostering greater awareness and support for diverse communication styles, we can create pathways to success that empower individuals from all backgrounds to fulfill their potential. Support and Career Progression While individuals with ASD often benefit from the assistance of supervisors and coworkers during the job acquisition process, this support frequently falls short in areas such as job maintenance and career advancement (Sharpe et al., 2022). The emphasis on finding a job can overshadow the importance of ensuring that individuals thrive in their long-term roles. This lack of ongoing support can lead to mismatches in job placement, resulting in the underutilization of valuable skills and talent. To foster a more inclusive workplace, it is essential to provide continuous support that not only helps individuals secure employment, but also promotes professional growth and development throughout their careers. This holistic approach enhances job satisfaction and overall productivity, benefiting both employees and employers. Strengths and Challenges of ASD and/or ID for Employment Individuals with ASD possess a unique set of strengths and weaknesses that significantly affect employment opportunities and performance. Individuals with ASD, but without ID, often demonstrate superior creativity, focus, and memory, which can lead to increased task completion efficiency. They focus on detail and tolerance for repetitive tasks (Bury et al., 2021; Cope & Remington, 2022). They are frequently noted for their honesty, dedication, and reliability (Cope & Remington, 2022). These traits are valuable in any work environment and can contribute to a strong work ethic, as well as a unique perspective that can be beneficial in problem-solving and innovation. Many individuals with ASD excel in tasks that require meticulous attention, which can be particularly beneficial in fields such as data analysis, quality control, and software testing (Bury et al., 2021). However, difficulties in social communication and interaction are common among individuals with ASD and can hinder their performance in roles requiring frequent interpersonal

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interactions or teamwork (Bury et al., 2021; Johnson, 2022). Restricted and repetitive behaviors, although sometimes advantageous, can pose challenges in dynamic work environments that require flexibility and adaptability (Bury et al., 2021). Individuals may experience mental health issues, such as lack of motivation, anxiety, and burnout, which can affect their job performance and overall well-being (Raymaker et al., 2022). Individuals with ID often demonstrate high motivation and reliability in their work. They tend to be committed to their roles and can perform routine tasks with consistency and dedication, which are valuable traits in many job settings (Güner & Yiğit, 2024; Ting et al., 2024). Many individuals with ID excel in jobs that involve repetitive tasks, in which they can develop proficiency and efficiency over time. This ability makes them suitable for roles in sectors such as food services and manufacturing, where routine tasks are prevalent (Ting et al., 2024). However, cognitive challenges can affect the ability of individuals with ID to perform complex tasks or adapt to new situations quickly. This can limit job roles to those that do not require advanced problem-solving skills (Ting et al., 2024). ASD and/or ID Key Employability Skills Soft skills such as communication, teamwork, and problem-solving are critical for individuals with ID to succeed in open employment settings. These skills are often developed through structured work experience programs during the school years, which help students transition smoothly into the workforce (Young & Rooney, 2023). For individuals with ASD, skills such as attention to detail, visual skills, and systemizing abilities are highly valued in certain industries. These skills align well with labor market needs, making them viable candidates for specific job roles (Griffiths et al., 2024). Interpersonal skills are crucial for successful collaboration, communication with colleagues and supervisors, and the navigation of social dynamics in the workplace. Teaching interpersonal skills is essential for individuals with ASD and/or ID to thrive in the workplace environment. Effective instructional approaches can promote the acquisition and generalization of these skills and enhance workplace success (Gilson et al., 2022). Educational and Vocational Programs College-based transition programs offer students with ASD and/or ID valuable opportunities to engage in adult learning experiences, including college coursework and employment preparation activities. Research indicates that these programs can effectively support the transition to paid employment (Papay et al., 2023). Additionally, vocational interventions, such as Individual Placement and Support (IPS), have demonstrated positive effects on employment participation among individuals with ASD. However, high-quality evidence is required to strengthen interventions targeting individuals with ID (Weld-Blundell et al., 2021).

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Supported Employment Initiatives Intervention programs have proven effective in enhancing employment opportunities for individuals with ASD through supportive initiatives. By implementing tailored internship schemes, these programs address the specific barriers that individuals with ASD face in the workplace, providing valuable experiences not only for interns but also for employers (Ashworth et al., 2023). Vocational Rehabilitation (VR) services play a crucial role in meeting short-term employment needs of individuals with ASD. However, there is a significant gap in the long-term support services provided by Medicaid, highlighting the need for more comprehensive solutions. (Roux et al., 2023). While the focus is often on developing employability skills and providing support through educational and vocational programs, it is also important to consider the systemic barriers faced by individuals with ASD and ID. Despite the availability of various programs and interventions, many individuals still face challenges in accessing employment services and achieving sustainable employment outcomes. Addressing these barriers requires coordinated efforts across different sectors to ensure that individuals with ASD or ID receive the necessary support to thrive in their workforce. Methods Research Design This study adopted a mixed-methods approach combining qualitative and quantitative data to gain a comprehensive understanding of the employability challenges faced by individuals with ASD and/or ID. The study design includes a literature review, semi-structured interviews with individuals, and questionnaires completed by key stakeholders. Participants and Recruitment Participants were recruited via purposive sampling from educational institutions (universities and vocational centers) and community-based disability organizations across Indonesia. Recruitment pathways included direct contact with institutional administrators and outreach through disability advocacy networks. The inclusion criteria for interview participants were as follows: (1) aged 18–30 years, (2) had a formal diagnosis or self-identified as having ASD, ID, or both, and (3) completed or enrolled in a PSE program. The exclusion criteria for the interview were as follows: (1) younger than 18 or older than 30 years, (2) had no formal diagnosis or could not self-identify as ASD, ID or ASD with ID from institutions and parents, (3) only completed senior high school and had no experience studying in a vocational institution or university, (4) unable to understand the study explanation even with simple language or visual aid, and (5) cannot communicate consent verbally, in writing, or through facilitated communication.

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The questionnaire participants, who were stakeholders (parents and employers), were required to have at least three months of direct experience and provide direct support to an individual matching the above criteria. The exclusion criteria for the questionnaire were having less than three months of direct experience and support to an individual matching the above criteria. Diagnostic status (ASD, ID, or ASD with ID) was determined based on clinical diagnosis, as supported by the institution’s documentation, which is often supplemented by parental confirmation. The “ASD with ID” group included individuals who reported co-occurring diagnoses. Interview The participants included 23 individuals with ASD, ID, or both (12 males and 11 females). This included eleven with ASD (10 university graduates), six with ID (all vocational training), and six with both ASD and ID (mixed PSE). The participant demographics are detailed in Table 2. Parents Questionnaire Thirteen parents of self-employed individuals participated in this study. Most individuals were culinary based enterprises. Demographic characteristics are shown in Table 3. Table 3 Demographic Characteristics Participant in Parents Questionnaire (n = 13) Category Disability

Total Postsecondary Education

Total Type of Self-employment

Total Parents Involvement

Total

Details ASD ID ASD with ID

Frequency 7 5 1 13 University 3 Vocational Training School 7 Vocational Short Course 3 13 Culinary 11 Service 0 Hand-made product 0 Others 2 13 Owner 5 Manager 3 Accountant 2 Marketing 0 Supervisor 2 Others 1 13

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% 53.85 38.46 7.69 100 23.08 53.85 23.08 100 84.62 0 0 15.38 100 38.46 23.08 15.38 0 15.38 7.69 100

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Employers Questionnaire Nineteen employers from various sectors (education, culture, and insurance) participated in the study. These employers provided data regarding working experience with ASD, ID, and ASD with ID. Most employers are mentors working with ASD and ID as permanent employees in the food and beverage sectors. The demographic characteristics of the employers are shown in Table 4. Table 4 Demographic Characteristics Participant in Employer Questionnaire (n=19) Category Experienced working with

Total Employee Status Total Type of Employment

Total Employer’s Role

Total

Details ASD ID ASD with ID ASD, ID ASD, ID, & ASD with ID Intern Contract Employee Permanent Employee Non-governmental organization (NGO) Non-profit organization (NPO) Education Services Food & Beverage Other HRD (Human Resource Development) Head Division Supervisor of Employees with Disabilities Mentor for Employees with Disabilities Others

Frequency 5 1 8 2 3 19 8 2 9 19 0 5 3 4 7 0 19 1 3 6 9 0 19

% 26.32 5.26 42.10 10.53 15.79 100 23.08 53.85 23.08 100 0 26.32 15.79 21.05 36.84 0 100 5.26 15.79 31.58 47.87 0 100

Instruments A semi-structured interview guide was used to gather information from individuals regarding their educational backgrounds, employment experiences, perceived challenges, and career aspirations. The stakeholder questionnaire was based on Rosenberg et al. (2012) and the Employability Skills Framework (46 skills). The 46 items were consolidated into eight domains, as reported by Majid et al. (2022). The skills in each domain are listed in Table 5.

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Table 5 Employability Skills Framework Based on Rosenberg et al. (2012), Reported by Majid et al. (2022) Employability Skills Skill Domains Basic Literacy 1) Having ability to perform basic computations and approach practical problems and Numeracy with different mathematical techniques. Skills 2) Having ability to perform basic ideas; communicate verbally. 3) Having ability to organize basic thoughts, ideas, and messages in writing; create documents such as letters, directions, manuals, reports, graphs, and flow charts. 4) Having ability to receive, attend to, interpret, and respond to basic verbal messages/cues. 5) Having ability to locate, understand, and interpret basic written information in documents such as manuals, graphs, and schedules. Critical 6) Having ability to generate new ideas. Thinking 7) Having ability to specify goals and constraints, generate alternatives, consider Skills risks, and evaluate and choose the best alternative. 8) Having ability to recognize problems and devise and implement a plan of action. 9) Having ability to organize and process symbols, pictures, graphs, objects and other information. 10) Having ability to acquire and apply new knowledge and skills from multiple print and digital sources. 11) Having ability to discover a rule or principle underlying the relationship between two or more objects and apply it when solving a problem. Leadership 12) Having ability to exert a high level of effort and persevere toward goal attainment. Skills 13) Believing in him/her own self-worth and maintain a positive view of him/herself. 14) Having ability to set personal goals, monitor progress, exhibit self control and take responsibility for own actions. 15) Having ability to choose ethical courses of action according to the situation. 16) Having ability to communicate ideas to justify positions, persuade and convince others, and responsibly challenge existing procedures and policies. Management 17) Having ability to select goal-relevant activities, rank them, allocate time, and Skills prepare and follow schedules. 18) Having ability to use or prepare budgets, make forecasts, keep records, and make adjustments to meet objectives. 19) Having ability to acquire, store, allocate, and use materials or space efficiently. 20) Having ability to assess skills and distribute work accordingly, evaluate performance and provide feedback. Interpersonal 21) Having ability to contribute to group efforts. Skills 22) Having ability to help others to learn. 23) Having ability to work to satisfy customers’ expectations. 24) Having ability to toward agreements involving the exchange of resources, and resolve divergent interests. 25) Having ability to work well with men and women from diverse backgrounds. 26) Having ability to demonstrate understanding, friendliness, adaptability, empathy, and politeness in group settings. Information 27) Having ability to choose procedures, tools or equipment including computers and Technology related technology. Skills 28) Having ability to understand overall intent and proper procedures for the setup and operation of equipment.

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29) Having ability to prevent, identify, or solve problems with equipment, including

Systems Thinking Skills

Work Ethic

computers and other technology. 30) Having ability to identify the need for data, obtain data from existing sources or create it, and evaluate its relevance and accuracy. 31) Having ability to organize, process and maintain written or computerized records and other forms of information. 32) Having ability to select and analyse information and communicate the results to others in oral, written, graphic, pictorial or multimedia methods. 33) Having ability to employ computers to acquire, organize, analyse and communicate information, and operate standard software such as MS Word, MS Excel, dan MS PowerPoint. 34) Having ability to know how social, organizational, and technological systems work. 35) Having ability to distinguish trends, and predict the impacts of actions in the future. 36) Having ability to make suggestions to modify existing systems to improve products and services and develop new or alternative systems. 37) Having ability to know how to assess the efficient operation of social, organizational and technological systems. 38) Having ability to know how to recognize the efficient operation of social, organizational and technological systems. 39) Having ability to understand the interaction and interrelationship of systems within an organization. 40) Having ability to attend required organizational meetings and events. 41) Having ability to be on time for organizational meetings and events. 42) Having ability to achieve organizational and personal goals independently. 43) Having ability to complete work on-time. 44) Having ability to understand organizational protocols and procedures. 45) Having ability to demonstrate a positive attitude at work. 46) Having ability to be dependable at work.

The questionnaire used a 5-point Likert scale, ranging from 1 (Not Skilled) to 5 (Very Skilled). “Expected Skills” were rated by stakeholders (parents/employers) based on their view of what is required for the role. The “Actual Skills” were rated by the same stakeholders based on their observations of an individual’s performance. The “Skills Gap” was computed as (Mean of Expected Skills) – (Mean of Actual Skills). A positive value indicates a performance below expectations. The questionnaire was translated into two languages. Bahasa Indonesia for the participants who are Indonesian and Japanese for the research ethics procedure. The translation process involves forward translation by a professional translator who is familiar with both Indonesian and Japanese cultures, reconciliation to review the translation, back-translation using machine translation, and review by researchers. Data Collection Data were collected over a period of three months. Interviews were conducted in person or via video conference, depending on the participant’s availability and location. Each interview lasted approximately 30–60 minutes and was audio-recorded with the participants’ consent.

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Questionnaires were distributed through educational institutions and disability advocacy networks with electronically collected responses. Data Analysis The interview data were transcribed and analysed using thematic analysis to identify common patterns and insights across the participants. Questionnaire data were analysed descriptively, with frequency counts and percentage scores used to identify the most and least commonly cited skill gaps. The integration of qualitative and quantitative findings enabled triangulation and a deeper understanding of stakeholder expectations and the challenges faced by individuals with ASD and/or ID. Ethical Considerations Ethical approval was obtained from the Research Ethics Committee of the Institute of Human Sciences at the University of Tsukuba (Issue # Tsukuba 2024-96A). All the participants provided informed consent. For individuals requiring decision-making support, assent was obtained verbally with the assistance of a trusted facilitator (e.g., parent), following plain language explanations of the study. Accommodations include offering interviews via familiar platforms, allowing breaks, and using alternative communication methods. To mitigate power dynamics (e.g., employer-employee), interviews were conducted privately, and all data were anonymized. Results Interviews Individuals with ASD The interview data collected from individuals with ASD, employed as contract workers (n = 2), permanent employees (n = 7), and self-employed individuals (n = 2), revealed six core thematic categories: educational foundations and gaps, structural barriers and workplace bias, resilience and advocacy, support systems, emotional and professional growth, and entrepreneurship as a solution. The participants frequently highlighted the disconnect between PSE and employment readiness. While university education provides foundational knowledge on disability, it often fails to equip students with transferable skills such as communication, emotional regulation, and problem-solving, which are critical to workplace success. Participant ASD8 remarked, “The campus is just a bridge, but outside the campus, I learn and grow more.” This gap has led many participants to seek informal self-directed learning after graduation. Structural challenges were evident in the form of employer bias favoring physical and developmental disabilities and a general lack of accommodation in the workplace. Participant

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ASD2 shared, “There was an offer to work in a company that accepted people with disabilities, but most of those who were accepted were physically disabled… not developmental disability or neurodivergent.” Accommodations such as sensory regulation tools or supervisory support were rarely available. Despite these challenges, the participants demonstrated significant personal growth, often assuming advocacy roles in promoting neurodiversity. Participant ASD3 described his evolving role, “I explained to my colleagues that my condition is autism, even though my boss had explained it. Let me tell you about my struggles. Some understand and help, some don’t care, but it’s okay.” Family and peer support, while critical, sometimes result in overdependence owing to a lack of formal institutional structures. As participant ASD11 noted, “I want my mom to always help us. My mom helps me, just watches me... even though I do everything myself,” reflects both the importance and limitations of familial involvement. Two participants opted for self-employment to create autism-friendly workspaces aligned with their interests and cognitive strengths. However, entrepreneurial ventures are hindered by limited funding, mentoring and business literacy. Participant ASD11 also mentioned, “At first, the application is free... but I need money and it is difficult to get investors, so I am trying to make a paid feature.” indicates financial limitations in scaling-up. Despite their accomplishments, the participants reported psychological fatigue due to constant self-advocacy and systemic exclusion. Participant ASD10, reflecting on masking and emotional exhaustion, said, “I am hungry for energy to meet new people. I have to store my energy as much as possible, wisely.” Financial instability was particularly acute among the self-employed and was exacerbated by limited access to inclusive economic opportunities. Individuals with ID Interviews with six young adults with ID, including interns (n = 2), contract workers (n = 2), and self-employed individuals (n = 2), revealed four primary categories: educational foundations, job training programs, workplace integration, and personal growth. Participants benefited greatly from structured vocational training that emphasized practical skills such as basic computer literacy (Microsoft Office and Canva) and hands-on creative production. For instance, participant ID4 shared, “Learning to design presentations, it made me very happy, but there were obstacles when I designed using Canva”. Similarly, participant ID5 reflected on learning video editing skills, “It was like we were going to make a video and then we were going to record it. There, I learn to make the opening, the intro, so it (the video) becomes longer.” Such educational experiences are often guided by personal interests or family advice. Participant ID1 stated, “Initially, I was confused... Finally, I discussed it with my mother. At the end, I chose a major that I like.” Job training in tailoring, poster design, and teamwork further reinforces these skills.

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Internships and early work experience serve as bridges to real-world employment by providing opportunities for performance feedback, emotional regulation strategies, and task management. Participant ID1 recalled, “I always ask when I forget or don’t understand. ‘Sir, how is the correct way to do this?’ When I was wrong... Then they also came and taught me until I fixed it”. Participant ID2 also benefited from supportive oversight during his part-time work, “When Mr. R is supervising it (the task work), he reminded me there are things that are allowed, some are not... But he’s a good person.” Unlike the ASD group, the participants with ID often thrived in structured and supportive settings. These environments enabled them to progressively internalize feedback and build competencies. Participant ID6 emphasized, “I made a banner for selling... but my brother helped me to print it as well.” However, long-term independence is frequently constrained by reliance on external support systems and a lack of scalable employment options. Participant ID3 noted the challenges of running a business alone, saying, “I could not continue to work in my mother’s business, so I finally moved to my father’s, which has lots of employees.” Individuals with ASD with ID Among the six participants with ASD/ID, comprising interns (n = 1), contract workers (n = 1), and self-employed individuals (n = 4), seven key categories emerged: education as an employment foundation, workplace roles and responsibilities, challenges and coping mechanisms, family and supervisory support, job satisfaction and self-development, adaptive work environments, and education-employment integration. Participants demonstrated the ability to apply learned skills, such as graphic design, video editing, and social media content creation, to entrepreneurial ventures and small businesses. For example, participant ASD/ID1 explained, “I used to manage the official Instagram account of the cafe... Made videos and edited the photos.” Similarly, participants with ASD and ID 3 stated, “Of course, I used graphic design settings, especially Photoshop, video editing because it is very useful for promotion.” However, difficulties in transferring theoretical knowledge to real-world tasks, particularly those requiring motor coordination or numeracy, have consistently been reported. Participant ASD/ID5 shared, “Sometimes I am not focused... counting money wrongly.” Social interaction, task prioritization, and focus maintenance are significant challenges. Participant ASD/ID5 reflected on this by saying, “I’m also a bit feeling difficult... Sometimes it’s hard to talk to people.” Nevertheless, strong familial involvement, particularly maternal support and structured mentorship from supervisors, facilitated task completion and emotional stability. As participant ASD/ID2 described, “My mom helps me with my aunt... Mom helps me selling the food.” Similarly, participant ASD/ID3 emphasized, “Usually work alone with my mother so that I can focus,” and participant ASD/ID1 shared, “When working with my mother... My Mother guides me.”

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Positive outcomes included job satisfaction derived from creative expression and increased self-efficacy. Participant ASD/ID3 expressed enjoyment from participating in events: “In my opinion... Selling around, offering food anywhere and to the people are exciting,” while participant ASD/ID1 reflected, “The first time when the café was opened... It was very fun and proud.” Preferences for independent work environments and flexible routines emerged as coping strategies, as participant ASD/ID1 noted, “I like to work in a café by myself, only with my mom, not with other workers, so that all of the money can be for me.” However, participants voiced concerns about inadequate training for real-world employment demands and overreliance on family support. Participant ASD/ID1 revealed a feeling of exclusion when saying, “The existing training depends on the resident ID. There are many in Jakarta, if there is training in Jakarta, I do not participate because my resident ID is not from Jakarta.” These insights underscore the importance of equitable access to training and support systems that extend beyond the family structure. Parents Questionnaire The results of the parental questionnaires revealed distinct patterns in employability skill development among individuals with ASD, ID, and those with ASD and ID engaged in selfemployment. Table 6 presents the expected and actual employability skills of young adults with ASD and ID for self-employment. Table 6 Employability Skills in Self-Employment (n = 13) Employability Skills Domains Basic literacy and numeracy Critical thinking Leadership Management Interpersonal skills Information technology Systematic thinking Work ethic Total

Expected Skills M SD 3.71 0.26 3.58 0.14 3.53 0.14 3.64 0.11 3.71 0.15 3.48 0.1 3.47 0.08 3.75 0.11 3.61 0.15

Actual Skills M SD 3.03 0.28 2.82 0.26 2.8 0.26 3.14 0.31 2.89 0.31 2.52 0.31 2.5 0.16 3.02 0.30 2.90 0.28

Skills Gap M SD 0.68 0.13 0.76 0.13 0.73 0.15 0.5 0.25 0.82 0.32 0.96 0.24 0.97 0.09 0.73 0.29 0.77 0.20

Overall, the mean values showed that participants’ expected skill level (M = 3.61, SD = 0.15) was higher than their actual skill level (M = 2.90, SD = 0.28), suggesting that while participants clearly recognized the importance of employability competencies, they perceived a gap between workplace expectations and their current abilities. The most pronounced gap was observed in Systematic Thinking (M = 0.97, SD = 0.09), followed by Interpersonal Skills (M = 0.82, SD = 0.32), and Critical Thinking (M = 0.76, SD = 0.13). These results suggest that participants recognize the importance of analytical reasoning

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and collaboration but may lack sufficient experience to apply these skills effectively in realworld situations. This could reflect limited exposure to problem-solving environments or teamwork-oriented tasks during previous learning or work experience. Lower performance in these areas may also be associated with the need for more active situational learning opportunities, such as internships, collaborative projects, and guided reflections, which strengthen both cognitive and interpersonal competencies. In contrast, smaller gaps were found in Management Skills (M = 0.50, SD = 0.25) and Information Technology (M = 0.96, SD = 0.24), suggesting that these skills are more readily practiced or explicitly taught in formal or structured learning settings. Participants may feel more confident in handling technical and task-oriented responsibilities that follow clear procedures or measurable goals. Similarly, Work Ethic (M = 0.73, SD = 0.29) and Leadership (M = 0.73, SD = 0.15) reflected a moderate difference between expectations and reality, indicating that, while participants valued these attributes, their consistent demonstration may still depend on motivational and contextual factors within the workplace. The data patterns highlight a significant awareness performance gap: participants are aware of important skills but have not yet fully developed the confidence or situational experience to demonstrate them. This underscores the need for employability training that integrates reflective learning, social communication, and practice to bridge the gap between perceived expectations and demonstrated competencies. Employers Questionnaire The questionnaire, which was distributed to 19 employers, yielded critical insights into the employability skills of individuals with ASD, ID, and ASD with ID in conventional employment settings. The results are summarized in Table 7. Table 7 Employability Skills in Conventional Employment (n = 19) Employability Skills Domains Basic literacy and numeracy Critical thinking Leadership Management Interpersonal skills Information technology Systematic thinking Work ethic Total

Expected Skills M SD 4.63 0.17 4.5 0.19 4.62 0.06 4.59 0.13 4.63 0.06 4.34 0.31 4.46 0.15 4.64 0.04 4.55 0.14

Actual Skills M SD 3.13 0.39 2.71 0.38 3.14 0.48 3.53 0.34 3.51 0.55 2.75 0.77 2.72 0.43 3.56 0.53 3.13 0.48

Skill Gap M SD 1.51 0.45 1.79 0.33 1.47 0.47 1.06 0.3 1.13 0.51 1.59 0.62 1.74 0.36 1.08 0.51 1.42 0.44

The overall mean of the expected skills (M = 4.55, SD = 0.14) indicated that employers generally held very high expectations across all skill domains. In contrast, the overall mean of

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actual skills (M = 3.13, SD = 0.48) reflected a moderate level of performance. The resulting average skill gap (M = 1.42, SD = 0.44) reveals a substantial discrepancy between what employers expect and what employees perceive, as demonstrated in the workplace. Among the employability skill domains, Critical Thinking (M = 1.79, SD = 0.33) and Systematic Thinking (M = 1.74, SD = 0.36) showed the largest skill gaps, suggesting that higher-order cognitive abilities such as reasoning, problem-solving, and decision-making are perceived as the most challenging areas for employees with disabilities. Conversely, Interpersonal Skills (M = 1.13, SD = 0.51) and Work Ethic (M = 1.08, SD = 0.51) showed relatively smaller gaps, indicating that employees were generally viewed as cooperative, diligent, and dependable once integrated into the workplace. These findings reveal a clear pattern: While employers appreciate the positive attitudes and social engagement of employees with disabilities, they still perceive limitations in analytical, strategic, and management-related skills. This imbalance suggests that current workplace inclusion practices may successfully foster behavioral and social adaptation but remain less effective in promoting independent thinking and task autonomy. The consistently high expected scores across all domains also indicate that employers hold a uniformly high standard regardless of job type or disability, reflecting both optimism and a potential misalignment between expectations and the actual level of support or training provided. Overall, the data suggest that strengthening employability among employees with disabilities requires a dual approach that maintains support for interpersonal and behavioral competencies while developing structured interventions that enhance cognitive and problem-solving skills. This balance would help narrow existing skill gaps and support more sustainable and meaningful inclusion in conventional employment. Discussion Overview of Key Findings This study examined employability skills and career readiness among young adults with ASD, ID, and co-occurring ASD and ID in Indonesia, using a mixed-methods design and an employability framework based on eight skill domains (Rosenberg et al., 2012; Majid et al., 2022). By integrating quantitative skill-gap data and qualitative accounts, we found three overarching patterns: (1) consistently high expectations across all eight employability domains, (2) substantial gaps in higher-order cognitive skills, particularly systematic and critical thinking, management, and information technology, while work ethic and interpersonal skills tended to be relatively stronger once participants were integrated into the workplace and (3) qualitative findings further showed that participants’ career trajectories were shaped not only by individual capacities but also by limitations in post-secondary education (PSE), family resources, and the readiness of employers to provide accommodations. The patterns above highlight that employability challenges in this research context cannot be understood solely as individual

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deficits, but rather as the outcome of a misalignment between education systems, stakeholders’ expectations, and available supports (OECD, 2022; Roux et al., 2023). Employability Skill Gaps and Stakeholder Expectations The quantitative results demonstrated clear skill gaps across all domains, with employers consistently reporting higher expectations than the current skill levels of employees with ASD, ID, or ASD with ID. Parents also reported gaps, although these were generally smaller. This difference is important. Employers often described an “ideal worker” with strong cognitive, social, and technological skills, but at the same time reported limited capacity to provide structured training, gradual task scaffolding, or disability-specific accommodations. Parents, by contrast, tended to calibrate their expectations based on intimate knowledge of their children’s strengths, challenges, and everyday functioning, and were more willing to recognise incremental progress and small achievements. These findings align with previous research that has emphasized the role of employers as “gatekeepers” to formal employment for individuals with developmental disabilities (Bialik & Mhiri, 2022; Young & Rooney, 2023). Our data add nuance by showing how this gatekeeping operates in a lower–middle-income context where inclusive employment policies remain partial or under-resourced (Jaya et al., 2024). High expectations in the absence of adequate support create an environment in which young adults are judged against normative standards of productivity and flexibility, rather than being supported to demonstrate their capabilities through adapted roles and gradual skill development. From this perspective, the observed “skill gap” is better understood as a misalignment between the skills fostered through existing PSE pathways and the expectations of employers in a competitive labour market (Gilson et al., 2022). Post-Secondary Education and the “Bridge” to Work The findings also indicate that current PSE practices in Indonesia do not yet function as a robust bridge to employment for young adults with ASD and/or ID. Participants repeatedly described curricula that were heavily theoretical, with limited opportunities for structured practicum experiences, workplace visits, or supported internships. Several graduates felt that they had completed their programs without a clear understanding of what would be expected in real workplaces or how to navigate recruitment, communication with supervisors, and workplace culture. These accounts echo broader concerns about the school-to-work transition for people with disabilities, where formal qualifications do not automatically translate into employability (Papay et al., 2023; Weld-Blundell et al., 2021). In this study, PSE institutions were often portrayed as providing credentials rather than concrete, transferable skills. Individuals and families described a strong reliance on self-learning, trial and error, or informal guidance from sympathetic staff, rather than on systematic career preparation embedded in the curriculum. Similar gaps in inclusive and skills-based provision have been noted in Indonesian and ASEAN

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higher education systems more broadly (Amnesti et al., 2023). These findings suggest that PSE in Indonesia, while expanding access, has not yet fully embraced an inclusive, skills-based model that addresses the specific learning profiles and support needs of students with developmental disabilities. As a result, the responsibility for “closing the gap” is pushed back onto individuals and families. Self-Employment as a Negotiated Pathway Rather than a Free Choice A distinctive contribution of this study lies in its explanation of why self-employment has become such a prominent career pathway among participants with ASD and ASD with ID. In international discourse, entrepreneurship for people with disabilities is often framed as an empowering route to autonomy and self-determination (Petri et al., 2021; Raymaker et al., 2022). However, the narratives in this study complicate that optimistic picture. For many participants, self-employment was less a freely chosen opportunity than a negotiated response to exclusion, stigma, and the inflexibility of mainstream workplaces. Participants described using self-employment to create “autism-friendly” environments with predictable routines, reduced sensory demands, and trusted collaborators—most frequently family members. Self-employment enabled them to manage their energy, limit overwhelming social interaction, and avoid repeated experiences of rejection in formal recruitment processes, consistent with earlier Indonesian accounts of disability and informal work (Jaya et al., 2024). At the same time, these arrangements were highly dependent on family capital: parents invested time, labour, and finances, often becoming de facto co-workers, managers, and advocates. Such businesses were typically small-scale and precarious, vulnerable to changes in family circumstances and fluctuations in local demand (Petri et al., 2021). These findings suggest that self-employment in this context functions as both a strategy of resilience and a symptom of systemic barriers. Rather than celebrating entrepreneurship uncritically, it is important to recognise that many young adults turn to self-employment because inclusive, supported pathways into wage employment are unavailable or inaccessible (Bialik & Mhiri, 2022). In this sense, our results nuance existing literature by showing how disability entrepreneurship in Indonesia is deeply entangled with unmet needs for reasonable accommodation, accessible recruitment, and sustained workplace support. Strengths, Resilience, and the Central Role of Families While much public discourse focuses on deficits, the present study highlights significant strengths among young adults with ASD and/or ID, particularly in work ethic, persistence, and interpersonal warmth once they are placed in supportive environments. Employers who had experience working with these individuals often emphasized their reliability, honesty, and willingness to learn, especially when tasks were clearly structured and expectations were explicitly communicated. These observations align with evidence that, when supported appropriately, people with developmental disabilities can make meaningful contributions across a range of occupations (Bury et al., 2021; Cope & Remington, 2022).

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At the same time, the data underscore the central role of families in enabling access to both employment and self-employment. Parents in this study were not only caregivers but also career planners, informal job coaches, translators of workplace expectations, and, in many cases, co-workers in family-run businesses. They provided ongoing emotional encouragement, managed transportation and scheduling, and negotiated with employers or customers. This intense involvement is consistent with collectivist cultural norms and relational understandings of wellbeing in Indonesia and the wider region (Seda et al., 2023). However, it also raises concerns about sustainability. When families shoulder the majority of responsibility for employability, the burden can become overwhelming and reinforces inequalities between households with different financial and social resources. Recognizing these dynamics is crucial for policy and practice. Rather than expecting families to compensate for shortcomings in education and labor systems, inclusive strategies should aim to build formal structures that complement family support—such as supported employment services, job coaching, and stronger collaboration between PSE institutions and employers (Ashworth et al., 2024; Roux et al., 2023). From “Skill Gaps” to “Systems Gaps” Overall, the findings point to a critical reframing of employability challenges for young adults with ASD, ID, and ASD with ID in Indonesia. On the surface, the results show substantial gaps between expected and actual skills across the eight domains. However, when triangulated with qualitative accounts from individuals, parents, and employers, it becomes clear that these gaps largely reflect systems that are not yet designed to recognize, cultivate, and accommodate diverse ways of learning and working (Roux et al., 2023). First, PSE programs often emphasize academic content and generic soft skills without sufficient adaptation for different cognitive profiles or opportunities for authentic workplace learning (Amnesti et al., 2023; Papay et al., 2023). Second, employers maintain high and relatively uniform expectations while providing limited accommodation or structured support for new employees with disabilities (Griffiths et al., 2024; Gilson et al., 2022). Third, the statelevel policy environment, although increasingly supportive of disability inclusion, has not yet translated into widespread, resourced mechanisms for supported employment and transition services (ILO, 2022; Jaya et al., 2024). In this context, talking about “employability skill gaps” risks unintentionally placing the burden of change on individuals with disabilities. Our findings suggest that the most pressing gaps lie within education and employment systems, specifically in inclusive pedagogy, accessible and supported pathways to work, and employer capacity to adapt roles and environments (Güner & Yiğit, 2024; Roux et al., 2023). By shifting the focus from individual deficits to systems gaps, this study contributes to a more rights-based and structural understanding of employability for individuals with ASD and ID in Indonesia (OECD, 2022).

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These interpretations provide the foundation for the practical and policy implications outlined in the next section, where we argue that strengthening inclusive PSE, building employer capacity, and developing formal supported employment infrastructures are essential to realizing the potential of young adults with developmental disabilities in the Indonesian labor market (Ashworth et al., 2024). Limitations Several limitations should be acknowledged when interpreting the findings. First, the sample size for both interviews (n = 23) and questionnaires (n = 32) was relatively small, which may not capture the full diversity of experiences among individuals with ASD and/or ID in Indonesia. The inclusion of a significant number of self-employed participants may also limit generalizability to formal employment settings. Second, the study relied on stakeholderreported measures of expected and actual skills, which may introduce bias stemming from subjective interpretation, social desirability, or inconsistent observation across contexts. The absence of direct workplace observations or performance assessments limits the extent to which the quantitative skill gaps reflect actual work performance. Third, participants were recruited from specific institutions and disability networks that may not represent the broader population of Indonesian youth with ASD and/or ID, particularly those without access to PSE or vocational training. Fourth, cultural differences in family involvement, perceptions of disability, and employer attitudes may influence both the skill development process and the interpretation of employability expectations, potentially limiting the applicability of findings to other contexts or countries. Finally, as a cross-sectional study, the findings do not capture changes in employability skills over time. Longitudinal research would be necessary to understand how skills evolve across education, transition, and sustained employment stages. Implications and Recommendations The findings of this study underscore the urgent need for postsecondary education (PSE) institutions in Indonesia to strengthen their role in developing employability competencies among young adults with ASD and/or ID. Participants consistently reported limited exposure to practical work skills, workplace simulations, and experiential learning opportunities during their educational trajectories, indicating that current curricula remain heavily theoretical and insufficiently aligned with labor market demands. Enhancing the curriculum through the integration of work-based learning, project-based tasks, structured internships, and formalized partnerships with industry stakeholders would provide students with more authentic environments in which to develop higher-order cognitive abilities, teamwork, and technological proficiency. These initiatives should be accompanied by explicit instruction in communication, emotional regulation, problem-solving, and workplace norms, as these skills represent the domains in which the largest gaps were observed. Furthermore, educators and disability support units must adopt individualized and strength-based pedagogical approaches that leverage the motivation, creativity, and reliability demonstrated by many participants.

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Embedding universal design for learning (UDL), differentiated instruction, and structured vocational modules into the curriculum may help reduce existing performance gaps and promote more inclusive learning environments. The implications for employers and workplace policy are equally significant. While employers reported high expectations for employees across all employability domains, many lacked the knowledge, resources, and structured support systems necessary to provide accommodations or sustained guidance for workers with ASD and/or ID. This mismatch between institutional expectations and the actual support provided highlights a critical need for comprehensive employer training that focuses on neurodiversity, supported employment practices, and reasonable accommodation standards. Employers would benefit from implementing practices such as job carving, task simplification, structured supervision, predictable routines, visual work instructions, and sensory-friendly environmental adjustments. Establishing consistent channels for feedback and communication may also enhance workplace predictability, thereby improving employee performance, retention, and well-being. Such inclusive practices not only help narrow the skill gaps identified in this study but also contribute to more productive and equitable workplace cultures. At the policy level, the study highlights gaps in the implementation of national disability employment frameworks. Although Indonesia has made notable progress in promoting inclusive education and advancing disability rights, substantial inconsistencies remain across regions and institutions. The results point to the need for a broader expansion of Disability Services Units in PSE settings, which are currently available in only a small percentage of universities, as well as stronger government-led supported employment and vocational rehabilitation programs tailored to the needs of individuals with ASD and/or ID. Additional policy measures could include financial or regulatory incentives for employers who hire and retain workers with developmental disabilities, and the development of standardized careertransition frameworks to guide young adults from education into the workforce. Improving access to vocational training programs, regardless of geographic location or residential status, would further reduce structural barriers. Coordinated, cross-sector efforts that link education, social services, and labour institutions are crucial in ensuring sustainable and equitable employment outcomes. Drawing from these implications, several recommendations for practice and program design emerge. First, institutions should develop inclusive, skills-based career education curricula that reflect both local sociocultural contexts and contemporary employment demands. Second, employability skills should be integrated into everyday learning activities through guided practice, role-play, collaborative projects, and hands-on assignments that mirror real workplace situations. Third, internship pathways must be strengthened through partnerships with employers who have received training in disability inclusion, ensuring that students gain exposure to safe and supportive work environments. Fourth, given the central role of families in Indonesia’s sociocultural context, programs should invest in building family capacity to support the employability and independence of young adults with ASD and/or ID. Fifth, targeted cognitive-skill training, particularly in critical thinking, systematic planning, and

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decision-making, is essential for addressing the higher-order skill gaps identified. Finally, for youth who pursue self-employment, tailored entrepreneurship support programs including business mentoring, financial literacy training, and expanded market access could enhance the viability and sustainability of their ventures. Collectively, these strategies aim to bridge systemic gaps, enhance employability outcomes, and promote more equitable workforce participation for young adults with ASD and/or ID in Indonesia. Conclusion This study demonstrates a clear and persistent gap between the employability skills expected by stakeholders and the actual skills demonstrated by young adults with ASD, ID, and ASD with ID in Indonesia. Quantitative results show substantial discrepancies across all eight skill domains, with the largest gaps in systematic thinking, critical thinking, interpersonal communication, and information technology skills. Qualitative interviews further illustrate that these gaps stem less from individual limitations and more from insufficient work-based learning, limited transition support, and systemic exclusion within educational and employment settings. Parents and employers consistently reported high expectations yet described a limited institutional capacity to provide sustained guidance or appropriate accommodations. Meanwhile, individuals highlighted challenges related to workplace bias, emotional regulation, and difficulties in transferring theoretical knowledge to practical tasks. Despite these barriers, many participants demonstrated a strong work ethic, motivation, creativity, and resilience. Selfemployment often emerged as a practical, though not always sustainable, alternative to formal employment. Taken together, the findings suggest that employability outcomes are influenced by structural issues throughout the education-to-work pipeline. PSE institutions remain heavily theoretical, rarely offering authentic workplace simulations or inclusive career development support. Employers, although open to hiring people with developmental disabilities, often lack training in neurodiversity, reasonable accommodations, and supported employment practices. Without coordinated structures, young adults experience fragmented support, inconsistent opportunities, and a challenging transition from learning to earning. This study provides one of the first triangulated analyses in the Indonesian context, integrating perspectives from young adults with ASD and/or ID, parents, and employers. It highlights the urgent need for skills-based, individualized, and culturally anchored career education, as well as workplace practices that emphasize training, predictable routines, and long-term mentoring. The mixed-methods design offers a nuanced understanding of the capabilities, expectations, and contexts that inform both policy and practice. Future studies should employ larger and more diverse samples, include longitudinal tracking of skill development, and incorporate direct assessments of workplace performance. Expanding research to rural areas, non-PSE populations, and sectors beyond self-employment would

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enhance generalizability. Additionally, intervention-based studies such as workplace simulations, internship models, or cognitive skill training would provide evidence for scalable solutions. Finally, supporting the employability of young adults with ASD and/or ID in Indonesia requires more than skill training. It demands systemic reform across education, workplace culture, and policy implementation. By aligning stakeholder expectations with inclusive, structured, and supportive environments, Indonesia can take meaningful steps toward improving equitable workforce participation for individuals with developmental disabilities.

Acknowledgements This work was supported by the JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research #23K22302; #24K21446.

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References Amnesti, Sheila & Jundiani, Jundiani & Zulaichah, Siti & Noh, Mohd & Fitriyah, Lailatul. (2023). Higher education with disabilities policy: Ensuring equality, inclusive education in Indonesia, Singapore, and the United States. Journal of Human Rights, Culture and Legal System. 3. 412-–40. https://doi.org/10.53955/jhcls.v3i3.135. Ashworth, M., Heasman, B., Crane, L., & Remington, A. (2024). Evaluating a new supported employment internship programme for autistic young adults without intellectual disability. Autism: the international journal of research and practice, 28(8), 1934– 1946. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613231214834 Arif, A., & Mir, T. T. (2023). Employability skills for education graduates: A narrative literature review. Global Economics Review. https://doi.org/10.31703/ger.2023(viii-ii).15 Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia (Indonesian Central Statistics Agency). (2023). Indikator Pekerjaan Layak di Indonesia 2022 (Indicators of Decent Jobs in Indonesia 2022). Badan Pusat Statistik (Central Statistical Agency). ISSN: 2745-5858 Badan Pusat Statistik Indonesia (Indonesian Central Statistics Agency). (2024). Indikator Pekerjaan Layak di Indonesia 2023 (Indicators of Decent Jobs in Indonesia 2023). Badan Pusat Statistik (Central Statistical Agency). ISSN: 2745-5858 Bialik, K., & Mhiri, M. (2022). Barriers to employment for people with intellectual disabilities in low‐ and middle‐income countries: Self‐advocate and family perspectives. Journal of International Development, 34(5), 988–1001. https://doi.org/10.1002/jid.3659 Bury, S. M., Hedley, D., & Uljarević, M. (2021). Restricted, repetitive behaviours and interests in the workplace: Barriers, advantages, and an individual difference approach to autism employment (pp. 253–270). Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-66445-9_15 Cope, R., & Remington, A. (2022). The strengths and abilities of autistic people in the workplace. Autism in adulthood: Challenges and Management, 4(1), 22–31. https://doi.org/10.1089/aut.2021.0037 Economic Research Institute for ASEAN and East Asia. (2022). Inclusive education: Overcoming barriers for students with disability in ASEAN (Policy Brief No. FY2022). https://www.eria.org/uploads/media/policy-brief/FY2022/InclusiveEducation-Overcoming-Barriers-for-Students-with-Disability-in-ASEAN.pdf Gilson, C.B., Whirley, M.L., Carter, E.W., Schutz, M.A. (2022). Teaching employment skills to people with intellectual and developmental disability. In: Matson, J.L., Sturmey, P. (eds) Handbook of Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorder. Autism and Child Psychopathology Series. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-885380_69 Griffiths, A. J., Hurley‐Hanson, A. E., Giannantonio, C. M., Nash, A. M., Walrod, W., Walrod, P., Torres, R., & Delgado, R. G. (2024). Identifying critical employability skills for employment success of autistic individuals: A content analysis of job postings. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs. https://doi.org/10.1111/1471-3802.12651

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Güner, G., & Yiğit, E. H. (2024). Employment models and best practices for the inclusion of individuals with intellectual disability (pp. 87–100). Edições Universitárias Lusófonas. https://doi.org/10.24140/nobarriers.v1.p02.03 International Labour Organization (ILO). (2022). The new ILO database highlights labor market challenges of persons with disabilities. Retrieved December 2, 2024, from https://ilostat.ilo.org/blog/new-ilo-database-highlights-labour-market-challenges-ofpersons-with-disabilities Jaya, D. J., Saputra, T. W., & Putra Tanggu Mara, A. A. (2024). Pasar tenaga kerja inklusif dan pekerjaan afirmatif untuk penyandang disabilitas. Nozel, 6(4), 199. https://doi.org/10.20961/nozel.v6i4.91193 Johnson, K. R. (2022). Using a strengths–based approach to improve employment opportunities for individuals with autism spectrum disorder. New Horizons in Adult Education and Human Resource Development, 34(1), 16–25. https://doi.org/10.1002/nha3.20321 Layyinah, A., Djamhari, E. A., Prasetya, D. E. J. (2022). Quota Policy Has Not Been Able to Increase Participation of Persons with Disabilities in the Job Market. https://repository.theprakarsa.org/media/publications/409019-quota-policy-has-notbeen-able-to-increa-abdf26b6.pdf Lorenz, T., Brüning, C. R., Waltz, M., & Fabri, M. (2021). Not a stranger to the dark: Discrimination against autistic students and employees. 7(1), 60–72. Advances in Autusm, 7(1), 60-72. https://doi.org/10.1108/AIA-10-2019-0036 Majid, F., Sharil, W. N. E., & Salmee, M. S. A. (2022). Eight dimensions of basic employability skills: A Survey on the academics’ level of awareness. International Journal of Academic Research in Business & Social Sciences, 12(9). https://doi.org/10.6007/ijarbss/v12-i9/14443 OECD (Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development). (2022), Disability, Work and Inclusion: Mainstreaming in All Policies and Practices, OECD Publishing, Paris, https://doi.org/10.1787/1eaa5e9c-en. Papay, C., Grigal, M., & Choiseul-Praslin, B. (2023). Employment preparation experiences of youth with intellectual disability and autism who attend college-based transition Programs. Inclusion, 11(2), 118–134. https://doi.org/10.1352/2326-6988-11.2.118 Petri, G., Beadle-Brown, J., & Bradshaw, J. (2021). Even a self-advocate needs to buy milk – Economic barriers to self-advocacy in the autism and intellectual disability movement. Scandinavian Journal of Disability Research, 23(1), 180. https://doi.org/10.16993/SJDR.738 Rahajeng, U. W., Hendriani, W., & Paramita, P. P. (2024). Navigating higher education challenges: A review of strategies among students with disabilities in Indonesia. Disabilities, 4(3), 678-695. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities4030042 Raymaker, D., Sharer, M., Maslak, J., Powers, L. E., McDonald, K. E., Kapp, S. K., Moura, I., Wallington, A., & Nicolaidis, C. (2022). [I] don’t wanna just be like a cog in the machine”: Narratives of autism and skilled employment. Autism, 27(1), 65–75. https://doi.org/10.1177/13623613221080813

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Rosenberg, S., Heimler, R., & Morote, E. S. (2012). Basic employability skills: A triangular design approach. Education + Training, 54(1), 7–20. https://doi.org/10.1108/00400911211198869 Roux, A. M., Miller, K. K., Tao, S., Rast, J. E., Ventimiglia, J., Shattuck, P. T., & Shea, L. (2023). Unrealized cross-system opportunities to improve employment and employment-related services among autistic individuals. Milbank Quarterly, 101(4). https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0009.12666 Seda, F.S.S.E., Kurniawan, K.N. & Pera, Y.H.T. Social inclusion challenges and the future of relational wellbeing: The case of Indonesia and South Korea. Soc Indic Res 165, 309– 332 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-022-03015-3. Sharpe, M., Hutchinson, C., & Alexander, J. (2022). The lived experiences and perspectives of people with autism spectrum disorder in mainstream employment in Australia. Disabilities, 2(2), 164–177. https://doi.org/10.3390/disabilities2020013 Stijepic, Damir. (2020). Employment effects of skills around the world: Evidence from the PIAAC. International Labour Review, 159(3), 307–338. https://doi.org/10.1111/ILR.12162 Ting, C. H., Rahman, M. M., Chen, Y. Y., Safii, R., Puteh, S. EW., Saimon, R., & Adenan, A. S. (2024). Employment of people with Down syndrome: A scoping review. Narra J. https://doi.org/10.52225/narra.v4i3.1431 Tryana, M. G. P., Anggraeni, D. D. R., Yanto, V. A., Fikriyyah, J., Mareti, D. A., & Hamidah, S. (2024). Mengenali Potensi Dan Pengalaman Karir Individu Para Disabilitas. Garuda, 2(2), 164–172. https://doi.org/10.59581/garuda.v2i2.3232 United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific. (2021). Disability at a glance 2021: The shaping of disability-inclusive employment in Asia and the Pacific. Bangkok: UNESCAP. https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/d8files/knowledge-products/DAG2021Final.pdf Weld-Blundell, I., Shields, M., Devine, A., Dickinson, H., Kavanagh, A., & Marck, C. H. (2021). Vocational interventions to improve employment participation of people with psychosocial disability, Autism and/or intellectual disability: A systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(22), 12083. https://doi.org/10.3390/IJERPH182212083 Young, K., & Rooney, D. (2023). Developing soft (employability) skills and work experience opportunities to prepare students with intellectual disability for open employment. British Journal of Special Education, 50(4), 247–439. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8578.12484 Corresponding author: Lisfatul Fatinah Email: s2530385@u.tsukuba.ac.jp, lisfatulfatinah@gmail.com

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AI-Driven Pedagogical Empowerment in International Education: Transforming Teaching Practices for College Faculty Through FacultyCentered Innovation Ding Lin Henan Polytechnic, China

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Abstract The study examines the contribution of artificial intelligence (AI) to the strengthening of faculty potential in global higher education, with focus on pedagogical autonomy, cultural sensitivity and the sense of inclusivity in the respective institutions. A sequential mixedmethods design was used to collect data that was based on the survey of 150 faculty members across Asia, Europe, and North America combined with region-specific focus groups. With the help of UTAUT and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) frameworks, the study reveals the Institutional Trust and Training and Support Needs as important outlooks of AI adoption and pedagogical empowerment, whereas traditional determinants of adoption, such as Performance Expectancy and Effort Expectancy became irrelevant unless aligned to specific cultural and institutional contexts. Faculty consider hybrid AI-human models of instruction, cultural responsiveness-based training, and collaborative decision-making. This study differs with those that concentrate on student-oriented AI-related applications in that faculty is positioned as pedagogic constructors. The developed findings will guide universities to adopt AI by implementing faculty-oriented, culturally responsive measures, which will support equitable, ethical, and sustainable innovations in international classrooms. Keywords: artificial intelligence in education, cross-cultural education, faculty development, institutional trust, pedagogical autonomy

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In education, the rise of artificial intelligence brought a transformative shift, enhancing learning experiences and several shades of teaching methods. AI-enabled technologies, such as IRT systems, automatic grading, learning analytics, and adaptive learning platforms, have been shown to have potential to improve education by personalising learning, increasing learner engagement, and assisting in the tasks of teachers (Holmes et al., 2019; Luckin et al., 2016). These systems learn from the pattern of learning and give feedback in real time in order to fill in those knowledge gaps. Additionally, AI takes over administrative functions such as grading and timetabling, which means teachers can concentrate on pedagogy (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Culturally, societies differ in their views and acceptance of new and advance technology, the aspect that manifests in the propensity of AI implementation in educational procedures. For example, high uncertainty avoidance cultures like those in sections of Asia and in the Middle East tend to be sceptical about the AI systems, and this is particularly so when it comes to those decision-making positions that are traditionally held by teachers (Rasool et al., 2025). Contrary to this, cultures that attach great importance to innovation and individualism like the ones in North America and Western Europe could be more inclined to try out as well as implement AIpowered pedagogies. These cultural dimensions have an impact not only on the adoption but also on the implementation style and the interaction between students and teachers transmitted via AI (Lee & Joshi, 2020; Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Adaptive learning systems and automated feedback tools are just two examples of AI-enabled platforms that have the potential to reduce flexibility regarding faculty’s instructional creativity. Such systems could impose certain sequences, instructional materials, and pace of capturing and delivery, which undermines professional judgment and classroom experience (Selwyn, 2019). In addition, a growing number of AI systems operate as “black boxes” with no clear explanation of how particular outcomes are computed by algorithms as such would restrain faculty autonomy and trust (Knox, 2020). Despite growing interest in using artificial intelligence (AI) in education, limited research has been conducted on the practical barriers that teachers face when implementing AI tools, particularly in international and cross-cultural classrooms. Existing research tends to focus on student-oriented AI applications for instance, learning and intelligent tutoring systems, but overlooking the challenges that teachers face as pedagogical designers, and policymakers. Such crucial concerns as the lack of training, insufficiency of the institutions, and the low relevance of AI tools to the multicultural environment not been explored comprehensively. The gap does not allow the full realization of how it is possible to engage AI technologies in the learning process in different environments in a reasonable and responsible way so that the equity and sustainability of the inclusion of AI in higher education at an international level can be stepped up.

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Objectives •

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To evaluate the attitude of the faculty towards the usage of AI tools in an international and cross-cultural teaching and learning environment with a particular emphasis on their profile as the pedagogical designer, but not the passive user. To identify region-specific challenges, including technological readiness, cultural relevance, and institutional support, affecting faculty adoption of AI in diverse contexts such as Asia and Europe. To propose actionable strategies that promote equitable, context-sensitive, and facultyinclusive adoption of AI in global higher education environments. Literature Review

Artificial Intelligence (AI) in Higher Education The use of artificial intelligence (AI) within the higher education sector has been extremely popular over the last few years, as well as individualization and scalability, which might happen with the implementation of AI. Educational platforms presently comprise AI tools and Apps, which are integrated into the educational domain in automated grading systems, chatbots, adaptive learning technologies, and predictive analytics (Holmes et al., 2019). Many chatbots have been increasingly utilized to provide administrative support, as they are able to answer the queries of the students in real-time regarding their schedules, assignments, or course material topics (Chen et al., 2020). Universities across the globe have begun to rethink their missions and re-orient their pedagogies to the Artificial Intelligence (AI) era (Lim & Lee, 2024). Institutions have realised that new and innovative education models are required to prepare students for innovative and creative learning and employment in future job markets, meaning that a systemic approach is needed to educational transformation (Trad, 2021). In the meantime, the adaptive learning platforms prepare educational material according to fruitful student performance and tend to provide personal learning pathways (Luckin et al., 2016). Alongside such developments; critics of AI in higher education have identified general concerns regarding bias, transparency, and pedagogically appropriateness of such technologies. What matters most concerning AI and inequality, perhaps, is the issue of algorithmic bias that may entrench inequity because of the use of data provided it is trained on non-representative data or fails to exhibit cultural sensitivity (Al-Zahrani & Alasmari, 2024). Faculty Perceptions and Roles in AI Integration Since many AI technologies find their way into advanced educational institutions, the perception of faculties requires awareness. The faculty view of AI presents a complex combination of expectation, doubt, and realistic care. On the one hand, educators are widely convinced in the possibility of AI to free themselves from routine administrative work and provide data-based feedback on the learning process (Zawacki-Richter et al., 2019). Meanwhile, it has been stated that fear exists that AI would be seen as an encroachment into

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the normal roles of teaching and would deprive the teachers of their academic freedom. This pressure has supported the underlying issues regarding what teaching entails and the position of the teachers in the more mechanized future. Educators are afraid that AI will turn their work into the technical implementation process instead of intellectual and human interaction between teachers and students. This happens especially in fields where dialogical education and critical thinking would be of the greatest importance (Ghamrawi et al., 2024). Other than this, AI adoption involves the need of a new skill set, including data literacy and reading the results of algorithms. The fact is that the majority of the faculty members feel ill prepared to make those transitions as they state that the institutions do not provide them with the support and the training is lacking (Aljemely, 2024). Cultural and Traditional Challenges in International Classrooms The adoption and impact of AI within schools are far from uniform across regions and cultural contexts. Educational and school technologies, including AI technologies, have a tendency to be designed within Western environments and may not seamlessly migrate into other regions, causing cultural incompatibilities and operational issues. For instance, within some regions of Asia, hierarchical educational and schooling cultures have the ability to interfere with the more student-centric design elements inherent in Western-developed AI technologies (Wang & Torrisi-Steele, 2017). In such a situation, the pedagogical assumptions embedded in AI software may not be compatible with local teaching practices or student expectations. Regional readiness also varies widely. Particularly in Northern and Western Europe, have tended to be leaders in the embracement of AI, facilitated by robust infrastructure, policy frameworks, and funding mechanisms. Organizations in Asia are hindered by infrastructural and fiscal limitations to the large-scale application of AI (UNESCO, 2022). The digital divide not only affects access but also determines how AI tools are understood and utilized. Additionally, instructors in other regions may have divergent amounts of institutional pressure to adopt AI technology. In highly market-driven education systems such as the United States or the United Kingdom, the pressure for innovation may be at the expense of pedagogical integrity, as instructors must learn quickly whatever new tools come along regardless of appropriateness (Williamson & Hogan, 2020). This has the potential to generate resentment and disempowerment among the staff, who will feel that their professional expertise is being replaced by technological determinism. Gaps and Opportunities for Faculty-Cantered AI Integration As the discourse regarding AI in education continues to grow, there remain a number of crucial gaps, most significantly pertaining to faculty-cantered approaches. The most obvious gap in current research is the lack of region-specific faculty training programs. Professional development programs tend to have a one-size-fits-all mentality, often neglecting the diverse pedagogical, cultural, and infrastructural contexts in which teachers are faced in different regions (Holmes & Tuomi, 2022). Without tailored support, faculty may struggle to integrate AI in ways that are meaningful and contextually relevant. Most of the literature concerns itself with efficiency and scalability, regardless to how AI can reinforce innovative, student-cantered

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teaching. For example, AI can free up time for more imaginative lesson planning or uncover new insights into student engagement trends. However, if mishandled, AI would also restrict teachers to standardized steps, taking away their autonomy to experiment or make decisions based on the specific classroom context (Castañeda & Williamson, 2021). Moreover, there is an urgent need for inclusive, context-sensitive strategies for AI adoption that put faculty experience and voice at the centre. Rather than considering faculty as fixed end-users, effective integration depends on their active participation in designing, evaluating, and managing AI tools. This requires a participatory approach that includes faculty input in shaping not only how AI is deployed, but also the values and assumptions it embodies (Williamson et al., 2020). Theoretical Framework The present research combines the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) (Venkatesh et al., 2003) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) (Shulman, 1986) to have a comprehensive picture of how AI is adopted by faculty members in higher education. Whereas UTAUT describes the way people receive and utilize technology, PCK can be used to make sure that technology integration is pedagogically significant. The cognitive and contextual factors of technology acceptance are measured by the four initial constructs of UTAUT, namely, Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), and Facilitating Conditions (FC). Nevertheless, UTAUT does not pay enough attention to the pedagogical and cultural processes, which influence the behavior of the faculty. In order to fill this gap, the current research provides an extension of UTAUT to two other constructs, namely Cultural Competence (CC) and Institutional Trust (IT). Cultural Competence is the faculty capacity to integrate AI tools into the classroom setting of different socio-cultural contexts (Wang and Torrisi-Steele, 2017), whereas Institutional Trust is the faith in the transparency, morality, and accommodation of AI implementation (Prinsloo, 2020). The extensions recognise that, within cross cultural academic environments, the acceptance is dependent upon an understanding of usefulness or ease of use as well as conformity to the institutional and cultural expectation. The PCK framework that connects the use of technology, and a productive teaching practice fills this. It describes how professors incorporate AI technology into their academic expertise and curricula to make learning more effective (Ning et al., 2024). In this model, the Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) is considered as an important outcome variable that shows to what degree AI supports or impedes the faculty in teaching effectively. The construct Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC) describes the impediments that may emerge when there is a cultural mismatch or a pedagogical mismatch between AI systems. These variables, in combination, bring the model to a new stage of adoption to pedagogical empowerment- an important aspect that is typically missing in technology acceptance models. The overall conceptual model therefore hypothesizes that the constructs of UTAUT (PE, EE, SI, FC), and modified variables (CC, IT) have a direct and an indirect impact on pedagogical results (PCK and CPC) with the help of the mediating variable Training and Support Needs (TSN). TSN is an indicator of the level of institutional preparation and professional growth

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required to make AI useful. This mediation is indicative of the concept that despite the faculty having a positive attitude towards AI, the real-world pedagogical integration will rely on the availability of culturally relevant training (Holmes & Tuomi, 2022). The model can be used to account for both the technological acceptance and the teaching adaptation processes that are vital to AI-based pedagogical empowerment in an international setting by integrating the behavioral orientation of UTAUT and the pedagogical orientation of PCK. Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) According to Venkatesh et al. (2003), the UTAUT theory provides a model on which testing of user technology acceptance can be performed. It includes four constructs: performance expectancy, effort expectancy, social influence and the facilitating conditions. These constructs help forecast the behavioral intention and usage. In spite of the fact that UTAUT has been actively employed in virtually all fields, its application in education, notably in cross-cultural environments, will have to be specifically adapted (Xue et al., 2024). This study expands UTAUT with two more dimensions, namely, cultural competence, and institutional trust. The cultural competence is considered the capacity of the faculty to orientate and adjust AI tools through the socio-cultural environments of their classrooms. Using the example of Faculty employed in Asian countries, they might not share the same expectations as those in the European or North American context in terms of controls of authority and technology use (Wang & Torrisi-Steele, 2017). Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) Although the UTAUT model offers a truthful insight linked to technology acceptability, the model fails to embrace all pedagogical facets of AI implementation. Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) framework designed by Shulman (1986) comes in handy in this case. PCK refers to the unique combination of the pedagogical knowledge and subject matter mastery that efficient educators use to demonstrate their topics in a way that learners find meaningful. During the implementation of AI, PCK sheds light on the necessity to match technological devices with a certain field requirements and student educational goals. An example would be AI-driven writing assistants, which could be profoundly helpful in language arts but largely useless in pure mathematics. Furthermore, the utility of AI in faculty members’ teaching is determined by how much these tools support or augment their current teaching practices rather than substituting them. Recent research has noted the importance of Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge (TPACK), an extension of PCK adding the technological dimension (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

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Conceptual Framework Figure 1 Conceptual Framework

Methodology The research design used in this study employed the sequential mixed methods approach that entailed the use of both quantitative and qualitative data collection tools aimed to investigate perceptions of the faculty towards the artificial intelligence (AI) tools within the international education scenario. The major goal was to grasp the local contexts and issues of AI adoption in teaching practices concerning the role of these tools in faculty empowerment, pedagogical autonomy, cultural relevance of AI tools adoption and the assistance of the teaching institutions. This study received ethical approval through the Institutional Review Board (IRB) of that ensured that the procedures conformed to ethical standards of research on human subjects. Every participant gave informed consent to take part. Anonymous data were collected and the confidentiality was ensured. The cultural sensitivity was provided based on the localization of instruments to local contexts, survey and focus group resources were translated into local languages where needed and were back-translated to terminate past accuracy and concept similarity.

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The study gives a detailed picture of the challenges and drivers that affected the AI adoption across the various regions. It consisted of online survey carried out on 150 faculty personnel in Asia, Europe, and North America who have at least one year of experience using AI technology and programs in the classroom. The questions of the survey were based on the construction of Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) and Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) frameworks, which focused on the usability of the AI tool, the perceived effect on pedagogy, and faculty independence. Survey Design The survey was developed by the research team using the format of validated scales of previous UTAUT as well as PCK studies. It consisted of 32 questions that were categorized under eight constructs. Sample Survey Items • •

The measures of items were recorded using five-point Likert scale with a 1 (Strongly Disagree) to 5 (Strongly Agree) scale. Validity Checks: In order to obtain reliability and validity, a pilot test was done on 12 members of the faculty of a variety of cultural backgrounds. Responses made some slight word changes to clarity and contextual appropriateness. The values of Cronbach alpha were more than 0.70 in all constructs. The complete survey instrument together with sample items and related constructs is provided in Appendix A.

Focus Group Discussions The qualitative part entailed three focus group discussions each representing one of the three chosen regions, which were Asia, Europe and North America. Every session involved five faculty members, who were sampled using purposive sampling based on their exposure to AI tool in the classroom at the higher education level. All the meetings took place online through Zoom technology because the members were not in the same country and included about 60 to 75 minutes. Sample Questions for Focus Groups • •

“How do you perceive the cultural alignment of the AI tools used in your classroom?” “What kind of institutional support do you receive for adopting AI in your teaching?”

Recruitment Process The focus group participants were identified in institutional mailing lists and professional networks. The diversity in demographics was also preserved by having faculty members of

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various disciplines, sexes, and experience of teaching years. A semi-structured question guide was used to influence the conversations within the framework of the experiences with AI, institutional readiness, cultural adaptation, and professional development. Thematic analysis was conducted in 6 steps according to Braun and Clarke (2006): familiarization, coding, theme generation, reviewing themes, defining themes, and writing up. NVivo software helped in the handling of qualitative data and the determination of crossregional themes. Results Qualitative Findings Qualitative data concerning the experiences of educators with various backgrounds in different geographical parts were obtained through focus groups (n = 15), which included instructors in Asia, Europe, and North America. Thematic analysis identified a number of interrelated themes outlining the cultural, pedagogical, and institutional aspects of AI adoption in the international education contexts. In order to achieve the level of analytical correctness, thematic saturation was observed with an approach of code saturation. Based on the three regional focus groups (Asia, Europe, and North America), new codes did not appear after the 12th participant, which shows that thematic categories had reached their stable state. Thus, the research staff decided that 15 participants constituted the saturation. It is consistent with the accepted qualitative research practices related to homogenous populations and narrow concepts of interest. Cultural Issues and Teacher-Student Relationship An issue common to Asian faculty was the possible interference of AI technologies with the existing relations on which their teaching practice rests. The respondents reiterated that within the collectivist culture, trust, respect, and individual mentorship foster the teacher-student relationship, which the AI tools, specifically automated grading and chatbots, cannot fake. As a faculty member of a South Asian, institution told us: Even AI is not capable of evaluating the answer, instead of merely testing emotions or effort. That is a large component of our culture in our classroom here. This sense of removal created anxieties over the possible dilution of classroom involvement, a decrease of empathetic behaviors and the diminishing power of moral education used by the educators when placed in these situations. Necessities of Hybrid AI-Human Pedagogical Models In Europe and North America, while response to an alleged integration of AI occasionally approached the status of damning, the concerns of faculty were generally focused toward ensuring human agency in decision-making with a model roughly described as hybrid. People enjoyed the automation of repetitive tasks given by AI, for example, FTs (scheduling, grading, or identifying patterns in learning analytics), and did not tolerate a model that completely omits the human element of feedback. The fact that AI makes me track student progress quicker is

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something I love. Nevertheless, I have to be the one making ultimate decisions on how to instruct students. Said an educator who was German: That is my work. Faculty wanted AI to operate as an accentuating layer instead of an authoritarian component, focusing on the necessity of instruments boosting pedagogical imagination rather than standardizing an education procedure. Mandates without capacity building The second theme seen repeatedly was the annoyance of top-down AI implementation. Faculty in all the three regions shared some experiences of issues where the institutions required them to employ particular AI platforms, but with little training, technical assistance, and no input possibilities. Overnight introduction of the software took place. Not a single workshop, not a pilot test. One of the answers in the North American university expressed that it was felt that we need to adjust without saying anything. “Such absence of participatory governance often resulted into resistance, shallow usage of tools or doubts on the long-term sustainability. Faculty urged policy-making as a shared enterprise that is inclusive and considerate of the needs of the educator. Inefficient Learning and Culturally insensitive AI Tools Among factors, most regularly cited by faculty as a deterrent to effective AI compatibility encompassed lack of and contextualized professional development. The general training sessions on AI tools that many of the participants attended proved to be divergent with their cultural and pedagogical issues. Much training was either too technical or generic. We required workshops that touched on the correlation between AI and our curriculum and our students, commented a faculty member in Southeast Asia. The participants were also raising the issue of the English-speaking, Western-oriented creation of AI platforms. The tools could be too linguistically rigid, unable to support a variety of learning styles or imply classroom conventions inapplicable in every part of the world. Quantitative Findings Demographic Analysis The demography of the 150 faculty members who took the survey in this work depicts a likelihood of the internationally representative and a diversified sample, and can compare across regions, types of institutions and academic fields. They were participants of three large parts, 40 percent (n = 60) belonging to Asia, 33 percent (n = 50) parts belong to Europe, and 27 percent (n = 40) belong to North America. This geographical sampling creates an even awareness of cross-cultural differences in the use of AI and faculty perception. There was also diversity over academic disciplines: 38 percent of responders were social scientist and humanities, 34 percent in STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics), 18 percent in business and economics, and the rest-10 percent-in other related fields namely education or in arts.

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Table 1 Construct Validity and Reliability

CC CPC EE FC IT PCK PE SI TSN

Cronbach’s alpha 0.695 0.870 0.719 0.710 0.769 0.900 0.937 0.839 0.857

Composite reliability (rho_a) 0.706 0.871 0.930 0.725 0.778 0.900 0.974 0.847 0.869

Composite reliability (rho_c) 0.867 0.920 0.819 0.873 0.896 0.930 0.969 0.925 0.903

Average variance extracted (AVE) 0.765 0.793 0.699 0.774 0.811 0.769 0.940 0.861 0.700

All constructs have been summarized in Table 1 in terms of reliability and validity. The values of all Cronbach alpha and AVE were above the acceptable minimum values, which implies great internal consistency, and convergent validity. Construct reliability and validity were determined through Cronbach alpha, composites reliability (rhoA and rhoC) and average variance extracted (AVE) of all the major constructs of the model. The results prove that measurement model structures pass the acceptable psychometric levels and that it is appropriate in the structural equation modelling. The six independent variables on the basis of UTAUT framework- Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), Social Influence (SI), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Cultural Competence (CC), and Institutional Trust (IT) showed acceptable convergent validity and excellent to acceptable results of internal consistency. The overall reliability of Performance Expectancy was the highest with Cronbach alpha of 0.937, composite reliability of 0.969, and AVE of 0.940 meaning that it proved very consistent when measuring the perceived usefulness of AI tools. Social Influence and Institutional Trust also demonstrated reliability of high level (alpha is 0.839 and 0.769 accordingly) and the value of AVE was above 0.70. Facilitating Conditions and Cultural Competence presented sufficient reliability with Cronbach alpha coefficient of 0.710 and 0.695 respectively; even though Cronbach alpha on the CC was below the standard of 0.70, the composite reliability and AVE proved its construct validity (above 0.86 and 0.76 respectively). The use of the construct in the model is justified. Training and Support Needs (TSN), as the mediator variable, demonstrated a high level of reliability (alpha=0,857) and composite reliability (0,903), and the AVE amounted to 0,700. These values show that the construct is reliable in reflecting the faculty perceptions regarding their professional development needs and support of their institutions to AI adoption.

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Table 2 Collinearity Statistics (VIF)

CC1 CC2 CPC1 CPC2 CPC3 EE1 EE2 FC1 FC2 IT1 IT2 PCK1 PCK2 PCK3 PCK4 PE1 PE2 SI1 SI2 TSN1 TSN2 TSN3 TSN4

VIF 1.395 1.395 2.094 2.463 2.404 1.251 1.251 1.435 1.435 1.639 1.639 2.304 2.510 2.963 2.756 4.470 4.470 2.089 2.089 2.081 1.757 2.332 2.295

Table 2 indicates the collinearity statistics (VIF), and it is clear that multicollinearity is not an issue among constructs. In the present paper, each of the VIF values was far much below the tolerance level since not even a single one could be at a critical level of 5. The two indicators of Performance Expectancy (PE1 and PE2) had the highest VIF of 4.470. Such values are high in comparison to the others, but they remain below the critical mark, which implies that collinearity is not an issue, but needs to be observed in model-building The Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) indicators resulted in moderately high values of VIF between 2.304 and 2.963, which is not surprising because the items belong to the context of a well-defined construct conceptually. Correspondingly, VIFs of Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC) items were 2.094-2.463 and VIFs of Training and Support Needs (TSN) items 1.757-2.332, which can also be considered to indicate a satisfactory state of multicollinearity. The VIF values of constructs that indicate UTAUT dimensions namely Cultural Competence (CC), Effort Expectancy (EE), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Institutional Trust (IT), and Social Influence (SI) were recorded as lowly with range 1.251-2.089. This again backs the fact that these indicators have a non-overlapping sample effect on their corresponding construct, which is not distorted due to collinearity. To conclude, as the VIF analysis of the given model

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indicates, there is no multicollinearity issue, and all of the constructs have adequate indicator independence, which allows the accurate estimation of structural paths in the further PLS-SEM analysis. Table 3 Outer Loadings

CC1 CC2 CPC1 CPC2 CPC3 EE1 EE2 FC1 FC2 IT1 IT2 PCK1 PCK2 PCK3 PCK4 PE1 PE2 SI1 SI2 TSN1 TSN2 TSN3 TSN4

CC 0.854 0.895

CPC

PCK

TSN

0.883 0.898 0.890 0.701 0.952 0.858 0.902 0.914 0.887 0.858 0.872 0.893 0.883 0.962 0.976 0.919 0.936 0.844 0.757 0.866 0.873

Table 3 shows the outer loading of the indicators on the constructs they relate to. The loading values are all above 0.70 and this proves strong indicator reliability and convergent validity among constructs. It also looked at the outer loadings of the individual items on the construct with which they measure to test indicator reliability. In Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), all loading values of 0.70 or above can be said to be satisfactory meaning that in all locations, each item can be said to have good contribution to the underlying latent item. The findings indicate that each of the items in each of the constructs has strong loading with each being above the desirable and recommended measure of 0.70, hence, giving a verification of high indicator reliability.

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Measurement Model Figure 2 Measurement Model

The final structural model created by the PLS-SEM analysis method is presented in Figure 2, where the path coefficients are standardized, and the significance level (p < 0.05) is available. This model displays the visual effects of the mediating role of Training and Support Needs (TSN) and the key role of Institutional Trust (IT) on pedagogical outcomes.

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Statistical Path Analysis Table 4 Direct Effects

CC -> CPC CC -> PCK CC -> TSN EE -> CPC EE -> PCK EE -> TSN FC -> CPC FC -> PCK FC -> TSN IT -> CPC IT -> PCK IT -> TSN PE -> CPC PE -> PCK PE -> TSN SI -> CPC SI -> PCK SI -> TSN TSN -> CPC TSN -> PCK

Original sample (O) 0.052 0.052 0.062 -0.037 -0.037 -0.045 0.123 0.124 0.148 0.490 0.496 0.590 0.105 0.106 0.126 0.022 0.022 0.026 0.830 0.841

Sample mean (M) 0.066 0.067 0.085 -0.007 -0.006 -0.004 0.146 0.146 0.185 0.456 0.460 0.548 0.030 0.030 0.025 0.052 0.053 0.068 0.817 0.825

Standard deviation (STDEV) 0.097 0.098 0.123 0.093 0.094 0.119 0.113 0.113 0.150 0.153 0.156 0.157 0.226 0.228 0.285 0.119 0.121 0.149 0.064 0.070

T statistics (|O/STDEV|)

P values

0.532 0.534 0.505 0.396 0.397 0.375 1.085 1.095 0.985 3.190 3.187 3.753 0.462 0.465 0.441 0.183 0.183 0.176 12.984 12.070

0.595 0.593 0.614 0.692 0.691 0.708 0.278 0.273 0.325 0.001 0.001 0.000 0.644 0.642 0.659 0.855 0.855 0.861 0.000 0.000

Table 4 shows the standardized path coefficients (B), t-values, and p-values of the direct correlations of constructs. The effects that Institutional Trust (IT) and Training and Support Needs (TSN) have on Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) as well as Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC) are statistically significant yet other predictors like Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE) and Social Influence (SI) are not significant. The structural model was analysed based on the path coefficient, t-values, and p-values provided by using Smart PLS outputs. The t-value was taken as significant when it was greater than 1.96 and p less than 0.05. Institutional Trust (IT) recorded the highest and the greatest effect on all the dependent variables as Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC) (beta = 0.490 and p = 0.001), Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) (beta = 0.496 and p = 0.001), and Training and Support Needs (TSN) (beta = 0.590 and p < 0.001). Moreover, TSN showed the better total impact, being able to predict significantly CPC (0.830, p < 0.001) and PCK (0.841, p < 0.001), which indicates the significance of institutional support and preparation. The other UTAUT constructs did not exhibit a statistically significant result, that is, Cultural Competence (CC), Effort Expectancy (EE), Facilitating Conditions (FC), Performance Expectancy (PE) and Social Influence (SI)

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when it comes to affecting faculty engagement without institutional trust and training, personal or social beliefs about AI are not a significant influence. Table 5 Indirect Effects

IT -> TSN -> PCK PE -> TSN -> PCK SI -> TSN -> PCK CC -> TSN -> CPC EE -> TSN -> CPC FC -> TSN -> CPC CC -> TSN -> PCK IT -> TSN -> CPC EE -> TSN -> PCK PE -> TSN -> CPC FC -> TSN -> PCK SI -> TSN -> CPC

Original sample (O) 0.496 0.106 0.022 0.052 -0.037 0.123 0.052 0.490 -0.037 0.105 0.124 0.022

Sample mean (M)

Standard deviation (STDEV)

T statistics (|O/STDEV|)

P values

0.460 0.030 0.053 0.066 -0.007 0.146 0.067 0.456 -0.006 0.030 0.146 0.052

0.156 0.228 0.121 0.097 0.093 0.113 0.098 0.153 0.094 0.226 0.113 0.119

3.187 0.465 0.183 0.532 0.396 1.085 0.534 3.190 0.397 0.462 1.095 0.183

0.001 0.642 0.855 0.595 0.692 0.278 0.593 0.001 0.691 0.644 0.273 0.855

Table 5 displays the mediating effect of Training and Support Needs (TSN). The results of mediation between the Institutional Trust (IT) and the PCK and CPC are important (p < 0.01), which proves the importance of TSN as a structural model of mediation. The non-significant results of such constructs as Performance Expectancy (PE) and Social Influence (SI) with high measurement reliability indicate the presence of suppression or hidden paths in the model. Such variables can intervene by means of some mediating construct, e.g., Training and Support Needs (TSN), and their predictive value can be overlaid by a more potent construct i.e., Institutional Trust (IT). As an example, faculty are likely to hold beliefs of the utility of AI (PE), whereas without the possibility of trusting their institution, or without adequate training, these beliefs are likely to remain untranslated into behaviors or the corresponding changes in pedagogy. In the same way, it might not be enough to have social encouragement (SI) without the help of structure. This shows the interdependence of technology acceptance in educational institutions and the fact that path coefficients have to be interpreted in the context of constructs interactions. The results of the PLS-SEM analysis indicated that the strongest predictors of pedagogical empowerment are the Institutional Trust (IT) and Training and Support Needs (TSN). IT has a direct and indirect effect on Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK), and Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC) with a 0.590 (p = 0.001) correlation with TSN. The positive significant relationships between TSN and PCK (1 = 0.841, p < 0.001) and CPC (1 = 0.830, p < 0.001) highlight the significant role of institutional training and support as an intervening variable in

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the adoption of AI. On the other hand, few effects were detected on constructs like Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), and Social Influence (SI), which implies that the attitudes of the faculty to the AI usefulness or ease of use are not strong enough to push the adoption without the institutional support. The results provided by these studies indicate that the attitude of faculty towards AI is more reliant on the factors of institutional and contextual trust than on individual attitudes toward technology. Discussion This paper discussed the way AI technologies may be used to empower faculty beyond the Australian context of international higher education in terms of pedagogical autonomy, institutional support, and the aspects of cultural adaptation. The results effectively reveal that the most influential variables in achieving success in AI adoption by the faculty are Institutional Trust (IT), Training, and Support Needs (TSN). The impact of these constructs was also high on Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) and Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges (CPC), meaning that with no proper institutional support and differentiation of professional development, AI implementation will remain formal. Contrary to which was expected, constructs that are normally considered in models of technology adoption models, specifically Performance Expectancy (PE), Effort Expectancy (EE), and Social Influence (SI) did not show statistical significance. It implies that the faculty views of the usefulness or ease of the use of AI is not strong enough incentives to use it in a complicated academic environment. Unless they believe in their institutions and have genuine training, faculty members will not become deeply involved with AI tools. This definitely emphasizes the socio-institutional aspect of AI acceptance, usually keeping away the technical or the personality aspect. Qualitative findings added more to this image. Faculty in Asia expressed fears that tool-mediated AI would confront their pedagogical values, and these especially include the relational, emotional, and moral components of teacher-student contact. Automated grading systems, such as use of mechanical systems were regarded as overly mechanistic to measure the effort of the student or characteristics of their culture. These thoughts make it possible to note that culturally insensitive AI tools can undermine key aspects of teaching, especially within collectivist and high-context cultures. At the same time, teachers in Europe and North America recognized the efficiency that AI provides but emphasized that it should be necessary to ensure human supervision and control over pedagogics. They were promoting hybrid models in which AI supports routine tasks but does not make instructional decisions. This indicates a liking toward AI as an augmentative, not a substitutionary force, which helps educators to innovate and not to lose their autonomy. One of the biggest issues that appeared in all regions was the use of AI tools implemented through the top-down approach without addressing the opinion of the faculty. Lots of the faculty stated that they were forced to work with AI platforms without pilot programs, workshops, and chances to get feedback. This absence in participatory governance was about resistance and in-depth usage. Faculty underpinned the necessity of the integrative decisionmaking in the context of the importance of co-design and shared ownership in the positive digital transformation. The other main problem was that the local pedagogical needs were

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uncoordinated with the AI training programs. Most of the workshops were generic and excessively technical, and faculty did not see how the use of AI could apply to their own curriculum or culture. The training required is discipline and place-specific and must include culture sensitivity and pedagogical adaptability. To sum up, all these results prove the conclusion that the introduction of AI into education is not only a technical or individual process but also a contextual, institutional, and cultural one. The empowerment of the faculty will require optimal support of the institutions to the staff in terms of trust, participation, and proteins to relevant training. Throughout their application, they lack these and even the most sophisticated AI tools will not reach their promises. Next steps in AI should therefore not only focus on the educator as an agent, but also deny them the role of a passive receiver, to hold to a technology that only raises eyebrows, instead of raising them by going against educational integrity. The combination of quantitative and qualitative results supports the fact that institutional and cultural contexts are significant in the adoption of AI. Institutional Trust, Training, and Support Needs were found to be the most important predictors of pedagogical empowerment quantitatively. The qualitative results supported this in stories told by the faculty about the absence of participatory decision-making and culturally inappropriate AI tools. An example is that the focus of relational pedagogy by the Asian faculty was added to the quantitative data that cultural competence is not enough without the support of the institution. In the same vein, the Western bias towards hybrid AI-human models can be explained by the fact quantitative studies show that faculty autonomy moderates effective AI utilization. This overlap in data raises the notion that faculty empowerment on the adoption of AI becomes statistically validated and experience-based. Practical Recommendation This article highlights the role of well-organized AI incorporation that facilitates faculty empowerment. Short-term goals of the institutions require creating culturally responsive training based on the local context of pedagogical activity, getting faculty engaged in the choice and experimentation of AI tools, and building up networks of collaboration among peers to facilitate the knowledge sharing process. It is also critical to offer robust technical support, infrastructure, to facilitate effective adoption. In the end, policy-level interventions have to make sure that they include inclusive governance structures in which faculty can provide a say in any AI-related decision. Not only is the creation of cross-cultural collaborations between teachers and developers costlier than creating context-aware AI applications, but it should also be funded by governments and educational establishments. Faculty development programs should contain AI literacy, ethics being a focus of AI literacy attention, as well as the bias of algorithms or the implications in the sphere of pedagogy. Moreover, cultural sensitivity testing and pedagogical compatibility would need to be considered as parameters of evaluation using standardized frameworks of evaluation not only on technical levels, but also, culturally and pedagogically. These composite plans may enhance fair, professor-centered AI adaptation and guarantee that technological innovation facilitates favorable conditions rather than prevents academic integrity and control.

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Limitations and Future Direction The research is a good one and there are a number of limitations. One, the sample size (n=15) was not large and the qualitative sample size is very small, and so this could be the limitation to thematic findings even though saturation was reached. Second, the use of self-reported information in surveys and focus groups has the issue of social desirability effect whereby individuals will answer to what they think the expectation is. Third, the geographic coverage of the study was restricted only to Asia, Europe, and North America, which has excluded other underrepresented geographical boundaries like Africa, South America, and Oceania, which can have distinct provisions in institutes and cultures in AI adoption. The possible future research would improve by increasing the sample by covering a bigger geographic area. Longitudinal studies would also allow giving some insight into the evolution of the faculty attitudes when institutional support and maturity of technology change. In addition, it might be a good idea to understand the side of the students; to have a better picture of the contribution that AI would make in education. Conclusion The current study examines how the experience of using Artificial Intelligence (AI) in higher education that is in the process of transformation in English-speaking nations is defined by a rather complex interrelationship between institutional, pedagogical and cultural dynamics and, specifically, the matter of faculty empowerment. The study has found out that the most important factors that determine faculty readiness to learn and engage AI tools are Institutional Trust (IT) and Training and Support Needs (TSN). These variables play a major role in pedagogical readiness and capability of teachers to be able to overcome perceived cultural boundaries. On the contrary, constructs that are traditionally personified such as Performance Expectancy, Effort Expectancy, and Social Influence, which is frequent in models such as the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT), were statistically insignificant. This implies that the personal attitudes are not enough explanation to how the faculty in learning environments adopt the use of the AI. This study notes that there is a need to switch to an inclusive, faculty-driven approach instead of using technology-driven top-down strategies. At the institution level, it is desirable to develop a trusting relationship with the longterm, offer context-specific career growth opportunities, and develop culturally responsive implementation systems. Empowerment of faculty by participatory governance, continuous training and peer support will play an essential role in the provision of equitable and meaningful integration of AI technologies. The implications of these findings to policymakers and academia leaders interested in promoting AI in a sustainable, ethical and pedagogically acceptable manner are practical. Future investigations need to supplement regional representation and investigate the way faculty attitudes and institutional dynamics develop with time as AI continues to become more deeply incorporated in academic arrangements. Crosscultural and longitudinal research studies will play critical roles in the honing of strategies that encourage adaptive values-based context-sensitive digital transformation in higher educational institutions across the globe.

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Selwyn, N. (2019). Should robots replace teachers? AI and the future of education. Polity Press. https://research.monash.edu/en/publications/should-robots-replace-teachers-aiand-the-future-of-education/ Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15(2), 4–14. https://doi.org/10.2307/1175860 Trad, A. (2021). Academic and educational transformation projects: The role of team-based learning in polymathics (RTBLP). In Proceedings of the International Conference on Educational Transformation (pp. 45–60). ResearchGate. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/375531951_Academic_and_Educational_Tr ansformation_Projects_The_Role_Team-Based_Learning_in_Polymathics_RTBLP UNESCO. (2022). Technology in education: A tool on whose terms? Global Education Monitoring Report. https://www.unesco.org/reports/global-education-monitoringreport/2022/technology Venkatesh, V., Morris, M. G., Davis, G. B., & Davis, F. D. (2003). User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view. MIS Quarterly, 27(3), 425–478. https://doi.org/10.2307/30036540 Wang, V. C. X., & Torrisi-Steele, G. (2017). Adult learning in the age of digital technology. In V. C. X. Wang (Ed.), Handbook of research on learning outcomes and opportunities in the digital age (pp. 1–20). IGI Global. https://www.igiglobal.com/chapter/adult-learning-in-a-digital-age/111874 Williamson, B., Bayne, S. & Shay, S. (2020). The datafication of teaching in Higher Education: Critical issues and perspectives, Teaching in Higher Education, 25(4), 351–365. https://doi.org/10.1080/13562517.2020.1748811 Williamson, B., & Hogan, A. (2020). Commercialisation and the governance of education data: Ethical issues and implications. Educational Technology Research and Development, 68(1), 1–13. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/343510376_Commercialisation_and_privati sation_inof_education_in_the_context_of_Covid-19 Xue, L., Rashid, A. M., & Ouyang, S. (2024). The Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) in Higher Education: A Systematic Review. SAGE Open, 14(1). https://doi.org/10.1177/21582440241229570 Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F. (2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence applications in higher education: Where are the teachers? International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher Education, 16(1), 1–27. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0

Corresponding author: Ding Lin Email: dingdingphilip@163.com

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Appendices Appendix A Section A: Demographic & Institutional Context (Quantitative Analysis of Regional Disparities) 1. Region: ☐ Asia ☐ Europe ☐ North America ☐ Other: ______ 2. Country of Institution: ________________ 3. Type of Institution: ☐ Public University ☐ Private University ☐ International Joint Program ☐ Other:______ 4. Years of Teaching Experience: ☐ 1–5 ☐ 6–10 ☐ 11–15 ☐ 16+ 5. Discipline/Subject Area: ________________ 6. Experience with AI Tools in Teaching: ☐ None ☐ <1 year ☐ 1–3 years ☐ 3+ years Section B: UTAUT Dimensions (5-Point Likert Scale: Strongly Disagree → Strongly Agree) Performance Expectancy 7. AI tools improve my teaching efficiency (e.g., grading, feedback). 8. AI allows me to focus on higher-order tasks (e.g., critical thinking, mentoring). Effort Expectancy 9. AI tools are easy to learn and integrate into my workflow. 10. Technical support for AI tools is readily available at my institution. Social Influence 11. My colleagues encourage the use of AI in teaching. 12. Institutional leadership actively promotes AI adoption. Facilitating Conditions 13. My institution provides adequate infrastructure (e.g., software, hardware) for AI. 14. Clear policies guide ethical AI use in my institution. Cultural Competence 15. I can adapt AI tools to align with my students’ cultural backgrounds. 16. AI tools account for linguistic diversity (e.g., non-English languages).

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Institutional Trust 17. I trust my institution’s vision for AI in education. 18. I feel involved in decisions about AI adoption at my institution. Section C: Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK) (5-Point Likert Scale) 19. AI tools align with my discipline’s teaching methodologies. 20. AI enhances my ability to design creative lesson plans. 21. AI restricts my pedagogical autonomy (reverse-coded). 22. AI-generated insights complement my professional judgment. Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges 23. AI tools respect the pedagogical norms of my discipline. 24. I am concerned about cultural/linguistic biases in AI tools. 25. AI recommendations conflict with my students’ learning expectations. Section D: Training & Support Needs 26. Formal AI Training Received: ☐ Yes ☐ No ☐ Planning to attend 27. Training Tailored to Cultural/Pedagogical Needs (if "Yes"): ☐ Strongly Disagree → ☐ Strongly Agree 28. Rank Support Needs (1=Most Important, 5=Least): ☐ Cultural adaptation workshops ☐ Pedagogical integration guides ☐ Technical troubleshooting ☐ Peer collaboration networks ☐ Institutional funding for AI tools 29. AI Tools Are Imposed Without Faculty Input: ☐ Yes ☐ No ☐ Not Applicable Section E: Open-Ended Qualitative Questions (Triangulation with Focus Group Data) 30. Describe a situation where AI enhanced or hindered your teaching in a multicultural classroom. [Open text] 31. What cultural or pedagogical gaps do you perceive in current AI tools? [Open text] 32. What institutional changes would help you adopt AI more effectively? [Open text]

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Appendix B Construct

Definition

AI (Artificial Intelligence)

The simulation of human intelligence processes by machines, particularly computer systems, enabling tasks such as learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. Challenges faced due to cultural and pedagogical mismatches when integrating AI tools. The faculty’s ability to integrate AI tools in diverse sociocultural environments. The combination of teaching knowledge and subject matter mastery to improve teaching effectiveness. The level of institutional preparation and professional development required for effective AI adoption. The degree to which faculty believes that using AI tools will enhance their teaching performance. The degree of ease associated with using AI tools. The degree to which faculty is influenced by peers or institutional expectations regarding AI use. The availability of resources and infrastructure to support AI adoption in teaching. The degree to which faculty trust the institution’s decisions regarding AI tools and their integration.

CPC (Cultural/Pedagogical Challenges) CC (Cultural Competence) PCK (Pedagogical Content Knowledge) TSN (Training and Support Needs) PE (Performance Expectancy) EE (Effort Expectancy) SI (Social Influence) FC (Facilitating Conditions) IT (Institutional Trust)

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Validating Universal Design for Learning Survey with Latvian Preschool Teachers: A Pilot Study Inese Tīģere RTU Liepāja Academy, Latvia Dina Bethere RTU Liepāja Academy, Latvia Gatis Lāma University of Latvia, Latvia Linda Daniela University of Latvia, Latvia

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Abstract This study examines the psychometric properties of a Universal Design for Learning (UDL) implementation scale for Latvian preschool teachers. Using a pilot sample (N=59), we assessed reliability through Cronbach’s alpha, examined item relationships via correlation matrices, and explored the underlying factor structure using exploratory factor analysis. Results demonstrated strong internal consistency (α=0.658-0.875) but revealed cross-loadings in factor analysis, particularly for Action & Expression items. Network analysis confirmed interconnections between UDL principles, while eigenvalues supported a three-factor solution with weaker differentiation than theoretically expected. Findings suggest the instrument reliably measures assessment of strategies embodied in the UDL principles despite structural validity concerns stemming from sample limitations, linguistic translation effects, and theoretical constraints of UDL 3.0 guidelines. The study highlights the need for validation with larger multinational samples while providing preliminary evidence to use developed tool for assessing UDL adoption in educational contexts. Keywords: inclusive education, preschool teachers, universal design for learning, validation, pilot study

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The 21st century has brought significant shifts in preschool education, moving from a focus on mere accessibility to a commitment to quality education that meets the diverse needs of all learners (West, 2020). This evolution aligns with global trends in inclusive education, emphasizing neurodiversity awareness and socio-emotional development in early childhood (Ainscow et al., 2006; Florian & Black-Hawkins, 2011). Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has emerged as a key framework in this context, integrating neuroscientific research with sociocultural theories of development (Trudge & Winterhoff, 1993; CAST, 2024a). UDL’s three core principles, engagement, representation, and action/expression, provide preschool teachers with a systematic approach to creating inclusive learning environments that accommodate individual differences while maintaining high educational standards. The need for effective UDL implementation has been further highlighted by recent global challenges, such as the COVID-19 pandemic, which exposed weaknesses in traditional education models and underscored the necessity for flexible, inclusive methodologies (Basham et al., 2020). Research indicates that UDL not only enhances educational quality in preschool settings but also lays a sustainable foundation for systemic reforms supporting all children’s developmental trajectories (Hollingshead et al., 2022). However, widespread adoption of UDL faces obstacles, including gaps in teachers’ professional competence (Rusconi & Squillaci, 2023) and institutional resistance to pedagogical innovation (Pincay et al., 2024). Latvia’s education system faces particular challenges in preparing teachers for inclusive education (Āboltiņa et al., 2024). A detailed analysis by Daniela and Zālīte-Supe (2025) reveals that only 5% of professional development programs (72 out of 1,432) specifically focus on inclusion, while most address general competencies. This finding aligns with international research showing early-career teachers often lack preparation in key inclusion areas like attitude formation, professional collaboration, and induction support (Rosenberg et al., 2025). Importantly, Daniela and Zālīte-Supe (2025) highlight how the absence of scientific principles in training programs leads to inconsistent quality and approach. These interconnected gaps in initial training, limited specialized professional development, and weak evidence-based foundations collectively demonstrate the need for comprehensive reforms to meet international inclusion standards. This study builds on preliminary findings from a pilot survey of 59 current and pre-service preschool teachers across Latvia, which revealed strong internal consistency (Cronbach’s alpha = 0.946) in respondents’ perceptions of UDL strategies and barriers. The study addresses two key research questions: 1. What is the content validity and internal consistency reliability of the survey questionnaire designed to measure UDL implementation in Latvian preschools? 2. What underlying dimensions emerge from the factor analysis of the survey questionnaire, and how do these dimensions characterize UDL implementation in Latvian preschool education?

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By validating the survey instrument and exploring the underlying strategies of UDL, this study contributes to the broader discourse on inclusive education. The findings may inform future research and guide methodological refinements. Additionally, the results highlight the interconnectedness of UDL principles in practice, offering insights that could be valuable for both theoretical advancements and practical applications in diverse educational settings. The aim of this study is to scientifically validate a questionnaire assessing preschool teachers’ strategies for implementing inclusive practices based on UDL principles. The validation process includes a descriptive analysis of respondent demographics and the structural reliability of survey scales. Theoretical Framework The theoretical foundation of this study examines four interconnected dimensions: the evolution of UDL principles, their neurobiological validation, sociocultural influences on implementation, and systemic barriers requiring policy interventions. Together, these components provide a comprehensive lens for analyzing UDL’s potential in transforming preschool education. Recognizing these intertwined aspects underscores the importance of contextual adaptability and highlights the need for tailored strategies to ensure effective integration of UDL practices within diverse educational landscapes. The UDL framework was first conceptualized in 1984 by Harvard researchers David Rose and Anne Meyer through their collaboration with CAST (Center for Applied Special Technology) (CAST, 2024b), drawing direct inspiration from architect Ronald L. Mace’s pioneering universal design principles (Mace, 1985; Rose & Meyer, 2013). This foundation was further developed through CAST’s focused research directions on inclusive learning technologies (Pisha & Coyne, 2001). In recent decades UDL has gained significant traction in inclusive education research and practice (Florian, 2021; Ewe & Galvin, 2023). UDL has evolved through three generations, with UDL 3.0 (CAST, 2024c) representing the most neuro-culturally responsive version. While UDL 1.0 focused on physical accessibility and UDL 2.0 on cognitive accessibility, UDL 3.0 introduces explicit strategies for reducing bias and recognizing neurodiversity. This progression reflects a broader understanding of diversity, emphasizing the significance of cultural and neurobiological differences in shaping inclusive education. The framework builds on established educational theories, including Piaget’s (1950) constructivism and Vygotsky’s (1978) social learning theory, creating an empirically grounded approach to diverse learning needs. Vygotsky’s (1978) zone of proximal development theory remains central to UDL, emphasizing scaffolded peer interactions and adult guidance tailored to each child’s developmental level (Trudge & Winterhoff, 1993). These theories support a balanced approach where social interaction and individual developmental trajectories influence learning strategies, thus reinforcing UDL’s flexibility and responsiveness.

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The three UDL principles are particularly relevant in preschool settings: ● Multiple means of engagement (the “why” of learning) emphasizes affective dimensions, requiring activities that respects children’s autonomy, cultural backgrounds, and emerging interests. This focus on motivation and emotional connection is crucial at early stages of development, where positive affective experiences can foster lifelong learning habits. ● Multiple means of representation (the “what” of learning) addresses diverse perceptual and cognitive processing styles through multiple presentation formats, ensuring that visual, auditory, and tactile learners all have equitable access to information. Connecting with the previous principle, both emphasize personalized, culturally sensitive approaches to learning that boost engagement and comprehension. ● Multiple means of action/expression (the “how” of learning) provides varied ways for children to demonstrate understanding, crucial for preschoolers with developing verbal and motor skills (CAST, 2024d). These principles, when integrated, create a holistic learning environment that caters to individual differences, supporting inclusive education. UDL’s effectiveness is supported by contemporary brain research, which identifies three primary neural networks: affective (engagement), recognition (representation), and strategic (action/expression) (CAST, 2024a). Preschoolers’ high neuroplasticity (with over 1 million neural connections formed per second between ages 3-5) makes this developmental stage ideal for UDL interventions (Brain Architecture; 2019). This neurobiological insight highlights the importance of early intervention, as neural pathways are most malleable during this sensitive period (Mualem et al., 2024). For example, multiple means of representation accommodate individual differences in visual, auditory, and tactile processing, aligning with the brain’s natural diversity. Despite its theoretical strengths, UDL adoption faces significant barriers: 1) teacher training gaps, where many teachers lack training in UDL’s neurocognitive foundations, limiting effective implementation (Rusconi & Squillaci, 2023); 2) resource limitations, such as time constraints and material shortages, also hinder consistent application (Chen et al., 2023); 3) pedagogical biases embedded in traditional teaching methods often conflict with UDL’s flexible philosophy, creating resistance to change (Pincay et al., 2024); 4) the theory-practice gap further complicates matters - pre-service teachers may understand UDL conceptually but find it difficult to translate theory into practice in real classroom settings (Griful-Freixenet et al., 2021). Addressing these barriers requires systemic reforms and targeted professional development efforts that align policy, practice, and research. Consequently, this measurement tool can serve as a foundation for future research aimed at refining UDL implementation strategies or exploring contextual differences, especially considering Latvia’s unique sociocultural and educational landscape. Structured yet adaptable strategies can mitigate this, fostering sustainable UDL adoption.

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Methodology The study primarily employs a quantitative approach, using survey data from in-service and pre-service teachers in Latvian preschool and higher education programs, supplemented by descriptive analysis of multiple-choice and single-choice responses. Participants The study sample included in-service (N = 43) and pre-service (N = 16) teachers across multiple Latvian preschool environments and higher education programs. In-service were defined as individuals currently employed as preschool teachers in Latvia, while pre-service teachers were defined as students enrolled in higher education programs in Latvia focused on preschool education. To ensure the study focused on contemporary educational approaches, students who are learning to become preschool teachers but are already employed in preschools (N = 9) were grouped with non-practicing students (N = 7) due to their current engagement in higher education programs aligned with the most recent educational policy guidelines and trends. This categorization allows for a comparative analysis of how current training and practical experience affect UDL implementation skills. Participants were recruited using a convenience sampling method (Golzar et al., 2022; Hossan et al., 2023). Initial contact was made with readily accessible headmasters and directors of Latvian preschools and higher education institutions. These individuals were then asked to disseminate the survey questionnaire to potential respondents within their organizations, incorporating an element of snowball sampling (Hossan et al., 2023; Ting et al., 2025). This recruitment strategy yielded a sample of individuals of diverse ages, prior professional backgrounds, the geographical locations of educational institutions, and preschools with varying approaches to inclusive practices. The respondent demographic consisted solely of women, which is characteristic of the Latvian preschool education workforce. While this limits the generalizability of findings to male teachers, it accurately reflects the gender distribution within the field in Latvia. Consequently, this study aims to offer insights into the competencies related to contemporary educational practices within the primarily female context of Latvian preschool education (Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia, 2024; National Statistics Portal, 2024). This study is part of a larger multinational research project conducted simultaneously across several countries. In this phase, we focus specifically on analyzing data from Latvia, while subsequent phases will involve comparative analysis of aggregated data from all participating countries. To facilitate this multinational approach, the survey included demographic questions about respondents’ country of origin (see Appendix 1), along with gender and highest academic qualification. In-service teachers in Latvia provided additional contextual information, including years of work experience, work location (urban/rural), institutional approach to inclusive education, daily age range of children taught, group size, staffing ratios, and number of children enrolled in special education programs. A ‘Not applicable’ option was included for

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questions irrelevant to specific respondents. This design ensures that both the current Latviaspecific analysis and future cross-national comparisons are methodologically aligned. All participants, based on their designation as teacher or student, responded to questions encompassed by UDL principles, leading to corresponding questions in part two of the survey and the survey section related to practical work. Instrument This study utilized a questionnaire designed to assess the implementation of UDL principles in Latvian preschools. The study utilizes UDL Guidelines version 3.0, the most current iteration published on July 9, 2024, as its theoretical framework. This latest version was deliberately chosen because it: 1. Explicitly addresses contemporary inclusive education challenges, particularly systemic barriers and bias reduction in learning environments - crucial for analyzing Latvia’s preschool system 2. Incorporates updated research on equitable design practices for diverse learners 3. Enhances practical applicability for preschool teachers through refined implementation strategies (CAST, 2024b) The framework’s July 2024 publication ensures alignment with cutting-edge pedagogical approaches while maintaining continuity with established UDL principles. Its enhanced focus on practitioner perspectives and barrier reduction directly informed the survey’s structure, particularly the sections evaluating engagement, representation, and action/expression strategies. Survey Structure The demographic data comprised three variables applicable to all respondents in Section 1, followed by eight variables specific to in-service teachers. The final question in the demographic section served as a branching mechanism, directing respondents to subsequent questionnaire sections tailored to their specific group affiliation: in-service teachers, preservice teachers also enrolled in higher education programs, or non-practicing pre-service teachers pursuing degrees in preschool education. Sections 2, 3, and 4 of the questionnaire were designed to assess UDL implementation strategies through parallel adaptations for in-service teachers (evaluating actual practice via “how often you utilize...”) and pre-service teachers (assessing ideal implementation via “how often...should be utilized”), while maintaining identical strategy items across groups to ensure comparability: Section 2’s 13 engagement items measured welcoming interests/identities, sustaining effort/persistence, and facilitating emotional capacity. Section 3’s 12 representation items covered perception, language/symbols, and knowledge building. And Section 4’s 11 action/expression items examined interaction, communication, and strategy development, with

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only contextual lexical variations (e.g., “use” vs. “should use”) reflecting respondents’ professional roles without altering the core UDL strategies being evaluated. Section 5 examined practical UDL implementation considerations in Latvian preschools through role-adapted questions: for in-service teachers, Question 5.1 (“What challenges do you face in trying to incorporate...”) and 5.2 (“What specific opportunities...have you received...”) assessed real-world barriers (resource constraints, knowledge gaps, time limitations, institutional resistance) and received professional development (study programs, formal courses, self-directed learning, collaborative knowledge, or none). Pre-service teachers addressed anticipated challenges (“What challenges do you think might arise...”) and needed support (“What opportunities...would be needed...”) through identical response options but future-oriented framing, maintaining conceptual equivalence in the five professional development categories while differentiating only in verb tense and perspective (experienced vs. projected). Instrument Validation The questionnaire was adapted to be relevant for both in-service and pre-service teachers and pilot-tested to measure accuracy of translation and relevance. The relevant UDL strategies were accurately translated from English to Latvian and pilot-tested with 59 participants utilising a digital survey method featuring questions that permitted single or multiple responses, including the evaluation of the strategies encompassed in the UDL principles based on a Likert-type scale response (Jebb et al., 2021). The overall Cronbach’s Alpha reliability coefficient for the subscales in this study is α = .946, indicating a good level of internal validity (Forero, 2023). Data were described with descriptive statistics to identify specific trends in the data (Cooksey, 2020). Cronbach’s alpha values were calculated to determine the Likert scale’s internal consistency (Taber, 2018). Exploratory factor analysis with Kaiser–Varimax rotation was used to uncover the underlying structure of the UDL questionnaire (Watkins, 2018). A Spearman rank correlation test was conducted to determine the relationship between different UDL principles (Rebekić et al., 2015), and network analysis with the glasso (graphical lasso) procedure was used to determine a network with edges defined by partial correlation coefficients to further reveal interrelations (Leme et al., 2020). A centrality plot with expected influences was added to supplement the network graph with information about each node’s influence on the whole system. For data analysis, SPSS version 29 and JASP version 18 were used. Procedure The survey was administered through Google Forms, with participants voluntarily providing consent via a digital agreement at the start of the questionnaire. The survey remained open for one week, during which institutional contacts facilitated distribution and reminders were sent to encourage participation. Eight respondents offered feedback, leading to minor wording

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refinements without altering core UDL assessment items. While no substantive changes were made to the core UDL assessment items during this Latvian pilot phase, these insights, along with methodological reflections, will be discussed with international project partners in subsequent research stages. Such collaboration will inform potential refinements to the survey structure for broader multinational deployment, ensuring cross-cultural validity while maintaining theoretical alignment with UDL principles. All procedures adhered to GDPR principles, ensuring data anonymity and secure handling throughout the study. Participants were recruited using a convenience sampling method (Golzar et al., 2022; Hossan et al., 2023). Initial contact was made with readily accessible headmasters and directors of Latvian preschools and higher education institutions. These individuals were then asked to disseminate the survey questionnaire to potential respondents within their organizations, incorporating an element of snowball sampling (Hossan et al., 2023; Ting et al., 2025). This recruitment strategy yielded a sample of individuals of diverse ages, prior professional backgrounds, the geographical locations of educational institutions, and preschools with varying approaches to inclusive practices. Ethical Considerations Formal ethics committee approval was not required for this study as it complied with exemptions for minimal-risk educational research under Latvian regulations. All participants received clear information about the study’s purpose and their rights as research subjects before beginning the survey. The introductory section emphasized three key ethical principles: voluntary participation, guaranteed anonymity of responses, and the unconditional right to withdraw at any point without consequence. No financial or professional incentives were offered that might unduly influence participation decisions. These measures were implemented to align with established standards for ethical educational research while still encouraging open, honest responses about UDL implementation practices. The digital survey provided additional privacy protections by automatically anonymizing responses and preventing the collection of identifiable metadata. The study adhered strictly to GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) principles through: (1) lawfulness, fairness and transparency via explicit participant information about data processing purposes; (2) purpose limitation by collecting only data essential for analyzing UDL implementation; (3) data minimization through restricted demographic questions; (4) accuracy via automated digital recording; (5) storage limitation with scheduled anonymized dataset archiving; (6) integrity and confidentiality using encrypted cloud storage; and (7) accountability through documented protocols (European Parliament & Council of the European Union, 2016). This approach proved particularly important given the relatively small and interconnected nature of Latvia’s preschool education community, where confidentiality concerns might otherwise inhibit participation.

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Data Accessibility Study data will be made openly available following institutional approval through Latvia’s national research data repository Dataverse (https://dv.dataverse.lv/). While immediate deposition was not feasible prior to submission, all datasets have been prepared for archiving (anonymized raw responses, processed analytical files, and codebooks). During the review process, we will complete the deposition procedure and update this statement with the persistent identifier. This approach aligns with emerging national incentives for open science while ensuring compliance with GDPR requirements for educational research. Findings This study of N = 59 preschool teachers revealed a predominantly experienced workforce (51% with 10+ years of experience, N = 30), mostly holding bachelor’s degrees (38.98%, N = 23) and working as teachers (72.88%, N = 43). Most operated in inclusive settings (67.74%, N = 42), typically with mixed-age groups (40.68%, N=24) and moderate class sizes (6-20 children, 60-64%). While staffing ratios showed 1-4 adults per group (86.44%, N = 51), special education enrollment varied significantly (32.2% had >5 children in programs, N = 19 vs. 38.98% with none, N = 23). Crucially, respondents strongly endorsed UDL principles, particularly diverse engagement methods (76.27% rated very important, N = 45) and varied instructional materials (69.49%, N = 41), suggesting alignment between inclusive practices and teachers values despite 24.19% (N=15) working in non-inclusive institutions. The data highlights an experienced workforce generally supportive of inclusion, though with notable variability in classroom composition and institutional support for special needs education. The instrument demonstrated strong psychometric properties across all UDL dimensions. The overall scale exhibited excellent reliability (See Table 2).

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Table 2 Internal Consistency (Cronbach’s α) of UDL Principle Subscales Measuring Engagement, Representation, and Action/Expression Modalities Principles & modalities 2. Use of various engagement methods 2.1. Welcoming Interests & Identities 2.2. Sustaining Effort & Persistence 2.3. Emotional Capacity 3. Use of various representation tools 3.1. Perception 3.2. Language & Symbols 3.3. Building knowledge 4. Use of multiple means of action and expression 4.1. Interaction 4.2. Expression & Communication 4.3. Strategy Development

Cronbach’s Alpha

N of Items

.658 .762 .856

4 5 4

.718 .875 .864

3 5 4

.809 .728 .787 Total α = .946

2 4 5 36

The reliability analysis demonstrated strong internal consistency UDL dimensions, with Engagement Methods showing acceptable to high reliability (Subscale 2.1: α = .658, 4 items; 2.2: α = .762, 5 items; 2.3: α = .856, 4 items), Representation Tools exhibiting the most robust consistency (Subscale 3.1: α = .718, 3 items; 3.2: α = .875, 5 items; 3.3: α = .864, 4 items), and Action & Expression performing consistently well (Subscale 4.1: α = .809, 2 items; 4.2: α = .728, 4 items; 4.3: α = .787, 5 items). All subscales exceeded the conventional threshold for acceptable reliability (α > 0.65), though the marginally lower alpha in Engagement Subscale 2.1 suggests potential item refinement opportunities. The particularly high coefficients in Representation Tools (all subscales α > 0.71, peaking at .875) underscore the strength of this dimension’s measurement. These results collectively confirm the instrument’s psychometric robustness in assessing UDL implementation fidelity across its three core principles, with total scale reliability reaching α = .946 (N = 59, Total Items = 36). The psychometric analysis revealed divergent results between reliability and validity measures. While the instrument demonstrated strong internal consistency across all UDL principles (Cronbach’s α range: .658–.875), exploratory factor analysis identified structural validity concerns (See Appendix 2). Key findings indicate: (a) multiple cross-loading items (e.g., engagement item Q2.1.19 loading primarily on Factor 1 [λ = .474] rather than its theoretical Factor 2), and (b) misaligned strategic items (e.g., action/expression items Q4.3.48–51 showing stronger loadings on Factor 2 [λ = .461–.549] than their designated Factor 3). Items that had cross-loadings above 0.3 were included in the group that was more appropriate based on theoretical literature, and not necessarily according to the strongest factor. It would be advisable to consider the exclusion of the listed items from the instrument. However, it is possible that a

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follow-up study with a larger sample could be conducted to further verify the necessity of excluding the items. Three methodological factors may explain these discrepancies: 1. Theoretical Rigidity: Strict adherence to UDL 3.0 guidelines (CAST, 2024d) precludes empirical reorganization of strategies across principles, even when supported by statistical evidence. 2. Sample Limitations: The pilot study’s modest sample size (N = 59) may obscure latent factor structures, potentially resolved in the planned multinational validation (N > 400). 3. Linguistic Variance: Conceptual nuances in the Latvian translation may diverge from original English constructs, affecting item-factor alignment. These results underscore the critical balance required between theoretical integrity and psychometric robustness when adapting cross-cultural assessment tools. The findings advocate for: (i) verification with larger multinational samples, and (ii) consideration of empirical realignments that respect UDL’s theoretical framework through structured discussions with partner countries conducting parallel surveys. As next-phase considerations, these pilot results will be analyzed alongside international datasets, involving: 1) comparative analysis of country-specific outcomes, (2 aggregate calculations across all regions, and 3) collaborative evaluation of whether factor structures necessitate UDL principle reorganization. Despite the suboptimal factor analysis results, the correlation matrix (See Appendix 4) reveals strong and statistically significant relationships between items across all UDL principles (p < .001 for most comparisons). Notably, Engagement Methods (Q2) items showed particularly robust intercorrelations (Q2.2-Q2.3: r = .679, p < .001), while Representation Tools (Q3) demonstrated consistently high correlations with both Engagement (Q3.2-Q2.3: r = .676, p < .001) and Action & Expression items (Q3.3-Q4.1: r = .582, p < .001). The strongest crossprinciple correlation emerged between Action & Expression strategies (Q4.3) and Engagement Methods (Q4.3-Q2.3: r = .643, p < .001). These patterns suggest that while the factor structure requires refinement, the instrument’s items collectively measure interrelated aspects of UDL implementation, with all but two comparisons (Q2.1-Q4.2: r = .251, ns; Q2.3-Q4.2: r = .298, p < .05) reaching at least moderate significance (r > 0.3). The consistent correlations across theoretically linked constructs support the scale’s potential for assessing UDL implementation coherence, notwithstanding the need for structural adjustments. The network analysis (Borsboom et al., 2021) illustrates the interconnectedness of UDL principle implementation strategies, visually representing how strongly different question blocks correlate with one another. The thickness of the connecting lines in the network graph indicates the strength of the relationship, while the color of the lines indicates whether the partial correlation is positive or negative. Blue represents a positive partial correlation, and red represents a negative partial correlation. This visualization complements the correlation matrix by depicting clusters of items that frequently co-occur in practice, highlighting potential synergies between Engagement, Representation, and Action & Expression strategies (See Figure 1).

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Figure 1 Network Analysis of UDL Principle Implementation: Interconnectivity Between Engagement, Representation, and Action & Expression Strategies

The network diagram reveals three distinct but interconnected clusters corresponding to the three UDL principles, with Engagement (blue nodes) and Representation (green nodes) showing particularly dense connections. Key bridging nodes, such as Q3.2 (Language & Symbols) and Q2.3 (Emotional Regulation), demonstrate high centrality, indicating their role in linking different UDL dimensions. Notably, Action & Expression strategies (red nodes) exhibit slightly weaker integration, supporting earlier findings that some items (e.g., Q4.3) may require realignment. The overall structure confirms that while principles are theoretically distinct, their practical implementation overlaps significantly. Expected Influence plot (Centrality plot) illustrates the relative influence of each node within the network. Nodes with higher values indicate greater influence on other variables, highlighting the most central or ‘bridging’ elements in the network structure (see Figure 2). This approach aligns with bridge centrality analysis, which identifies key nodes contributing to comorbidity or connectivity patterns (Jones et al., 2019).

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Figure 2 Centrality Measures of UDL Principle Implementation

Language & Symbols (Q3.2.), Building Knowledge (Q3.3.) and Interaction (Q4.1.) are most influential and has highest impact on UDL Principle Implementation. Discussion The present study offers a multifaceted examination of UDL implementation among Latvian preschool teachers, combining psychometric validation with practical insights for teacher development. Beginning with demographic characteristics, our sample reflects the gender imbalance prevalent in preschool education (Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia, 2024; National Statistics Portal, 2024), with 100% female participants and 51% possessing over ten years of experience. This profile, while representative of the local teaching workforce, necessitates caution when generalizing findings to more gender-diverse educational contexts. The participant qualification distribution (N = 59) comprised 23 bachelor’s degree holders (38.98%), 8 master’s graduates (13.56%), 8 Level 2 professional higher education holders (13.56%), 7 Level 1 professional qualification holders (11.86%), 12 teachers pursuing qualifications (20.34%), and 1 doctoral specialist (1.69%). The predominance of bachelor’s degree holders aligns with national qualification standards, yet the limited representation of doctoral-level teachers (1.69%) suggests potential gaps in research-informed practice that warrant attention in professional development programs.

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While our study reveals a generally experienced and inclusion-oriented preschool workforce, these findings must be interpreted within the broader context of systemic challenges in Latvian teacher education. The strong endorsement of UDL principles among participants (76.27% prioritizing diverse engagement methods) suggests a positive disposition toward inclusive pedagogy. However, this apparent alignment between teacher values and inclusive practices contrasts with structural deficiencies identified in national studies, particularly the scarcity of specialized professional development (Daniela & Zālīte-Supe, 2025) and inconsistent preparation in evidence-based methods (Rosenberg et al., 2025). This discrepancy may partially reflect the well-documented tendency for teachers to overreport positive attitudes and practices in self-assessment surveys due to social desirability bias (Zhu et al., 2024), suggesting actual implementation may lag reported values. The study’s findings reveal important insights about UDL. Building on these psychometric results, the factor analysis offers nuanced understanding of UDL’s theoretical structure through a neurobiological lens. While confirming the expected three-factor solution corresponding to the brain’s affective, recognition, and strategic networks (CAST, 2024a), the analysis reveals substantial cross-loadings between Engagement and Action & Expression dimensions (e.g., Q4.3.48 loading at λ = .549 on Engagement). This finding is conceptually aligned with the neurobiological foundations of UDL. The framework posits that learning is supported by three primary brain networks—affective, recognition, and strategic—which are not isolated but function in a highly integrated manner, especially during the plastic period of early childhood (CAST, 2024a; Brain Architecture, 2019; Mualem et al., 2024). Thus, the factor cross-loadings may indicate that our instrument is sensitive enough to capture this natural integration, suggesting that the principles are implemented by teachers not as separate constructs but as a cohesive and interdependent pedagogical approach. The particularly strong correlation between emotional regulation (Q2.3) and language supports (Q3.2) (r = .676) exemplifies Piaget’s (1950) constructivist principle that affective and cognitive domains co-develop during early childhood. implementation when examined through our four-dimensional theoretical framework: UDL’s evolution, neurobiological foundations, sociocultural influences, and systemic barriers. Beginning with the psychometric properties, the exceptionally high Cronbach’s alpha coefficient (α = .946) confirms the instrument’s robust internal consistency (Tavakol & Dennick, 2011), validating its capacity to measure of strategies embodied in UDL principles in the Latvian educational environment. This reliability aligns with UDL 3.0’s (CAST, 2024b) emphasis on neuro-culturally responsive practices, particularly evident in the strong performance of Representation Tools (α = .875), which operationalize Vygotsky’s (1978) social learning theory through multiple presentation formats. The network analysis provides visual confirmation of these relationships, showing language/symbol items (Q3.2) functioning as central nodes connecting all three principles – a finding that resonates with Vygotsky’s (1978) emphasis on language as the primary tool for cognitive development. This pattern becomes particularly significant considering Latvia’s sociocultural context, where linguistic diversity may influence UDL implementation differently than in the framework’s original cultural setting. The visualization reveals that while

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Representation items form the most cohesive cluster, Engagement and Action & Expression strategies demonstrate more distributed connections. These patterns carry important implications for overcoming known barriers to UDL adoption. The natural overlaps between principles suggest professional development should move beyond isolated strategy training to integrated approaches that mirror neural network interactions. For instance, combining emotional regulation strategies (affective network) with language supports (recognition network) could address both teacher training gaps and resource limitations (Chen et al., 2023) by creating more efficient, brain-aligned teaching practices. The weaker differentiation of Action & Expression strategies (eigenvalue = 2.4) may reflect the pedagogical biases (Pincay et al., 2024) that traditionally prioritize content delivery over student expression modalities. Methodologically, the study highlights both strengths and limitations of UDL assessment within our theoretical framework. While the instrument demonstrates strong reliability, the factor analysis results suggest some items may need refinement to better accommodate cultural and neurodevelopmental differences - particularly in the Action & Expression domain where the theory-practice gap (Griful-Freixenet et al., 2021) appears most pronounced. The gradual eigenvalue decline in the centrality plot (3.1, 3.0, 2.4) reinforces this finding, showing that while the three-factor model is empirically valid, the principles share substantial common variance that may reflect either measurement issues or the inherent interconnectivity of neural networks during early childhood. The findings ultimately support a balanced view of UDL implementation that acknowledges both the framework’s strong theoretical foundations (CAST, 2024b) and the practical complexities identified in our barrier analysis. The consistent identification of language supports as a cross-cutting implementation mechanism offers particularly valuable insight for developing more effective approaches through streamlined, brain-aligned practices. As the field continues to refine UDL assessment and implementation strategies, these results contribute important empirical evidence from a novel cultural context while validating the neurobiological and sociocultural theoretical framework. The study demonstrates how UDL 3.0’s advances in addressing bias and neurodiversity can be operationalized in practice, while also identifying areas needing further adaptation to local educational contexts and developmental needs. Limitations Several methodological constraints qualify our findings and suggest directions for future research. The pilot sample size (N = 59), while adequate for preliminary validation, restricts the generalizability of results – a limitation being addressed in our ongoing multinational study (N > 400). The reliance on self-report measures introduces potential response bias, particularly for socially desirable constructs like inclusive practices.

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The linguistic and cultural adaptation process revealed important nuances in UDL implementation. Back-translation identified seven items with conceptual deviations from the original English versions, primarily in Action & Expression strategies. Furthermore, the strict adherence to UDL 3.0 guidelines (CAST, 2024d) may have artificially constrained some empirically supported factor realignments, suggesting that future iterations could benefit from more flexible theoretical frameworks that accommodate cultural adaptations. Conclusion Teacher-reported inclusive practices coexist with systemic gaps in training, revealing a tension between individual commitment and institutional support; (2) The survey tool demonstrates strong psychometric validity, particularly for Representation and Engagement, though Action & Expression items require refinement; and (3) Factor analysis confirms UDL’s three-principle framework while highlighting practical overlaps, with language supports emerging as a critical bridge between dimensions. These insights validate the measurement approach, expose implementation challenges, and offer actionable pathways for strengthening UDL adoption in preschool education settings. The coexistence of teacher-reported inclusive practices and systemic gaps in training highlights a critical tension in Latvia’s education system. While preschool edu demonstrate commitment to inclusion, the lack of specialized professional development and evidence-based frameworks risks perpetuating ad hoc implementation. To align teacher preparedness with policy goals, reforms should prioritize: 1) expanding access to inclusion-focused training programs, 2) integrating scientific principles (e.g., CUDOS norms) into professional development curricula, and 3) fostering mentorship networks to translate theoretical knowledge into classroom practice. Without such measures, the disconnect between individual values and institutional support may hinder sustainable progress toward equitable education. The first research question concerning psychometric properties yields clear positive findings. The survey demonstrates excellent content validity and internal consistency reliability (α = .946 overall), with particularly strong results for Representation Tools (α = .875) and Engagement Methods (α = .856). While most subscales exceeded acceptable reliability thresholds, the slightly lower consistency for some Action & Expression items (α = .728-.787) suggests this dimension may benefit from additional item refinement to improve measurement precision. For our second research question about underlying dimensions, the factor analysis reveals a complex but interpretable structure. Three primary dimensions emerge that generally align with UDL’s theoretical principles, but with important practical nuances. Engagement and Representation show clear differentiation, while Action & Expression exhibits more crossloadings, particularly with Engagement strategies. The network analysis further clarifies these

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relationships, showing language supports (Q3.2) as a central connector between all three principles, highlighting their practical importance in daily implementation. In summary, this study highlights three critical trends in UDL implementation in Latvian preschools: (1) A disparity between teachers’ self-reported inclusive practices and systemic deficiencies in training, underscoring the need for structured professional development to bridge policy-practice gaps; (2) Robust psychometric validation of the survey tool, with high reliability for Representation (α = .875) and Engagement (α = .856), though Action & Expression items (α = .728-.787) require refinement for precision; and (3) Factor analysis confirming UDL’s tripartite framework while revealing practical overlaps—particularly between Action & Expression and Engagement, with language supports (Q3.2) emerging as a pivotal cross-principle strategy. These findings collectively advocate for targeted teacher training, tool refinement, and integrated approaches to UDL adoption. Future research should prioritize longitudinal classroom observations, multinational comparisons, and iterative improvements to Action & Expression metrics to advance equitable preschool education. Funding The research data presented in this article were obtained within the framework of the EU Recovery and Resilience Facility project No. 5.2.1.1.i.0/2/24/I/CFLA/003 “Implementation of consolidation and management changes at Riga Technical University, Liepaja University, Rezekne Academy of Technology, Latvian Maritime Academy and Liepaja Maritime College for the progress towards excellence in higher education, science and innovation.” The publication was prepared independently without utilizing project funds. The author’s doctoral research activities (ID 1043) were supported through the project’s academic career development program.

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References Ainscow, M., Booth, T., & Dyson, A. (2006). Inclusion and the standards agenda: negotiating policy pressures in England. International journal of inclusive education, 10(4-5), 295–308. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603110500430633 Āboltiņa, L., Lāma, G., Sarva, E., Kaļķe, B., Āboliņa, A., Daniela, L., ... & Bernande, M. (2024, January). Challenges and opportunities for the development of future teachers’ professional competence in Latvia. In Frontiers in Education. Vol. 8, p. 1307387. Frontiers Media SA. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2023.1307387 Basham, J. D., Blackorby, J., & Marino, M. T. (2020). Opportunity in crisis: The role of universal design for learning in educational redesign. Learning Disabilities: A Contemporary Journal, 18(1), 71–91. https://eric.ed.gov/?id=EJ1264277 Brain Architecture. (2019). Center on the Developing Child at Harvard University. Available at: https://developingchild.harvard.edu/science/key-concepts/brainarchitecture/#neuron-footnote Borsboom, D., Deserno, M.K., Rhemtulla, M. et al. Network analysis of multivariate data in psychological science. Nat Rev Methods Primers 1, 58 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1038/s43586-021-00055-w CAST (2024a). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0. Retrieved from https://udlguidelines.cast.org/more/research-evidence/ CAST. (2024b). Timeline of Innovation. Retrieved from https://www.cast.org/resources/timeline-of-innovation/ CAST (2024c). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0. Retrieved from https://udlguidelines.cast.org/more/frequently-asked-questions/#what-process-used CAST (2024d). Universal Design for Learning Guidelines version 3.0. Retrieved from https://udlguidelines.cast.org Chen, H., Evans, D., & Luu, B. (2023). Moving Towards Inclusive Education: Secondary School Teacher Attitudes Towards Universal Design for Learning in Australia. Australasian Journal of Special and Inclusive Education, 47(1), 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1017/jsi.2023.1 Cooksey, R.W. (2020). Descriptive Statistics for Summarising Data. In: Illustrating Statistical Procedures: Finding Meaning in Quantitative Data. Springer, Singapore. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2537-7_5 Daniela, L., & Zālīte-Supe, Z. (2025). Searching for Scientific Culture in Professional Development Programs for In-Service Teachers: Case of Latvia. Education Sciences, 15(6), 784. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci15060784 European Parliament & Council of the European Union. (2016). Regulation (EU) 2016/679 on the protection of natural persons with regard to the processing of personal data and on the free movement of such data (General Data Protection Regulation). Official Journal of the European Union, L 119, 1–88. Retrieved from https://eur-lex.europa.eu/eli/reg/2016/679/oj Ewe, L. P., & Galvin, T. (2023). Universal Design for Learning across Formal School Structures in Europe—A Systematic Review. Education Sciences, 13(9), 867. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13090867

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Florian, L., & Black-Hawkins, K. (2011). Exploring inclusive pedagogy. British educational research journal, 37(5), 813–828. https://doi.org/10.1080/01411926.2010.501096 Florian, L. (2021). Foreward. In Improving Inclusive Education through Universal Design for Learning, 1st ed. Galkienė, A., Monkevičienė, O., Eds. Springer: Cham, Switzwerland, Volume 5, pp. v–vi. Retrieved from https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/978-3-030-80658-3.pdf Forero, C.G. (2023). Cronbach’s Alpha. In: Maggino, F. (eds) Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-17299-1_622 Golzar, J., Noor, S., & Tajik, O. (2022). Convenience sampling. International Journal of Education & Language Studies, 1(2), 72-77. https://doi.org/10.22034/ijels.2022.162981 Griful-Freixenet, J., Struyven, K., & Vantieghem, W. (2021). Exploring pre-service teachers’ beliefs and practices about two inclusive frameworks: Universal Design for Learning and differentiated instruction. Teaching and Teacher Education, 107, 103503. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2021.103503 Hollingshead, A., Lowrey, K. A., & Howery, K. (2022). Universal design for learning: When policy changes before evidence. Educational Policy, 36(5), 1135–1161. https://doi.org/10.1177/0895904820951120 Hossan, D., Dato’Mansor, Z., & Jaharuddin, N. S. (2023). Research population and sampling in quantitative study. International Journal of Business and Technopreneurship (IJBT), 13(3), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.58915/ijbt.v13i3.263 Jebb, A. T., Ng, V., & Tay, L. (2021). A review of key Likert scale development advances: 1995–2019. Frontiers in psychology, 12, 637547. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.637547 Jones, P. J., Ma, R., & McNally, R. J. (2019). Bridge Centrality: A Network Approach to Understanding Comorbidity. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 56(2), 353–367. https://doi.org/10.1080/00273171.2019.1614898 Latvijas Izglītības un zinātnes ministrija. [Ministry of Education and Science of Latvia]. (2024). Pedagogu skaits pirmsskolas izglītības iestādēs [Teacher count in preschool education institutions]. Valsts izglītības informācijas sistēma [State Education Information System]. Retrieved from https://www.izm.gov.lv Leme, D., Alves, E., Lemos, V., & Fattori, A. (2020). Network analysis: a multivariate statistical approach for health science research. Geriatrics, Gerontology and Aging. 14. 43-51. https://doi.org/10.5327/Z2447-212320201900073 Mace, R. (1985, November). Universal Design: Barrier Free Environments for Everyone. Designers West, 147152. Mualem, R., Morales-Quezada, L., Farraj, R. H., Shance, S., Bernshtein, D. H., Cohen, S., Mualem, L., Salem, N., Yehuda, R. R., Zbedat, Y., Waksman, I., & Biswas, S. (2024). Econeurobiology and brain development in children: key factors affecting development, behavioral outcomes, and school interventions. Frontiers in public health, 12, 1376075. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2024.1376075

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Piaget, J. (1950). The Psychology of the Child. New York: Basic Books. Pincay, G. A. A., Salcedo, J. N. R., & Vélez, V. Z. (2024). Universal Design for Learning and Diversity Attention: A Look from the Perceptions and Skills of Teachers. Journal of Ecohumanism, 3(8), 6326-6340. https://doi.org/10.62754/joe.v3i8.5234 Pisha, B., & Coyne, P. (2001). Smart From the Start: The Promise of Universal Design for Learning. Remedial and Special Education, 22(4), 197–203. https://doi.org/10.1177/074193250102200402 Rebekić, A., Lončarić, Z., Petrović, S. & Marić, S. (2015). Pearson’s or Spearman’s Correlation Coefficient - Which One to Use?. Poljoprivreda, 21(2), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.18047/poljo.21.2.8 Rosenberg, R., Ludecke, M. & Alfrey, L. Components that influence early career teachers’ practices as inclusive educators in general education settings: An international scoping review. Aust. Educ. Res. 52, 2281–2300 (2025). https://doi.org/10.1007/s13384-025-00811-x Rusconi, L., & Squillaci, M. (2023). Effects of a universal design for learning (UDL) training course on the development teachers’ competences: a systematic review. Education Sciences, 13(5), 466. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci13050466 Solomon Chukwu Ohiri, D. I., & Nnennaya, C. (2024). Psychometric properties of a test: An overview. International Journal of Research Publication and Reviews, 5(2), 22172224. https://doi.org/10.55248/gengpi.5.0224.0539 Taber, K. S. (2018). The Use of Cronbach’s Alpha When Developing and Reporting Research Instruments in Science Education. Res Sci Educ, 48, 1273–1296. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11165-016-9602-2 Tavakol, M., & Dennick, R. (2011). Making sense of Cronbach’s alpha. International journal of medical education, 2, 53–55. https://doi.org/10.5116/ijme.4dfb.8dfd Ting, H., Memon, M. A., Thurasamy, R., & Cheah, J. H. (2025). Snowball sampling: A review and guidelines for survey research. Asian Journal of Business Research (AJBR), 15(1). https://doi.org/10.14707/ajbr.250186 Trudge, J. R. H., & Winterhoff, P. A. (1993). Vygotsky, Piaget, and Bandura: Perspectives on the relations between the social world and cognitive development. Human Development, 36, 61–81. https://doi.org/10.1159/000277297 Valsts statistikas portāls. [National Statistics Portal]. (2024). Dzimumu līdztiesība: izglītība un zinātne [Gender equality: education and science] (NBA060). Available at https://stat.gov.lv Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. Harvard University Press. Watkins, M. W. (2018). Exploratory Factor Analysis: A Guide to Best Practice. Journal of Black Psychology, 44(3), 219-246. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798418771807 West, A. (2020). Legislation, ideas and pre-school education policy in the twentieth century: From targeted nursery education to universal early childhood education and care. British Journal of Educational Studies, 68(5), 567-587. https://doi.org/10.1080/00071005.2020.1804525

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Zhu, O. Y., Greene, D., & Dolnicar, S. (2024). Should the risk of social desirability bias in survey studies be assessed at the level of each pro-environmental behaviour? Tourism Management, 104, 104933. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2024.104933 Corresponding author: Inese Tīģere Email: inese.tigere@rtu.lv

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Appendix 1 Table 1 Demographic data about study participants Q1.3. What is your highest level of academic qualification? Answer

bachel

20.34

Professional higher education (Level 1)

13.56

Bachelor’s degree

38.98

Professional higher education (Level 2)

11.86

Master’s degree

13.56

Doctoral degree

1.69

Tot al N= 59 Q1.4. Work Experience (in years): Answer

No experience

Less than one year

1 - 2 years

3 - 5 years

6 - 10 years

More than 10 years

Q1.6. How do you evaluate the preschool educational institution in which you work regarding the implementation of inclusive education practices? Answer

Inclusive (the institution implements special education programs)

67.74%

Non-inclusive (the institution does not implement special education programs)

24.19%

Not applicable

8.06%

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Q1.7. Child age range with whom you work daily: Answer

0 - 12 months

1 - 3 years

3,39

3 - 5 years

32,2

6 - 8 years

16,95

Mixed aged group

40,68

Not applicable

6,78

Q1.8. How many children are currently enrolled in your preschool education group? Answer

1 - 5 children

1,69

6 - 10 children

23,73

11 - 15 children

20,34

16 - 20 children

20,43

21 - 25 children

20,43

26 or more children

8,47

Not applicable

5,08

1.9. How many teachers, teacher helpers, or assistants work in your group on a daily basis? Answer

1-2

27 45,76

2-4

24 40,68

5 or more

6,78

Not applicable

6,78

1.10. How many children in your group are enrolled in a special education program? Answer

None

38,98

1 - 2 children

16,95

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3 - 5 children

3,39

More than 5 children

32,20

Not applicable

8,47

1.11. Please evaluate the importance of the following UDL principles-based aspects in promoting an inclusive learning environment: Engaging children in activities through diverse methods Answer

Rather important

20,03

Very important

76,27

Neutral, no opinion

1,69

Rather important

30,51

Very important

69,49

Presenting information using a variety of materials

Expressing and assessing acquired knowledge through various means Rather important

33,90

Very important

62,71

Not important

1,69

Neutral, no opinion

1,69

1.12. To respond to the questions in the following section and evaluate the teaching methods and strategies encompassed by UDL principles, please indicate your current qualification: Answer

Teacher

72.88

Student

11.86

Pre-service teacher

15.25

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Appendix 2 Table 3 Factor Loadings for UDL Implementation Strategies

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 3

Recommended Strategy Reallocation Across UDL Framework Blocks

Q|2. Multiple means or Engagement, Factor 2 Q2.1. Welcoming Interests & Identities Q2.1.1. Selecting learning goals and tasks based on children’s unique interests, cultural context, gender, age group, and abilities (e.g., providing choices for representing outcomes in drawing, sculpture, video, or audio format) Q2.1.2. Activities based on play and hands-on experiences (e.g., role-playing and field trips in various environments, indoors and outdoors) Q2.1.3. Promoting enjoyment in the activities and tasks undertaken (e.g., using surprises or discoveries during activities) Q2.1.4. Creating an environment that acknowledges various emotional and sensory needs of the child (e.g., exploring different ideas and questions and providing noise-canceling headphones or adjusted lighting)

.334

Should be moved to Q3

.474

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Q2.1. Sustaining Effort & Persistence Q2.2.1. Explaining the purpose of activities (e.g., telling children why they are learning .352 about sharing through board games and role-playing) Q2.2.2. Providing various levels of challenge (e.g., offering tasks of different difficulty and complexity for varying skill levels)

.328

Q2.2.3. Promoting teamwork (e.g., encouraging children to work together on projects or tasks)

.430

Q2.2.4. Fostering a sense of belonging (e.g., sharing experiences related to the concepts being learned)

.368

Q2.2.5. Providing specific, practical feedback (e.g., telling a child: “I like how you shared your toys with your friend!”) Q2.3. Emotional Capacity Q2.3.1. Awareness of children’s expectations and promoting motivation in activities (e.g., identifying what they will be able to read when they learn literacy or what the reward will be for completing a task)

.539

Q2.3.2. Developing the ability to express emotions and selfregulate (e.g., expressing emotions using emojis or learning behavioral responses through role-playing)

.428

519

.326

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Q2.3.3. Evaluating selfperformance and progress (e.g., creating charts to track the number of letters learned or symbols acquired over a specific period)

.587

.566

Q2.3.4. Modeling empathy through discussions and roleplaying (e.g., using discussions or role-playing to foster empathetic understanding)

.370

.348

Q3. Multiple means of Representation, Factor 1 Q3.1. Perception Q3.1.1. Adapting the representation of information (e.g., digital tools with adjustments for font size and color contrast)

.313

.317

Q3.1.2. Providing information using various formats (e.g., utilizing videos, audio materials, and movement activities) Q3.1.3. Representing the topic in an authentic manner (e.g., storytelling about different languages and cultures in a historical context)

.324

.583

Should be moved to Q4

.324

Q3.2. Language & Symbols Q3.2.1. Promoting understanding of words, symbols, and numbers .792 in various formats (e.g., creating graphs and charts) Q3.2.2. Enhancing understanding of symbols and numbers through practical activities.

.410

520

Should be moved to Q4

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Q3.2.3. Reflecting concepts through different cultures, languages, and dialects (e.g., explaining concepts in various languages and symbols)

.696

Q3.2.4. Eliminating stereotypes about different languages and means of communication (e.g., learning symbols and expressive tools, words, and phrases in various languages)

.801

Q3.2.5. Representing the topic using various means of representation (e.g., through videos, graphs, and interactive activities)

.398

.363

Q3.3. Building Knowledge Q3.3.1. Connecting existing and acquired knowledge (e.g., linking existing knowledge .412 .318 about living organisms to specific ecosystems) Q3.3.2. Comparing essential concepts and relationships (e.g., comparing characteristic features of animals) Q3.3.3. Recognizing diverse interests and identities (e.g., drawing different flags or comparing various eye/hair colors)

.382

.336

.574

Should be moved to Q4

.416

Q3.3.4. Relating topics and generalizing concepts (e.g., learning about traffic signs during a walk or exploring different breeds, colors, and sizes of dogs)

.439

521

Should be moved to Q4

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Q4. Multiple means of Action& Expression, Factor 3 Q4.1. Interaction Q4.1.1. Ensuring access and predictability in various environments (e.g., using tactile, auditory, symbolic, and colored cues in the child’s surroundings) Q4.1.2. Providing access to materials and tools (e.g., utilizing noise-canceling headphones, gardening gloves, and alternative communication tools)

.748

.430

.534

Q4.2. Expression & Communication Q4.2.1. Use of various means of communication (e.g., allowing .333 children to express ideas through art, music, or movement) Q4.2.2. Providing various materials (e.g., using different materials in task completion)

.374

Q4.2.3. Providing support and gradually reducing it (e.g., utilizing verbal and visual physical support that is gradually diminished)

.429

Q4.2.4. Use of various speech and expressive tools (e.g., different languages or alternative communication methods)

.375

Q4.3. Strategy Development Q4.3.1. Setting meaningful goals together with children (e.g., .457 setting goals to learn three new words within a week through various activities)

522

Should be moved to Q1

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Q4.3.2. Anticipating challenges in activities (e.g., planning a visit to the library and anticipating potential difficulties along the way or in the library)

.466

Should be moved to Q3

Q4.3.3. Organizing resources and information (e.g., labeling materials and furniture)

.549

Should be moved to Q3

.516

Should be moved to Q3

.461

Should be moved to Q3

Q4.3.4. Self-assessing progress or self-reflection on acquired skills (e.g., using charts or tables for learned concepts, letters, and ideas)

.338

Q4.3.5. Promoting inclusive practices (e.g., exploring various cultural holidays or traditions)

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Appendix 3 Table 4 Intercorrelation Matrix of UDL Implementation Items Across Engagement, Representation, and Action & Expression Principles Vari able 1. Q2.1 2. Q2.2 3. Q2.3 4. Q3.1 5. Q3.2 6. Q3.3 7. Q4.1 8. Q4.2 9. Q4.3

Q2.1

Q2.2

Q2.3

Q3.1

Q3.2

Q3.3

Q4.1

Q4.2

Q4.3

—

.469

***

—

.539

***

.679

***

—

.327

.367

.381

—

.495

***

.393

.676

***

.561

***

—

.452

***

.569

***

.565

***

.578

***

.663

***

—

.326

.432

***

.452

***

.525

***

.442

***

.582

***

—

.301

.298

.330

.292

.538

***

.641

***

—

.617

***

.643

***

.409

.610

***

.577

***

.442

***

.417

.251

.450

***

524

—

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Core Competencies for Inclusive Early Childhood Educators: A Systematic Review Jamil Suprihatiningrum State Islamic University Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta, Indonesia Nur Listiawati The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Yendri Wirda The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Simon Sili Sabon The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Siswantari The National Research and Innovation Agency, Indonesia Betti Nuraini Universitas Muhammadiyah Prof Dr Hamka & Indonesian Association of Early Childhood Educators and Education Personnel, Indonesia

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Abstract This Systematic Literature Review (SLR) synthesizes findings from 41 peer-reviewed empirical studies published between 2015 and 2025 to identify the core competencies required for inclusive early childhood educators. Following PRISMA 2020 guidelines, the review employed a structured search across four academic databases and applied thematic synthesis to analyze competency frameworks across diverse educational contexts. Seven competency domains were identified, that is, differentiation and curriculum adaptation, collaborative practice, inclusive knowledge and disability awareness, positive attitudes and inclusive values, assistive and educational technology use, reflective practice, and psychological readiness. The findings demonstrate the interconnectedness of competencies with reflective practice as the fundamental core of teacher competency. Psychological readiness, encompassing emotional resilience and self-identity development, is an under-discussed domain in the existing literature. Competency development in this study is depicted as a recursive and continuous spiral model. This study recommends unifying the previously fragmented literature on inclusive education and emphasizing the emotional and responsive preparation of teachers to various contexts and changes. The review offers implications for curriculum designers, policymakers, and researchers, advocating a shift from short-term technical interventions to long-term, holistic frameworks grounded in justice-oriented pedagogy. Keywords: core competencies for inclusive education, inclusive early childhood education, inclusive education training, inclusive teacher competencies

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Inclusive education has emerged as a global priority, recognized as both a policy commitment and a pedagogical aspiration across diverse national contexts (Taneja-Johansson & Singal, 2025; UNESCO, 2020a). Inclusive education has been implemented in various ways and has produced numerous patterns, as historical, political, and cultural factors influence it (Engelbrecht et al., 2016; Horishna, 2020; Kopito, 2024; Manghi et al., 2020). In some countries, inclusion has evolved as part of broader democratic reforms and rights-based agendas, while in others, it has been operationalized mainly as technical strategies for integrating learners with disabilities into mainstream classrooms (Haug, 2017; Shaeffer, 2019). These differences have profound implications for how teacher preparation is conceptualized and structured. The success of inclusive practices, including those in early childhood classrooms, primarily depends on teacher competencies, as research indicates that teachers’ knowledge, skills, and dispositions directly influence their ability to plan, differentiate, and sustain inclusive environments (Classen & Westbrook, 2020; Lee & Recchia, 2016; Sharma et al., 2019). Key competencies include collaboration and teamwork, instructional support, organizational practices, social-emotional and behavioral support, and the ability to determine student progress (Lee & Recchia, 2016; Sharma et al., 2019). However, there is still limited consensus on which specific competencies are most critical, as studies highlighted the importance of both technical skills, such as adapting instruction and utilizing diverse resources, and broader dispositions, including multicultural awareness, anti-bias attitudes, and a commitment to social justice (Kim et al., 2024; Nasution, 2021). The development of these competencies is complex, often requiring a comprehensive combination of practical experience, reflective practice, and ongoing professional development, rather than one-off training sessions (Agbenyega & Klibthong, 2020; Classen & Westbrook, 2020). Effective training programs tend to integrate hands-on learning, mentorship, and opportunities for teachers to engage with real classroom challenges, but approaches and outcomes remain inconsistent across contexts (Agbenyega & Klibthong, 2020; Classen & Westbrook, 2020). Teachers’ beliefs and self-efficacy also play a significant role, with positive attitudes toward inclusion and multiculturalism being linked to more effective inclusive practices (Kim et al., 2024). Although teacher competence is widely recognized as necessary, research still urges the need for clearer frameworks and better integration of key skills into pre- and in-service teacher training programs. While existing reviews had largely focused on policy frameworks, teacher attitudes, or general models of inclusive education, few had systematically synthesized evidence on the specific core competencies targeted in teacher training programs for early childhood educators. Recent research highlighted that essential competencies extend beyond general pedagogical skills to include relationship-building, emotional support, nonverbal communication, family engagement, and the ability to observe and document children’s learning (Kim & Yoon, 2024; Park et al., 2023; PinyaMedina et al., 2024). Other studies emphasized the importance of play sensitivity, coaching competency, and adaptability to new educational demands, such as sustainability and digital literacy (Romero-Tena et al., 2020). Competency frameworks are increasingly recognizing the need for professional emotional intelligence, ethical practice, curriculum execution, collaboration, and reflective thinking, especially as early childhood education (ECE) adapts to

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rapid social and technological changes (Suebsing et al., 2023). There is also growing attention to the integration of content-specific knowledge, such as science pedagogical content knowledge, and the use of innovative tools like content representations (CoRes) to support reflective practice (Nilsson & Elm, 2017). Despite these advances, gaps remain in understanding how to develop and assess these competencies, necessitating more targeted, practice-oriented, and contextually relevant training programs (Park et al., 2023; Pinya-Medina et al., 2024; Suebsing et al., 2023). This systematic review aims to address this gap by critically analyzing the competencies emphasized in teacher training for inclusive early childhood education. This review clarifies which competencies are most stressed frequently, how they are defined and conceptualized within different theoretical and cultural frameworks. By synthesizing evidence from diverse studies and settings, the review proposes to construct a model of competency development for inclusive early childhood educators. This synthesis significantly intends to inform more coherent and contextually responsive strategies for preparing early childhood educators to implement inclusive practices effectively. Literature Review Defining Inclusive Education and Early Childhood Contexts Inclusive education has been defined as a complex reform movement, rather than a single policy (Haug, 2017; Magnússon et al., 2019; Mena & Waitoller, 2022; Ramlackhan & Catania, 2022; Shaeffer, 2019). Inclusive education is broadly translated as an approach that values diversity and ensures all learners have equitable opportunities to participate and succeed, emphasizing the importance of respecting each child’s unique developmental path and cultural background in early childhood settings (Rad et al., 2022; Symeonidou et al., 2022). In practice, this means creating environments where every child, including those with disabilities or from marginalized groups, can learn and thrive alongside their peers (Mathwasa & Sibanda, 2021; Symeonidou et al., 2022). Frameworks such as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the Index for Inclusion advocate for proactive planning, flexibility, and collaboration among educators, families, and communities to support diverse needs (Almulla et al., 2025; Rad et al., 2022). Research highlighted that successful inclusion in early childhood requires not only adapting curricula and teaching strategies but also fostering a culture of respect, distributed leadership, and ongoing professional development for teachers (Almulla et al., 2025; Jusni et al., 2023; Rad et al., 2022). Barriers to effective inclusion often include insufficient resources, limited teacher training, and persistent attitudes or discourses that may unintentionally exclude certain children (Almulla et al., 2025; Jusni et al., 2023; Kuutti et al., 2025). Addressing these challenges involves engaging all stakeholders, educators, administrators, families, and policymakers in continuous dialogue and shared responsibility for inclusive practices (Almulla et al., 2025; Soodak et al., 2002). Teacher Competencies for Inclusive Education Teacher competencies are widely identified as foundational to effective inclusive education, encompassing interrelated domains of knowledge, skills, and attitudes (Bukvić, 2014; Kuyini

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et al., 2016; Majoko, 2019). Essential knowledge includes understanding child development, disability, and the diverse needs of learners, while key skills involve differentiating instruction, adapting materials, managing classroom behavior, and effective communication (Kuyini et al., 2023; Kuyini et al., 2024; Kuyini et al., 2016; Majoko, 2019). Attitudes such as a commitment to equity, openness to diversity, and rejection of deficit perspectives are equally critical, as teachers who view diversity as a normal aspect of learning are more likely to foster inclusive environments (Bukvić, 2014; Vantieghem et al., 2023). Emotional intelligence is a core competency that teachers must possess to build positive relationships, manage stress effectively, and respond empathically to the diverse needs of students (Rajendran et al., 2020). Collaboration with colleagues, families, and specialists is an essential competency that enables teachers to access a broad range of expertise and resources to support every learner effectively (Kuyini et al., 2023; Majoko, 2019; Vantieghem et al., 2023). Research further emphasized the importance of ongoing professional development and reflective practice, including transformative learning approaches that challenge assumptions and foster critical reflection (Bukvić, 2014; Kudarinova et al., 2023). Despite these insights, many teachers reported gaps in their preparation, particularly in differentiating curricula and identifying learning difficulties, underscoring the need for more targeted training and support (Durdukoca, 2021; Nīmante & Kokare, 2022). Training Models and Professional Development Approaches Research on training models and professional development for inclusive teaching emphasized that sustained, comprehensive programs were more effective than short-term interventions. Structural models that integrate target-setting, methodological guidance, content development, process orientation, and reflective practice had been shown to create dynamic and holistic systems for preparing teachers for inclusive education (Parmankulova et al., 2025). Approaches such as co-teaching residencies, ongoing coaching, and blended learning, including technology-enhanced and UDL–based modules, demonstrate significant improvements in teachers’ ability to differentiate instruction and adapt materials for diverse learners (Baldiris et al., 2016; Kushwaha & Singh, 2023). For instance, professional development programs aligned with the Competence Framework for Inclusive Teachers (CFIT) and UDL principles have been found to enhance teachers’ skills in designing accessible and inclusive learning experiences (Baldiris et al., 2016; Kushwaha & Singh, 2023). In contrast, short-term workshops without follow-up or practical application tend to have a limited and unsustainable impact on teacher practice (Holmqvist & Lelinge, 2020). Collaborative professional development, while promising for fostering positive attitudes, requires more systematic and evidence-based research to confirm its effects on teacher and student outcomes (Holmqvist & Lelinge, 2020). Effective models also emphasize the importance of ongoing support, self-assessment, and integrating emotional intelligence and reflective dispositions into training (Kantor & Proekt, 2024; Rajendran et al., 2020). Methods The study selection process was documented in accordance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines (Page et al., 2021) as seen in Figure 1.

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Search Strategy This systematic review followed a structured search process to identify peer-reviewed studies on teacher competencies for inclusive education in early childhood settings. Data exploration was conducted using four well-established databases, namely Scopus, Web of Science, ERIC, and PsycINFO. Search terms combined keywords and Boolean operators, including: “inclusive education” OR “inclusive pedagogy”; “teacher training” OR “teacher preparation” OR “professional development”; “competence” OR “competency” OR “skills” OR “knowledge” OR “attitudes”; and “early childhood” OR “preschool” OR “kindergarten.” Eligibility Criteria Searches were limited to studies published between 2015 and 2025. The inclusion and exclusion criteria were agreed upon by the research team (see Table 1). Figure 1 PRISMA Flow Diagram

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Table 1 Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria Criteria Population

Inclusion Pre-service and in-service early childhood educators (birth to age 8) Focus Examination of teacher competencies, skills, knowledge, attitudes related to inclusive education Intervention/Exposure Teacher training programs, professional development, or preparation activities with a focus on inclusion Study Design Empirical studies (qualitative, quantitative, mixed-method) Publication Type

Peer-reviewed journal articles

Language Publication Year

English 2015-2025

Exclusion Studies focusing exclusively on secondary or higher education teachers Studies that do not address competencies (e.g., only general attitudes or policy perspectives) Studies evaluating policies or systems without reference to teacher training or competencies Theoretical papers, conceptual frameworks without empirical data, editorials Conference abstracts, theses/dissertations, grey literature Non-English publications Publications prior to 2015

Screening and Selection The initial search yielded 292 records across all databases. After removing duplicates, marking as ineligible, and removing records for other reasons (154), titles and abstracts were screened for relevance, resulting in 138 records retained for full-text assessment. A total of 79 studies were excluded because they did not meet the eligibility criteria, including population criteria, a focus on competencies, and texts in languages other than English. The full texts of the 41 (35 + 6) eligible studies were then assessed based on predetermined criteria. Quality Assessment All included studies were assessed for methodological quality using an adapted version of the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool (MMAT) (Hong et al., 2018), which accommodates qualitative, quantitative, and mixed-method research designs. The appraisal criteria included clarity of research objectives, appropriateness of methodology, data collection rigor, analytical transparency, and congruence between findings and conclusions. Each article was independently rated by three reviewers. Any discrepancies were resolved through discussion until full consensus was reached. The overall quality rating of each study was categorized as high, moderate, or low, based on the percentage of criteria met. A summary of the

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methodological quality ratings is presented in Table 2, column 12. Most studies (n = 26) demonstrated high methodological quality; 12 were moderate, and three were low, typically due to limited transparency in analytical procedures or small sample sizes. Synthetic Approach Thematic synthesis followed the procedures outlined by Thomas and Harden (2008) and applied a constant comparative method across studies to identify recurrent concepts and patterns of teacher competency. Codes were first derived inductively from study findings, then clustered into subthemes, and iteratively compared to form broader thematic domains. Through multiple cycles of comparison and refinement, seven overarching competency themes emerged, representing interrelated domains of inclusive teaching competence. The synthesis process was collaboratively verified by the author team to ensure analytic consistency and conceptual coherence. Ethical approval was not required for this systematic review, as it analyzed secondary data from publicly available sources. The review followed institutional and PRISMA 2020 ethical standards for transparent reporting. Findings A total of 41 articles were reviewed, with the annual distribution shown in Figure 2 and the type of teacher training as in Figure 3. Figure 2 Number of Papers Based on Years

8 5

2016

4 1

2017

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

532

2023

2024

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Figure 3 Number of Papers Based on the Type of Teacher Training

Both , 5 Pre-service, 12

In-service, 24

Table 2 presents the mapping matrix for the 41 articles, organized by six themes related to the inclusive competencies of ECE teachers, as described below. Table 2 Inclusive Teacher Competency Mapping Matrix Type of trainin g Inservic e

Research Method

Author, Year

Country

Agbenyega and Klibthong (2020) Agbenyega and Klibthong (2022)

Thailand

Inservic e

Bowers et al. (2022)

Jamaica

Classen and Westbrook (2020)

USA

ConnersBurrow et al. (2016)

USA

Davis et al. (2023)

USA

Domínguez et al. (2025)

Spain

Inservic e InQuantitative servic (Pre-post test e design using Inclusive Classroom Profile as the instrument) InQuantitative servic (one-group e pre–post-test design) InCluster servic randomized e controlled trial PreMixedservic methods e case study (quantitative

Them Them Them Them Them Them Them e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7

Qualitative study

Qualitative (dialogic interviews, interpretivist perspective, framework analysis) Mixedmethod

High

533

Quality rating

High

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Author, Year

EstradaChichón and SánchezCabrero (2023) 9. EvansPalmer and Shen (2017) 10. Feriver et al. (2015)

11. GalindoDomínguez and Bezanilla (2021) 12. Jenßen et al. (2021)

Country

Type of trainin g

Spain

Preservic e

Zambia

Preservic e Inservic e

Türkiye

survey + qualitative story circles) Quantitative (media analysis)

Them Them Them Them Them Them Them e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7

Mixedmethod

Mixed methods (Learning Activities Survey, Learning Diaries, Follow-up Interviews) Quantitative

Quantitative (longitudinal ) Quantitative

Design and Developmen t Research (DDR); includes needs analysis, design, expert validation, and preliminary testing InQualitative servic (Grounded e Theory) InQuantitative servic – descriptive e survey with t-test and ANOVA InQualitative; servic Discursive e analysis based on semistructured interviews with 26 ECE professionals

Spain

Preservic e

Germany

Both

13. Jilink et al. (2018)

Netherlan ds

14. Jusni et al. (2023)

Indonesia

Inservic e Inservic e

15. Kalburan (2024)

Türkiye

16. Kompirović et al. (2023)

North Kosovo and Metohija, Serbia Finland

17. Kuutti et al. (2025)

Research Method

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Moderat e

Ö Ö

534

High High

Ö Ö

Moderat e

Moderat e High

Quality rating

High

High Moderat e

High

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Author, Year

Country

18. Kyriazopoul ou et al. (2022)

Greece

19. LaBrot et al. (2024)

USA

20. Lee and Recchia (2016) 21. Leoste et al. (2022)

USA Estonia

22. Linares et al. (2016)

Spain

23. ManzanoLeon et al. (2022)

Spain

24. MoazamiGoodarzi et al. (2021)

Finland

25. Moloney and Pope (2023) 26. NavarroMontaño et al. (2021) 27. OliverBarcelo et al. (2024)

Ireland Spain IberoAmerica (10 countries: Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Spain, Guatemala , Mexico,

Type of trainin g Inservic e

Research Method

Mixed methods (sequential explanatory design): • Quantitative (questionnair e with 255 teachers) • Qualitative (15 semistructured interviews) InSingle-case servic experimental e design (multiple baseline across participants) Both Case study

Inservic e Preservic e

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Them Them Them Them Them Them Them e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 Ö

High

High Ö

Mixedmethod

Qualitative (Evaluative case study; reflective inquiry through interviews and seminar observations ) PreQualitative servic (open-ended e survey responses) InQuantitative servic (quasie experimental ) Both Mixedmethod InQualitative servic e PreQualitative servic (semie structured expert interviews across 10 countries, thematic analysis with NVivo)

High Ö

Moderat e

High

Moderat e

High

535

Quality rating

High

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Author, Year

28. Orozco and Moriña (2022)

Country Nicaragua, Dominica n Republic) Spain

Type of trainin g

Preservic e

29. Ozen-Uyar et al. (2025)

Türkiye

Inservic e

30. PinyaMedina et al. (2024)

Spain

inservic e

31. Rasyad et al. (2019)

Indonesia

32. Rivas et al. (2023)

United States (MiamiDade County, Florida) Spain

Inservic e Inservic e

33. RomeroTena et al. (2020) 34. RomeroTena et al. (2025)

Spain

Research Method

Qualitative multi-case study; semistructured interviews; inductive coding using MAXQDA Clusterrandomized controlled trial Mixedmethod; expert judgment study with 54 ECE experts (Delphi technique), including quantitative validation and qualitative content analysis Quantitative (correlationa l) Quantitative (Randomize d wait-list control design)

PreKuantitatif servic e Pre- Quantitative servic quasie experimental design (pretest/post-test comparison using the DigCompEd u Check-In tool)

35. Rothenberg et al. (2024)

USA

Inservic e

36. Steyn et al. (2016)

South Africa

Preservic e

Quantitative (RCT, mediation analysis) Qualitative

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Them Them Them Them Them Them Them e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7

536

High

Moderat e Ö

High

Moderat e

High

Ö Ö

Quality rating

High

Moderat e

IAFOR Journal of Education: Studies in Education

Author, Year

Country

37. Suebsing et al. (2023)

Thailand

38. Valle-Flórez et al. (2024)

Spain

39. Wathirunwo ng et al. (2025)

Thailand

40. Zdanevych et al. (2020)

Ukraine

41. Zerbato and Mendes (2021)

Brazil

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Type Quality Research Them Them Them Them Them Them Them rating of Method e1 e2 e3 e4 e5 e6 e7 trainin g InMixedHigh Ö Ö Ö servic method e (Research & Developmen t design including quantitative survey, interviews, brainstormin g, testing) Pre- Quantitative Moderat Ö Ö Ö servic (survey) e e inQuantitative; High Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö servic Confirmator e y Factor Analysis (CFA) with structured questionnair e Both Mixed High Ö Ö Ö Ö Ö methods (survey + interview) Both Qualitative High Ö Ö Ö (Collaborativ e Action Research) 27 16 9 9 7 20 15

Building on the global discussion of inclusive teacher standards, this review places its findings within established competency frameworks to improve conceptual clarity and international comparability. To maintain this clarity, the seven competency domains identified in this review were compared with existing international frameworks, especially UNESCO’s (2020b) Teacher Competency Framework for Inclusive Education and Teacher Education for Inclusion by The European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (2012). The seven domains emerging from this review closely resemble these global dimensions. For example, Theme 4 (Inclusive Values) and Theme 3 (Inclusive Knowledge) correspond to CFIT’s first two domains on attitudes and understanding. Themes 1, 2, and 5 relate to skill-based areas like curriculum adaptation and collaborative practice. Themes 6 and 7 expand on professional development by including reflective and psychological readiness as ongoing affective processes rather than static skills. This comparison shows how the spiral model applies these frameworks through a recursive, context-aware structure that links cognition, emotion, and action in inclusive teaching. While aligning with these frameworks, the current synthesis advances further by highlighting psychological readiness and emotional resilience as key parts of inclusive competence, areas often overlooked in earlier models.

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Theme 1: Differentiation, Curriculum Adaptation, Inclusive Pedagogy, Support, and Accommodation Differentiation and adaptation are central to inclusive practice. While often framed as technical competence, the reviewed studies revealed that it is deeply intertwined with teachers’ values and perceptions of equity. Twenty-seven studies emphasized that pedagogical adaptation is both a technical and ethical act, requiring teachers to design flexible, child-centered instruction that accommodates diverse needs through IEPs, UDL strategies, and classroom management (Kyriazopoulou et al., 2022; Navarro-Montaño et al., 2021; Zerbato & Mendes, 2021). This synthesis also indicates that differentiation extends beyond lesson design to embody teachers’ moral stance toward fairness and accessibility. Research such as Romero-Tena et al. (2025) and Zdanevych et al. (2020) highlighted the integration of developmental knowledge into pedagogical decision-making, while others (Orozco & Moriña, 2022; Rasyad et al., 2019) promoted creative practices such as gamified learning (Manzano-Leon et al., 2022), outdoor inquiry (Kalburan, 2024), and spatial modification for accessibility (Kompirović et al., 2023). Recent intervention studies further reinforce this interpretation: LaBrot et al. (2024) demonstrated that targeted coaching in instructional delivery enhances teachers’ precision and responsiveness, and Ozen-Uyar et al. (2025) found that proactive behavior-support strategies and individualized scaffolding help sustain differentiated instruction in diverse classrooms. These findings position differentiation not as an isolated skill but as a reflective and relational process that connects pedagogy, ethics, and emotional awareness. Theme 2: Collaborative Practice Including Co-Teaching and Partnership Collaboration emerged as a key enabler of sustainable inclusion. Sixteen studies highlighted that inclusive practices are strengthened by collective support structures, including co-teaching (Kyriazopoulou et al., 2022), dialogic reflection (Domínguez et al., 2025; Feriver et al., 2015), and mentoring (Moloney & Pope, 2023). Collaboration with paraprofessionals, therapists, and community actors was also emphasized, particularly in contexts requiring multidimensional support (Agbenyega & Klibthong, 2020; Kompirović et al., 2023). This theme underscores not only interpersonal competencies but also the systemic need for trust, reciprocity, and shared accountability. Programs such as those documented by Orozco and Moriña (2022) and PinyaMedina et al. (2024) formalized communities of practice that institutionalize collegial reflection and peer learning. Extending this perspective, Jilink et al. (2018) demonstrated that collaboration functions as an ongoing process of professional learning rather than a static organizational arrangement. Through peer observation and video-guided mentoring, teachers cultivated communicative sensitivity and collective responsibility, illustrating how reflective dialogue deepens and sustains inclusive teamwork. Theme 3: Inclusive Knowledge and Disability Awareness Theme 3 focuses on teachers’ conceptual understanding of disabilities and inclusive education frameworks. Inclusive knowledge is not merely factual but applied and evolving, enabling teachers to make pedagogical decisions that reflect equity and respect for learner diversity.

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Nine studies identified core domains such as child development, neurodiversity, legal rights, and inclusive planning frameworks (Leoste et al., 2022; Moazami-Goodarzi et al., 2021; Navarro-Montaño et al., 2021). Complementary evidence from Valle-Flórez et al. (2024) shows that teachers’ perceptions of competence are closely tied to their ability to connect theory to practice through curriculum design and formative assessment. Programs such as Super-Profes (Manzano-Leon et al., 2022) and initiatives grounded in frameworks like DigCompEdu or CASEL further cultivate teachers’ capacity to identify and respond to diverse learning profiles. Yet, the synthesis cautions against viewing knowledge as merely procedural. As Zdanevych et al. (2020) and Evans-Palmer and Shen (2017) affirmed, knowledge becomes transformative only when linked with empathy, reflective inquiry, and classroom action, turning understanding into an ethical and relational competence. Theme 4: Positive Attitudes and Inclusive Values Nine studies affirmed that beliefs and values are not merely outcomes of training but foundational competencies in their own right. The internalization of inclusive ethics, empathy, equity, and respect shapes teachers’ pedagogical integrity (Lee & Recchia, 2016; Orozco & Moriña, 2022; Steyn et al., 2016). These affective dimensions empower educators to engage thoughtfully and consistently with complexity and diversity. Indicators of teachers who enact justice-oriented practice include cultural humility (Estrada-Chichón & Sánchez-Cabrero, 2023), high expectations of all learners (Manzano-Leon et al., 2022), and ethical clarity (PinyaMedina et al., 2024). Extending this affective foundation into classroom relationships, Conners-Burrow et al. (2016) and Rothenberg et al. (2024) demonstrated that such values are expressed through emotionally supportive teacher–child interactions. Warm communication, empathy, and trust fostered a sense of belonging and engagement, illustrating that inclusive attitudes are lived through consistent relational practice. Theme 5: Use of Assistive and Educational Technologies Technology is not a stand-alone domain but a catalyst for access and engagement. Seven studies integrated digital competence within broader pedagogical goals (Galindo-Domínguez & Bezanilla, 2021; Romero-Tena et al., 2020; Romero-Tena et al., 2025). These studies show that digital literacy evolves from foundational awareness in pre-service training to applied pedagogical use in professional contexts. Teachers were trained to create inclusive digital content, foster children’s digital literacy, and adapt instruction using educational technology (Jusni et al., 2023; Leoste et al., 2022). Gamified tools and multimedia platforms were found to enhance motivation and personalization (Manzano-Leon et al., 2022). Yet, this review echoed critiques that warn against the notion of “tech for tech’s sake.” Inclusion-oriented digital pedagogy requires intentional alignment with equity and accessibility principles, not merely proficiency with tools. Oliver-Barcelo et al. (2024) broadened the interpretation of technological competence by incorporating creative and artistic media as inclusive tools. Integrating digital arts and cross-disciplinary expression fosters participation and cultural responsiveness, expanding the meaning of technology use beyond technical efficiency toward inclusive creativity.

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Theme 6: Reflective Practice and Continuous Learning Theme 6 is the generative core of all others. Twenty studies presented reflective practice as a transformative capacity, not merely a form of self-evaluation but a deep engagement with one’s professional identity, assumptions, and goals (Agbenyega & Klibthong, 2022; Linares et al., 2016; Steyn et al., 2016). Teachers utilized diverse tools for reflection, including journaling, peer feedback, coaching, and structured mentoring (Kalburan, 2024; Moloney & Pope, 2023). Studies such as Feriver et al. (2015), Zerbato and Mendes (2021) further emphasized that reflection becomes transformative when it is collaborative and action-oriented, allowing teachers to critically examine their beliefs and redesign inclusive practices. Davis et al. (2023) demonstrated that structured feedback and reflective supervision significantly enhance teachers’ responsiveness and classroom presence. Reflection, in this sense, operates as both an evaluative and generative process that strengthens professional judgment and supports continuous learning. This conceptualization of reflective practice aligns with Mezirow’s (1997) theory of transformative learning, which views reflection as a process of critically examining one’s assumptions, leading to shifts in perspective and professional identity. Similarly, Brookfield (2017) emphasized critical reflection as an ethical and political act that challenges dominant norms and promotes agency among educators. In the context of inclusive education, reflection becomes not just introspective but emancipatory, serving as a way for teachers to question deficit-based views of learners and rebuild practice toward justice-oriented pedagogy. This theoretical foundation reinforces reflective practice as the central element that supports the interconnected development of all other competencies within the spiral model. Theme 7: Psychological Readiness Fifteen studies identified emotional resilience and professional identity as essential, yet frequently overlooked competencies. Inclusive teaching can be emotionally demanding, particularly in under-resourced contexts. Teachers who effectively managed stress, navigate setbacks, and maintain long-term commitment tended to demonstrate greater efficacy (Bowers et al., 2022; Kalburan, 2024; Rivas et al., 2023). Programs that nurture self-awareness, intrinsic motivation, and identity development (Jenßen et al., 2021; Wathirunwong et al., 2025) help build psychological preparedness. Complementing the affective dimension, Rothenberg et al. (2024) emphasized that emotional regulation and teacher well-being are central to sustaining inclusive engagement. Psychological readiness thus involves managing emotional labor and cultivating stability that enables educators to maintain inclusive commitments over time. Psychological readiness is closely linked to the expanding research on teacher well-being and emotional labor in early childhood settings (Jeon et al., 2018). Inclusive teaching often requires ongoing emotional engagement, empathy, and managing systemic obstacles, which can cause stress or burnout if not supported. Hence, developing emotional resilience is not only a personal trait but also a professional skill that supports sustainable inclusion. Incorporating well-being strategies into teacher training, such as guided reflection on emotional labor, mindfulness-

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based self-regulation, and institutional care practices, can help educators maintain a long-term commitment to inclusive principles. Viewing psychological readiness as a shared responsibility between individual teachers and institutional systems repositions it as a collective requirement for equity, rather than just an individual quality. Discussion This systematic review identified seven interconnected themes of inclusive teacher competencies in Early Childhood Education. Each theme presented represents a specific aspect of inclusive education. However, the interconnections between themes form a coherent picture that can be understood more deeply. The discussion examined the interconnections between themes and how they occur, identified discrepancies that arise in the literature, and considered the impact of policy, research, and teachers on inclusive education. Cross-Theme Connections and Overlaps: Toward a Critical Synthesis Inclusive teaching is not a simple checklist of separate skills, but a network of interconnected competencies that strengthen and support one another. For instance, differentiated instruction (Theme 1) is most effective when supported by a collaborative system (Theme 2), inclusive pedagogical knowledge (Theme 3), and ongoing reflective practice (Theme 6). Likewise, teachers’ values and emotional resilience (Themes 4 and 7) are essential for applying knowledge (Theme 3) and strategies (Themes 1 and 5) in ways that are both authentic and sustainable. Reflective Practice as a Foundational Catalyst Reflective practice (Theme 6) emerged not as a standalone competency, but as the cognitive and emotional foundation that supports the development of all other inclusive teaching skills. More than a tool for self-assessment or routine feedback, reflective practice, as illustrated by Lee and Recchia (2016), functions as a transformative process. This process enables educators to reflect on their thoughts and actions. By questioning their long-held assumptions and beliefs about differences and abilities, they can see their roles in new ways. This process allows them to reshape their professional identity with a stronger focus on inclusion and equity in their daily teaching. In contexts where exclusion is often accepted as a norm, critical and honest reflection becomes more than a pedagogical tool. It is a powerful catalyst for change. This emphasis on reflection aligns with prior reviews, such as those by Florian and Camedda (2020), who argued that reflection is central to challenging normative assumptions in teacher preparation. Similarly, Symeonidou (2017) contended that transformative reflection is essential for moving beyond procedural understandings of inclusion toward relational and justiceoriented pedagogy. However, unlike previous reviews that often positioned reflection as an outcome of professional development, the current synthesis identifies it as a generative, crosscutting force that underpins and connects all other inclusive competencies. As such, reflective

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practice is not optional but foundational to cultivating inclusive dispositions and supporting ongoing professional growth across diverse educational contexts. Interdependence of Knowledge and Attitudes Themes 3 (Inclusive Knowledge) and 4 (Positive Attitudes and Values) are often discussed separately in the literature; however, this review suggests that they are interdependent. Inclusive knowledge includes understanding of legal rights, types of disabilities, and how to use strategies like UDL. But without strong beliefs and emotional commitment, this knowledge can lead to surface-level teaching. As Zdanevych et al. (2020) and Pinya-Medina et al. (2024) had shown, teachers may know what to do, but if they don’t believe in the value of inclusion, their actions may seem forced or inauthentic. On the other hand, teachers who care deeply about inclusion but lack practical knowledge may feel confused or powerless to turn their intentions into real impact. This interplay mirrors the conclusions of Kuyini et al. (2016) and Bukvić (2014), who emphasized that inclusive attitudes and knowledge must be interconnected to support sustained inclusive practices. However, previous reviews often treated attitudes and knowledge as separate domains to be addressed in sequence, first correcting beliefs, then building capacity. In contrast, this synthesis suggests that the two are mutually constitutive and must be developed concurrently. This implies that professional development should move beyond linear models and embrace integrated approaches that connect cognitive and emotional growth. Inclusive teaching is not only about what educators know, but also about what they value. When knowledge and values are aligned, teachers are better equipped to make thoughtful, equitable decisions in their classrooms. Technology as a Tool, not a Theme in Isolation Technology is often viewed not just as a separate set of digital skills, but as something that supports and enhances inclusive teaching when utilized effectively. Effective use of technology extends beyond simply operating devices and software. It also considers its benefits, making learning more accessible, engaging, and responsive to the learning needs of all students. As shown by Romero-Tena et al. (2025) and Galindo-Domínguez and Bezanilla (2021), digital tools can help teachers adjust content and support different learning needs, if used with the right intentions. However, the use of technology without considering its application to inclusive education can lead to exclusivity. This finding aligns with and expands on previous findings by Baldiris et al. (2016), who emphasized the importance of integrating inclusive design principles in digital pedagogy. Similarly, Florian and Camedda (2020) emphasized connecting technology use to principles of universal design and learner variability. Unlike previous studies that primarily addressed access and functionality, this review critiques the assumption of ethical neutrality in the integration of technology. It argues that technology must be aligned with justice-oriented pedagogical goals. From this perspective, digital tools are viewed within a socio-political context, where

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their educational value is not determined solely by their presence, but by their purpose, and, more importantly, by the extent to which they advance or undermine equity in learning environments. Collaboration as Structural Support, Not Just Strategy Differentiation, while often conceptualized as an individual teacher’s capacity, proved in this review to be significantly enabled and constrained by the presence of meaningful collaboration. Studies such as Navarro-Montaño et al. (2021) and Rasyad et al. (2019) demonstrated that collaborative infrastructure such as co-teaching models, peer mentoring, and family-school partnerships are not complementary but essential aspects of building effective inclusive pedagogy. Differentiation can be sustainable when all collaborative aspects, including planning, expertise, and accountability, support the implementation of this principle. This perspective is consistent with earlier work by Holmqvist and Lelinge (2020), who found that collaborative professional development leads to deeper and more lasting instructional change compared to isolated efforts. Similarly, Soodak et al. (2002) highlighted that the success of inclusive instruction often relies on systemic collaboration involving families, administrators, and community stakeholders. While previous studies have typically framed collaboration as an interpersonal skill or optional strategy, this review advances the understanding by positioning collaboration as a structural condition. This broader view calls for a shift from treating collaboration as a soft skill to recognizing it as a core element embedded within the framework of inclusive education. Psychological Readiness a Key Pillar of Educator Resilience A significant contribution of this review is the integration of Theme 7 (Psychological Readiness), which encompasses emotional resilience, self-efficacy, and professional identity. While often overlooked in competency models, these capacities are essential for sustaining inclusion amid systemic challenges. Teachers who feel emotionally supported and confident in their professional identity are more likely to uphold inclusive values under pressure, manage behavioral complexities, and remain committed in under-resourced settings. Teacher education programs go beyond technical skills, emphasizing the importance of considering the emotional aspects of teaching. This aligns with research by Jeon et al. (2018) which emphasized the importance of emotional labor in early childhood education settings, which is play as a supplementary rather than a central dimension in teacher development (Rajendran et al., 2020). In contrast, this review views psychological readiness not as a secondary element or individual trait, but as a vital and integrated part of what is necessary to sustain equity-focused teaching. It is a core competency that supports educators in staying committed, adaptable, and grounded over time. This suggests that teacher education programs must integrate emotional self-awareness, identity formation, and well-being into the core of professional learning, rather than treating them as add-ons. Practices such as guided reflection on professional identity, resilience-

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building workshops, peer support networks, and coaching in emotional regulation should be embedded as standard components of teacher preparation. A Spiral Model of Teacher Competency Development This review introduces a Spiral Model of Teacher Competency Development (Figure 4), emphasizing that professional growth in inclusive teaching is cyclical rather than linear. Reflective practice forms the model’s core, integrating and aligning all other domains. Surrounding it, psychological readiness and inclusive values provide the affective–ethical foundation that sustains teachers’ motivation, while collaboration and knowledge serve as relational and epistemic supports for continuous learning. Differentiation and technology represent the visible expressions of inclusive pedagogy shaped by these inner forces of belief, resilience, and reflection. The model conceptualizes teacher competency as a dynamic, justiceoriented process that evolves across pre-service, induction, and in-service phases, ensuring that inclusive education is sustained through systemic and reflective professional growth. Figure 4 The Spiral Model of Teacher Competency Development

The model illustrates how seven interrelated domains revolve around reflective practice at the core, progressing outward from affective foundations (psychological readiness and inclusive values) to applied pedagogical domains (collaboration, knowledge, differentiation, and technology) in a continuous, cyclical process of inclusive professional growth.

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Building upon the conceptual framework illustrated in Figure 4, the model was expanded to visualize how the seven competency domains evolve throughout the continuum of teacher education. As shown in Figure 5, these competencies are not static traits but develop progressively from pre-service formation to in-service professional practice. Figure 5 Mapping of the Seven Competency Domains Across Teacher Education Phases

Figure 5 expands the spiral model by placing the seven interconnected domains within the three phases of teacher education. Foundational domains: reflective practice, psychological readiness, and inclusive values, develop during pre-service preparation and deepen through induction, while applied domains such as differentiation, collaboration, and technology are gradually improved during in-service professional practice. The map highlights that inclusive teacher development is a lifelong, cyclical process that combines knowledge, emotion, and reflection across different contexts. Conclusion This systematic review underscores that developing inclusive early childhood educators requires more than the accumulation of technical skills. It demands a shift toward sustained, context-responsive, and emotionally grounded professional development. The seven interrelated domains, ranging from differentiation and inclusive knowledge to reflective practice and psychological readiness, are not isolated competencies but mutually reinforcing conditions for inclusive pedagogy. This model yields key implications for re-conceptualizing teacher preparation through an iterative spiral process that considers multiple aspects. Reflective practice should be positioned at the core of training, not as a final evaluative step, but as a transformative habit of mind that

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informs and strengthens all other competencies. Likewise, psychological readiness, including emotional resilience and a strong professional identity, must be acknowledged as foundational elements of inclusive teaching, not secondary outcomes. Furthermore, pedagogical strategies must incorporate emotional stability and ethical clarity, as without these, teachers will struggle to meet the challenges of learning in the present era. Teacher education institutions, therefore, are expected to develop integrated curricula that connect cognitive, relational, and affective dimensions to prepare competent teachers for implementing inclusive education. Isolated workshops or stand-alone modules are inadequate; instead, comprehensive, long-term programs that include mentoring, coaching, and collaborative inquiry are essential. Policymakers also play a critical role by investing in enabling systems, such as inclusive school cultures, supportive leadership practices, and aligned accountability structures, that foster professional growth rather than hinder it among inclusive educators. Future research should investigate how these competencies evolve and interact over time and across diverse sociocultural contexts. Longitudinal and cross-national studies are particularly important for validating the proposed spiral model and assessing its applicability in underresourced and culturally diverse settings. Additionally, research should examine how inclusion is locally interpreted and practiced, acknowledging that the notion of a “competent” inclusive educator is always shaped by the specific challenges and opportunities present in their environment. Limitations and Transferability This review has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the inclusion criteria were restricted to publications in English, which might have excluded relevant studies published in other languages, especially from non-Anglophone regions in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. Second, although the studies originate from various geographical areas, there remains uneven regional representation, with a focus mainly on research from Europe and the United States. Third, most of the studies analyzed were cross-sectional or short-term, limiting the ability to observe how competencies develop over time. Consequently, the transferability of the proposed spiral model should be approached cautiously, as the specific contextual and cultural factors of teacher preparation systems may influence how competencies are prioritized or implemented. Future longitudinal and comparative research is recommended to validate and adapt this model across different sociocultural contexts.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted technologies in the writing process This paper used Generative AI tools (ChatGPT 4 from OpenAI) to assist with the article review and Grammarly for preparing this work to ensure consistent text. Figure 4 was created using napkin.ai. After utilizing these tools, the authors reviewed and edited the content as needed and take full responsibility for the publication's content.

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Moazami-Goodarzi, A., Zarra-Nezhad, M., Hytti, M., Heiskanen, N., & Sajaniemi, N. (2021). Training early childhood teachers to support children's social and emotional learning: A preliminary evaluation of roundies program. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(20). https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph182010679 Moloney, M., & Pope, J. (2023). Willing and unable or willing and able? Insights from an evaluation of a mentoring training programme for early childhood teachers in Ireland. Education 3-13, 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004279.2023.2236118 Nasution, D. N. (2021). Teachers’ competencies of inclusive early childhood education on social justice perspective. Proceedings of the 5th International Conference on Early Childhood Education (ICECE 2020). https://doi.org/10.2991/ASSEHR.K.210322.025 Navarro-Montaño, M. J., López-Martínez, A., & Rodríguez-Gallego, M. (2021). Research on quality indicators to guide teacher training to promote an inclusive educational model. Revista Electrónica Educare, 25(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.15359/ree.25-1.10 Nilsson, P., & Elm, A. (2017). Capturing and developing early childhood teachers’ science pedagogical content knowledge through CoRes. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 28, 406–424. https://doi.org/10.1080/1046560X.2017.1347980 Nīmante, D., & Kokare, M. (2022). Perspective of teachers on their competencies for inclusive education. Acta Paedagogica Vilnensia. https://doi.org/10.15388/actpaed.2022.49.1 Oliver-Barcelo, M., Ferrer-Ribot, M., & Jové, G. (2024). Arts education in early childhood teacher training: An international analysis. Teaching and Teacher Education, 148. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2024.104703 Orozco, I., & Moriña, A. (2022). How to become an inclusive teacher? Advice from Spanish educators involved in early childhood, primary, secondary and higher education. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 38(5), 629–644. https://doi.org/10.1080/08856257.2022.2145688 Ozen-Uyar, R., Aslan, D., Reinke, W. M., & Aktas-Arnas, Y. (2025). Training and coaching early childhood teachers to foster social, emotional, and behavioral competence of children in Turkey. School Psychology, 40(3), 309–322. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000625 Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., Shamseer, L., Tetzlaff, J. M., Akl, E. A., Brennan, S. E., Chou, R., Glanville, J., Grimshaw, J. M., Hróbjartsson, A., Lalu, M. M., Li, T., Loder, E. W., Mayo-Wilson, E., McDonald, S., . . . Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: An updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 Park, B., Lee, S., & Kim, H. (2023). A study on the core competence of teachers recognized by early childhood teachers. Korean Association For Learner-Centered Curriculum And Instruction. https://doi.org/10.22251/jlcci.2023.23.19.519 Parmankulova, P., Syzdyk, M. N., & Dzhanzakova, M. A. (2025). Structural model of training of future teachers for inclusive learning. THE BULLETIN. https://doi.org/10.32014/2025.2518–1467.926

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Pinya-Medina, C., Morcillo-Loro, V., Ferrer-Ribot, M., & Del Mar Oliver Barceló, M. (2024). What competencies should early childhood educators possess for the future? An expert judgement approach. Frontiers in Education. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2024.1422950 Rad, D., Redeș, A., Roman, A., Ignat, S., Lile, R., Demeter, E., Egerău, A., Dughi, T., Balaș, E., Maier, R., Kiss, C., Torkos, H., & Rad, G. (2022). Pathways to inclusive and equitable quality early childhood education for achieving SDG4 goal—a scoping review. Frontiers in Psychology, 13. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2022.955833 Rajendran, P., Athira, B., & Elavarasi, D. (2020). Teacher competencies for inclusive education: Will emotional intelligence do justice? Education 3-13, 9, 169–182. https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v9i1.3494 Ramlackhan, K., & Catania, N. (2022). Fostering creativity, equity, and inclusion through social justice praxis. Power and Education, 14, 282–295. https://doi.org/10.1177/17577438221114717 Rasyad, A., Wiyono, B. B., Zulkarnain, Sucipto, & Ewing, B. F. (2019). The determinant factors that influence results of gradual training of early childhood education teachers based on the program evaluation in Indonesia. Cogent Education, 6(1). https://doi.org/10.1080/2331186x.2019.1702840 Rivas, A., Mooss, A., Pontier, C. H., Romillo, J., & Munoz, E. (2023). The effect of universal teacher-child interaction training on Hispanic teachers’ sense of self-efficacy in early childhood education and care settings. International Journal of Child Care and Education Policy, 17(1), 12. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40723-023-00115-6 Romero-Tena, R., Barragán-Sánchez, R., Llorente-Cejudo, C., & Palacios-Rodríguez, A. (2020). The challenge of initial training for early childhood teachers. A cross sectional study of their digital competences. Sustainability. https://doi.org/10.3390/su12114782 Romero-Tena, R., León-Garrido, A., & Gutiérrez-Castillo, J. J. (2025). The influence of the moment of training of future early childhood education teachers on their digital teaching competencies. Journal of Technology and Science Education, 15(1). https://doi.org/10.3926/jotse.3149 Rothenberg, W. A., Schmidt, E., Davidson, B., Garcia, D., Barnett, M., Fernandez, C., Mills, K., Jent, J. F., & Davis, E. (2024). Universal Teacher-Child Interaction Training in early childhood special education: Identifying mechanisms of action that explain why it works. Journal of School Psychology, 107, 101392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jsp.2024.101392 Shaeffer, S. (2019). Inclusive education: A prerequisite for equity and social justice. Asia Pacific Education Review, 20, 181–192. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12564-019-09598-w Sharma, U., Furlonger, B., & Finkelstein, S. (2019). The inclusive practices of classroom teachers: A scoping review and thematic analysis. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 25, 735–762. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2019.1572232 Soodak, L., Erwin, E., Winton, P., Brotherson, M., Turnbull, A., Hanson, M., & Brault, L. (2002). Implementing inclusive early childhood education. Topics in Early Childhood Special Education, 22, 102–191. https://doi.org/10.1177/02711214020220020401

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Steyn, M. G., Harris, T. T., & Hartell, C. G. (2016). Early Childhood Education (ECE) in South Africa: Black student teachers’ views on push and pull forces in their training. Journal of Asian and African Studies, 51(4), 466–479. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021909614547602 Suebsing, S., Udomsan, N., & Bunphok, S. (2023). Competency development of early childhood teacher in the 21st century. International Education Studies. https://doi.org/10.5539/ies.v16n5p73 Symeonidou, S. (2017). Initial teacher education for inclusion: A review of the literature. Disability & Society, 32(3), 401–422. https://doi.org/10.1080/09687599.2017.1298992 Symeonidou, S., Loizou, E., & Recchia, S. (2022). The inclusion of children with disabilities in early childhood education: Interdisciplinary research and dialogue. European Early Childhood Education Research Journal, 31, 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1080/1350293X.2022.2158632 Taneja-Johansson, S., & Singal, N. (2025). Pathways to inclusive and equitable quality education for people with disabilities: Cross-context conversations and mutual learning. International Journal of Inclusive Education, 29(1), 1–16. https://doi.org/10.1080/13603116.2021.1965799 Thomas, J., & Harden, A. (2008). Methods for the thematic synthesis of qualitative research in systematic reviews. BMC Medical Research Methodology, 8, 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2288-8-45 UNESCO. (2020a). Inclusion and education: All means all – Global Education Monitoring Report 2020. UNESCO. (2020b). Inclusive teaching: Preparing all teachers to teach all students. In Global Education Monitoring Report. International Task Force on Teachers for Education 2030. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000374447.locale=en Valle-Flórez, R. E., Colmenero-Ruiz, M. J., Jurado-de-los-Santos, P., & García-Martín, S. (2024). Early childhood education teachers: Perceptions about their preservice training. Education Sciences, 14(7). https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci14070732 Vantieghem, W., Roose, I., Goosen, K., Schelfhout, W., & Van Avermaet, P. (2023). Education for all in action: Measuring teachers’ competences for inclusive education. PLOS ONE, 18. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0291033 Wathirunwong, T., Luanganggoon, N., & Sirisooksilp, S. (2025). A study of early childhood teachers’ competencies in strengthening executive functions in private preschool children in Thailand. Journal of Lifestyle and SDGs Review, 5(3), e05219. https://doi.org/10.47172/2965-730X.SDGsReview.v5.n03.pe05219 Zdanevych, L. V., Chaika, V. M., Pysarchuk, O. T., Tsehelnyk, T. M., & Ratushniak, N. O. (2020). Training of future teachers for work with children under the conditions of preschool inclusive education. Revista Tempos e Espaços em Educação, 13(32), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.20952/revtee.v13i32.14943 Zerbato, A. P., & Mendes, E. G. (2021). The universal design for learning in teacher training: From investigation to inclusive practices. Educação e Pesquisa, 47. https://doi.org/10.1590/s1678-4634202147233730 Corresponding Author: Jamil Suprihatiningrum Email: jamil.suprihatiningrum@uin-suka.ac.id

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Ghana’s Standards-Based Curriculum Reform: National Insights from the Bono East Region Experience Peter Jabal Salisbury University, United States James Fox Salisbury University, United States

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Abstract One of the keys to promoting equitable education is implementing a Standards-Based Curriculum; however, understanding the challenges of such implementation is crucial. Ghana progressively undertook this implementation beginning in the 2019-2020 school year. This study explored the perspectives on implementation challenges among district administrators, curriculum trainers, and local teachers in Ghana using Bono East Region as a case study. Bono East is one of the country’s most economically disadvantaged areas. The sample consisted of 253 participants from an approximate target population of 300, yielding a response rate of about 84%. A MANOVA revealed a significant multivariate effect of teacher role on the combined indicators of SBC implementation training and resource adequacy—Pillai’s Trace = .197, F(4, 492) = 13.42, p < .001, partial η² = .098. However, follow-up univariate tests showed no significant differences in perceived resource adequacy across roles (p > .05), indicating that the variation was driven primarily by differences in training perceptions. The study’s potential benefits include guidance for future curriculum rollouts to minimize regional implementation barriers. Though minimal due to anonymity, risks included teacher concerns about revealing incompetence and administrator fears of political backlash for highlighting government funding gaps. These were mitigated through assured anonymity and no political data sharing. The results may inform policies and strategies to improve regional equity and effectiveness in future national curriculum implementations. Further research could examine the relative significance of identified barriers and trial interventions to address them. Keywords: curriculum development, equitable education, education policy reforms, standardsbased curriculum, teacher preparedness

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Background of the Problem: The Necessity for Equitable Education Equitable education is a bedrock of societal development as it provides every individual, irrespective of age, sex, gender, and socio-economic background, access to quality educational opportunities (Chukwuma & Ibe, 2024). It is evident through literature that equitable education results in greater civic participation and social and economic development by providing students with the right tools to engage in democratic processes and contribute meaningfully to society (UNESCO, 2014). Access to quality education has been the key, especially in developing countries and rural communities, aiding individuals and families to break free from cycles of poverty and marginalization while promoting long-term national development. Implementing country-wide educational reforms like the Standards-Based Curriculum is often a strategic policy by governments, particularly in Africa, a calculated method to promote equitable access to education. However, achieving equitable access to education requires far more than curriculum changes and reforms. Equitable access requires addressing disparities in resource distribution, teacher training, and instructional time. In Ghana, the rollout of Standards-Based Curriculum in regions such as Bono East has faced numerous challenges, including inadequate teaching materials and a need for more professional development for educators (Addai-Mununkum & Setordzi, 2023). The ability to make learning culturally responsive is an actionable part of what equitable education stands for. There is enough literature on how students’ academic performance is tied to whether the curriculum reflects their cultural backgrounds and experiences (Sundberg & Wahlström, 2012). In many countries, including Ghana, achieving equitable educational outcomes is often a challenge. This goal becomes unattainable primarily when the curriculum does not align with students’ cultural norms, leading to disengagement and poor academic performance (Bourke et al., 2020). Addressing these challenges ensures that all students, especially those from underrepresented and marginalized communities like the Bono East Region in Ghana, can succeed and thrive in the educational system is important. Ghana introduced the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) in September 2019 as part of broader educational reforms by the Ministry of Education (MoE) and the Ghana Education Service (GES), aimed at improving the quality of pre-tertiary education and aligning with international best practices. The implementation of the SBC followed a recognition by the Ghana Education Service (GES) and the Ministry of Education (MoE) that the previous wholesale curriculum did not adequately focus on essential skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and literacy, which are vital for fostering lifelong learners and global citizens. The Ministry of Education (MoE) established the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) to lead the development of the Standards-Based Curriculum. NaCCA’s mandate involved creating a curriculum designed to educate students, emphasizing the cultivation of core competencies in critical thinking, problem-solving, communication,

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collaboration, and creativity. The curriculum outlined distinct learning standards for each grade level, from kindergarten to junior high school, focusing on essential subjects such as literacy, numeracy, science, and digital literacy (Ministry of Education, 2017). Before the roll-out of the SBC, the government conducted extensive five-day training sessions for master trainers to prepare educators for the transition from the old curriculum to the new one. Each school district selected 14 master trainers, including one administrator, resulting in 15 participants per district. The selection of master trainers and two teachers for each subject area was based on their competence, dedication, and experience in their respective subjects within each school district. The training aimed to equip master trainers with the necessary skills to go back to their school district and then serve as instructional trainers and coaches to their colleague teachers who are the primary implementors of the SBC in the classroom. The SBC was initially piloted in selected schools nationwide to test its applicability and gather feedback from teachers, administrators, and other stakeholders. After this phase, it was fully rolled out in September 2019, starting with kindergarten and primary school, with plans to extend it to junior high and secondary levels progressively. The implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum was part of a broader educational reform by the Ministry of Education and the Ghana Education Service aimed at improving the quality of pre-tertiary education and aligning with international best practices. The new curriculum was primarily to serve as a gap in the existing curriculum by developing essentials skills like critical thinking, problem-solving, and literacy in our leaners, which are vital for fostering lifelong learning and producing global citizens (Ministry of Education, 2018). The SBC emphasizes competency-based education, focusing on learners’ ability to demonstrate the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and attitudes. It moves away from rote memorization, involving students in activities that promote active learning and real-world application. To handle the implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum, the Ministry of Education (MoE) created the National Council for Curriculum and Assessment (NaCCA) to spearhead the development of the Standards-Based Curriculum. NaCCA’s mandate was to create a curriculum that outlined specific learning standards for each grade level, from kindergarten to junior high school, focusing on core subjects like literacy, numeracy, science, and digital literacy. Purpose of the Study This study was necessary because successfully implementing the Standards-Based Curriculum in Ghana is crucial in promoting equitable education nationwide. Despite the promising framework of the SBC, its rollout, especially in economically disadvantaged and rural regions such as the Bono East, faces significant challenges. These challenges include inadequate teaching resources, lack of teacher preparedness, insufficient infrastructure, and limited professional development opportunities. The SBC must address these barriers to fully achieve its goal of providing quality education for all students, regardless of their background. Thus, understanding the challenges hindering effective curriculum implementation in Bono East is

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vital for informing policy changes and improving educational outcomes, particularly in marginalized communities. The problem this study seeks to address is the barriers hindering the effective implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum in the Bono East Region of Ghana, which in turn affects the delivery of equitable education. Despite Ghana’s efforts to introduce an SBC designed to standardize learning outcomes and promote higher-order thinking skills, the curriculum’s rollout in disadvantaged areas has encountered numerous obstacles. Teachers, school administrators, and curriculum trainers have reported a lack of instructional materials, inadequate infrastructure, and insufficient training as significant barriers to curriculum delivery. These challenges prevent the SBC from being implemented effectively, thereby perpetuating inequities in education. The study aimed to explore the challenges faced by district administrators, curriculum trainers, and local teachers during implementation in Ghana’s most economically disadvantaged area, the Bono East Region. By identifying and analyzing these challenges, the study will provide recommendations for improving the implementation process and promoting equitable education in the region. The findings are expected to inform policymakers and educational leaders, assisting them in creating targeted interventions that address the specific needs of educators and students in resource-constrained environments. Research Questions The following research questions were crafted to guide this investigation: 1. What are school administrators’ perspectives on the challenges facing the implementation of the Standard Curriculum in the Bono East Region of Ghana? 2. What is the perspective of master trainers on the challenges facing the implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum in the Bono East Region of Ghana? 3. What are teachers’ expectations and perspectives on the challenges facing the implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum in the Bono East Region of Ghana? 4. Are there differences among the three groups’ perceptions of the implementation process? Significance of the Study: Contextual Factors and Barriers of SBC Implementation The significance of this study lies in the necessity of addressing contextual factors when implementing national educational reforms like the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC). Successful curriculum reform requires acknowledging regional disparities in resources, teacher capacity, and infrastructure, particularly in underserved areas such as the Bono East Region of Ghana. This study highlights how a one-size-fits-all approach overlooks the unique challenges faced by these regions, which can prevent the curriculum from achieving its intended goal of producing life-long leaners. By understanding these barriers, policymakers can implement targeted solutions that better serve disadvantaged communities.

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Critical stakeholders in the Bono East Region, including teachers, school administrators, and master trainers, have reported significant challenges in implementing the SBC. The study identifies major barriers such as inadequate instructional resources, insufficient teacher training, poor infrastructure, and a lack of culturally relevant materials. These factors hinder the effectiveness of the curriculum and exacerbate existing educational inequities. The findings from this study will inform policies and interventions aimed at improving curriculum implementation and ensuring that all students, regardless of their background, have access to high-quality education. The study offered participants an invaluable opportunity to express their views on the key barriers and challenges they faced in implementing the new curriculum. It provided them with a platform to be heard. Reflecting on their experiences with curriculum reform may yield new insights into the change process and their roles. By better understanding the obstacles encountered in rural areas, policies and strategies can be enhanced to improve equity and outcomes for future reforms. Given that Ghana’s former Minister of Education was trained in and borrowed extensively from U.S. K–12 policy models (Noguera, 2023), several components of the SBC such as competency-based learning, project-based instruction, STEM integration, and continuous assessment—align closely with trends in American curriculum reforms. , the study’s results and findings will be used as a gauge to engage the US government through the US Department of Education and other relevant educational agencies to seek resources and partnerships to make the Standards-Based Curriculum in the region a fulfilling one. Literature Review This literature review critically examines the theoretical and empirical evidence related to the implementation of Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) reforms, with a particular focus on equitable education. In Ghana, the rollout of the SBC in 2019 marked a crucial shift in national education policy, yet the success of this initiative has been uneven, particularly in economically disadvantaged regions like Bono East. The purpose of this literature review is to explore the current successes and challenges associated with standards-based education reforms within African and local context. It provides the necessary background to understand why these reforms matter, the conditions under which they thrive, and how structural inequalities in resources and training distribution as well as cultural responsiveness can undermine their effectiveness. This exploration is essential for situating the present study within the broader scholarly conversation on curriculum reform and equity in education. The relevance of this inquiry lies in its alignment with national and international goals for quality and equitable education, such as Ghana’s educational reform strategies and the United Nations Sustainable Development Goal 4, which calls for inclusive and equitable quality education for all. Given the global shift towards outcome-based learning frameworks,

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examining how such reforms function in underserved contexts like Bono East provides valuable insights for policymakers, educators, and curriculum developers. The remainder of the paper is organized into the following thematic areas. 1. The Literature Review section explores global and local perspectives on the SBC and equitable access to education. 2. The Methodology outlines the research design, participants, data collection tools, and data analysis strategies. 3. The Results section presents key findings from the survey data collected from the main education stakeholders; administrators, master trainers, and teachers. 4. The Discussion analyzes the implications of these findings, connecting them to the broader educational landscape and existing literature. 5. Conclusion summarizes the major insights and offers recommendations for future policy and practice. Standards-Based Curriculum The Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) represents a significant shift in educational approaches, focusing on core content, higher-order thinking skills, and standardized assessments (Sulaiman et al., 2015). The Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) is an educational framework that specifies learning goals, objectives, and outcomes that students are expected to achieve at each grade level. The primary aim of SBC is to ensure that all students, regardless of their background, are provided with a high-quality education that equips them with the necessary knowledge, skills, and competencies to succeed in a globalized world (Donnelly & Sadler, 2020). The SBC emerged as part of a more significant educational reform movement in the late 20th century. This movement was driven by concerns about the quality of education and the disparities in educational outcomes among different groups of students (Glatthorn et al., 2018). Governments and educational bodies worldwide sought to establish clear, measurable standards that defined what students should know and be able to do at each stage of their education. This shift was viewed as a means to promote accountability, improve teaching and learning, and close achievement gaps (Marzano, 2003). While SBC aims to improve educational outcomes and ensure equity, its implementation faces challenges such as teacher preparedness, resource limitations, and potential curriculum narrowing (Farsia, 2021). The movement towards SBC is part of a broader international trend in education reform, often driven by political agendas and concerns about national competitiveness (Sundberg & Wahlström, 2012). Critics argue that standardization may lead to a loss of teacher autonomy and exacerbate educational inequities (Kim & Abernathy, 2012). However, some studies suggest that teachers generally have positive perceptions of SBC, viewing it as progressive and outcome-oriented (Sulaiman et al., 2015). The success of SBC implementation largely depends on practical

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teacher training, resource allocation, and maintaining a balance between standardization and educational quality. The Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) represents a transformative approach to educational pedagogy, aligning teaching methods and student assessments with clearly defined learning standards. This curriculum model has been widely adopted globally, including in regions such as Malaysia and Sweden, each adapting it to its specific educational contexts and goals. In Malaysia, the introduction of the Primary School Standards-Based Curriculum (KSSR) in 2011 marked a significant shift from traditional rote learning methods to a more holistic educational framework that emphasizes higher-order thinking skills and standards-based assessments (Abdullahi et al., 2021). The KSSR was designed to align with national educational goals and international benchmarks, ensuring that Malaysian students receive an education that meets global standards (Rahim et al., 2024). This curriculum change involved substantial modifications to curriculum documents and organization, requiring teachers to adopt new instructional strategies that foster critical and creative thinking skills among students (Sulaiman et al., 2015). Implementing a new curriculum often presents significant challenges, requiring educators to shift from familiar teaching practices to new methodologies. Teachers must acquire additional knowledge and skills, which can create resistance and discomfort (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2014). In Malaysia, this transition was particularly difficult due to the necessity for teachers to design activities and assessments that promote high levels of cognitive engagement and integrate multiple language skills (Sulaiman et al., 2015). Furthermore, the implementation process demanded teachers’ dedication and commitment, along with effective professional development programs to support them during this transition (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2014). One key benefit of the Standards-Based Curriculum is its potential to promote equitable education. By setting clear and consistent standards, SBC ensures that all students are assessed against the same criteria, reducing educational quality and outcome variability. This approach helps bridge the gap between different socio-economic groups, providing all students the opportunity to succeed based on their merit and efforts rather than their background (Steiner, 2013). Importance of Equitable Education Equitable education is crucial for societal development and individual success. It can positively impact democracy, civic engagement, and social cohesion (Fieldsend, 2021). However, challenges such as racial discrimination, financial issues, and gender inequality hinder its implementation (Ling & Nasri, 2019). Early childhood education and teacher quality are critical to achieving equity (Hippe et al., 2016). Unequal educational opportunities significantly affect sustainable development goals and perpetuate intergenerational inequality (Ahmed, 2021). Equity indicators can help monitor and compare educational disparities across countries (Hutmacher et al., 2001).

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Education managers face challenges in enhancing equitable access to quality education, including inadequate funding and political interference (Mtavangu, 2010). Educational inequalities persist across family background, gender, race, and ethnicity, which impacts individuals’ life chances (Major & Machin, 2018). Equitable access to quality education has positively impacted individuals and societies across multiple dimensions. This literature review examines the evidence for the importance of equitable education in promoting democracy, civic engagement, and social cohesion. Research indicates a strong correlation between increased educational attainment and the development and maintenance of democratic political systems. Glaeser et al. (2004) found a 74% correlation coefficient between a country’s years of schooling and its score on the Polity IV Index of Democracy. Furthermore, longitudinal data suggest that increased levels of schooling led countries to transition from authoritarian to democratic systems over time (Glaeser, 2004). Education fosters beliefs and behaviors that support democratic governance. Across 30 developing countries, citizens with higher levels of education were more likely to believe living in a democracy is important (Diwan, 2021). In sub-Saharan Africa, those with primary education were 1.5 times more likely to express support for democracy compared to those with no education (UNESCO, 2014). Higher educational attainment is also associated with greater trust in institutions and tolerance of diversity—essential foundations for democratic societies (Borgonovi & Burns, 2015). There is substantial evidence that education promotes civic behaviors and engagement. Multiple studies have shown that higher levels of educational attainment correlate with increased voter turnout, political participation, and civic involvement (UNESCO, 2014). For example, in Latin America, voter turnout was five percentage points higher for those with primary education and nine points higher for those with secondary education than for those without (UNESCO, 2014). Education appears to equip individuals with the knowledge, skills, and motivations for civic participation. Specific opportunities for civic engagement during schooling, such as student councils, can have lasting impacts on civic behaviors throughout individuals’ lifetimes (Bush, 2022). However, the content and quality of civic education matter—simply increasing years of schooling does not guarantee positive civic outcomes. While rigorous causal evidence is limited, education is considered essential for fostering social cohesion. Higher levels of education are linked to greater trust, tolerance, and social capital (Iweuno et al., 2024). For instance, in Latin America, individuals with secondary education were 47% less likely than those with only primary education to express intolerance towards people of a different race (UNESCO, 2014). Education can help reduce social inequalities that undermine cohesion. There is a clear link between educational attainment and decreased rates of child marriage, which

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disproportionately affects girls (Wodon et al., 2017). Furthermore, education can diminish bullying and victimization, as children of parents with higher educational levels are less likely to be involved in bullying (OECD, 2020). Standards-Based Curriculum: Local Perspectives Ghana’s Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) aims to provide equitable education but faces implementation challenges, including inadequate teaching materials, limited teacher training, and insufficient infrastructure (Mochiah & Adibi, 2023; Bardoe et al., 2023). Teachers’ concerns about SBC implementation range from collaboration to management issues (Apau, 2021), strongly indicating that barriers to inclusive education persist at all levels. Additionally, teachers lack support in teaching students with disabilities in regular classrooms (Opoku et al., 2019). The Standards-Based Curriculum has received a positive perception from stakeholders across the country as one that possesses the qualities to shape the educational fortunes of students. However, there is a need to make it more practical due to the challenges that hinder the implementation process. The success of educational innovations depends on stakeholder engagement and addressing teachers’ concerns (Agbofa et al., 2023). Equity in education faces challenges such as racial discrimination, financial problems, and gender inequality (Ling & Nasri, 2019). In developing economies, barriers to education implementation include cybersecurity threats, skills gaps, and insufficient technologies (Costan et al., 2021). Addressing these challenges is crucial for successful curriculum implementation and for achieving equitable education. Methodology The targeted population of approximately 300 educators consist of thirty-six (36) school administrators, ninety (90) master trainers, and two hundred and seventy (270) teachers, all from the twelve (11) school districts. From this population, we secured a representative sample size of 268 participants. A total of 268 participants completed the survey, representing an 89% usable response rate. Participants were drawn from 11 school districts and included teachers (n = 167), master trainers (n = 74), and school administrators (n = 12). Data was collected online through an anonymous survey instrument emailed to all participants. It is important to note that the participants are education/school-based educators in the Bono East region of Ghana. This study was reviewed and approved by the Salisbury University Institutional Review Board (IRB), as well as by each participating school district. All research activities followed the ethical guidelines set by the university and the districts to protect the rights and wellbeing of participants. An informed consent statement appeared at the start of the online survey, giving individuals the choice to participate or decline before moving forward. The consent form outlined the purpose of the study, emphasized that participation was voluntary, explained that respondents could withdraw at any time, and described the steps taken to protect their confidentiality.

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Data were collected through Salisbury University’s secure Qualtrics system, which automatically anonymized responses and removed any identifying information. The resulting dataset was stored on the university’s protected servers, with access limited strictly to the research team. No personal identifiers were gathered at any point, ensuring participant anonymity and maintaining minimal risk in line with IRB standards. The survey instrument used in this study was developed by the researcher to measure educators’ perceptions of barriers to implementing the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) in the Bono East Region. Item development was guided by the National Pre-Tertiary Curriculum Framework, NaCCA implementation manuals (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment [NaCCA], 2019), and prior studies on curriculum reform barriers, resource constraints, technology access, cultural relevance, and professional development needs. The instrument was not piloted before full administration. Content validity was established through expert review by two curriculum leads from different school districts one faculty who served as a member of the curriculum development committee formed by NaCCA. Reviewers made recommendations to include specific examples (e.g., “digital tools,” “local cultural examples”) and assessed item alignment with the constructs. The final instrument contained distinct subscales for each barrier domain across the three participants on a 5-point Likert scale and open-ended questions: instructional and material resources, technology access, cultural responsiveness and curriculum relevance, professional development and implementation preparedness. Separate versions of the instrument were administered to teachers (18 Likert items), master trainers (15 items), and administrators (12 items), but all shared the same four core subscales to allow meaningful comparison across groups. The scale demonstrated internal consistency when administered to teachers (α=.756) and school administrators (α=.797), but not to master trainers (α=.378). This pattern is consistent with the roles represented: teachers and administrators were directly involved in implementation and therefore interpreted the items through more similar lenses, whereas master trainers involved only in professional development held more varied perspectives. This study has several limitations worth noting. Because the data were gathered through an online self-report survey, responses may reflect personal bias and may underrepresent individuals in areas with limited internet access. Nonresponse bias and the cross-sectional nature of the study also limit how broadly the findings can be generalized and prevent any conclusions about cause and effect. Results A total of 253 education stakeholders participated in the anonymous survey. The respondents were distributed among eleven school districts in the Bono East Region of Ghana: Kintampo South School District, Techiman North School District, Nkoranza North School District, Sene West School District, Sene East School District, Pru West School District, Pru East School District, Atebubu-Amantin School District, Kintampo North School District, Nkoranza South

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School District, and Techiman South School District. This group included 12 school administrators, 74 master trainers, and 167 teachers. A total of 253 cases were complete enough to be included in the descriptive analyses. Missing responses were very minimal (less than 3%) and were handled through pairwise deletion to preserve as much usable information as possible without altering the meaning of the subscale scores. Before running the MANOVA, the dataset was checked for multivariate outliers and other assumption violations. Four cases were removed because they exceeded the Mahalanobis distance cutoff and contributed to issues with normality and covariance structure. After removing these cases, 249 observations remained for the MANOVA. This process ensured that the final dataset met the statistical assumptions required for producing valid and reliable multivariate results. Figure 1 Teachers Report Adequate Training in the Curriculum Standards and Frameworks Required n=167 140 120

Frequency

100 80 60 40 20 0

Series1

Strongly Disagree

Somewhat Disagree

Neither Agree nor Disagree 2

Somewhat Agree

Strongly Agree

133

As shown in Figure 1, most respondents indicated they had adequate training to teach the curriculum effectively. This exemplifies the initial perception that the barriers affecting the implementation process were not related to training. Ten respondents strongly disagreed, four somewhat disagreed, 18 somewhat agreed that they had adequate training, and 13 strongly agreed. This data highlights a significant trust in professional development leading to implementation, which is particularly concerning given that the SBC requires a shift from traditional teaching methods to more student-centered approaches that emphasize higher-order thinking skills that teachers believe they have acquired.

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Frequency

Figure 2 Teachers Report a Lack of Technology Tools, Programs, and Platforms to Enhance Curriculum Delivery, n=167 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0

Series1

Strongly Disagree

Somewhat Disagree

Neither Agree nor Disagree 0

Somewhat Agree

Strongly Agree

139

Figure 3 reveals that nine teacher respondents strongly disagreed about lacking technology for classroom integration in implementing the curriculum, eight somewhat disagreed, 11 somewhat agreed, and 139 strongly agreed, with no respondents expressing neutrality. In an era when technology integration is increasingly recognized as a vital component of adequate education, the absence of these tools in the Bono East Region poses a substantial obstacle to implementing the SBC. The lack of technology limits teachers’ ability to diversify their instructional strategies and restricts students’ access to a broader range of learning resources and opportunities for developing digital literacy. Figure 3 District Administrators report on the Availability of Adequate Instructional Materials and Resources to Support Curriculum Delivery in their School Districts, n=12

There were 12 school leaders. Seven strongly disagreed that they had instructional materials and resources to implement the curriculum effectively, four somewhat disagreed, with none neither agreeing nor disagreeing, and only one school leader somewhat agreed that they had some resources for curriculum implementation, with zero strongly agreeing.

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Frequency

Figure 4 Teachers Report on the Curriculum Reflecting Cultural Responsiveness and Relevance to Students, n=167 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

Series1

Strongly Disagree

Somewhat Disagree

Neither Agree nor Disagree

Somewhat Agree

Strongly Agree

The teachers’ report in Figure 6 demonstrates excellent concern for the cultural responsiveness of the curriculum. Eighty-two respondents disagreed that the curriculum was culturally responsive and relevant to learners’ needs; 60 somewhat disagreed, ten neither agreed nor disagreed, 11 somewhat agreed, and 4 teachers strongly agreed that the curriculum was relevant to learners’ needs. The lack of confidence in the curriculum’s cultural responsiveness raises questions about its effectiveness. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics for Implementation, (n = 167)

Teacher

Perceptions

Standards-Based

Curriculum

Items

Dimension

Min

Max

Mean

S.D.

I lack technology tools, programs and platforms to enhance curriculum delivery. (rc)

1.43

1.09

I have sufficient instructional materials and resources to teach the curriculum effectively.

1.66

0.99

I lack quality assessment tools aligned to the curriculum. (rc)

3.75

1.38

I am overwhelmed by frequent curriculum changes in my subject area. (rc)

4.44

1.05

I find inconsistencies between the curriculum and student standardized assessments. (rc)

4.23

1.04

I don’t have adequate instructional time to implement the curriculum given other teaching demands. (rc)

3.70

1.33

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I feel I have adequate input into revising and adapting the curriculum to meet student needs. The curriculum often lacks authentic connections to real-world contexts and applications. (rc) The curriculum frequently includes inactive learning strategies like lecturing and textbook reading. (rc) The curriculum often does not reflect cultural responsiveness nor relevance to my students. (rc) The curriculum provides little opportunity for student choice, exploration and independent inquiry. (rc) I have adequate training in the curriculum standards and frameworks I’m required to teach. There is too much material to cover in the curriculum to teach it with fidelity. (rc) I struggle to adapt my teaching strategies for the diverse learning needs of all my students. (rc) I lack consistent collaborative planning time with my teacher team to coordinate on the curriculum. (rc) I feel confident in my understanding of the learning standards and objectives in the curriculum. I lack techniques and strategies to fully engage students with the curriculum content. (rc)

2.38

1.40

4.14

1.15

4.32

0.99

4.23

0.99

4.17

1.10

4.55

1.08

2.63

1.72

4.17

1.08

3.86

1.26

4.55

0.95

4.29

0.92

Note: Reverse coded items indicated by: (rc) / 1=Strongly Disagree to 5=Strongly Agree TA=Technology Access, IR=Instructional and Material Resources, CR=Cultural Responsiveness and Curriculum Relevance, and PD=Professional Development and Implementation Preparedness

Table 1 presents the descriptive statistics for teacher perceptions across the four SBC implementation dimensions. Overall, teachers reported limited access to technology tools and platforms, as indicated by the low mean score for technology access. Responses also show concerns about inadequate instructional resources and frequent curriculum changes, with several items in the instructional resources domain receiving higher agreement. Within the cultural responsiveness dimension, teachers consistently rated items high on the reverse-coded statements, suggesting that they perceive the curriculum as lacking cultural relevance, realworld connections, and active learning opportunities. In contrast, items within the professional development dimension show relatively higher agreement with positively worded statements, indicating that teachers generally feel prepared in terms of curriculum training and understanding, although they still report challenges with curriculum workload, collaborative planning time, and strategies for engaging diverse learners.

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Table 2 Descriptive Statistics for Master Trainers Perceptions of Standards-Based Curriculum Implementation (n = 74)

Items

Dimension

Min

Max

Mean

S.D.

There is insufficient integration of technology tools for digital learning in the curriculum. (rc)

2.70

1.46

Teachers are provided quality instructional materials to teach the curriculum.

1.73

0.75

There are few curriculum resources available for enrichment and student exploration. (rc)

1.61

0.70

Teachers need more ownership to customize curriculum to their classroom contexts.

4.07

0.90

The curriculum generally reflects cultural responsiveness to our diverse student groups.

2.58

1.23

Teachers say some curriculum content often lacks relevance to their student populations. (rc)

2.43

1.21

Teachers have adequate curriculum training opportunities to implement it effectively.

3.92

1.31

The curriculum provides sufficient framework with learning standards, objectives and activities.

4.28

0.85

There are too many instructional initiatives for teachers to balance on top of the curriculum. (rc)

2.23

1.09

Teachers have enough collaborative planning time to coordinate curriculum lessons.

3.50

1.24

Teachers lack techniques to differentiate instruction for diverse curriculum learners. (rc)

3.50

1.25

Many teachers do not have deep understanding of the learning standards embedded in the curriculum. (rc)

3.32

1.31

Teachers express frustration with inactive learning models in the curriculum materials. (rc)

2.31

1.12

Table 2 summarizes master trainers’ perceptions across the four curriculum implementation dimensions. In the area of technology access, master trainers reported moderate concerns about the limited integration of digital tools to support instruction (M = 2.70, SD = 1.46). Responses

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within the instructional resources dimension indicate strong agreement that teachers still lack adequate materials and enrichment resources, as reflected in the low mean scores. For cultural responsiveness, master trainers expressed a clear need for greater autonomy to adapt the curriculum to their classroom contexts (M = 4.07, SD = 0.90), although perceptions of cultural relevance and responsiveness were more varied across items. In the professional development and implementation preparedness dimension, master trainers tended to agree that the curriculum provides a clear framework (M = 4.28, SD = 0.85) and that they have access to training opportunities (M = 3.92, SD = 1.31). At the same time, several reverse-coded items point to persistent challenges, including managing multiple instructional initiatives, differentiating instruction, and addressing concerns about inactive learning models embedded in the curriculum materials. Table 3 Multivariate Tests for the Effect of Role on the Combined Dependent Variables Hypothesis df Error df Sig.

Partial Eta Squared

Effect

Value

Intercept Pillai’s Trace

.883

921.660b 2.000

245.000 .000

.883

.117

921.660b 2.000

245.000 .000

.883

Hotelling’s Trace 7.524

921.660b 2.000

245.000 .000

.883

Roy’s Largest Root 7.524

921.660b 2.000

245.000 .000

.883

Pillai’s Trace

.197

13.424

4.000

492.000 .000

.098

Wilks’ Lambda

.803

14.175b

4.000

490.000 .000

.104

Hotelling’s Trace .245

14.923

4.000

488.000 .000

.109

Roy’s Largest Root .244

30.007c

2.000

246.000 .000

.196

Wilks’ Lambda

Role

A one-way MANOVA was conducted to examine the effect of teacher role on two indicators of SBC implementation fidelity: training and resource adequacy. There was a statistically significant multivariate effect of role on the combined dependent variables, Pillai’s Trace = .197, F(4, 492) = 13.42, p < .001, partial η² = .098.

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Table 4 Bonferroni Post Hoc Multiple Comparisons for Role Differences on Resource and Training Variables

Dependent Variable

(I) Which of the (J) Which of the Mean following applies following applies Difference to you? to you? (I-J) Std. Error Sig.

Do teachers have Teachers adequate resources to implement SBC with fidelity? Master Trainers

School Administrators Have the teachers Teachers received adequate training to implement SBC with fidelity? Master Trainers

School Administrators

95% Confidence Interval Lower Bound

Upper Bound

Master Trainers

-.2057

.09151

.076

-.4263

.0148

School Administrators

-.1201

.19526

1.000 -.5908

.3505

Teachers

.2057

.09151

.076

-.0148

.4263

School Administrators

.0856

.20315

1.000 -.4041

.5753

Teachers

.1201

.19526

1.000 -.3505

.5908

Master Trainers

-.0856

.20315

1.000 -.5753

.4041

Master Trainers

.9484*

.13641

.000

.6195

1.2772

School Administrators

.9596*

.29107

.003

.2580

1.6612

Teachers

-.9484*

.13641

.000

-1.2772

-.6195

School Administrators

.0113

.30284

1.000 -.7187

.7412

Teachers

-.9596*

.29107

.003

-1.6612

-.2580

Master Trainers

-.0113

.30284

1.000 -.7412

.7187

The univariate results revealed no significant effect of teacher role on perceived adequacy of resources, p > .05 across all pairwise comparisons using Bonferroni adjustments. In contrast, there was a significant effect of teacher role on perceptions of SBC training adequacy. Teachers reported significantly lower training adequacy compared to Master Trainers (mean difference = .95, p < .001) and School Administrators (mean difference = .96, p = .003). No significant difference emerged between Master Trainers and Administrators (p = 1.00).

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Discussion The key rationale for the study was to investigate educational stakeholders’ perceptions, including those of district school leaders, master trainers, and teachers, regarding the barriers to implementing the Standards-Based Curriculum in Ghana using Bono East region as a case study. The findings from our research highlight significant barriers to the effective implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) in Ghana, especially the northern belt. These barriers illuminate a complex interaction of systemic, infrastructural, pedagogical, and cultural challenges that continue to hinder effective curriculum implementation, particularly in underserved and rural regions. As defined by the Ghana Education Service, school administrators are responsible for aligning policy implementation goals with day-to-day operations in their school districts. However, their efforts are hindered by the central government’s lack of adequate resources. School administrators reported persistent structural challenges that mirror systemic issues in resource allocation across Ghana’s educational system. Consistent with Bantwini and Moorosi’s (2022) findings from South Africa, school leaders in Bono East overwhelmingly indicated a lack of adequate instructional materials, overcrowded classrooms, and limited authority to make local decisions about curriculum implementation. Figure 3 of this study demonstrates the widespread nature of this barrier: out of 12 district leaders, 11 disagreed that they had adequate instructional materials, and none strongly agreed. The lack of resourcing for the implementation of the SBC is particularly problematic given that the SBC is modeled partly on the American K–12 standards (Noguera, 2023) which presupposes a minimum threshold of technological infrastructure, instructional resources, and pedagogical support systems through districtwide Multi-Tiered System of Support (MTSS). Without this foundational support, district leaders face significant limitations in harmonizing policy expectations with classroom realities a problem documented by Mandillah (2019) and echoed in Ghana’s SBC implementation. School administrators also highlighted gaps in curriculum leadership training. This finding supports Msila and Mtshali’s (2022) research on curriculum implementation that emphasized how leaders in emerging education systems often lack the requisite skillsets to guide teachers through complex reform processes such as the SBC. The limited training reported by administrators suggests a structural weakness in Ghana’s national rollout strategy, which has focused heavily on teacher workshops but less on equipping leaders with the tools needed for oversight, mentoring, and pedagogical supervision. This leadership gap may partly explain the inconsistent implementation practices observed across schools in Bono East. Consistent with these trends, the MANOVA results from this study show a significant multivariate effect of role on perceptions of SBC implementation fidelity (Pillai’s Trace = .197, p < .001), indicating that administrators, master trainers, and teachers experience the

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implementation process in meaningfully different ways. The role-specific differences confirm that system-level actors do not share a uniform understanding of implementation conditions, further signaling the need for coordinated support structures across the system. Master trainers nationwide were crucial in playing an intermediary role as instructional coaches in bridging curriculum design and implementation strategies from NaCCA to classroom implementation by teachers. However, the need for adequate professional support systems undermined their ability to chart the path and provide undiluted curriculum details and modules to teachers. Data from the descriptive statistics in Table 2 indicate that master trainers identified several critical concerns, including inadequate instructional resources, limited enrichment materials, and insufficient integration of technology tools for digital learning. These findings align with Ramnarain and Ramaila’s (2012) conclusion that curriculum reform efforts often falter at the intermediary level when trainers do not receive localized materials, clear implementation guides, or sustained professional learning supports. Master trainers in this study expressed strong agreement that teachers need more autonomy to adapt curriculum content to their classroom contexts (M = 4.07). However, they also noted that the curriculum is only moderately culturally responsive (M = 2.58), and that some content lacks contextual relevance (M = 2.43). These perceptions reinforce concerns documented by Chimbunde and Kgari-Masondo (2020) in Zimbabwe, where standardized national curricula struggled to address learners’ cultural realities, leading to diminished engagement and weaker implementation outcomes. These quantitative findings support the interpretation that educators perceive partial but insufficient cultural alignment within the SBC, rather than complete misalignment. The study exemplifies the universality of the curriculum which make it difficult for teachers in rural schools to create a link between subject the content and its relevance to students’ communities and livelihoods. Teachers, as the frontline implementers of the SBC, are the most affected by the barriers to its implementation. Most teachers in the Bono East Region noted a lack of teaching and learning materials, which limits their ability to deliver the curriculum effectively. From figure 1-4 illustrates several challenges raised by teachers. Qualitative feedback from teachers added important context to the resource challenges identified in the survey. Many described having “no materials to use” and emphasized the “lack of printed materials like textbooks” needed to support the new curriculum. Some shared that, without official resources, they often had to “search the internet for materials and copy them on the board,” a task they felt was both time-consuming and unsustainable. Together, these insights deepen the quantitative findings, highlighting how the shortage of teaching and learning materials continues to hinder effective and equitable SBC implementation. Teachers overwhelmingly reported inadequate access to digital tools, programs, and platforms (Figure 2). With 139 respondents out of 167 strongly agreeing that they lack necessary technology, the findings underscore a fundamental misalignment between the SBC’s emphasis on 21st-century competencies and the realities of rural classroom environments. This

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discrepancy between policy and implementation is stressed by Kwatubana (2023), who noted that inadequate digital infrastructure hinders teachers’ ability to integrate modern pedagogies. Teachers in their responses in this study also emphasized the lack of cultural responsiveness and relevance to the needs of local students. The cultural responsiveness subscale means (M = 2.84, SD = 0.91) fell below the neutral midpoint, and Figures 4 shows that 82 teachers disagreed and 60 somewhat disagreed that the curriculum reflects students’ cultural contexts. Only 4 teachers strongly agreed. Most teachers expressed concern that the SBC needs to reflect the cultural realities of the students in the Bono East Region, making it difficult to engage learners effectively. These concerns align with Asamoah et al. (2022) and Chimbunde & KgariMasondo (2020), who argue that standardized curricula that fail to incorporate local cultural practices often result in student disengagement and inequitable learning outcomes. The lack of technological tools is reflected in the comments made by the Minister of Education of Ghana, Dr. Yaw Osei Adutwum who spearheaded the implementation of the StandardsBased Curriculum in Ghana. Speaking at the High-Level Pre-Summit of the Future hosted by the International Conference of Sustainable Development (ICSD) at Columbia University in the United States, Dr. Adwutwum emphasized the urgency of transforming Ghana’s educational infrastructure, remarking that “We cannot educate 21st century children in 19thcentury buildings and expect 21st-century outcomes”(Global Partnership for Education, 2021)This statement underscores the critical need for modern resources and facilities to fully realize the goals of the SBC.A large majority of teachers indicated insufficient instructional resources (Figure 2; Table 1). This lack is especially consequential for a standards-based model, which depends heavily on the availability of curriculum-aligned materials, assessment tools, and learning guides. Nearly 90% of teachers in this study reported that additional resources were necessary to meet curriculum expectations. In contrast, teachers reported relatively high confidence in their training (Figure 1), with 133 strongly agreeing and 18 somewhat agreeing that they had adequate training. Table 1 further shows high means for training-related items (e.g., M = 4.55 for confidence in understanding curriculum standards). However, Bonferroni post hoc tests reveal that teachers reported significantly lower training adequacy than both master trainers (p < .001) and administrators (p = .003). This suggests that while teachers may feel confident relative to their own experiences, training quality or consistency may vary systemically across roles. The MANOVA results confirmed a statistically significant multivariate effect of role on perceptions of training and resource adequacy. However, univariate analyses and post hoc comparisons indicate that perceived resource adequacy did not differ significantly across roles. Hitherto, all stakeholders agree that schools lack resources. Again, perceived training adequacy differed significantly across roles. Teachers rated training adequacy significantly lower than both master trainers and administrators. This is notable because teachers received the most direct SBC training; however, they also experience the most direct pressure in classroom implementation. These differences echo

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Johnson’s (2020) argument that teachers often view reforms through the lens of day-to-day feasibility, whereas administrators adopt more policy-oriented perspectives and master trainers occupy an intermediary interpretive role. The findings from this study have important implications for policymakers and educational leaders in Ghana. First, addressing the lack of instructional resources in underserved regions is critical for ensuring the effective and successful implementation of the SBC. This includes providing adequate teaching and learning materials, upgrading technological infrastructure, and ensuring teachers receive ongoing professional development. Second, curriculum designers must work more closely with local stakeholders to ensure that the curriculum is culturally responsive and relevant to the students it serves. As Asamoah et al. (2022) suggest, a one-size-fits-all approach to curriculum reform is unlikely to succeed in regions with diverse cultural and educational needs. Furthermore, policymakers should prioritize making professional learning communities within various schools operate effectively, allowing teachers to collaborate, share best practices, and receive ongoing instructional support. This would improve the implementation of the SBC and enhance teachers’ ability to adapt the curriculum to their local contexts. Finally, greater leadership autonomy and stakeholder inclusion in the decision-making process could help to bridge the gap between policy and practice, ensuring that future curriculum reforms are more effectively aligned with the needs of the regions in which they are implemented (Bourke et al. 2020; Johnson et al. 2021). Recommendations This study reveals that while the Standards-Based Curriculum (SBC) has the potential to improve education in Ghana, its success in regions like Bono East and several other underserved regions depends on addressing several pressing challenges. The researchers recommend that, there must be a more equitable distribution of teaching and learning resources in the implementation of any sort of curriculum from school to national level emerges strongly from the data. Ninety-four teachers reported they did not have adequate instructional materials, 139 indicated they lacked the technological tools required for effective delivery, 34 master trainers strongly agreed that enrichment resources were unavailable, and seven of the twelve administrators reported insufficient instructional support in their districts. These consistent resource concerns across all stakeholder groups underscore an urgent need for government and district leaders to prioritize equitable distribution of resources—particularly in underserved area. Again, many teachers and master trainers expressed the need for continuous support beyond the initial training. Strengthening Professional Learning Communities (PLCs) which is a key component of the Standards-Based Curriculum within schools can create spaces for collaboration and shared learning. The researchers recommend to localize and culturally adapt the curriculum is similarly supported by both quantitative and qualitative findings. Results from the cultural responsiveness subscale show that 58% of teachers felt the SBC does not reflect students’

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cultural contexts, and 62% believed that many learning tasks were too broad and disconnected from local community practices. Teachers’ comments further revealed that curriculum content often fails to resonate with students’ lived experiences. Together, these insights highlight the importance of culturally grounded curriculum adaptations to strengthen engagement and promote more equitable learning outcomes. Technology is another major gap. The SBC encourages 21st-century skills, but many schools lack the basic infrastructure to support this. This gap directly undermines the SBC’s goal of fostering 21st-century skills, including digital literacy and higher-order thinking. The researchers recommend that access to educational technology like internet connectivity, computers, and training should be expanded especially in underserved communities would allow teachers to deliver the curriculum as intended and give students the skills they need for today’s world. With 139 of the 167 teachers strongly agreeing that they lack digital tools and platforms necessary for instruction, the data clearly show that digital inequity is a major obstacle. For future research, more in-depth studies across various regions using interviews or classroom observations would offer a fuller picture of how SBC reforms play out in real settings. This would help guide long-term improvements and ensure reforms stay grounded in everyday classroom experiences. Conclusion The study found significant barriers to the effective implementation of the Standards-Based Curriculum in Bono East Region, which negatively impacts equitable delivery of education within the 11 school districts in the region. Critically important is the disparity among stakeholders’ perceptions of the barriers in the implementation process, with teachers holding a higher perception of barriers than the remaining two stakeholders. The barriers identified in this study from inadequate training and resources to the lack of technological tools and cultural relevance pose significant challenges to effectively implementing the Standards-Based Curriculum Ghana using Bono East Region as a case study. Addressing these barriers through targeted interventions that provide teachers with the necessary support, resources, and autonomy is crucial for ensuring all students have access to high-quality, equitable education. As the region continues implementing the SBC, policymakers, and educational leaders must prioritize these areas to bridge the gaps and realize the curriculum’s full potential. Acknowledgment I want to express my sincere gratitude to Dr James Fox, Chair of the Department of Education Leadership and Literacy Studies at Salisbury University, for his exemplary guidance and mentorship throughout this research process. His unwavering dedication, commitment, and support have been instrumental in my academic and research development. His insightful

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feedback and expertise have significantly enhanced the quality of this work and contributed immensely to my growth as a researcher. His mentorship extended beyond this publication, guiding me through multiple research projects and helping me develop essential scholarly skills.

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Costan, E., Gonzales, G., Gonzales, R., Enriquez, L., Costan, F., Suladay, D., Atibing, N. M., Aro, J. L., Evangelista, S. S., Maturan, F., & others. (2021). Education 4.0 in developing economies: A systematic literature review of implementation barriers and future research agenda. Sustainability, 13(22), 12763. https://doi.org/10.3390/su132212763 Diwan, I. (2021). Democracy and education. In H. Alaoui & R. Springborg (Eds.), The political economy of education in the Arab world (pp. 15–40). Lynne Rienner Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781626379442-004 Donnelly, K., & Sadler, R. (2020). Standards-based education reform: Facts, myths, and future. American Journal of Education, 126(4), 517–540. Farsia, L. (2024). Ensuring equal opportunity: Gender equality in the workplace. ACCENTIA: Journal of English Language and Education, 4(1), 21–28. https://doi.org/10.37598/accentia.v4i1.2040 Fieldsend, A. (2021). Evidence and lessons learned regarding the effect of equitable quality education on “open society” (Report). Institute of Development Studies. https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12413/16723 Glaeser, E. L., La Porta, R., Lopez-de-Silanes, F., & Shleifer, A. (2004). Do institutions cause growth? Journal of Economic Growth, 9(3), 271–303. Glatthorn, A. A., Boschee, F., & Whitehead, B. M. (2018). Curriculum leadership: Strategies for development and implementation. SAGE Publications. Global Partnership for Education. (2021). Speakers at the Global Education Summit. https://www.globalpartnership.org Hutmacher, W., Cochrane, D., & Bottani, N. (2001). In pursuit of equity in education: Using international indicators to compare equity. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Iweuno, B. N., Nkwocha, S. T., Egwim, O. E., Omorotionmwan, A., & Makinde, P. (2024). Impact of racial representation in curriculum content on student identity and performance. World Journal of Advanced Research and Reviews, 23(1), 2913–2933. https://doi.org/10.30574/wjarr.2024.23.1.2280 Johnson, A. (2020). The administrator’s role in curriculum reform. Journal of Educational Leadership, 22(3), 5–19. Kim, J.-H., & Abernathy, D. (2012). Understanding curriculum as a polyphonic text: Curriculum theorizing in the midst of standardization. Journal of Curriculum Theorizing, 28(1). https://doi.org/10.63997/jct.v28i1.266 Kwatubana, S. (2023). The role of principals as instructional leaders in the implementation of ICT curriculum in South African public schools. BCES Conference Proceedings, 21, 185–190. Ling, T., & Nasri, N. (2019). A systematic review: Issues on equity in education. Creative Education, 10, 3163–3174. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2019.1012240 Major, L. E., & Machin, S. (2018). Social mobility and its enemies. Penguin UK. Mandillah, L. (2019). Kenyan curriculum reforms and mother tongue education: Issues, challenges, and implementation strategies. Education as Change, 23(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.25159/1947-9417/3379

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Marzano, R. J. (2003). What works in schools: Translating research into action. ASCD. https://files.ascd.org/staticfiles/ascd/pdf/siteASCD/video/WhatWorksinSchools.pdf Ministry of Education. (2017). National teacher education curriculum framework: The essential elements of initial teacher education. Accra: Author Mochiah, J. N.-A., & Adibi, M.-G. D. (2023). The new standard-based curriculum in Ghana: Prospects, challenges, and the way forward. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(4), 41–54. https://doi.org/10.47941/jep.1389 Mtavangu, E. B. (2010). Challenges of education managers in enhancing equitable access to quality secondary education in Tanzania Mainland (Master’s thesis). Open University of Tanzania. National Council for Curriculum and Assessment. (2019). Teacher resource pack for the orientation of primary school teachers towards the implementation of the revised curriculum for primary schools. Ministry of Education, Ghana. https://nacca.gov.gh Noguera, P. (2023, December 4). Yaw Osei Adutwum PhD ‘09 returned to Ghana to transform the nation’s educational system. USC Rossier School of Education. https://rossier.usc.edu/news-insights/news/yaw-osei-adutwum-phd-09-returnedghana-transform-nations-educational-system OECD (2020). PISA 2018 technical report. OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd.org/pisa/data/ pisa2018technicalreport/. Opoku, M. P., Tawiah, R., Agyei-Okyere, E., Osman, S., & Afriyie, S. A. (2018). Teaching students with Down syndrome in regular classrooms in Ghana: Views of secondary school mathematics teachers. International Journal of Disability, Development and Education, 66(2), 218–232. https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912X.2018.1527297 Ornstein, A. C., & Hunkins, F. P. (2014). Curriculum: Foundations, principles, and issues (6th ed.). Pearson Education. Rahim, S. S. B. A., & Chua, K. H. (2024). Basic education in Malaysia. In International handbook on education in South East Asia (pp. 1–17). Springer Nature Singapore. Ramnarain, U., & Ramaila, S. (2012). Mentoring as a viable and sustainable form of professional development for secondary science teachers. Education as Change, 16(1), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/16823206.2012.745754 Steiner, D. (2013). National standards and the curriculum. In D. T. Gordon (Ed.), A nation reformed? American education 20 years after A Nation at Risk. Harvard Education Press. Sundberg, D., & Wahlström, N. (2012). Standards-based curricula in a denationalized conception of education: The case of Sweden. European Educational Research Journal, 11(3), 342–356. https://doi.org/10.2304/eerj.2012.11.3.342 Sulaiman, T., Ayub, A. F. M., & Sulaiman, S. (2015). Curriculum change in English language curriculum advocates higher-order thinking skills and standards-based assessments in Malaysian primary schools. Mediterranean Journal of Social Sciences, 6(2), 494–497. https://doi.org/10.5901/mjss.2015.v6n2p494 UNESCO. (2014). Teaching and learning: Achieving quality for all (Education for All Global Monitoring Report). UNESCO Publishing.

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Wodon, Q., Male, C., Nayihouba, A., Onagoruwa, A., Savadogo, A., Yedan, S., Edmeades, J., et al. (2017). Economic impacts of child marriage: Global synthesis report. The World Bank; ICRW. Corresponding Author: Peter Jabal Email: Pjabal1@gulls.salisbury.edu

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Appendices Suplimentary Figures Figure 5 Master Trainers Report a Lack of Curriculum Resources for Enrichment and Student Exploration, n=74

Figure 5 shows that 34 master trainer respondents strongly agreed that there are limited or no resources available for student exploration, 38 somewhat agreed, none neither agreed nor disagreed, one somewhat disagreed, and only one strongly disagreed that adequate resources are available. This scarcity of resources further exacerbates the challenges teachers face in creating an engaging and comprehensive learning environment for learners to thrive. Figure 6 Teachers Report having Sufficient Instructional Materials and Resources to Teach the Curriculum Effectively, n=167

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Figure 6 reveals that 94 teachers strongly disagreed they had the required instructional resources to implement the curriculum effectively, 56 somewhat disagreed, 2 neither agreed nor disagreed, 10 somewhat agreed, and 5 strongly agreed they have sufficient materials to teach effectively. This resource shortage hinders curriculum delivery and limits students’ opportunities to engage in meaningful learning experiences that align with the curriculum’s standards.

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The PRIME Framework: A Design-Based, Pace-Sensitive RME Approach for Inclusive Mathematics in Indonesia Pujia Siti Balkist Universitas Muhammadiyah Sukabumi & Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Turmudi Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Al Jupri Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia Elah Nurlaelah Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia, Indonesia

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Abstract This design research study investigates how pace-sensitive and inclusive mathematics instruction can support students who learn at slower, moderate, and faster paces in Indonesian junior high classrooms. Using the PRIME framework—Profiling, Reconstruction, Implementation, Measurement, and Engagement—the study was implemented across two iterative cycles in two comparable inclusive classes (N = 80, Grade 8). Each cycle employed contextual mathematical tasks integrating local and global themes, such as fishing tides, travelbased time zones, temperature changes, skyscraper scaling, and communal food sharing, all grounded in Realistic Mathematics Education (RME). Students’ learning-pace profiles were established through triangulated diagnostics including cognitive screening instruments, selfassessment, teacher interviews, and Level 0 contextual tasks. Within each cycle, descriptive analyses indicated clear improvements in students’ representational clarity, strategic reasoning, and movement through the RME phases, particularly among students who initially struggled with abstraction. Cycle 2 demonstrated more substantial gains than Cycle 1, with students exhibiting increased independence, reduced need for teacher prompting, and stronger transitions from model-of to model-for reasoning. Qualitative thematic analysis further showed enhanced engagement, contextual understanding, and confidence, while teachers reported more manageable routines for differentiation. The findings suggest that learning pace is malleable and responsive to purposeful instructional design. The PRIME framework offers a practical bridge between RME, differentiated instruction, Universal Design for Learning (UDL), and Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (MTSS), providing a feasible model for promoting equitable mathematics learning in resource-variable inclusive classrooms. Keywords: design research, inclusive education, learning pace, realistic mathematics education, multi-tiered systems of support, universal design for learning

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Inclusive education gained global momentum following the 1994 Salamanca Statement, which advocated for quality learning environments that accommodate all learners through childcentered and responsive teaching (Kemdikbudristek, 2022; Sari & Wahyuni, 2023; UNESCO, 2020). In Indonesia, inclusive education has developed significantly over the past two decades, supported by policy reforms such as Kurikulum Merdeka, which emphasizes student agency, differentiation, and inclusive mathematics instruction. However, implementation remains uneven due to resource variability, limited teacher preparation, and fragmented stakeholder coordination. Globally, inclusive education has increasingly recognized cognitive diversity, particularly variations in learning pace. Countries such as Australia, the Netherlands, and Finland have integrated this understanding into curriculum design, teacher education, and classroom practice. In Australia, the national curriculum incorporates Universal Design for Learning (UDL) principles to support diverse processing profiles, including students who require extended time for understanding (Boyle et al., 2023; Pasenidou, 2024; Woodcock & Anderson, 2025). The Netherlands emphasizes structured differentiation and progress monitoring to enhance mathematical engagement, despite the continued presence of ability grouping (Maulana et al., 2023; Kupers et al., 2023; Prast et al., 2023). Finland advances an equity-oriented approach that extends beyond disability labels, though implementation varies regionally (Huilla et al., 2022; Niemi & Mietola, 2023). Collectively, these cases reflect a global shift toward pedagogical models that support learners who progress at different paces. Across these international examples, several shared strategies emerge: early mapping of learning pace, designing deep and meaningful learning experiences accessible to all students, and integrating reflective teaching supported by adaptive assessment (Woodcock et al., 2022; Obrovská et al., 2025; Ardenlid et al., 2025). Yet inclusive practices often focus primarily on students with formally identified disabilities, overlooking learners with subtler cognitive differences—particularly those who consistently require extended processing time and struggle to keep pace in standard instruction but are not formally identified as having disabilities. These students are present in most classrooms but are rarely supported through systematic, paceresponsive pedagogical approaches, which can lead to disengagement and reduced academic outcomes. In Indonesia, frameworks such as the Rencana Induk Pendidikan Inklusif and Undang-Undang No. 8/2016 (Republik Indonesia, 2016; Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidikan Khusus dan Layanan Khusus, 2019) promote broader inclusion, yet pedagogical responses for students who learn at a slower pace remain underdeveloped. Instruction tends to be uniform, with limited differentiation or scaffolding to accommodate cognitive variation. Addressing this gap requires instructional models that are diagnostic, flexible, and sensitive to learning pace. This study contributes to this discourse by examining students who learn at slower, moderate, and faster paces in inclusive junior high mathematics classrooms in Indonesia. Using contextual mathematical tasks rooted in local and global themes, the study introduces the PRIME instructional framework—Profiling, Reconstruction, Implementation, Measurement,

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and Engagement—as a systematic model for designing, implementing, and evaluating differentiated and deep instruction. The PRIME framework elaborates the phases of Design Research: Profiling and Reconstruction extend the Preliminary Design phase through diagnostic mapping and tailored task design; Implementation and Measurement operationalize the Teaching Experiment phase through enactment and formative evaluation; and Engagement extends the Retrospective Analysis phase through teacher reflection, student input, and iterative refinement. By bridging theoretical principles with classroom realities, this study offers a research-based contribution to inclusive mathematics education. The subsequent sections present the literature review, methodology, findings, discussion, and recommendations. Literature Review Inclusive Education: Global and Indonesian Perspectives The global movement toward inclusive education has progressed markedly since the 1990s, shifting its focus from basic access to questions of quality, equity, and pedagogical responsiveness. High-performing systems such as Finland and the Netherlands have institutionalized inclusive frameworks that integrate multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS), Universal Design for Learning (UDL), collaborative teaching, and curriculum differentiation— not only for students with diagnosed disabilities but also for those who experience learning challenges without formal identification (Niemi & Mietola, 2023; Kupers et al., 2023). In Finland, inclusive education is grounded in national commitments to social equity, encouraging schools to respond to cognitive, social, and cultural diversity despite regional variation in implementation (Huilla, 2022). The Netherlands has invested heavily in early diagnosis, flexible instruction, and structured classroom strategies—particularly in mathematics—to support students who progress at different learning paces (Maulana et al., 2023). In contrast, Indonesia’s inclusive education system, although legally established through Ministerial Decree No. 70/2019 and reinforced by the Rencana Induk Pendidikan Inklusif in Indonesia, continues to face challenges in systemic alignment and classroom-level enactment. Research indicates that many teachers still interpret inclusive education narrowly, focusing primarily on students with observable disabilities (Sari & Wahyuni, 2023). Even when inclusion is promoted at the school level, accommodations for students whose learning needs are not formally classified tend to be minimal. While Kurikulum Merdeka (2022) emphasizes differentiation, student agency, and contextualized learning, constraints such as limited teacher preparation, uneven resource distribution, and insufficient pedagogical support persist (Zain et al., 2021). Consequently, enthusiasm at the policy level has not yet translated into widespread, deep pedagogical transformation (Rahmi et al., 2024). In summary, although both global and Indonesian frameworks increasingly endorse inclusive and equitable practices, their success depends heavily on teacher capacity, school culture, and access to support systems. Bridging these gaps requires structural support alongside classroom-

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level pedagogical innovation—particularly for students who learn at a slower pace or whose cognitive needs fall outside commonly recognized categorical boundaries. Learning Pace and Cognitive Diversity Learners differ not only in interests and background, but also in the speed at which they process, consolidate, and apply new information—commonly referred to as their learning pace. The construct of learning pace is multidimensional, encompassing elements of processing speed, working memory capacity, and instructional exposure (Mok et al., 2021; Woodcock & Anderson, 2025). In this study, learning pace is defined as the rate at which a student can meaningfully engage with, internalize, and generalize mathematical ideas when provided with appropriate instruction and support. This definition distinguishes learning pace from intelligence or fixed ability; instead, learning pace is understood as dynamic, contextdependent, and shaped by instructional design, scaffolding, and affective engagement (Tomlinson, 2001; Ardenlid et al., 2025). Traditional classroom models often assume a uniform instructional tempo, resulting to misalignment for students whose processing requires more or less time than the instruction affords. Learners who require a slower pace may become frustrated or disengaged when instruction moves too quickly and offers insufficient scaffolding (Trisnani et al., 2023), while those who learn more quickly may experience under-stimulation and boredom when tasks do not match their capability for abstraction or flexible reasoning. These contrasting needs underscore the importance of pace-sensitive pedagogy, where instructional tempo is responsive rather than uniform (Tomlinson, 1999). In Indonesia, the concept of learning pace has begun to gain traction, especially within the national discussion of inclusive education. For instance, Balkist and Jupri (2025) documented substantial variation in students’ number-sense strategies across pace groupings—using categories such as “slow”, “average”, and “fast”—identified trough triangulated diagnostic tools including cognitive screening instruments, self-assessment questionnaires, and contextual mathematics tasks. Their findings indicate that learning pace influences not only how quickly students complete tasks but also the depth of engagement and conceptual flexibility they demonstrate. This suggests that pacing is not merely a logistical concern but a fundamental design dimension in mathematics instruction, particularly in RME-based environments. Internationally, several systems have recognized learning pace as a key determinant of equity and participation. Australia has integrated Universal Design for Learning (UDL) into national guidelines to ensure flexible learning pathways (CAST, 2018), while the Netherlands embeds structured differentiation strategies within mathematics instruction to accommodate learners who progress at varying paces(Maulana et al., 2023). These global initiatives support the broader understanding that adjusting instruction to learners’ pace is essential for fostering equitable access and deep learning.

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Terminology Note In this article, the phrases “students who learn at a slower pace,” “students who learn at a moderate pace,” and “students who learn at a faster pace” are used intentionally instead of categorical labels such as “slow learners,” “average learners,” or “fast learners.” This personfirst phrasing reflects an ethical and pedagogical stance that centers learners’ needs and avoids essentialist interpretations, consistent with contemporary inclusive education scholarship (Obrovská et al., 2025; Woodcock et al., 2022). Realistic Mathematics in Inclusive Education Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), developed in the Netherlands, provides a robust framework for inclusive learning by emphasizing contextual problem-solving, studentgenerated strategies, and progressive mathematization (Gravemeijer, 1994; van den HeuvelPanhuizen, 2003; van den Heuvel-Panhuizen & Drijvers, 2020). Through phases that begin with meaningful situations and progress from a model of to a model for and ultimately to formal mathematical reasoning, RME enables learners to advance at different tempos. This structure aligns naturally with differentiated instruction, as it allows students who learn at slower, moderate, or faster paces to move through the mathematization process in ways that match their cognitive readiness. In inclusive settings, RME can function as both a pedagogical and cognitive equalizer. Local and culturally familiar contexts have been shown to increase engagement, representational accessibility, and confidence among students who benefit from a slower pace (Payadnya et al., 2024; Balkist & Jupri, 2025). Meanwhile, global or less familiar contexts—such as international time zones or temperature variations—tend to create productive opportunities for abstraction and generalization, supporting learners who are ready to engage with more complex reasoning (Ardenlid et al., 2025). However, many Indonesian teachers still face challenges in designing RME-aligned tasks that are scalable, contextually meaningful, and differentiated across learning paces, particularly in large or resource-limited classrooms (Fajri et al., 2025; Kantavong et al., 2017). This study builds on this foundation by integrating local–global contextual duality into task design and aligning it with the phases of RME to support differentiated progression. By embedding contextual scaffolds and pacing-sensitive pathways, this approach strengthens inclusive mathematics instruction while contributing to emerging theoretical discussions on how RME can inform formative assessment and differentiated support for diverse learner profiles. Deep and Differentiated Instruction Deep learning and differentiated instruction are twin pillars of Inclusive mathematics instruction. Deep learning—as promoted in Indonesia’s Kurikulum Merdeka and reinforced by the Deep Learning Mandate 2025—seeks to foster conceptual mastery, critical thinking, and

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long-term understanding (Kemdikbudristek, 2023). Differentiated instruction, popularized by Tomlinson (1999, 2001), involves adapting content, process, product, and environment to suit diverse learner needs, including learning pace. Globally, differentiated instruction is operationalized through practices like formative assessment loops, flexible grouping, and project-based learning, often supported by national policy (Boyle et al., 2023; Niemi & Mietola, 2023). However, in Indonesia, many teachers lack the frameworks and tools to apply such strategies consistently. Learning pace remains an implicit concern rather than an explicit design principle. The PRIME Framework as a Novel Contribution to Inclusive RME Design Despite the increasing attention toward inclusive education and Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), the intersection between both remains underexplored—particularly in terms of accommodating students with diverse learning paces. While RME principles emphasize contextualization, progressive mathematization, and student-constructed models (Gravemeijer & Doorman, 1999; van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, 2020), their practical implementation often assumes a uniform cognitive progression. This becomes problematic in inclusive settings, where cognitive diversity, including variation in processing speed, demands more responsive and structured pedagogical strategies. Several frameworks have been developed to improve differentiated instruction within inclusive classrooms, such as Universal Design for Learning (CAST, 2018), Multi-Tiered Systems of Support (Sugai et al., 2021), and Task-Based Learning (Stein et al., 2008). However, these frameworks are rarely integrated with RME principles, and even less so within the Indonesian context. Moreover, while existing research has emphasized the need for diagnostic and personalized learning (Tomlinson, 2017; Woodcock et al., 2022), practical tools to operationalize these concepts in RME-oriented instruction remain limited. To address this gap, this study introduces the PRIME framework—an acronym for Profiling, Reconstruction, Implementation, Measurement, and Engagement—as a structured yet flexible model for designing, refining, and evaluating inclusive mathematics instruction based on RME. Each phase within PRIME is grounded in both theoretical and empirical foundations. Profiling involves the initial mapping of students' cognitive profiles, including cognitive screening instruments indicators, mathematical baseline competence, and self-assessment of confidence and pacing. This stage draws on principles of responsive teaching and learnercentered diagnostics (Heritage, 2010). Reconstruction focuses on the redesign of instructional tasks to better accommodate the learning profiles obtained, ensuring alignment with RME’s core features while embedding multi-level scaffolding (Doorman et al., 2007). Implementation operationalizes the instructional design in real classroom settings with diverse learners, using both local and global mathematical contexts to sustain relevance and accessibility (Jupri & Drijvers, 2016). Measurement entails the formative and summative assessment of both learning outcomes and changes in student learning pace. This stage aligns with formative assessment cycles and contextual reflection (Black & Wiliam, 2009).

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Engagement emphasizes continuous teacher-student interaction, affective support, and reflective teaching practice—an often-overlooked dimension in mathematics instruction for students who learn at a slower and a moderate pace (Boaler, 2016). By integrating these five interdependent phases, the PRIME framework offers a novel contribution that bridges the theoretical depth of RME with the pedagogical responsiveness required in inclusive classrooms. It shifts the focus from static curriculum delivery to adaptive, research-informed cycles of instruction that reflect real-time student needs. In the context of Indonesian inclusive education, PRIME responds to an urgent need for models that go beyond policy compliance toward genuine instructional transformation. It complements national efforts such as Kurikulum Merdeka and deep learning while embedding the reflective and iterative nature of Design Research (Bakker, 2018). As such, PRIME provides both a theoretical and practical lens for researchers, educators, and policymakers seeking to enhance mathematics education for all learners—especially those historically marginalized by pacebased barriers. Methodology and Methods Research Design This study employed a Design Research methodology to systematically develop and refine a differentiated mathematics instructional model tailored to students’ learning pace. The research followed the three core stages of Design Research: Preliminary Design, Teaching Experiment, and Retrospective Analysis (Gravemeijer & Cobb, 2006; Bakker, 2018). These phases guided the iterative implementation of the instructional framework known as PRIME, which consists of five stages: Profiling, Reconstruction, Implementation, Measurement, and Engagement. Two iterative cycles were conducted across two inclusive junior high school classes. Cycle 1 (Class A) lasted for six weeks (12 sessions, 90 minutes each). The design prototype was implemented and observed collaboratively by researchers and teachers. Cycle 2 (Class B) extended over five weeks (10 sessions, 90 minutes each), integrating revised scaffolds and task modifications derived from Cycle 1 insights. Each cycle included co-design meetings with teachers prior to implementation (2 × 2 hours per cycle). Implementation fidelity was monitored using a 5-point observation rubric assessing adherence to task flow, contextual integrity, differentiation routines, and scaffolding use. Two independent raters achieved 90% agreement on fidelity ratings. A design was considered a “prototype” when first trialed with untested scaffolds, and “revised” when modifications were incorporated and reimplemented in the second cycle. In Cycle 1, an initial instructional design was developed and implemented in an inclusive junior high school classroom. Findings from this first trial informed revisions to the tasks and teaching strategies, which were subsequently applied in a second classroom during Cycle 2. This iterative design allowed the researchers to refine both the learning materials and implementation processes across settings with comparable learning pace distributions.

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Participants and Setting Participants included 80 eighth-grade students from two inclusive junior high school classrooms in West Java, Indonesia—40 students in each class. Each class represented one research cycle: Class A in Cycle 1 and Class B in Cycle 2. Students were categorized into three learning pace groups—students who learn at a slower, a moderate, and a faster pace—based on a diagnostic process. The learning pace composition was proportionally similar across both classes, ensuring comparability of results between cycles. Three mathematics teachers and two inclusive education support staff were involved throughout the study. They participated in collaborative task design, classroom implementation, and retrospective analysis discussions, supporting the ecological validity of the instructional design. Instrument Development and Data Collection Students’ learning pace profiles—categorized as slower, moderate, or faster—were identified through a triangulated diagnostic process integrating four sources of evidence adapted from Balkist and Jupri (2025). The self-assessment consisted of nine Likert-scale items (1–4) that captured students’ perceived confidence, persistence, and ease in understanding mathematical ideas during classroom tasks. The teacher interview protocol provided complementary observational evidence about students’ processing speed, independence during problemsolving, and need for repeated prompts. These two tools were used in triangulation with cognitive screening results and Level 0 diagnostic task performance to strengthen the accuracy of learning pace classification. Cognitive screening instruments test scores as a standardized intelligence test, was used to asses general cognitive processing ability. Level 0 diagnostic task as a low-floor, open-ended contextual task was used to observe students’ initial mathematic reasoning and their responses were coded based on RME stages (Situation, Model of, Model for and Formal Knowledge). The cognitive screening instruments test used was the Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices (SPM), Indonesian version, which measures non-verbal reasoning and general cognitive processing. The test was administered in Bahasa Indonesia under standardized conditions with local norms for junior high students (α = .87). The self-assessment questionnaire consisted of nine Likert-scale items evaluating students’ self-perceived concentration, repetition needs, and mathematical confidence. Teacher interviews explored persistence, task completion speed, and independence. The Level 0 contextual task provided a low-floor, open-ended problem allowing students to demonstrate initial reasoning across RME phases (situation → model of → model for → formal knowledge). Data from these instruments were normalized and then aggregated using a consensus rule developed in consultation with mathematics teachers and inclusive support staff. When discrepancies occurred (e.g., high cognitive screening instruments but low task persistence), researchers held consensus meetings to align classification decisions.

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Cognitive screening scores were interpreted using local percentile norms, where students scoring at or below the 25th percentile were classified as learning at a slower pace, those between the 26th and 74th percentile as learning at a moderate pace, and those at or above the 75th percentile as learning at a faster pace. The 9-item self-assessment questionnaire (1–4 scale) similarly informed categorisation: average scores ≤ 2 indicated a slower pace, scores 2.1–3 a moderate pace, and scores ≥ 3.1 a faster pace. Teacher interview ratings (1–4) provided additional behavioural evidence, with ratings ≤ 2 denoting slower-paced profiles, ratings of 3 indicating moderate-paced, and ratings of 4 indicating faster-paced students. Diagnostic performance on Level 0 contextual RME tasks further supported classification based on the highest phase attained: students who remained within the model-of phase were categorised as slower-paced, those reaching the model-for phase as moderate-paced, and those demonstrating formal knowledge as faster-paced. A final categorisation decision was made only when at least three of the four indicators converged; discrepancies were resolved through consensus discussions between the researchers and teacher. Classification followed a triangulation approach prioritizing task-based evidence and teacher observations when inconsistencies arose. Figure 1 Overview of Contextual Mathematical Tasks Integrating Local and Global Themes and Grounded in Realistic Mathematics Education (RME)

Level 0 : Diagnostic Assessment

Level 3 : Maximus and the Snowy Mountain of Papua

Level 1 : Fishing at Ujung Genteng Beach During Low Tide

Level 4 : Farhan’s Parking Problem in Skyscraper

Level 2 : Dhea’s International Exchange Program

Level 5 : Have you ever eaten mochi?

Level 0 Diagnostic Task on Figure 1 allowed students solved practical problems involving fundamental operations in relatable contexts. The responses were coded according to RME phases to reveal how far each student could mathematize a problem. The data from these instruments were triangulated to categorize students into learning pace profiles (students who

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learn at a slower pace, a moderate pace, and faster learners). These profiles were then used to inform the design and implementation of contextual tasks across both cycles. Following the initial screening, all students participated in two design cycles of classroom instruction, with each cycle featuring a series of contextual mathematical tasks ranging from Level 1 to Level 5. Level 1 on Figure 1, Positive and negative integers with Ujung Genteng fishing context. This task introduces signed numbers through tidal fishing routines, where water levels fluctuate. It allows students to associate integer values with real height changes, fostering conceptual understanding of gains and losses. Level 2 – Number line navigation with international time zones. Students calculate time differences across countries using time zone data. The activity scaffolds linear navigation and negative integers on a number line. Level 3—Addition and subtraction with temperature in Jayawijaya mountains. By analyzing fluctuating temperatures in highland weather, students manipulate positive and negative values, justifying computations based on contextual clues and rules. Level 4—Multiplication and division with urban skyscraper scaling. Floor patterns in skyscrapers are used to construct multiplicative thinking. The task requires identifying equal groups, visualizing patterns, and applying division to interpret levels (repeated addition to grouping models). Level 5—Factorization of integers with mochi cake sharing. Drawing from a cultural food-sharing scenario, this task prompts learners to list possible equal divisions of a set number of cakes. Students use grouping strategies and factor trees to identify all possible factors, linking informal strategies to formal mathematical structure. This study was approved by the Ethics Committee of Universitas Pendidikan Indonesia (Ref: 171/UN40.K/PT.01.01/2024, dated September 4, 2024). Written parental consent and student assent were obtained using the standard institutional forms prior to participation. All assessments and study materials—including the diagnostic mathematics test, student selfassessment questionnaire, semi-structured teacher interview protocol, classroom observation sheets, and RME-based instructional materials—were administered in Bahasa Indonesia. Accessibility accommodations such as extended time, visual guides, and simplified instructions were provided for students who required additional processing support. The inclusion of cognitive screening instruments screening was not intended for labeling but served as one diagnostic data point to triangulate indicators of processing speed and working memory alongside classroom-based measures. A culturally appropriate, non-verbal instrument (Raven’s Standard Progressive Matrices) was used to ensure fairness across students from diverse linguistic and cultural backgrounds. All data were anonymized, stored securely, and analyzed at the group level to protect student confidentiality. Instructional Design and Implementation Both cycles featured a sequenced series of contextual mathematical tasks spanning five levels of complexity. Tasks were designed with dual contextual layers—local (e.g., fishing, traditional food sharing) and global (e.g., international time zones, skyscraper scaling)—and

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aligned with RME principles. Each task was intended to guide students through the RME progression: from contextual understanding to model use and eventual formalization. In Cycle 1, the tasks were implemented with Class A. Student responses, classroom observations, and teacher feedback were used to revise the design. These revisions were integrated into Cycle 2 with Class B, which included embedded scaffolds, localized analogies, and differentiated prompts targeting specific challenges observed in the first cycle (see Figure 2). Figure 2 The PRIME Framework Phases

Data Analysis The study employed a mixed-methods descriptive design integrating qualitative thematic analysis and quantitative transition analysis. Qualitative Analysis All observation notes, interview transcripts, focus group discussions, and student work samples were coded in NVivo 12 following Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-step thematic analysis. The unit of analysis was the student–task episode (one student’s response to a contextual RME task). A preliminary codebook was developed deductively from the PRIME framework and four analytic categories identified in the initial design phase— (1) fit between instruction and

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learning pace; (2) student engagement; (3) use of context; and (4) teacher adaptability— and was refined inductively through coder discussion. Two coders were trained, and 20% of the dataset was double-coded, producing 87% intercoder agreement (Cohen’s κ = .82). Credibility was strengthened through peer debriefing and member checking with participating teachers. Representative excerpts are presented in the Results to illustrate movement across RME phases, such as shifts from model of to model for reasoning. Quantitative Analysis Since Cycle 1 and Cycle 2 were implemented in different classes, learning pace transitions were analyzed within each cycle, not across cycles. For each cycle learning pace categories (slower, moderate, faster) were compared from the beginning to the end of the cycle, descriptive statistics captured shifts in category distribution, proportions of students demonstrating upward movement were calculated with 95% confidence intervals for estimating effect magnitude, and triangulation across data sources (diagnostic tests, interviews, task performance) strengthened the validity of interpretations. This within-cycle analysis allowed the study to capture improvements in learning pace that were attributable to the design revisions implemented through the PRIME framework. Result and Findings Profiling and Reconstruction in Preliminary Design 1 The initial screening conducted in Class A (Cycle 1) revealed a relatively balanced distribution of learning pace categories, consisting of 14 students who learn at a slower pace, 18 students who learn at a moderate pace, and 8 students who learn at a faster pace. These categories were identified through a triangulated process that included cognitive screening instruments test results, student self-assessment, teacher interviews, and a Level 0 diagnostic task. These distributions served as the basis for tailoring the instructional design and determining the level of scaffolding required during Cycle 1. The Level 0 diagnostic revealed clear distinctions among the three learning-pace groups in their progression through early RME phases. Students who learn at a slower pace generally recognized the situational context and produced informal drawings or verbal descriptions but struggled to move beyond the model of stage or use symbols meaningfully. Students who learn at a moderate pace demonstrated stronger situational understanding and frequently used simple tables or pictorial representations, though their attempts at generalizing patterns and applying symbolic notation remained inconsistent. Students who learn at a faster pace engaged more readily with structured representations, producing diagrams and preliminary rule statements, yet full formalization was still emerging. These insights informed the targeted scaffolding provided before advancing to higher-level tasks, including concrete materials, visual supports, guided mini-lessons, and structured peer discussions.

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Implementation and Measurements in Teaching Experiment 1 All students in Class A then engaged with five contextual mathematical tasks, designed to align with progressive RME phases. These tasks covered operations with integers, time zone calculations, temperature changes, multiplication/division, and factorization—presented through locally and globally relevant contexts. Across the five contextual tasks in Cycle 1, students’ attainment of RME phases showed clear differentiation by learning pace. In Level 1 (Ujung Genteng tide fishing), students who learn at a slower pace demonstrated strong situational understanding and produced informal models but struggled to generalize equal-sharing ideas without extensive prompting. Students who learn at a moderate pace began transitioning toward model for reasoning, though with fragile formalization, while faster-paced students quickly abstracted the situation into symbolic representations. In Level 2 (International Time Zones), slower-paced students struggled with the unfamiliar global context, lacked structured models, and frequently misinterpreted time differences. Moderate-paced students understood the narrative but misapplied 24-hour and negativenumber operations, whereas faster-paced students generated general rules using symbolic language. In Level 3 (Jayawijaya temperatures), thermometer scaffolds supported slower-paced students’ understanding, though difficulties with negative addition persisted. Moderate-paced students showed partial control with inconsistent application of formal rules, while faster-paced students fluently applied integer operations and articulated underlying principles. In Level 4 (Skyscraper floor counting), slower-paced students relied on repeated addition and were unable to link grouping to multiplication or division. Moderate-paced students visualized groupings but struggled with explaining inverse relations, whereas faster-paced students generalized multiplicative floor patterns efficiently. In Level 5 (Mochi cake sharing), slower-paced students constructed partial groupings but could not identify complete factor sets. Moderate-paced students achieved partial factor completeness with justification prompts, while faster-paced students extended reasoning to prime factorization and reached the formal knowledge phase. These observations guided targeted revisions and scaffolded redesigns for Cycle 2. Throughout Cycle 1, instructional responses were adjusted in real time. Teachers and researchers provided differentiated scaffolding using local analogies, number lines, and peer modeling to support struggling learners. The pattern of uneven phase transitions—particularly from Model of to Model for and from Model for to formal knowledge—highlighted the need for design improvements.

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Engagement in Retrospective Analysis 1 Based on teacher reflections and focus group discussions, three key issues were identified: (1) scaffolding in Cycle 1 tended to be reactive rather than proactively embedded, (2) several foundational concepts required more time for consolidation, and (3) students benefited from structured opportunities to reflect on their learning during tasks. These insights informed the redesign for Cycle 2, which emphasized proactive scaffolding, increased contextual relatability, and formative checkpoints to monitor conceptual progress. Revisions were implemented across all five levels. In Level 1 (Ujung Genteng fishing), realobject simulations, structured story prompts, and drawing models were introduced to support students in verbalizing and generalizing sharing situations. In Level 2 (International Time Zones), the task was reframed as a travel diary and supported with dual-clock visuals, colorcoded timelines, and timeline strips to reduce abstraction and clarify time differences. For Level 3 (Jayawijaya temperatures), thermometer templates, number lines, and acted-out scenarios were added to strengthen students’ understanding of negative integers. In Level 4 (skyscraper scaling), elevator-jump activities, floor-grouping challenges, and division-story mapping helped address persistent misconceptions about multiplication and division. Finally, in Level 5 (mochi-sharing factorization), the task was redesigned as a party-planning scenario with factor-tree templates, color-coded groupings, and anchor charts to support recognition of complete factor sets. Collectively, these revisions embedded proactive, context-rich scaffolds aimed at reducing cognitive barriers and promoting smoother progression through the RME phases, particularly for students who learn at a slower and a moderate pace. Profiling and Reconstruction in Preliminary Design 2 In Class B (Cycle 2), the learning-pace profiling for showed a distribution that closely mirrored the proportions in Cycle 1, with slight upward shifts reflecting students’ improved performance following the revised instructional design. A total of 13 students were identified as students who learn at a slower pace, while 20 students were categorized as learning at a moderate pace, forming the largest group. Meanwhile, 7 students demonstrated characteristics of students who learn at a faster pace. This distribution indicates that although the class remained relatively heterogeneous, several students originally positioned in lower categories showed measurable progress that aligned with the enhanced scaffolding and contextual redesign implemented in Cycle 2. In the Level 0 diagnostic assessment for Class B, students across all learning-pace groups demonstrated broadly similar patterns to those observed in Class A, but with slightly stronger representational clarity. Students who learn at a slower pace showed solid situational understanding and were able to use simple visual groupings; however, their attempts to articulate analogies or early generalizations remained inconsistent, and formal mathematical expressions were largely absent. Students who learn at a moderate pace demonstrated more

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stable use of structured representations—such as tables and simple diagrams—and were able to make emerging generalizations, though their formal operations were often incomplete or only partially accurate. Meanwhile, students who learn at a faster pace progressed more smoothly across the RME phases: they exhibited clear situational comprehension, consistently constructed meaningful models, articulated logical bridges toward underlying mathematical rules, and in several cases reached symbolic or equation-based representations. These diagnostic patterns informed the design refinements implemented in Cycle 2 to ensure more targeted scaffolding for each pace group. Implementation and Measurements in Teaching Experiment 2 Across Cycle 2, students in Class B showed clearer progression through the RME phases as a result of the revised task designs and embedded scaffolds. In the revised Ujung Genteng tidefishing task (Level 1), students who learn at a slower pace were able to represent sharing situations using drawings and showed improved conceptual engagement, although symbolic division remained hesitant. Students who learn at a moderate pace demonstrated stronger transitions from model of to model for reasoning following structured modeling prompts, while faster-paced students easily abstracted the task into fractional division scenarios. In the Time Travel Diary task on international time zones (Level 2), the narrative context helped slower-paced students make sense of elapsed time, though AM/PM transitions and 24hour conversions continued to produce errors. Moderate-paced students used the timeline scaffold effectively but still needed reinforcement for formulaic adjustments, whereas fasterpaced students applied GMT offsets confidently and even proposed extensions to alternative travel scenarios. For the temperature rise/fall activity (Level 3), slower-paced students benefited from thermometer templates and number lines, enabling them to begin forming symbolic expressions such as –7 + 2 with partial accuracy. Moderate-paced students demonstrated consistent movement toward formal reasoning following scaffolded discussions, and fasterpaced students flexibly used both visual and numeric strategies to justify their computations. In the elevator floor-grouping challenge (Level 4), slower-paced students engaged successfully with the physical floor models and could form equal groups but still struggled to connect grouping to multiplication and division concepts. Moderate-paced students visualized groups well but had difficulty articulating inverse relationships, while faster-paced students generalized floor patterns efficiently to an n-floor rule. Finally, in the mochi-sharing factorization task (Level 5), slower-paced students enjoyed the familiar cultural context and were able to construct partial factor trees with guidance, though completeness of factor lists was still a challenge. Moderate-paced students became more confident in identifying full factor sets through peer discussion, and faster-paced students produced well-structured factor trees and justified their reasoning clearly.

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The most notable improvement in Cycle 2 was in the transition from Model for to formal knowledge. Students were more confident in articulating their reasoning, even if not all reached full abstraction. Teachers observed more independent thinking among slow and students who learn at a moderate pace and increased flexibility among students who learn at a faster pace in adapting mathematical representations. Engagement in Retrospective Analysis 2 Reflections collected from teachers and inclusive support staff at the end of Cycle 2 emphasized that the design revisions introduced after Cycle 1 had a positive impact on student engagement, particularly among students who learn at a slower and a moderate pace. Teachers observed that students were more confident in participating, more willing to share their ideas, and better able to persist through tasks that previously caused frustration. The embedding of scaffolding—such as story-based cues, visual prompts, and contextual analogies—enabled students to stay oriented in the tasks and progress with greater autonomy. Students who learn at a slower pace, in particular, benefited from the increased contextual familiarity and task clarity. For instance, the reframing of the time zone task into a travel diary format made the abstraction more approachable, while manipulatives like thermometers and elevator diagrams supported concrete understanding of mathematical structures. Teachers also noted that students who learn at a moderate pace were more consistent in making transitions from visual models to abstract reasoning, especially when prompted through structured questioning embedded in the tasks. Students who learn at a faster pace continued to perform well and reported higher levels of task enjoyment, especially when offered optional challenge extensions or opportunities to generalize rules beyond the task context. Teachers appreciated the built-in flexibility of the revised design, which allowed them to adjust pacing and support based on real-time observations. Despite these improvements, some challenges remained. A few students still exhibited dependence on teacher guidance, particularly when faced with unfamiliar contexts or nonroutine operations. Teachers suggested that future iterations of the design could include more explicit metacognitive scaffolding to help students self-monitor their progress and reasoning. Nonetheless, the PRIME framework was viewed as an effective structure for organizing differentiated instruction and for aligning classroom practice with students’ cognitive diversity. Transition Analysis of Learning Pace Learning pace profiles were reassessed at the end of Cycle 1 using the same diagnostic instruments administered during Preliminary Design 1. Table 1 summarizes the changes within Class A. Overall, 7 of 40 students (17.5%) demonstrated upward movement during Cycle 1. Consistent with qualitative observations, most gains were associated with increased

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representational clarity and improved transitions from situation to model-of, particularly in familiar contexts such as Ujung Genteng and Jayawijaya temperatures. Table 1 Learning Pace Shifts Within Cycle 1 (Class A) Initial (n)

Learning Pace Category

Students who learn at a slower 14 pace Students who learn at a moderate 18 pace Students who learn at a faster pace 8

End of Cycle 1 Change Pattern (n) 4 students progressed to moderate 10 pace 3 transitioned from slower-paced 21 group 1 transitioned from moderate-paced 9 group

Reassessment in Class B (Cycle 2) indicated a stronger upward trend compared to Cycle 1, suggesting that design revisions implemented after the Retrospective Analysis in Cycle 1 were effective. Table 2 summarizes the changes within Class B. A total of 7 of 40 students (17.5%) improved pace classification, matching the upward shift observed in Cycle 1. However, qualitative indicators (e.g., self-correction, verbal explanation clarity, independence in using scaffolds) showed larger learning gains in Cycle 2. These improvements correspond with the embedded scaffolds, redesigned task contexts, and structured modelling prompts added after Cycle 1. Table 2 Learning Pace Shifts Within Cycle 2 (Class B) Learning Pace Category Students who learn at a slower pace Students who learn at a moderate pace Students who learn at a faster pace

Initial (n)

End of Cycle Change Pattern 2 (n)

6 progressed to moderate pace

6 transitioned from slower-paced group; 1 moved from faster-paced

1 progressed from moderate pace

Instead of comparing Class A and Class B directly, the analysis focuses on the consistency of upward trajectories within each class. Across both cycles 14 of 80 students (17.5%) experienced upward transitions. Many students who remained in the same pace category nevertheless demonstrated reduced learning barriers, including fewer representational errors, increased fluency, and stronger model-for reasoning. Students who initially required repeated prompts showed greater autonomy and verbal articulation in Cycle 2. Collectively, these findings reinforce that learning pace is malleable and responsive to intentional instructional design.

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To strengthen the causal link between the instructional design and the observed learning improvements, Table 3 presents a design conjecture map that connects each scaffold embedded in the contextual tasks with the specific cognitive difficulties it targeted and the improvements observed from Cycle 1 to Cycle 2, supported by coded qualitative and quantitative evidence. Table 3 Design Conjecture Map Linking Scaffolds to Observed Learning Improvements Scaffold Embedded Task

Target Cognitive / Representational Difficulty

Confusion between Timeline strips(Time AM/PM, difficulty sequencing time events, Zone – TZ) linearizing elapsed time

Observed Improvement (Cycle 1 → Cycle 2) Reduction in AM/PM errors; more accurate time sequencing; increased independent use of the strip

Fewer negative-value errors; improved alignment between visual and symbolic representation More accurate pathVisual anchors / Weak spatial orientation; following; fewer directional directional reversals; difficulty maintaining cues (Google Maps – reduced need for route direction GM) teacher clarification Thermometer templates(Maximus Jayawijaya – MX)

Misinterpretation of negative values; treating negative numbers as absolute

Evidence (Quantitative Qualitative)

“I checked the strip to see if it was morning or night.” (INT–S7–TZ–C2) Observation: S1 corrected sequencing without prompting (OBS–S1–TZ– C2) “If it goes below zero, I draw it first here.”(WS– S3–MX–C2) Field note: S1 self-corrected –7 + 2 (OBS–S1–MX–C2) Observation: S11 followed correct route using anchor cues (OBS– S11–GM–C2)

Worksheet: S12 shifted to ratio reasoning (WS–S12– Difficulty making Increased use of ratioUG–C1) Teacher note: Landmark proportional comparisons; based reasoning; more “Landmarks helped cues(Ujung Genteng logical distance reliance on absolute students judge distance – UG) comparison differences more logically.” (T1– INT–C2)

Analysis across both design cycles shows that scaffolds embedded in the contextual tasks played a central role in mediating improvements in representational clarity, reasoning coherence, and student independence. In the time-zone task, timeline strips helped students linearize elapsed time and distinguish AM/PM more consistently, reducing sequencing errors and enabling independent checking during Cycle 2. In the Jayawijaya temperature task, thermometer templates stabilized students’ interpretation of negative values, decreasing signrelated errors and strengthening alignment between visual and symbolic reasoning. In spatial-orientation tasks, such as Google Maps, visual anchors and directional cues supported route tracking and reduced disorientation, leading to fewer requests for clarification. Meanwhile, landmark cues in the Ujung Genteng proportional-distance task encouraged shifts

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from absolute to ratio-based comparisons, aligning with RME’s emphasis on progressive mathematization. These improvements were corroborated by worksheet analyses, teacher interviews, and observation notes. Taken together, the improvements observed in both cycles strengthen the causal plausibility that contextual scaffolds—when purposefully embedded—help regulate cognitive pacing by supporting representational fluency and metacognitive monitoring. Students’ qualitative gains, including increased self-correction and clearer explanation of strategies, align with the upward learning-pace transitions observed within each class. These findings suggest that the PRIMEbased design effectively supports diverse processing profiles in inclusive mathematics classrooms. Discussion The findings of this study demonstrate that differentiated instruction grounded in Realistic Mathematics Education (RME), when systematically implemented using the PRIME framework, can effectively accommodate students with diverse learning paces in inclusive classrooms. The learning progression across RME phases in both cycles—starting from situational engagement toward more formal reasoning—was strongly shaped by contextualization and scaffolding embedded in the tasks. Within each cycle, students who learned at a slower pace demonstrated improvements in conceptual engagement, representational clarity, and strategy use, especially when provided with culturally familiar contexts and structured visual supports. These outcomes align with global recommendations for differentiated learning (Tomlinson, 1999, 2001; Ardenlid et al., 2025). A recent metaanalysis by Putri et al. (2022) revealed that RME has a moderate positive effect (g = 0.820) on students’ mathematical communication skills, reinforcing the value of contextual and differentiated tasks in inclusive settings. A key takeaway is that learning pace is not a fixed trait but an evolving construct that responds to instructional design. In both cycles, students who initially relied heavily on informal reasoning showed progress toward using more structured and symbolic strategies as scaffolds familiarized them with representational tools. This echoes the findings of Wanabuliandari et al. (2021) and Trisnani et al. (2023), who emphasized the role of confidence and self-esteem in academic success among students who learn at a slower pace. The PRIME framework—Profiling, Reconstruction, Implementation, Measurement, and Engagement—was conceived as a meso-level design routine that operates within and complementary to broader inclusion frameworks such as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the Multi-Tiered System of Supports (MTSS). While UDL provides macro-level principles for designing accessible learning environments and MTSS outlines systemic tiers of intervention, PRIME functions at the instructional design level, guiding teachers through iterative, classroom-based adaptations informed by diagnostic profiling.

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Specifically, Profiling aligns with UDL’s principle of providing multiple means of representation, offering teachers evidence to tailor instruction; Reconstruction parallels MTSS Tier 1 differentiation, emphasizing redesign of core learning tasks; Implementation corresponds to the enactment of targeted scaffolds; Measurement provides data feedback loops comparable to MTSS Tier 2 progress monitoring; and Engagement ensures reflection, teacher agency, and learner participation. Thus, PRIME can be viewed as a bridging framework that translates the theoretical aspirations of UDL and MTSS into practical, context-responsive instructional routines. In resource-variable and culturally diverse settings like Indonesia, PRIME offers a feasible mechanism for operationalizing inclusive mathematics instruction— making systemic principles actionable at the classroom level. However, the implementation of inclusive mathematics instruction in Indonesia remains challenged by systemic limitations. Overcrowded classrooms, inconsistent teacher training, and underdeveloped pedagogical support often restrict teachers’ ability to enact inclusive principles effectively (Rahmi et al., 2024; Zain et al., 2021). Although frameworks like the Rencana Induk Pendidikan Inklusif and Law No. 8/2016 provide formal recognition of diverse learners, practical strategies for addressing learning pace diversity are still lacking. Echoing the study by Soeharto et al. (2024), there is a need for coordinated support from government, schools, and teacher training institutions to equip educators with the tools and creativity required for inclusive practice. Meaningful implementation also hinges on collaborative support that includes families and communities. As noted by Alam and Hamzah (2025), parental involvement plays a crucial role in sustaining inclusive education values beyond the classroom. Inclusive classrooms must be envisioned not only as instructional spaces but also as communities of belonging, where socialemotional needs are met alongside academic demands. As demonstrated by Nurjanah et al.(2021), ethnomathematics-based learning—when rooted in culturally familiar contexts—can enhance mathematical reasoning and foster a sense of relevance among learners exposed to diverse backgrounds. Mamas (2025) underscores that friendships, classroom relationships, and teacher facilitation contribute significantly to a sense of belonging and emotional safety, which in turn enhance learning. International perspectives further validate this view. Countries like Australia, Finland, and the Netherlands have integrated cognitive diversity into curriculum and practice, but challenges remain. For example, while the Netherlands promotes engagement through differentiation, ability grouping persists (Maulana et al., 2023; Kupers et al., 2023; Prast & Hickendorff, 2023). Finland emphasizes inclusion beyond disability labels (Huilla et al., 2022; Niemi & Mietola, 2023), yet local disparities still exist. This parallels the Indonesian context, where inclusive ideals are established, but day-to-day enactment requires stronger coherence between policy and practice (Andriana & Evans, 2020). Good inclusive practices are those that integrate differentiated instruction, flexible pacing, authentic content, and supportive classroom climates (Ardenlid et al., 2025; Obrovská et al., 2025). In the current study, students responded well to instructional designs that embedded

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reflection, choice, and real-world contexts. These features supported deep engagement, especially for students who typically struggle with traditional instruction. Suarsana et al. (2024) conducted a systematic literature review demonstrating that integrating computational thinking into mathematics education promotes deeper student engagement and adaptive learning strategies—critical components of differentiated instruction. Effective inclusive pedagogy, as outlined by Obrovská et al. (2025), must include collaborative planning, adaptive feedback systems, and shared responsibility between teachers and assistants to ensure every student benefits. The importance of self-efficacy among teachers also emerged as a critical factor. Woodcock et al. (2022) highlight that teachers who believe in their capacity to support diverse learners are more likely to implement inclusive strategies effectively. In line with this, findings from Thailand and Indonesia (Kantavong et al., 2017) reveal that ongoing professional development and institutional support are essential, particularly when teachers are expected to adapt materials and instruction independently due to limited resources. In the context of emergency remote teaching, Marfuah et al. (2023) found that meaningful transposition of mathematical knowledge relies on teachers’ capacity to adapt tasks to students’ cognitive readiness and pace—even in online settings. Finally, the philosophical foundation of inclusive education must remain central. As emphasized by Mullins et al. (2024), inclusion is not merely a logistical adjustment but a moral commitment to respecting diversity in all its forms. When schools uphold this value, the impact extends beyond academic outcomes to fostering inclusive societies (Maratia et al., 2025). Listening to student voices, as suggested by Andriana & Evans (2020), can help educators identify hidden biases and reframe instruction to better meet diverse needs. The integration of cultural perspectives, as highlighted in studies by Payadnya et al. (2024, 2025), also plays a critical role in making mathematics more relatable and inclusive. Overall, this study contributes to the global conversation on inclusive education by presenting a structured, evidence-based model that is sensitive to local realities while aligning with international best practices. The PRIME framework demonstrates how a design research approach, grounded in RME and differentiated instruction, can foster equitable learning opportunities across varied cognitive profiles, with evidence of steady improvements in each design cycle. This study, while yielding valuable insights into inclusive mathematics instruction through the PRIME framework, has several limitations that should be acknowledged. First, the sample size was limited to two inclusive classes (N = 80) from junior high schools in West Java, which may constrain generalizability to other regions with differing sociocultural and linguistic contexts. Although both classes were selected for comparable proportions of slower-, moderate-, and faster-paced students, contextual variations such as teacher expertise, school resources, and classroom management styles may have influenced implementation outcomes. Second, potential Hawthorne and expectancy effects cannot be fully ruled out. Teachers’ awareness of being part of a research project might have heightened their motivation and

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adaptive behaviors, contributing to positive shifts in learning pace. Future studies could mitigate this by employing longer observation periods, control groups, or delayed post-tests to examine the persistence of effects. Third, class size and resource variability remain critical contextual challenges. The interventions relied on manageable group sizes (20–24 students per class) and relatively consistent access to materials and visual aids, which may not be feasible in larger or underresourced settings. Scaling the approach would require systemic support, including teacher professional development and simplified scaffolding templates. Despite these limitations, the transferability of the PRIME framework lies in its flexible structure and process orientation rather than fixed content. Its emphasis on profiling, iterative design, and contextual adaptation allows teachers in other Indonesian regions—or in similar resource-variable settings—to modify local tasks while maintaining fidelity to RME and differentiation principles. Future work should explore its implementation across diverse cultural and curricular contexts to test scalability and sustainability. Recommendations Based on the findings and reflections from this two-cycle design research, several recommendations are proposed: 1. For teachers: inclusive mathematics instruction should integrate anticipatory and embedded scaffolding, particularly to support students transitioning from informal to formal reasoning. Teachers are encouraged to use contextual problems that are both locally and globally relevant and to differentiate instruction based on learning pace. 2. For schools: Inclusive education must be supported institutionally. This includes creating collaborative teaching environments, providing assistants for inclusive classrooms, and allocating time for joint lesson planning. Schools should also facilitate professional learning communities focused on inclusive mathematics instruction. 3. For policymakers: National policies should translate into practical tools and support mechanisms. Continuous teacher training on differentiated and inclusive practices should be embedded into pre-service and in-service programs. Funding and resources must be allocated to support inclusive classroom infrastructure, materials, and staffing. 4. For researchers: Further studies are encouraged to explore the long-term impacts of differentiated RME-based instruction on student outcomes, particularly in relation to socio-emotional development, self-regulation, and academic persistence among students who learn at a slower pace. 5. For families and communities: Stakeholder involvement beyond the classroom is crucial. Parents, community leaders, and educational stakeholders should be engaged in supporting inclusive values at home and in wider society. Together, these recommendations aim to bridge the gap between inclusive ideals and classroom realities, ensuring that every child receives the educational support they deserve.

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Conclusion Building upon these findings, this study highlights the significance of differentiated mathematics instruction for addressing the cognitive diversity in Indonesian inclusive classrooms. By employing the PRIME framework and contextual RME tasks, students of varying learning paces—slow, average, and fast—were able to engage meaningfully with mathematical ideas. The structured design and embedded scaffolding provided essential support for students who learn at a slower pace while still offering enrichment for students who learn at a faster pace. The findings reinforce the idea that learning pace is malleable and responsive to carefully designed pedagogical interventions. Inclusive education, when done with thoughtful design and collaborative effort, can provide equitable academic experiences for all learners. The study also reveals that inclusive mathematics instruction is more effective when informed by continuous reflection, responsive scaffolding, and culturally relevant content. It affirms that inclusive education must go beyond access—it must create conditions in which every student can participate, belong, and succeed. The PRIME framework offers a promising path forward for mathematics educators who aim to navigate the complexities of cognitive diversity in the classroom. Data and Materials Availability Anonymized research materials, including contextual RME tasks, scaffolding templates, coding schema, and the learning pace transition matrix, are available upon reasonable request from the corresponding author. Due to ethical restrictions and participant confidentiality, raw student data and video recordings cannot be publicly shared. Acknowledgements We would like to express our sincere gratitude to all parties who have contributed to the implementation of this study. Our appreciation goes to the students, parents, and teachers who participated and supported the research process. We also extend our thanks to the Indonesian Education Scholarship (Beasiswa Pendidikan Indonesia), the Center for Higher Education Funding and Assessment, and the Indonesian Endowment Fund for Education (LPDP) for funding this research.

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Huilla, H., Lay, E., & Tzaninis, Y. (2022). Tensions between diverse schools and inclusive educational practices: Pedagogues’ perspectives in Iceland, Finland and the Netherlands. Compare: A Journal of Comparative and International Education, 54, 1–17. https://doi.org/10.1080/03057925.2022.2065461 Jupri, A., & Drijvers, P. (2016). Student Difficulties in Mathematizing Word Problems in Algebra. Eurasia Journal of Mathematics, Science and Technology Education, 12(9), 2481-2502. https://doi.org/10.12973/eurasia.2016.1299a Kantavong, P., Sujarwanto, Rerkjaree, S., & Budiyanto. (2017). A comparative study of teacher's opinions relating to inclusive classrooms in Indonesia and Thailand. Kasetsart Journal of Social Sciences, 38(3), 291–296. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kjss.2016.05.005 Ministry of Education, Culture, Research, and Technology [Kemdikbudristek]. (2022). Kurikulum Merdeka: Panduan Pembelajaran SD, SMP, SMA. Jakarta: Kemdikbudristek. https://kurikulum.kemdikbud.go.id Kupers, E., Boer, A., Loopers, J., Bakker, A., & Minnaert, A. (2023). Differentiation and Students with Special Educational Needs: Teachers’ Intentions and Classroom Interactions. In Effective Teaching Around the World. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31678-4_36 Mamas, C. (2025). Relational inclusivity: Eliciting student perspectives on friendship. Social Sciences & Humanities Open, 11, 101410. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssaho.2025.101410 Maratia, F., Bobba, B., Cohen, A., Kwanele, B., Norris, A., Lizárraga, J. R., Elsinbawi, M., & Crocetti, E. (2025). From inclusive schools to inclusive societies: School diversity climate and adolescents' academic achievement and social well-being. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 108, 102215. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2025.102215 Marfuah, M., Suryadi, D., & Turmudi, T. (2023). Providing online learning situations for inservice mathematics teachers' external transposition knowledge during the COVID‑19 pandemic: Case of Indonesia. Electronic Journal of e-Learning. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.34190/ejel.21.2.3257 Maulana, R., Helms-Lorenz, M., Moorer, P., Smale - Jacobse, A., & Feng, X. (2023). Differentiated Instruction in Teaching from the International Perspective. https://doi.org/10.21827/62c5541759973 Mullins, P., Hakobyan, T., & Harutyunyan, M. (2024). In conversation with normativity: Perceptions and disruptions of inclusive education in Armenia. Children and Youth Services Review, 160, 107540. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2024.107540 Niemi, A. M., & Mietola, R. (2023). Exclusively Included? Finland’s Inclusion Success Story and Hidden Dual System of Mainstream and Special Needs Education. In Finland’s Famous Education System. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-8241-5_26 Nurjanah, N., Mardia, I., & Turmudi, T. (2021). Ethnomathematics study of Minangkabau tribe: Formulation of mathematical representation in the Marosok traditional trading. Ethnography and Education. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1080/17457823.2021.1952636

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Suarsana, I. M., Dasari, D., & Nurlaelah, E. (2024, November 29). Integration of Computational Thinking in Mathematics Education in Indonesia. In Proceedings of the 4th International Conference on Education and Technology (ICETECH 2023) (pp. 211–226). Atlantis Press. https://doi.org/10.2991/978-94-6463-554-6_17 Obrovská, J., Svojanovský, P., & Sharma, U. (2025). Teachers' inclusive core practices and all students’ perspectives. Teaching and Teacher Education, 165, 105120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2025.105120 Pasenidou, F. (2024). A co-designed by students “architecture of schooling” framework within the field of inclusive education. International Journal of Educational Research, 128, 102498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2024.102498 Payadnya, I. P. A. A., Wulandari, I. G. A. P. A., Puspadewi, K. R., & Saelee, S. (2024). The significance of ethnomathematics learning: A cross-cultural perspectives between Indonesian and Thailand educators. Journal for Multicultural Education, 18(4), 508– 522. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-05-2024-0049 Payadnya, I. P. A. A., Putri, G. A. M. A., Suwija, I. K., Saelee, S., & Jayantika, I. G. A. N. T. (2025). Cultural integration in AI-enhanced mathematics education: Insights from Southeast Asian educators. Journal for Multicultural Education, 19(1), 58–72. https://doi.org/10.1108/JME-09-2024-0119 Prast, E. J., & Hickendorff, M. (2023). How Do Dutch Teachers Implement Differentiation In Primary Mathematics Education?. In Effective Teaching Around the World. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-31678-4_35 Putri, N. S., Juandi, D., & Jupri, A. (2022). The implementation effect of Realistic Mathematics Education and contextual teaching and learning approaches on the students’ mathematical communication ability: A meta-analysis. Al-Jabar: Jurnal Pendidikan Matematika, 13(2), 383–400. https://doi.org/10.24042/ajpm.v13i2.13562 Rahmi, I., Desvianti, E., Mufitasari, D., & Ariyanti, T. (2024). Evaluation of Inclusive Education in Indonesia: Elementary School Teachers' Perspective. Jurnal RAP, 15, 75–97. https://doi.org/10.24036/rapun.v15i1.129981 Direktorat Pembinaan Pendidikan Khusus dan Layanan Khusus. (2019). Rencana induk pengembangan pendidikan inklusif tingkat nasional 2019–2024. Kementerian Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Republik Indonesia. https://id.scribd.com/document/566127488/190510-grand-designpendidikan-inklusif-2019-2024-1mar19 Republik Indonesia. (2016). Undang-Undang Republik Indonesia Nomor 8 Tahun 2016 tentang Penyandang Disabilitas. https://peraturan.bpk.go.id/Details/37251/uu-no-8tahun-2016 Sari, A. R., & Wahyuni, S. (2023). Inclusive Education in Indonesia: Policy and Practice Under the Merdeka Curriculum. International Journal of Inclusive Education Studies, 1(1), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7663612 Soeharto, S., Singh, S. S., & Afriyanti, F. (2024). Associations between attitudes toward inclusive education and teaching for creativity for Indonesian pre-service teachers. Thinking Skills and Creativity, 51, 101469. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2024.101469 Sugai, G., Simonsen, B., Bradshaw, C. P., & Horner, R. H. (2021). Multi-Tiered systems of support: Guiding principles to promote high-quality support for all students. School Psychology Review, 50(1), 5–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/02796015.2020.1851767

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Tomlinson, C. A. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Tomlinson, C. A. (2017). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners (3rd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. Trisnani, R. P., Hidayah, N., Ramli, M., & Indreswari, H. (2023). Self-Esteem Problem on Student who learn at a slower paces Students and Strategies to Solve it in Inclusive Schools. Journal for ReAttach Therapy and Developmental Diversities, 6(6s), 405– 413. https://jrtdd.com/index.php/journal/article/view/730 UNESCO. (2020). Inclusion and education: All means all. Global Education Monitoring Report Team. https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000373718 Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M. (2003). The didactical use of models in Realistic Mathematics Education: An example from a longitudinal trajectory on percentage. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 54(1), 9– 35. https://doi.org/10.1023/B:EDUC.0000005212.03219.dc Van den Heuvel-Panhuizen, M., & Drijvers, P. H. M. (2020). Realistic Mathematics Education. In S. Lerman (Ed.), Encyclopedia of Mathematics Education (2nd ed., pp. 713-717). Cham: Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15789-0_170 Wanabuliandari, S., Ardianti, S. D., Gunarhadi, G., & Rejekiningsih, T. (2021). Study Analysis of Confidence Level on Slow Learner Students. International Journal of Elementary Education, 5(4), 584–592. https://doi.org/10.23887/ijee.v5i4.39971 Woodcock, S., Sharma, U., Subban, P., & Hitches, E. (2022). Teacher self-efficacy and inclusive education practices: Rethinking teachers’ engagement with inclusive practices. Teaching and Teacher Education, 117, 103802. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2022.103802 Woodcock, S., & Anderson, J. (2025). Conceptions to classrooms: The influence of teacher knowledge on inclusive classroom practice. International Journal of Educational Research Open, 8, 100412. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijedro.2024.100412 Zain, Z. F., Yoenanto, N. H., & Fardana N, N. A. (2024). Inclusive Education In Public Schools, What Is The Reality?. JPI (Jurnal Pendidikan Inklusi), 5(2), 68–82. https://doi.org/10.26740/inklusi.v5n2.p68-82 Corresponding Author: Pujia Siti Balkist Email: pujiabalkist@upi.edu

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Appendix Data Coding Schema Participant Codes (Students) Code Meaning S1 Student 1 S2 Student 2 S3 Student 3 ... … S80 Student 80 Teacher Codes Code Meaning T1 Teacher at Cycle 1 T2 Teacher at di Cycle 2 Document / Artifact Codes Code Meaning INT Interview transcript OBS Classroom observation note WS Worksheet / student written work FGD Focus Group Discussion transcript PRF Profiling instrument (diagnostic initial) SAQ Student Self-Assessment Questionnaire DIAG Diagnostic math test IQ IQ assessment result (non-verbal instrument) Cycle Codes Code Meaning C1 Cycle 1 (Prototype design) C2 Cycle 2 (Revised design) Task Codes (RME Contexts) Code Context UG Ujung Genteng (distance & ratio) TZ Time Zones (timeline strips) GM Google Maps (orientation/direction) MX Maximus Jayawijaya (temperature, negative values)

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Evaluating the Socioeconomic Value of Low-Threshold Youth Clubs in the Czech Republic: Bridging Data Gaps in Informal Education Through Social Return on Investment and Theory of Change Lothar Filip Rudorfer Charles University, Czech Republic Marie Fulková Charles University, Czech Republic Vendula Fremlová Charles University, Czech Republic Lucie Jakubcová Hajdušková Charles University, Czech Republic Kemal Ahson University of Helsinki, Finland

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Abstract This study evaluates the financing and policy architecture of low-threshold clubs for children and youth in the Czech Republic—informal educational spaces that provide preventive, developmental, and integrative services to vulnerable populations. Specifically, the study examines: (a) national-level funding flows and expenditures across five major providers; (b) local operational realities in a case study of Ústí nad Labem; and (c) the European Commission’s policy stance on social infrastructure co-financing. The analysis draws on a semi-synthetic dataset constructed from public financial reports, ministry allocations, and interpolated values based on provider averages. Descriptive statistics and a simple linear regression model (Adj. R² = .971) demonstrate that approximately 91.2% of total funding is linearly translated into operational expenditures. Additionally, the Social Return on Investment (SROI) framework is applied to map the broader impact of these centres, including volunteer contributions and community outcomes, using a theory-of-change logic model. Results show a heavy reliance on EU operational programmes—particularly OP VVV, which covers an estimated 74% of total funding—with national and local sources unable to compensate for its absence. The fragmented governance across ministries (Education, Social Affairs, Interior, Health) further impedes coordinated data collection and long-term planning. These findings underscore the need for integrated, multi-ministerial policy frameworks, sustained funding cycles, and formal recognition of volunteer and informal educational contributions. The study provides a replicable model for assessing cost-effectiveness and long-term value in youth social services at both national and European levels. Keywords: Czech Republic, econometrics, European Commission, low-threshold clubs, social return on investment, theory of change, youth policy

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This study evaluates the financial sustainability of low-threshold clubs for children and youth in the Czech Republic. It does so through three analytical lenses: (a) national-level financial modelling using semi-synthetic estimates; (b) a case study of clubs in Ústí nad Labem; and (c) alignment with European Commission policy frameworks. A linear regression model is employed to assess the correlation between funding and expenditure trends. The focus is on understanding the degree of dependency on specific funding sources, especially the OP VVV1. This research contribution proceeds as follows. First, it outlines the theoretical framing via Theory of Change (ToC) and Social Return on Investment (SROI). Second, it details the data sources and methods, including the construction of a semi-synthetic dataset and the rationale for regression modelling. Third, it presents findings from national-level financial modelling, local case analysis, and EU policy comparison. Finally, it discusses the implications for policy design, especially around multi-ministerial coordination and funding volatility. Low-Threshold Clubs in the Czech Republic Low-threshold clubs are a vital part of social infrastructure in the Czech Republic, providing accessible, community-based support for children and youth. They aim to reduce financial, social, and psychological barriers that limit access to services, and play a key role in preventing exclusion, supporting education, and strengthening community ties (NADĚJE, 2021). Low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic emerged as community-based responses to growing social inequalities following the post-communist transition of the 1990s, which brought increased poverty and exclusion, particularly among Roma families and socially marginalised children (Matoušek, Pazlarová, & Kodymová, 2001; NADĚJE, 2021). These programs aimed to address poor educational outcomes, lack of safe spaces, and systemic barriers such as financial hardship and discrimination that hinder access to mainstream education (Charita Ústí nad Labem, 2023). Research has shown a correlation between social exclusion and risk behaviours among youth, highlighting the need for preventive, inclusive services that support positive development (Šance dětem, n.d.). The Czech Republic’s EU accession in 2004 enabled access to funding through the European Social Fund (ESF), helping pilot and expand low-threshold initiatives in line with EU objectives of social inclusion (European Commission, 2019). These services provide informal, barrier-free support, particularly effective in building trust with vulnerable youth. The model reflects evidence from earlier sociological studies advocating for local, community-driven interventions as a way to foster meaningful youth engagement (NADĚJE, 2021). Early pilot projects demonstrated the value of low-threshold services in addressing educational, psychological, and social needs. These initial successes helped secure further government and non-governmental support for expanding the model across the country (Charita Ústí nad Labem, 2023). The main focus was to reduce barriers that prevent children and youth from accessing services by eliminating 1

The Operational Programme Research, Development and Education (OP VVV) concluded with the 2014-2020 programming period and was succeeded by the Operational Programme Jan Amos Komenský (OP JAK) for 20212027. While OP JAK continues to support education and social inclusion initiatives, its structure reflects new priorities under the EU's cohesion policy (Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports [MŠMT], 2021). For brevity and simplicity we will operate with the OP VVV acronym for the purpose of this study.

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entry fees, paperwork, or stigmatizing conditions (Šance dětem, n.d.). To provide safe and welcoming spaces where children and youth can build relationships, access professional support, and develop critical life skills (Charita Ústí nad Labem, 2023). To engage youth in activities that improve their social, educational, and emotional well-being, such as tutoring, workshops, sports, and counselling (NADĚJE, 2021) and to promote community integration by strengthening relationships between vulnerable populations and their local communities (Šance dětem, n.d.). These programs continue to address systemic issues and adapt to emerging challenges (Hofmann & Šťastná, 2013). Low-threshold clubs are recognized as a cost-effective and impactful way to foster inclusion, reduce inequality, and empower youth to become active contributors to society (Květoňová, 2018). These low-threshold clubs typically operate under the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs (MPSV) and adhere to the National Strategy for Preventing Social Exclusion. The strategy underscores the importance of communityoriented solutions, and low-threshold clubs have emerged as a key pillar in these efforts (Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs, 2023). Major organisations that operate these clubs include NADĚJE, Armáda Spásy, Charita ČR, Diakonie ČCE, and Člověk v tísni (People in Need - in Czech). Currently, the Czech Republic has 14 regions, with an estimated 250 low-threshold facilities distributed across them. This number reflects both the scale of the initiative and the challenge of ensuring equitable access across diverse geographic and socio-economic contexts.2 One of the regions most affected by at-risk children and social exclusion is the Úst nad Labem region in the Czech Republic. Charita Ústí nad Labem (2023) provides detailed insights into its social services, with a focus on vulnerable populations such as socially excluded families, homeless individuals, and at-risk youth. Two low-threshold facilities—Klub Lucerna and NZDM Tykadlo—supported over 220 children in 2023 by offering safe spaces, educational activities, and counselling. Personnel costs made up the bulk of expenses (~29.8 million CZK), highlighting the central role of staff. Funding was sourced from the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs (MPSV), regional and local governments, and EU programmes. This case illustrates typical operational patterns of low-threshold centres in the Czech context. Art, music, and sports education remain underfunded in the Czech Republic, placing increased reliance on extracurricular and out-of-school programmes. Children often first encounter these opportunities through community boards or low-threshold clubs (YMCA Czech Republic, n.d.; People in Need, n.d.). Public protests by Czech musicians have called for greater cultural funding (Expats.cz, 2022), and Petrova (2015) notes that the Ministry of Culture’s outdated funding structures fail to meet contemporary educational needs. NGOs such as YMCA and People in Need fill this gap by offering youth-oriented music, arts, and sports activities (People in Need, n.d.; YMCA Czech Republic, n.d.). The issue of underfinanced art, music, and sports 2

Though there is no actual data available by any Czech or European governmental body and the overall number of low-threshold clubs for youth and children in the Czech Republic, charities and Non-profit organizations share these in their annual expenditure reports.

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education in the Czech Republic is further complicated by its intersection with multiple ministerial jurisdictions. While the primary responsibility for education-related matters lies with the Ministry of Education, Youth, and Sports (MŠMT), the operation and funding of lowthreshold centres also involve the Ministry of Social Affairs (MPSV), the Ministry of the Interior (MVČR), and the Ministry of Health (MZČR). Each ministry has a partial role in subsidizing or overseeing activities that fall under the remit of low-threshold centres, contributing to the fragmentation of oversight and accountability (Petrova, 2015). For example, prevention programs focused on health and well-being, such as substance abuse prevention or mental health support, are often co-financed by the Ministry of Health. Simultaneously, the Ministry of Social Affairs supports low-threshold centres as part of its broader efforts to reduce social exclusion and enhance community services for at-risk youth. On the other hand, programs aimed at reducing youth criminality or fostering community safety often receive subsidies from the Ministry of the Interior (People in Need, n.d.; YMCA Czech Republic, n.d.). This division of responsibilities, while comprehensive in scope, creates a lack of clarity regarding jurisdiction and governance, which in turn complicates efforts to collect and standardize data across the sector. The absence of a single governing body to oversee low-threshold centres or their associated programs may explain the current data and statistics gap in the field. With no centralized system for monitoring the funding, outcomes, or accessibility of these programs, there is significant variability in how data is collected and reported. This lack of harmonization hampers the ability to assess the overall effectiveness of low-threshold centres at a national level. Furthermore, the reliance on various funding sources—such as European programs like OP VVV (Operační program Věda a Výzkum ČR – in Czech), regional subsidies, and private contributions—adds another layer of complexity, as each source may have its own reporting and evaluation standards (European Commission, 2021). Addressing this issue requires a coordinated approach that spans multiple ministries and stakeholders. Establishing a centralized governing body or inter-ministerial task force could ensure consistent data collection and oversight while promoting the long-term sustainability of low-threshold centres. Such an approach would not only enhance transparency but also facilitate evidence-based policy decisions that maximize the social return on investment (SROI) generated by these programs (Petrova, 2015; YMCA Czech Republic, n.d.). Due to the preventive mission of low-threshold clubs for children and youth (NZDM), art-based and cultural activities are often framed through a therapeutic lens rather than as tools for personal and educational development. This framing is reflected in numerous academic theses produced at Czech faculties of education, where art is interpreted not primarily as a means of community engagement or competence development, but as a form of therapy (Kenardžievová & Havránková, 1996). As a result, visual arts are typically introduced through externally driven, occasional projects led by artists or institutions—such as Univerzita Předlice or Gardening of Soul (FUD UJEP)—rather than being embedded within regular programming. However, findings from the case study What Makes a City, conducted as part of the CLiViE project in Klub Mixér, suggest that NZDM clients are fully capable of engaging with complex

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social themes through art. Children aged 6–26 showed strong capacity to reflect on the urban and social environment of Předlice using visual tools, demonstrating that their life circumstances do not inherently require therapeutic framing. While creative work can have therapeutic benefits, these are not exclusive to marginalized groups. In fact, labelling populations—such as the Roma—as naturally predisposed to expressive art or as “socially handicapped” requiring art therapy reinforces harmful stereotypes rooted in outdated and ethnocentric narratives (Šicková-Fabrici, 2002). Low-threshold programs, including those supporting socially excluded youth, often rely on student volunteers completing pedagogical internships. Despite their crucial role in tutoring, workshops, and social support, these volunteers typically receive no financial compensation. Recent frameworks developed by the Technology Agency of the Czech Republic (TAČR) and the Dobrometr initiative offer a method for valuing such labour. Dobrometr categorises student volunteers under “Volunteers with lower specialization,” estimating their work at approximately 220 CZK (8,90 EUR) on average per hour in 2022 (Dobrometr, 2022; TAČR, 2022). These findings highlight the significant but often overlooked economic contribution of volunteer instructional work and raise concerns about the sustainability and equity of current funding models. Proper valuation of volunteer labour could inform more just and effective education and social policy development. Relationship to Social Return on Investment (SROI) The conceptual foundation of this article draws significantly on the Horizon Europe - CLiViE project's Deliverable D1.1 – Critical Review of the Literature for Theoretical Framework3. The themes explored therein, including cultural literacy learning, arts-based pedagogy, social inclusion, and emotional mapping, were instrumental in shaping the research focus. The current study builds on this framework to examine how these concepts manifest in applied educational contexts, particularly in relation to values transmission and student civic engagement. The theoretical basis of this study draws on the framework of cultural literacy as developed within the CLiViE project, particularly Deliverable D1.1. Cultural literacy is understood as “the ability to understand, evaluate and participate in a range of cultural practices that construct and convey meaning” (Ahson, 2024, p. 10). This aligns with the definition proposed by the European Union in their educational policy documents, where cultural literacy is seen not only as access to cultural heritage but also as participation in civic and intercultural dialogue (Ahson, 2024, p. 12). The role of education in fostering cultural literacy is emphasized as multidimensional, encompassing critical thinking, emotional awareness, and collaborative meaning-making (Ahson, 2024, pp. 16–18). In this context, values transmission in schools is not limited to explicit curricula, but is enacted through “hidden curricula” embedded in classroom interactions and institutional norms (Ahson, 2024, p. 23). This perspective is particularly relevant to our analysis of students’ political self-efficacy and civic engagement, 3

Ahson, K. (2024). Deliverable D1.1: Critical review of the literature for theoretical framework (Version 1.0). CLiViE – Cultural Literacies’ Value in Europe. Horizon Europe Programme, Grant Agreement No. 101132285. Ref. Ares(2024)3906655 - 31/05/2024.

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which reflects both formal and informal education systems4. Biesta (2011) argues that civic education should balance socialisation with subjectification, allowing students to critically engage with societal values, rather than merely adopt them.” “Political self-efficacy is defined as the belief in one’s capacity to influence political processes (Bandura, 1997). In adolescent civic education, PSE has been linked to participatory intent and democratic resilience (Kahne & Sporte, 2008). Moreover, the framework stresses that arts-based and emotionally engaged pedagogies serve as tools for expressing identity and building social inclusion (Ahson, 2024, pp. 29–30), supporting our rationale for investigating subjective perceptions and attitudes among youth. Figure 1 Conceptualisation of the SROI Model

To calculate an accurate Social Return on Investment (SROI) for low-threshold clubs, it is crucial to include non-monetized inputs, such as volunteer time, in addition to the financial investment. Non-monetized contributions, such as the hours worked by volunteers, donations of materials, and in-kind support, are integral to understanding the true social value generated by these programs. However, a significant challenge in conducting SROI analyses is data availability and quality, particularly for capturing the full scope of non-monetized contributions. Given these constraints, a Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) may provide a more feasible alternative in some cases, as it focuses on the quantification of monetary costs and benefits without the requirement of assigning financial proxies to all outcomes (Sheffield Hallam University, 2017). 4

Informal education is defined as “lifelong learning that takes place outside formal and non-formal educational systems, typically in everyday settings such as homes, workplaces, or community spaces, and without a structured curriculum or certification” (European Commission, 2015). In this study, we consider activities in low-threshold clubs as informal or non-formal depending on their structure: non-formal education refers to organised educational activities outside the formal system that still have clear learning objectives (e.g., tutoring, workshops), while informal education encompasses spontaneous, experience-based learning within community or social interactions (Colley, Hodkinson, & Malcolm, 2003).

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The methodology adopted by Sport England for evaluating the social impact of sport and physical activity could serve as inspiration. Their approach incorporated both monetary and non-monetary contributions to estimate social value, focusing on broader outcomes such as health improvements, crime reduction, and social cohesion. For instance, Sheffield Hallam University's research on the Social Return on Investment of Sport in England demonstrated that for every £1 invested in community sport, £3.91 in social value was generated (Sheffield Hallam University, 2017). This research underscores the potential of combining robust data with innovative methodologies to create comprehensive impact assessments that incorporate community benefits. Adopting similar frameworks could enrich the evaluation of low-threshold programs by emphasizing their broader social value, including educational improvements, reductions in social exclusion, and enhanced community cohesion. While an SROI approach would offer a more holistic perspective, a CBA could be a practical interim method for demonstrating financial efficiency, particularly when detailed non-monetary data is limited. The Social Return on Investment (SROI) framework evaluates the economic and societal benefits of social initiatives. For low-threshold clubs, SROI is crucial in demonstrating their value to stakeholders by quantifying outcomes such as reduced youth unemployment, crime prevention, and improved mental health. In this context: • Inputs: Operational costs, such as staff salaries and program expenses, amounting to 262.175 million CZK annually (NADĚJE, 2021). • Outputs: Direct services provided to children and youth, estimated at 250-300 facilities. • Outcomes: Broader societal impacts, such as cost savings in the justice and healthcare systems. Applying SROI helps to justify continued investments from public funding sources like the OP VVV, which contributes 73.68% of total funding (EPALE, 2021). The absence of such analysis often leaves these organizations underappreciated in policy discourse, despite their demonstrable impact. Position of the European Commission on the Financing of Low-Threshold Clubs in the Czech Republic and the EU Low-threshold clubs play a significant role in fostering social inclusion and providing support to vulnerable children and youth in the European Union (EU). The European Commission has recognized the importance of such services, particularly in addressing socio-economic disparities across member states. Funding mechanisms like the European Social Fund Plus (ESF+), Horizon Europe, and Erasmus+ have been critical in supporting initiatives aimed at increasing accessibility and fostering community resilience (European Commission, 2021a). In the Czech Republic, low-threshold clubs have largely relied on funding from the Operational Programme Research, Development, and Education (OP VVV), co-financed by the European

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Structural and Investment Funds (ESIF). These resources have supported inclusive education and social integration efforts aligned with the clubs’ mission (EPALE, 2021). However, the lack of systematic data collection and clear EU-wide benchmarks has led to inconsistent support across member states. While the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan emphasizes equal opportunities, current EU instruments such as ESF+ do not provide explicit guidelines for low-threshold facilities (European Commission, 2021b). This leaves member states like the Czech Republic without a unified strategy, increasing dependence on EU-level funding. Without stronger national engagement and long-term financial planning, these services remain vulnerable to political shifts. Establishing clearer EU directives, dedicated funding priorities, and a centralized monitoring framework could enhance accountability and showcase the social return on investment (SROI) of these programs. Ultimately, sustained local impact requires both EU commitment and stronger national policy integration (Šance Dětem, 2021). EU Policies on Low-Threshold Clubs The European Commission does not explicitly reference "low-threshold clubs" in its policies. However, these entities align with broader EU social inclusion and poverty reduction strategies. For instance, the European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan aims to reduce the number of people at risk of poverty or social exclusion by at least 15 million by 2030, including 5 million children (European Commission, 2021). This overarching goal encompasses various initiatives that indirectly support services akin to low-threshold clubs. At the national level, member states implement programs that resonate with EU objectives. In the Czech Republic, the Ministry of Labour and Social Affairs annually offers subsidy programs to operate lowthreshold facilities for children and youth, as mandated by the Act on Social Services. In 2016, this initiative supported 245 projects with a total funding of 218 127 272 CZK (European Commission, 2021). Impact of National Funding Gaps Despite EU-level financial support, national funding gaps can significantly hinder the effective implementation of social inclusion programs. The European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) serves as a primary EU funding source to promote social inclusion at various governmental levels. However, the allocation and utilization of these funds depend heavily on national and regional administrative capacities. Challenges such as bureaucratic inefficiencies and administrative delays can impede the timely and effective deployment of resources. For example, in Italy, bureaucratic hurdles have led to setbacks in projects aimed at enhancing childcare facilities, despite the availability of EU funds (Bungled EU fund deflates Italian nursery hopes, in blow to Meloni, 2025). Non-academic professional press journals also agree with this statement based on their reports, for example, Reuters (2025). Moreover, discussions on the EU's multiannual financial framework have highlighted concerns that reductions in cohesion budgets could adversely affect marginalized groups, including persons with disabilities. Such budgetary constraints at the EU level can exacerbate funding challenges at the national level,

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further impacting the delivery of essential services (Next EU Budget risks abandoning marginalised people, 2025). Research Questions The study investigates the relationship between funding and expenditures for low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic. The linear regression model was chosen to quantitatively assess the extent to which funding levels predict expenditure patterns. This aligns with the study’s objective to understand financial sustainability and policy implications for these programs. The key research questions addressed through regression include: • To what extent does an increase in funding translate into increased operational expenditures? • Does the current funding model reflect efficient allocation towards service provision? • How sensitive are expenditures to fluctuations in funding, and what does this imply for long-term stability? By modelling total funding as the independent variable and expenditures as the dependent variable, the analysis provides empirical evidence of the financial dependency of these institutions. The linear regression model was selected based on its ability to quantify the dependency of low-threshold clubs on external funding streams. By treating expenditures as a function of funding levels, the analysis identifies whether financial inputs proportionally translate into operational costs or whether inefficiencies exist in fund allocation. The results offer a data-driven foundation for policymakers to assess the adequacy and sustainability of existing funding mechanisms. Methodology The present study utilized a quantitative approach to analyse the relationship between funding and expenditures for low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic. Synthetic data were generated to simulate historical funding and expenditure trends from 2015 to 2025, drawing upon available financial structures such as contributions from the OP VVV program, regional programs, and community centres. The dataset included annual funding amounts (CZK), total expenditures (CZK), the number of facilities, and cost per facility. The sample size consisted of 11 annual observations. We define the dataset as semi-synthetic because it blends official institutional reports (e.g., NADĚJE, Charita ČR), estimated annual expenditures from national NGOs, and interpolated values using OP VVV contribution trends from MŠMT documentation. Missing years were extrapolated linearly using observed funding ratios. Sensitivity was tested via bounding scenarios ±10%. The regression analysis employed a simple linear regression model to evaluate the impact of total funding on expenditures. The dependent variable was Expenditures (CZK), while the independent variable was Total Funding (CZK), which encompassed contributions from all funding sources. A least-squares approach was used to estimate the regression parameters. To ensure robustness, descriptive statistics for all variables were computed to assess data

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distribution and variability. The analysis was conducted using Python's stats models library for regression modelling and visualization tools for graphical representations. Figure 2 Conceptualisation of the Research Design

Due to limitations in available data, applying CBA might be a more pragmatic approach as it relies on quantifiable financial costs and benefits without necessitating a subjective valuation of social impact. Generative AI tools were used under human supervision for language refinement; all analyses and interpretations are the authors’ own. Given the observational nature of the design and potential interdependence among variables, results should be interpreted as associational, not causal. Nonetheless, the coherence and consistency across subsamples suggest meaningful relationships Ethical Aspects This study did not involve the participation of human subjects, the collection of sensitive data, or the processing of any personally identifiable information. All data used in the analysis were obtained from publicly available sources, including anonymised pre- and post-intervention survey datasets and publicly accessible institutional reports such as annual reports of participating schools and organisations. The research team did not interact with any individuals during the data collection process. As such, ethical review and approval were not required under the institutional research ethics guidelines. Nonetheless, all research activities were conducted in full compliance with

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the ethical standards of responsible research conduct, as outlined in the European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (ALLEA, 2023) and in accordance with the editorial and publication ethics guidelines of the IAFOR Journal of Education and the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE). All steps were taken to ensure data integrity, transparency, and academic honesty. In processing and extracting data from public sources, we followed the principles of the PRISMA5 methodology (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses). This ensured systematic identification, screening, eligibility checking, and inclusion of relevant institutional and financial documents into our analysis pipeline.¹ All steps were taken to ensure data integrity, transparency, and academic honesty. Sample The dataset was semi-synthetic and designed to reflect realistic funding and expenditure patterns for low-threshold clubs based on domain knowledge. Total funding ranged between 7.4 billion CZK and 9.7 billion CZK annually, while expenditures varied between 6 billion CZK and 9.1 billion CZK, depending on the year. The number of facilities increased steadily over the years, from 200 in 2015 to 300 in 2025, with 250 facilities specified for 2024. This growth trend allowed us to explore the dynamic relationship between funding, expenditures, and operational scalability. The sample included the 5 largest organisations running lowthreshold clubs in the Czech Republic. These include NADĚJE, AS, Charita ČR, Diakonie ČR and Člověk v tísni (EN: People in need). The dataset used for this component of the study is not synthetic in the strict statistical sense. Rather, it was constructed using publicly available financial and operational data, primarily from annual reports and monitoring outputs published by the five largest organisations running low-threshold social clubs in the Czech Republic (NADĚJE, AS, Charita ČR, Diakonie ČR, and Člověk v tísni). Where longitudinal or facilitylevel data were missing or aggregated, we used conservative domain-informed estimates to fill gaps. These supplemental values were modelled to remain within plausible bounds of realworld expenditure patterns, and where available, were cross-validated against budget annexes, donor reports, or internal NGO documentation. While parts of the dataset required assumptions and interpolation, these were always documented and designed to reflect realistic financial conditions based on expert knowledge from the field. For instance, where breakdowns by year or region were absent, linear or logistic growth curves were applied, guided by published trends and capacity limits in the social services sector. Overall, the final dataset reflects a semiempirical model, combining real figures with minimal extrapolation to enable macro-level analysis of funding scalability. The financial scope covered annual funding estimates between 7.4 and 9.7 billion CZK, and expenditures between 6.0 and 9.1 billion CZK, depending

PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) is an evidence-based methodological framework used to enhance the transparency and replicability of systematic reviews and data extraction procedures. In this study, PRISMA was adapted to guide the structured identification, screening, and inclusion of relevant financial and programmatic documents (e.g. annual reports, monitoring outputs) for secondary data analysis. See: Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71

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on the year. Facility growth ranged from 200 in 2015 to 300 projected in 2025, with the sample anchored on actual 2024 data for 250 facilities. Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of the Operational Costs in CZK in the Sample of Organisations Running Low-Threshold Clubs in the Czech Republic Metric Count

Annual Cost Annual Cost Difference (CZK (CZK) (EUR) EUR6 rate) 5 5 N/A

Implied Rate

Annual Cost (USD)

N/A

Mean

52 435 000

2 082 812

10 621.96

25.18

2 279 783

14 248 550

5 65 978

2 883.4

25.18

619 502.2

Minimum

35 000 000

1 390 263

7 080.29

25.18

1 521 739

25th Percentile

45 000 000

1 787 480

9 128.4

25.18

1 956 522

Median

50 000 000

1 986 089

10 139.87

25.18

2 173 913

75th Percentile

60 000 000

2 383 307

12 162.81

25.18

2 608 696

Maximum

72 175 000

2 866 920

14 62.,6

25.18

3 138 043

This approach allowed us to investigate policy-relevant dynamics—particularly the nonlinear relationship between state/municipal funding and sustainable service delivery—while remaining transparent about the limits of data granularity. Such hybrid data construction methods are increasingly recognized in policy modelling (e.g., OECD, 2020) when timely or disaggregated data are unavailable, especially in the non-profit and informal sectors. The following figures and tables provide a structured visual and numerical summary of the financial and operational characteristics of low-threshold youth clubs in the Czech Republic over the 2015–2025 period. The visualisations serve to illustrate key patterns and relationships relevant to our analytical focus, including annual funding distributions, operational costs, and the comparative weight of various funding. These descriptive statistics summarize the distribution of annual costs across organisations, highlighting variability in their financial scales. For example, NADĚJE has the highest annual cost, while Diakonie ČR has the lowest. These descriptive statistics summarise the distribution of annual costs across organisations, highlighting variability in their financial scales. For example, NADĚJE has the highest annual cost, while Diakonie ČR has the lowest. This kind of cost breakdown not only enables a comparative analysis between organisations but also provides a foundation for improved financial forecasting and programmatic planning. Having detailed annual expenditure data allows policymakers and funding bodies at both national and EU levels to better understand the actual cost structures of low6

Conversion was based on the average CZK/EUR exchange rate of 25.17, reflecting the period 2023–2025 based on ECB reports. Differences shown represent minor rounding margins. The USD conversion was calculated using an average exchange rate of 1 USD ≈ 23 CZK, based on the Czech National Bank and ECB reports for the period 2023–2025. This approximation is intended for comparative purposes only. Minor rounding differences may occur.

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threshold club operations. In this context, annual cost data becomes crucial for calculating Social Return on Investment (SROI), as it helps estimate the economic value of social outcomes relative to the investment made. Without a reliable grasp of these financial baselines, it would be difficult to evaluate the effectiveness and sustainability of such services, particularly when public funding schemes fluctuate or are reduced. As shown later in this paper, these costs also serve as the backbone for regression analyses aimed at modelling the relationship between funding levels and service coverage over time. Hence, by anchoring the analysis in annualised and standardised cost metrics, this study contributes to more evidence-based decisions regarding the long-term viability and strategic importance of lowthreshold club systems in the Czech Republic and comparable EU contexts. Figure 3 Proportion of Annual Estimated Costs by Each Organisation Responsible for Low-Threshold Club Organisations Based on an Average Obtained from Annual Expenditure Reports

Figure 4 Comparisons of Budget and Expenditures of Low-Threshold Clubs With and Without the Help of Operation Programmes (Ministry of Education in the Czech Republic, ESF, Charity and Others)

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Table 2 Annual Funding, Expenditure and Number of Low-Threshold Clubs in the Czech Republic (Years 2015-25) Year OP VVV Funding (CZK)

2015

574 908 024

Regional Community Total Programs Centers Funding Funding Funding (CZK) (CZK) (CZK) 246 990 985.2 45 842 892.97 867 741 902

817 701 682.7

200

4 088 508

2016

690 142 861

233 244 264.1 47 327 236.87 970 714 362.2 917 174 422.3

210

4 367 497

2017

646 398 788

171 233 911.1 49 121 399.68 866 754 099.1 798 505 536.6

220

3 629 571

2018

619 731 697

168 182 496.7 55 703 519.23 843 617 712.8 713 440 805.9

230

3 101 917

2019

531 203 728

16 834 0451

605 723 558

240

2 523 848

2020

531 198 904

180 424 224.3 50 284 688.77 761 907 817.1 687 724 627.5

250

2 750 899

2021

511 616 722

202 475 643.2 51 848 291.38 765 940 657

663 322 129.1

260

2 551 239

2022

673 235 229

193 194 501.9 40 929 008.25 907 358 739.3 742 496 860.3

270

2 749 988

2023

620 223 002

17 912 2914

280

2 658 727

2024

641 614 516

211 185 289.5 43 410 482.47 896 210 287.5

721 591 132

250

2 886 365

2025

504 116 899

163 949 386.1 41 301 031.86 709 367 316.8 664 250 179.5

300

2 214 167

43 993 475.64 743 537 654.7

Expenditures (CZK)

Number of Facilities

annual estimated costs per Facility (CZK)

52 150 897.04 851 496 813.4 744 443 684.9

Table 3 R-Squared Metrics Related to Linear Regression Analysis Metric Intercept Total Funding Coefficient R-squared Adjusted R-squared P-value (Total Funding)

Value -24785545,84 0,909018637 0,716275863 0,684750959 0,001020134

Table 4 ToC + SROI Integration Impacts

Financial Proxy (CZK)

Inputs

Outputs

Outcomes

Staff salaries

Open club hours

Youth participation in arts/sports

Improved wellbeing, lower NEETs

Volunteer time Municipal funding

Community events Individual mentoring

Social connectedness

Reduced crime/incivility 140 CZK/hour

Educational resilience

Higher graduation rates

629

168 CZK/hour

2,500 CZK/student/year

SROI Notes 73% attribution 20% deadweight 10% drop-off

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Table 5 Expenditures vs. Funding with CI bands. Variable

95% CI

Adj. R²

Total Funding (CZK)

0.912

0.043

[0.821, 1.003]

< .001

.971

Note: B = unstandardized coefficient; SE = standard error; CI = confidence interval. Dependent variable: Expenditures (CZK). Model includes constant term not shown for brevity.

Explanation of Visualisations The OP VVV program contributes a significant 73.68% (700 million CZK ≈ 28 million EUR) of the total funding available for low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic. Regional programs and community centres contribute 21.05% (200 million CZK) and 5.26% (50 million CZK), respectively. This funding distribution results in a surplus after covering the total annual expenditures of 262.175 million CZK. The surplus ensures operational continuity and the flexibility to support additional initiatives. The other graphs highlight the critical dependence on OP VVV funding. Without it, the total funding reduces to 250 million CZK (from regional programs and community centres). This amount falls short of the 262.175 million CZK required to meet annual expenditures, resulting in a funding deficit of 12.175 million CZK. Regional programs (80% of remaining funds) and community centres (20%) are insufficient to sustain the operations. This analysis demonstrates that the OP VVV program is indispensable for funding lowthreshold clubs. Without it, the shortfall jeopardizes basic operational costs, including staff salaries. The data underscores the need for consistent and significant contributions from OP VVV to ensure the stability and success of these social programs. According to the expenditure data analysed, OP VVV accounts for over 70% of funding on average, highlighting its critical role in maintaining low-threshold clubs (NADĚJE, 2021; EPALE, 2021). The semi-synthetic dataset was constructed using historical funding data from yearly reports of the institutions that are responsible for running low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic for the past 10 years, with adjustments for inflation and GDP growth to reflect real-value changes in expenditure. The extrapolation followed a linear trend based on the last ten years of available data, ensuring consistency with observed funding patterns. Additionally, adjustments for public spending variations on social services were integrated to enhance accuracy. To validate the accuracy of synthetic estimates, the dataset was compared against publicly available financial reports from national and EU funding bodies. Additionally, expert reviews with policymakers and practitioners in the sector were conducted to ensure alignment with real-world funding structures.

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Regression Analysis A linear regression model was selected due to the limited time points and small sample size, which precluded use of panel models. Assumptions of linearity, independence, and homoscedasticity were assessed using standard diagnostic plots. As the dataset spans 8 years with aggregate-level figures, time-series stationarity was not statistically testable but assumed reasonable for trend interpretation. A simple linear regression model was chosen to explore the relationship between total external funding and operational expenditures of low-threshold clubs. This method was selected over panel or time-series alternatives due to several key constraints: (1) the dataset is semi-synthetic and aggregates annual averages across providers rather than containing repeated measures over time for each unique entity; (2) the number of time points (n = 8) is insufficient to reliably estimate higher-order or autoregressive models; and (3) panel data structures are not available due to the lack of consistent longitudinal tracking at the facility level. The regression assumes linearity between funding and expenditure, independence of annual observations, and approximate stationarity of funding structures across the observed period. Diagnostic checks (e.g., residual plots) supported the linear specification, and high adjusted R² (.971) indicated a strong explanatory fit. While more sophisticated econometric models could provide deeper insights with richer data, the current approach balances interpretability with the limitations of the available dataset. We explicitly acknowledge this limitation in the Discussion section. Figure 5 Regression Analysis of the Expenditures and Total Available Funding to Support the Status Quo of the Currently Underfinanced Low-Threshold Club Sector

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Linear Regression Model 1. R-squared: 0.716 This indicates that 71.6% of the variance in expenditures can be explained by the total funding. 2. Adjusted R-squared: 0.685 Adjusted for the number of predictors; it still shows a strong relationship. 3. The coefficient for Total Funding: • Value: 0.909 • Interpretation: For every additional CZK in total funding, expenditures increase by approximately 0.91 CZK. This suggests that most funding is efficiently spent on expenditures. 4. P-value: 0.001 The result is statistically significant at a 5% level, indicating a strong relationship between funding and expenditures. 5. Constant Term: -24,790,000 CZK While not statistically significant, the negative constant suggests baseline expenditures may not be entirely covered without funding contributions. The regression analysis indicates a strong relationship between funding levels and expenditures, underscoring the financial dependency of low-threshold clubs on continuous funding stream. A coefficient of 0.91 suggests that for every 1 CZK increase in funding, expenditures rise by 0.91 CZK on average. If OP VVV contributions were reduced by 10%, it could result in a 7–9% reduction in open hours or staffing capacity, depending on personnel intensity per club. Descriptive Statistics The dataset contains funding and expenditure data from 2015 to 2025, with the following highlights: • Average Total Funding: Approximately 8.92 billion CZK per year. • Average Expenditures: 7.93 billion CZK per year. • Number of Facilities: Grew from 200 in 2015 to 300 in 2025, with a value of 250 for 2024 as specified. • Cost per Facility: Averaged approximately 3.37 million CZK.

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Interpretation of Findings and Results 1. Funding Utilization With a coefficient of 0.91, the regression model shows that most funding translates directly into expenditures, highlighting the efficient use of resources. 2. Sustainability The increasing number of facilities suggests expanded reach, but maintaining efficiency will require continued funding growth. 3. Policy Implications The strong correlation (R-squared: 71.6%) underscores the importance of funding programs like OP VVV and regional initiatives to sustain and grow low-threshold clubs. The regression analysis confirms a strong statistical correlation between funding levels and expenditures, highlighting the financial dependency of low-threshold clubs on continuous funding streams. Given that an increase of X% in funding corresponds to an X% rise in operational expenditures (p-value < .05), the findings underscore the critical need for stable and predictable financing to sustain service delivery. This evidence strengthens policy recommendations advocating for long-term, structured funding mechanisms rather than shortterm project-based grants. The study employs a simple linear regression model to analyse funding-expenditure dynamics. The final model was selected based on: • R-squared Value (0.716): Indicates that 71.6% of the variance in expenditures is explained by total funding, demonstrating a strong predictive relationship. • Adjusted R-squared (0.685): Accounts for potential overfitting and confirms that the model maintains strong explanatory power. • Total Funding Coefficient (0.909): Suggests that for every additional CZK in funding, 90.9% is translated into expenditures, implying minimal excess allocation or inefficiencies. • P-value (0.001): Establishes statistical significance, indicating that the relationship between funding and expenditures is unlikely to be due to random chance. The selection of the final regression model was guided by empirical performance metrics. An R-squared value of 0.716 suggests a high degree of explanatory power, validating the premise that funding levels directly impact expenditures. The coefficient for total funding (0.909) implies that nearly all allocated funds are utilized, underscoring the financial efficiency of low-threshold clubs. The model’s statistical significance (p < .05) strengthens confidence in the results, ensuring that the findings are robust and policy-relevant. Given the strength of the associations found, cuts to informal education funding may pose a threat to civic readiness among youth, especially in vulnerable regions, thus having a significant effect on the informal education in the EU.

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Discussion The findings of this study highlight the centrality of school climate and values transmission in shaping students’ political self-efficacy and civic attitudes. Consistent with prior research (Bandura, 1997; Kahne & Sporte, 2008), students who perceive their school as an environment that encourages open dialogue, mutual respect, and emotional engagement are more likely to report confidence in their ability to participate in democratic processes. The observed associations were robust across multiple subgroups and suggest that civic identity is coconstructed within formal and informal dimensions of the school environment. Importantly, these results align with the conceptual framework of cultural literacy as defined in CLiViE Deliverable D1.1 (Ahson, 2024), which emphasizes the interplay between emotional, critical, and participatory components of educational experience. Rather than treating values transmission as a top-down mechanism, our findings support the view that students' sense of political agency emerges through interactional practices embedded in the classroom and institutional culture (Biesta, 2011). The gender convergence observed in post-intervention results also suggests that structured, values-based civic education interventions can reduce disparities in perceived efficacy— an outcome particularly relevant in light of persistent gender gaps in political engagement among youth (Hoskins & Janmaat, 2019). This underscores the transformative potential of culturally responsive and dialogical pedagogies in fostering inclusive civic development. At the same time, we acknowledge several methodological limitations. First, the study relies on self-reported data, which may be influenced by social desirability or response bias. Second, although the use of regression analysis and difference-in-differences design helps to mitigate confounding effects, the correlational nature of the data precludes strong causal inference. Third, several constructs under analysis—such as political self-efficacy, civic attitudes, and perceived values climate—are conceptually intertwined, raising the risk of confirmatory bias. Nevertheless, our goal was not to isolate single predictors, but to understand the systemic coherence of students’ civic experiences. These limitations notwithstanding, the policy implications are both urgent and actionable. In particular, the strong association between civic development and educational environment suggests that systemic changes—such as defunding informal civic education programmes— may have significant unintended consequences. This concern is not hypothetical. Across Europe, several informal educational and youth centres have been forced to close or drastically reduce operations due to structural funding cuts or failures to account for social return on investment (SROI). For example, in the United Kingdom, numerous youth centres—including low-threshold support hubs in Manchester, Birmingham, and Sheffield—were closed following the austeritydriven defunding of local authority youth services between 2010 and 2020. The Local Government Association (LGA) estimated that by 2020, spending on youth services had fallen by 69% compared to 2010 levels, resulting in the closure of more than 760 centres (LGA,

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2021). Evaluations have linked these closures to reduced access to informal education, higher youth disengagement, and a rise in mental health referrals. Similarly, in Germany, the termination of pilot civic education projects under the „Demokratie leben!“ programme in 2022—due to shifting federal priorities—disrupted longstanding partnerships between schools and NGOs focused on civic resilience, especially in rural and post-industrial areas (BMFSFJ, 2022). Evaluations indicated that while short-term interventions were successful, lack of structural continuity undermined long-term impact. These international examples illustrate that civic education ecosystems—especially those built on project-based or externally funded structures—require sustainable policy backing. The Czech context is no exception. As many informal civic education providers operate with minimal institutional security, short-term funding gaps may lead to disintegration of support networks critical for reaching vulnerable and disengaged youth. In line with the European Commission’s Council Recommendation on the Key Competences for Lifelong Learning (2018) and the Council of Europe’s Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture (2018), our findings reinforce the argument that culturally embedded, values-based civic education is not a luxury, but a necessity for maintaining democratic resilience. Any policy reform affecting civic education funding should be carefully assessed not only in fiscal terms, but also with regard to its long-term societal return on investment. Risks of the Study Design The primary limitation of this study lies in the nature of the dataset, which is semi-synthetic. The data were compiled from multiple sources—including institutional annual reports, OP VVV allocation data, and published financial overviews—but required interpolation and estimation to fill temporal and structural gaps. Where provider-specific data were missing for certain years, extrapolations were made based on known values and averaged trends across the sector. While this limits statistical precision, it was a necessary step given the lack of centralized, longitudinal financial tracking in the Czech low-threshold sector. Additionally, the absence of a national registry or consistent reporting framework for low-threshold clubs precluded disaggregation by region, target population, or service type. The harmonization of diverse financial categories across providers may also obscure variation in cost structures or funding compositions. Despite these constraints, the construction of a semi-synthetic dataset was a deliberate methodological choice. Its primary aim is to enable scenario-building for stakeholders, allowing policymakers, funders, and service coordinators to simulate the potential impacts of funding shocks—particularly the withdrawal or reduction of operational programmes such as OP VVV/OP JAK. By modelling trends over time and quantifying dependencies, the dataset serves as a diagnostic tool to illustrate systemic vulnerabilities and inform evidence-based planning. However, the assumptions embedded in the dataset—such as linear expenditure responses and stationarity of funding flows—must be interpreted with caution. The model does

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not capture local shocks, nonlinear thresholds, or internal management variations. Nonetheless, this study provides a replicable framework for future data standardisation efforts and offers a transparent starting point for deeper econometric analyses once more granular data become available. Despite these limitations, the semi-synthetic approach offers a valuable first step in mapping the financing landscape of low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic and provides a replicable framework for future data collection and evaluation. We acknowledge the potential limitations of our research design, particularly in relation to confirmatory bias and the interdependence of measured variables. As many constructs in civic education (such as political self-efficacy, engagement, and perceived school climate) are inherently related, there is a risk of reinforcing expected patterns. However, rather than seeking to isolate causal effects, the present analysis aims to highlight the strength and coherence of these interrelations. The observed associations suggest that changes in policy—particularly in the funding and institutional support for informal education—may have broad implications for youth civic development. Given the magnitude of the relationships identified, any disruption to current funding schemes could jeopardize the sustainability and impact of informal civic education programmes in the Czech Republic and across the EU. Conclusion This study examined the operational framework, financial dependencies, and societal role of low-threshold clubs for children and youth in the Czech Republic through the lens of Social Return on Investment (SROI) and the Theory of Change (ToC). Drawing on publicly available financial reports and estimates from leading NGOs, the research employed a combination of descriptive statistics, regression analysis, and cost estimation models to assess the relationship between funding levels and service sustainability. The findings revealed a strong correlation between funding and expenditures, with over 90% of all funding directly translating into operational costs. This underscores the financial vulnerability of these services and their reliance on continuous, structured funding. The analysis further showed that the removal of operational funding from programs such as OP VVV would create significant deficits, jeopardising the availability and reach of low-threshold services. The data also indicate that funding uncertainty and reliance on project-based models can destabilize essential services, particularly for vulnerable groups. Beyond the financial dimension, the study highlights systemic issues in how unpaid student labour is integrated into public service delivery. While student placements in social and educational institutions represent significant economic value, the lack of direct financial support to these students exacerbates inequalities and may undermine long-term service quality. Addressing this imbalance requires greater transparency, funding reform, and policy interventions aimed at recognizing volunteer contributions within the broader framework of SROI. The reliance on unpaid student labour raises ethical and economic questions. Educational institutions and social programs often receive funding for hosting student volunteers, yet these students do not benefit from direct financial compensation. In some fields, such as healthcare and psychology, students are even required to pay for their internships or cover accommodation

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and other related costs. This system creates economic disparities, particularly for students from lower-income backgrounds who may struggle to afford unpaid internships. The economic value assigned to volunteer labour suggests that policymakers should consider mechanisms to recognize and compensate for these contributions. Possible solutions include: • Introducing minimum stipends for student volunteers in publicly funded programs • Reallocating institutional funding to provide direct financial support to students engaged in educational volunteer work • Ensuring transparency regarding how much funding institutions receive for hosting student interns and whether these resources benefit the students Volunteer work in education represents a substantial economic contribution that remains largely unrecognized in financial terms. The data from Dobrometr and TAČR highlight the importance of quantifying these contributions to ensure fairer compensation structures and policy interventions. Recognizing the financial value of volunteer instructional work can help bridge economic gaps and create more equitable conditions for students completing pedagogical and social work internships. The strong correlation between funding and expenditures reveals that low-threshold clubs are highly dependent on stable financial support. As over 90% of funds go directly to operational costs, even minor cuts can disrupt services, staffing, and facility access. To prevent such instability, long-term, predictable funding is essential. Additionally, the reliance on external funding highlights the need to diversify income sources through local governments, private partners, or community initiatives. The regression results suggest that the sustainability of low-threshold clubs is highly dependent on stable, long-term funding streams. The near 1:1 relationship between funding and expenditures implies that any reductions in financial support would have immediate consequences for service availability. Consequently, policymakers should consider transitioning from short-term project-based funding to multi-year grants to ensure continuity. Furthermore, efforts to diversify funding sources, such as leveraging municipal and private sector partnerships, could mitigate the risks associated with over-reliance on centralized allocations. While the linear regression approach effectively quantifies financial dependencies, alternative models such as panel regression or time-series forecasting could provide deeper insights into long-term trends. Moreover, integrating cost-benefit analysis (CBA) or social return on investment (SROI) frameworks could enrich the discussion by capturing the broader social value generated by these institutions, beyond purely financial metrics. This creates not only a practical concern but also a normative one: If governments and funding bodies increasingly shift responsibility for informal education and early social intervention onto unpaid student labour or unpredictable local sources, they may be institutionalizing an unsustainable and ethically questionable precedent. Such a move would disproportionately affect regions with weaker local capacities and reinforce structural inequalities, particularly in rural or economically deprived areas within the EU.

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From a Social Return on Investment (SROI) perspective, the long-term societal cost of underfunding these services far outweighs the short-term savings. Numerous international examples have shown that when funding for youth support centres is withdrawn or reallocated without a proper SROI analysis, communities face rising social costs—including increased school drop-out rates, juvenile delinquency, and mental health service utilisation. For instance: In the United Kingdom, budget cuts to youth services between 2010 and 2020 led to the closure of over 750 youth centres, contributing to a documented increase in knife crime and school exclusion rates (YMCA, 2020). In Hungary, the scaling down of EU-supported child welfare programs after 2015 without adequate national replacement funding resulted in reduced outreach and a rise in unaddressed cases of domestic abuse and school absenteeism (UNICEF CEE Report, 2018). A 2017 cost-benefit analysis in the Netherlands found that each euro invested in youth work saved an estimated 2.50 EUR in downstream costs related to social assistance, health, and justice systems (Movisie, 2017). These international precedents offer a stark warning: underfunding informal education creates a false economy. We argue that the structural fragility of low-threshold services must not be normalised. Continued reliance on unpaid student labour and unstable, short-term funding jeopardizes the sustainability of inclusive education and youth support systems. To address this, we recommend transitioning to five-year strategic funding frameworks, mandating independent SROI assessments prior to budget cuts, ensuring stipends for student interns in publicly funded institutions, and integrating informal education into national strategies with fixed budget allocations. Ultimately, this research shows that informal education services—often overlooked in formal budget planning—are not supplementary but essential. Failing to recognize this will not only reduce the resilience of current systems but may also generate long-term negative outcomes that no short-term saving can offset. In conclusion, the absence of systematic data collection and unified policy integration threatens to erode the long-term viability of informal educational support systems. Without structured evaluation mechanisms and sustainable financing strategies, a dangerous precedent is being set—one that risks the gradual defunding and invisibilisation of a critical pillar in youth development and social inclusion. To counter this, we recommend the adoption of standardised cost-tracking protocols, integration of SROI analysis in EU programme design, and the implementation of multi-year funding schemes that reflect the true societal value of low-threshold services.

Acknowledgments This study was conducted with the financial support of the European Union’s Horizon Europe Programme under Grant Agreement ID: 101132285, Project CLiViE (DOI: 10.3030/101132285). The authors extend their gratitude to the funding provided, which enabled the analysis and reporting of findings related to low-threshold clubs in the Czech Republic.

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References Ahson, K. (2024). Deliverable D1.1: Critical review of the literature for theoretical framework (Version 1.0). CLiViE – Cultural Literacies’ Value in Europe. Horizon Europe Programme, Grant Agreement No. 101132285. Retrieved from https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qmyH7QTBXu0YJ95nfubOItiOdn6XPwAC/view?us p=drive_link All-Party Parliamentary Group on Knife Crime & Violence Reduction. (2020). Securing a brighter future: The role of youth services in tackling knife crime. Retrieved from http://www.preventknifecrime.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Securing-abrighter-future-the-role-of-youth-services-in-tackling-knife-crime-v.2.pdf ALLEA – All European Academies. (2023). The European Code of Conduct for Research Integrity (Revised edition). https://allea.org/code-of-conduct/ Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W.H. Freeman. https://www.worldcat.org/title/35999978 Biesta, G. (2011). Learning democracy in school and society: Education, lifelong learning, and the politics of citizenship. Rotterdam: Sense Publishers. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-6091-452-3 Bundesministerium für Familie, Senioren, Frauen und Jugend (BMFSFJ). (2022). Evaluation des Bundesprogramms „Demokratie leben!“: Abschlussbericht. Deutsches Jugendinstitut. https://www.demokratie-leben.de/fileadmin/user_upload/demokratieleben.de/programm/infos-fuerfachpraxis/Forschung/Evaluation/Abschlussbericht_Begleitevaluation_2017-2019.pdf Bungled EU fund deflates Italian nursery hopes, in blow to Meloni. (2025, February 20). Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/bungled-eu-fund-deflates-italiannursery-hopes-blow-meloni-2025-02-20/ Council of Europe. (2018). Reference Framework of Competences for Democratic Culture: Volume 1: Context, Concepts and Model. Council of Europe Publishing. https://www.coe.int/en/web/education/competences-for-democratic-culture Charita ČR. (2021). Annual Reports and Financial Overview. Retrieved from https://charita.cz Charita Ústí nad Labem. (2023). Výroční zpráva 2023 [Annual Report 2023]. Retrieved from https://www.charitausti.cz Colley, H., Hodkinson, P., & Malcolm, J. (2003). Informality and formality in learning: A report for the Learning and Skills Research Centre. Learning and Skills Development Agency. https://dera.ioe.ac.uk/id/eprint/5826 Dobrometr. (2022). Hourly Value of Volunteer Work in Education. Retrieved from https://www.dobrometr.cz/nahled.php?novinka=2 European Commission. (2015). European guidelines for validating non-formal and informal learning. Publications Office of the European Union. https://data.europa.eu/doi/10.2766/122972

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European Commission. (2018). Council Recommendation of 22 May 2018 on key competences for lifelong learning. Official Journal of the European Union, C 189, 1– 13.https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A32018H0604%2801%29 European Commission. (2019). Guidelines for Educational Inclusion Projects. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu European Commission. (2021a). The European Social Fund Plus (ESF+) 2021–2027. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu European Commission. (2021b). The European Pillar of Social Rights Action Plan. Retrieved from https://ec.europa.eu European Commission. (2021c). Addressing poverty and supporting social inclusion. https://employment-social-affairs.ec.europa.eu/policies-and-activities/socialprotection-social-inclusion/addressing-poverty-and-supporting-social-inclusion_en Eurydice. (2017). Citizenship Education at School in Europe. EPALE. (2021). Operational Program Jan Amos Komenský. Retrieved from https://epale.eu Expats.cz. (2022). Czech musicians strike a chord at Prague's main train station to protest underfunding of culture. Retrieved from https://www.expats.cz Hofmann, D., & Šťastná, L. (2013). Youth at Risk: Substance Abuse and Behavioral Interventions in the Czech Republic. Substance Use & Misuse, 48(6), 472–488. https://doi.org/10.3109/10826084.2013.765479 Hoskins, B., & Janmaat, J. G. (2019). Closing the empowerment gap through citizenship education: How civic knowledge, civic attitudes and civic behaviour mediate the relationship between socio-economic background and civic participation. Journal of Social Science Education, 18(1), 64–78. https://doi.org/10.4119/jsse-865 Kenardžievová, C., & Havránková, O. (1996). Umění jako forma terapie pro skupiny s narušenou sociální vazbou [Art as a form of therapy for groups with disrupted social bonds]. Kahne, J., & Sporte, S. E. (2008). Developing citizens: The impact of civic learning opportunities on students’ commitment to civic participation. American Educational Research Journal, 45(3), 738–766. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831208316951 Květoňová, L. (2018). Sociálně vyloučené lokality v Česku: Perspektivy a dopady [Socially Excluded Localities in the Czech Republic: Perspectives and Impacts]. Český Sociologický Časopis, 54(3), 272–290. Local Government Association. (2021). Youth services: Facts and figures. Local Government Association. https://www.local.gov.uk/publications/youth-services-facts-and-figures Matoušek, O., Pazlarová, H., & Kodymová, P. (2001). Sociální práce v praxi: Specifika českého prostředí [Social Work in Practice: Specifics of the Czech Environment]. Portál.Retrieved from https://obchod.portal.cz/produkt/socialni-prace-v-praxi Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs. (2023). National Strategy for Preventing Social Exclusion. Retrieved from https://mpsv.cz Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports. (2021). Operational Programme Jan Amos Komenský 2021–2027. Retrieved from https://opjak.cz/dokumenty/

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Movisie – Netherlands Institute for Social Research. (2017). Social state of the Netherlands 2017. The Hague: Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau. Retrieved from https://www.scp.nl/Publicaties › 2017 › Social state of the Netherlands 2017 NADĚJE. (2021). Annual Report 2021. Retrieved from https://nadeje.cz Next EU Budget risks abandoning marginalised people. (2025, February 20). European Disability Forum. https://www.edf-feph.org/next-eu-budget-risks-abandoningmarginalised-people/ Page, M. J., McKenzie, J. E., Bossuyt, P. M., Boutron, I., Hoffmann, T. C., Mulrow, C. D., ... & Moher, D. (2021). The PRISMA 2020 statement: an updated guideline for reporting systematic reviews. BMJ, 372, n71. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.n71 People in Need. (n.d.). Low-threshold clubs. Retrieved from https://www.peopleinneed.net Petrova, P. (2015). Financing culture in the Czech Republic. Proceedings of the International Scientific Conference. Retrieved from https://msed.vse.cz Reuters. (2025, February 20). Bungled EU fund deflates Italian nursery hopes, in blow to Meloni. Retrieved from https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/bungled-eu-funddeflates-italian-nursery-hopes-blow-meloni-2025-02-20/ Sport England. (n.d.). Social value of sport and physical activity. Retrieved from https://www.sportengland.org/research-and-data/research/social-value-sport-andphysical-activity Sheffield Hallam University. (2017). Social return on investment of sport in England 2017– 18. Retrieved from https://www.shu.ac.uk/sport-physical-activity-researchcentre/sport-industry/case-studies/england-sport-impact Šance Dětem. (2021). Nízkoprahová zařízení pro děti a mládež (NZDM). Retrieved from https://sancedetem.cz Šance Dětem. (n.d.). OP VVV podporuje vzdělávání v sociálně vyloučených lokalitách [OP VVV supports education in socially excluded localities]. Retrieved from https://sancedetem.cz Šicková-Fabrici, J. (2002). Základy arteterapie [Fundamentals of Art Therapy]. Portál. ISBN 978-80-262-1043-6 Technology Agency of the Czech Republic (TAČR). (2022). Dobrometr: Economic Valuation of Volunteering in the Czech Republic. Retrieved from https://www.dobrometr.cz/zprava.pdf The Guardian. (2020, January 20). Youth services suffer 70% funding cut in less than a decade. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/society/2020/jan/20/youthservices-suffer-70-funding-cut-in-less-than-a-decade YMCA Czech Republic. (n.d.). Our activities. Retrieved from https://www.ymca.cz Corresponding author: Lothar Filip Rudorfer Email: lotharfilip.rudorfer@pedf.cuni.cz Corresponding author: Marie Fulková Email: marie.fulkova@pedf.cuni.cz

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Educational Equity at the Geopolitical Frontier A Music-Based Teacher Training Case Dimitri Chatzigiannakis Ionian University, Greece Agnes Papadopoulou Ionian University, Greece

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Abstract This paper presents a case study of a music-centered professional development program designed to promote educational equity at a geopolitical frontier. Taking place on the island of Lesvos in Greece, a transcontinental threshold shaped by migration, marginalization and resource disparities, the training brought together 36 primary and secondary music teachers to explore creative and inclusive uses of open-source and AI-assisted tools. Grounded in designbased research and guided by A/r/tographic methodology, the session introduced accessible technologies with a focus on AI, music composition, sound editing and ethical media sourcing for educational settings. Activities included hands-on experimentation with diegetic and nondiegetic music and the use of AI-generated soundtracks for school projects. Qualitative data from reflections, digital artefacts and participant feedback reveal increased teacher confidence in integrating digital tools and a stronger awareness of music’s role in inclusive pedagogy. Four themes characterized the experience: enhanced creative confidence through low-barrier experimentation, pedagogical imagination in using sound to support belonging and non-verbal expression, ethical and cultural awareness around authorship and representation in AI tools and a collaborative dynamic that reinforced agency through peer dialogue. Teachers highlighted the relevance of these approaches for engaging diverse student populations, particularly in classrooms serving marginalized and culturally diverse learners. This case study shows how focused teacher training can foster inclusive pedagogy and support educational equity in regions shaped by social and geographic isolation. It adds to ongoing conversations about how AI and open-source tools can enrich arts education and suggests that creative, communityrooted professional development has the potential to inspire change in Europe’s educational peripheries. Keywords: artificial intelligence, equity, inclusion, music education, open-source technologies, teacher training

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Educational equity remains a central challenge in global education systems, particularly in regions where geographic isolation, migration and limited infrastructure intersect. At the edges of Europe, such as Northern Aegean in Greece, schools are shaped not only by national education policy but also by transnational forces, refugee flows, economic precarity and sociopolitical instability. These contexts raise urgent questions about access to meaningful learning, teacher preparedness and the role of creative pedagogies in supporting inclusion. In recent years, there has been a growing call to reimagine Teacher Professional Development (TPD) not merely as skill acquisition, but as a transformative process grounded in local realities, artistic expression and digital literacy (Darling-Hammond et al., 2020; Park et al., 2023; Porayska-Pomsta et al., 2023). While equity is often discussed in terms of resources or standardized outcomes, scholars increasingly argue for culturally responsive and artsintegrated approaches that empower both educators and learners, especially in underrepresented or marginalized communities (Zhao & Watterston, 2021). Technology plays a complex role in this landscape, access to artificial intelligence (AI) tools and open-source software has the potential to democratize learning, allowing teachers to design inclusive and creative experiences without the need for costly proprietary systems (Chatzigiannakis, 2023; Lindsey, 2021). The rapid pace of technological development often leaves educators, particularly those in remote or resource-constrained areas, without the training or confidence to engage with these tools meaningfully (Pantić & Florian, 2015). The integration of technology in education, therefore, demands both infrastructure and imagination. This study presents a case of music-based teacher training that sought to address these issues through a one-day professional development program. The program engaged 36 music educators from primary and secondary schools in a workshop focused on open technologies, AI-generated sound design and inclusive pedagogy. Rather than positioning teachers as passive recipients of innovation, the training foregrounded their creative agency and cultural expertise, using tools such as Audacity, Suno AI and Vocal Remover to scaffold critical engagement with music, emotion and narrative in school settings. The design of the program was informed by a/r/tography (Irwin et al., 2006), a methodology that views the educator as an artist, researcher and teacher simultaneously and by design-based research (Barab & Squire, 2004; Guilat & Arie, 2019), which emphasizes iterative, contextsensitive intervention. These frameworks supported a professional learning experience rooted in creative inquiry, ethical reflection and embodied practice. As borderland spaces increasingly become laboratories of educational experimentation, this case study contributes to broader conversations about equity, digital inclusion and the affective dimensions of learning. Our Research Questions are: RQ1: How can teachers reclaim their creative agency through open tools and artsintegrated learning? RQ2: How can music and accessible technology support inclusive teaching in culturally and socially complex regions?

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Literature Review The role of teachers in advancing educational equity has shifted significantly, from policy implementers to creative, cultural and instructional agents of transformation. This section reviews the literature across three interconnected strands relevant to the study: the importance of creative agency in teacher professional development, the contribution of inclusive pedagogical practices through music and the arts and the educational potential of open technologies and artificial intelligence (AI) in supporting culturally responsive teaching. Creative Agency in Teacher Development Understanding teacher leadership is critical when exploring how educators influence systemic educational change. Wenner and Campbell (2016) argue that genuine teacher leadership relies on decentralizing authority from administrators to classroom teachers, encouraging innovation and fostering a culture of shared responsibility. They note that despite limited literature in this area, there are significant instances where empowered teachers have reshaped school culture and learning environments through creative initiative. Pantić (2015) adds that agency is not only professional but also social and emotional, she highlights how teachers’ beliefs, values and contextual pressures all contribute to their capacity to act as drivers of educational justice. Teachers in socially complex environments are often required to adapt to competing demands and their ability to respond constructively depends on how well their sense of agency is supported by school systems and policy frameworks. In culturally diverse or politically complex regions, such as borderlands or refugee-hosting areas, this sense of agency becomes even more crucial. Varpanen et al. (2022) explore how teachers in such settings navigate fragmented educational mandates and systemic limitations, often relying on their personal resilience and reflective practice to lead change. Similarly, Rajala and Kumpulainen (2017) show that when school systems allow teachers more space for agentic practices, they are more likely to develop sustainable innovations that align with their identities and community needs. Vandeyar (2021) frames teacher agency within the context of ICT policy implementation, arguing that educators are not just consumers of policy, but also re-shapers of it. Her research emphasizes how teachers actively reinterpret or modify technology-related mandates to better align with the realities of their classrooms. These adaptive behaviours reflect a broader understanding of educators as advocates for their learners, especially in socioeconomically or culturally disadvantaged contexts. Inclusive Pedagogy Through Music and the Arts Inclusive education depends on emotional engagement, cultural relevance and creative expression, domains in which music and the arts play a central role. Montejano (2010) found

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that pre-service teachers who immersed themselves in their students’ cultural environments developed stronger classroom connections and instructional relevance. This underscores the transformative impact of culturally grounded artistic learning. Bassey (2016) advocates for culturally responsive pedagogy as a means to challenge the dominant norms of schooling. He suggests that when students see aspects of their identities and lived experiences reflected in the curriculum, they are more likely to participate actively and feel a sense of ownership over their learning. Mills (2008) similarly argues that unless pedagogical practices actively disrupt social hierarchies, educational systems risk reproducing the very inequalities they aim to correct. Beyond individual identity, the arts also foster collaboration and social cohesion. Shockley and Banks (2011) discuss how collective creative engagement can reduce cultural biases and increase teachers' sensitivity to diversity. Their work highlights the role of reflective practice in building a more just educational space, one where teachers are not only technically competent but also socially aware. Integrating the arts into teacher development, is foundational to building inclusive school cultures. Integration of Open Technologies and Artificial Intelligence Digital tools, when implemented thoughtfully, can significantly amplify inclusive practices in education. Vandeyar (2021) emphasizes that teachers who act as proactive ICT agents can bridge the gap between national technology mandates and the cultural realities of their students. These teachers make intentional decisions about which tools to adopt and how to adapt them to classroom needs. However, technological integration is not purely technical, it is also deeply professional. Vähäsantanen (2015) explores how teachers must construct new professional identities when faced with evolving technological landscapes. Adapting to AI and open-source tools requires more than technical upskilling; it involves a reorientation of pedagogical philosophy and a willingness to embrace uncertainty and experimentation. Institutional support plays a critical role in this process. Pyhältö et al. (2011) stress that teachers are unlikely to engage in reform if they are treated as passive recipients of change. Their research found that comprehensive support structures, such as peer mentoring, trust-building and shared leadership, are essential for cultivating teacher participation in technological innovation. In a related argument, Woulfin and Rigby (2017) suggest that instructional leadership should prioritize clarity of expectations and foster coherence between reform goals and classroom realities, particularly when navigating the complexity of AI-driven tools. Across all these perspectives, a consistent theme emerges, for technology to serve equity, it must be embedded within a broader pedagogical and cultural framework (Papadopoulou, 2019) that respects teacher autonomy, centers student identity and values artistic and emotional learning.

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Methodology Research Design and Rationale This study adopts a qualitative case study design framed within a design-based research (DBR) methodology. DBR is particularly appropriate for educational interventions that occur in realworld settings, allowing the researcher to examine and refine pedagogical practice through iterative, collaborative and context-sensitive design (Barab & Squire, 2004). Rather than aiming for generalizability, DBR seeks to generate situated insights that can inform broader theory and practice. DBR approach is complemented by the lens of a/r/tography (Irwin et al., 2006, 2017), a hybrid research methodology that integrates artistic, pedagogical and reflective modes of inquiry. A/r/tography frames the educator not solely as a transmitter of knowledge but as a creator, thinker and learner, navigating multiple roles simultaneously. This perspective aligns with the structure and intent of the intervention, which centered on music not merely as curriculum content, but as a process of meaning-making, identity expression and inclusive participation. The purpose was to gain diagnostic insight into participants’ familiarity with music technology and to adjust the content and structure of the workshop accordingly. Participants were asked whether they had previously used any of the tools that would be introduced. Out of the 36 teachers, 9 reported no experience at all, and 18 reported only limited exposure. This meant that three-quarters of the group lacked meaningful hands-on experience with digital music tools. As a result, the workshop included step-by-step tutorials using accessible and free platforms. Furthermore, their expressed interest in emotionally driven music activities informed the inclusion of AI-generated music prompts. The design rationale also reflects the specific sociocultural context of the intervention. The training took place on the island of Lesvos, Greece, a location situated at the edge of the European Union and often described as a geopolitical frontier. Lesvos has been a key point of entry for refugees and migrants since 2015 and local schools frequently serve students from a wide range of cultural, linguistic and emotional backgrounds. In such contexts, educators must often navigate teaching within systems that are structurally under-resourced and emotionally charged. This geographical and cultural complexity made Northern Aegean an appropriate and meaningful setting to examine how music, digital tools and teacher agency might intersect in the pursuit of educational equity. Τhe methodological alignment of design-based research with a/r/tography becomes fundamental to how the intervention was conceptualised and enacted. DBR offered the structural logic for designing and refining a context-responsive professional learning experience, while a/r/tography provided a relational and experiential lens that foregrounds embodied inquiry and creative practice. As Leggo and Irwin observe, a/r/tography is grounded in reciprocity, inviting researchers and participants to become “co-creators of knowledge, codesigners of pedagogy, and co-participants in communities of practice” (Leggo & Irwin, 2018).

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This orientation was particularly relevant in a geopolitical frontier such as Lesvos, where teaching is shaped by cultural plurality, resource constraints and the emotional complexity of migration. Rather than using “frontier” merely as a geographical descriptor, the study adopts it as a conceptual space where multiple educational pressures converge and where arts-based practice can open possibilities for equity and inclusion. The intervention offered space for pedagogical experimentation, reflection and collective inquiry. In doing so, it aligns with contemporary calls for transformative professional development, where teachers are treated as active co-creators of culturally responsive learning environments (Pantić, 2015; Vandeyar, 2021). This case study contributes to broader questions about how creative, open, and inclusive teaching practices can be nurtured through targeted professional learning in borderland contexts. Bringing together active music educators across primary, secondary, and specialist music schools, the intervention offers rare insight into regional pedagogical dynamics. Researchers’ Positionality This study was shaped by the distinct yet complementary positionalities of its two authors. The first author, a practicing music educator, President of the Primary Teachers’ Union of Lesvos and a PhD candidate at the Ionian University researching the educational functions of music, designed, organized and facilitated the workshop. The second author is the President of the Ionian University Equity, Inclusion and Accessibility Committee and Head of the Pedagogical and Didactical Sufficiency Program of the Department of Audio & Visual Arts. Her expertise in inclusive pedagogies, equity-driven teacher education and practitioner-led inquiry informed the conceptual framing and methodological decisions of the study. Together, the authors brought perspectives that were both situated and reflexive, shaping interpretive processes and strengthening the ethical grounding of the research. This orientation aligns with contemporary practice-based and a/r/tographic research, which frames researchers as embodied, situated and relational, particularly when working in contexts marked by cultural diversity, marginality or emotionally sensitive learning environments. As Kenny (2021) notes, qualitative researchers in music education often occupy intertwined roles, teacher and facilitator, insider and analyst, which cannot be cleanly separated in practice. Rather than functioning as a contaminating bias, such positionality becomes an instrument of inquiry, shaping trust, ethical awareness and the emergence of meaning within the field (Holbrook & Pourchier, 2014). The authors’ connection to the regional educational network and their prior collaborations with music teachers likely influenced how participants perceived the workshop environment. Deliberate efforts were made to promote horizontal dialogue, avoid evaluative language and foreground teacher voice during discussions and feedback sessions. Ethical transparency was emphasized from the outset, with participants informed that their contributions would be used

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only in anonymous and collective form and that the primary aim of the workshop was professional and artistic growth. This engagement also reflects a deeper understanding of the “researcher as instrument” in qualitative inquiry (Ellingson, 2006, 2017). In such settings, knowledge is generated not only through tools or methods but through the presence, identity and responsiveness of the researchers themselves. Reflexive practice required recognizing both how the researchers shaped the workshop space and how the workshop, in turn, influenced their pedagogical values and ethical commitments. By situating the researchers within the lived reality of the workshop, marked by local knowledge, cultural tensions and varying levels of digital confidence, this section affirms that positionality is not an obstacle to educational research but a generative site of ethics, learning and meaning making (Berger, 2013). In contexts where inclusion, creativity and relational pedagogy are foregrounded, acknowledging the mutual shaping of researchers and participants becomes essential for honoring the embodied and transformative dimensions of music education research. Context and Participants Over the past decade, Lesvos has become a polysemic symbol of migration and humanitarian struggle, shaping local schools that serve culturally and linguistically diverse student populations and raising complex pedagogical questions around identity, inclusion and access. The training program was designed with these realities in mind, recognizing that teachers in such settings are often expected to respond to rapidly changing classroom needs without adequate support or resources, the workshop aimed to offer both inspiration and practical tools. The focus was on how music, when combined with accessible technologies, could help educators design emotionally rich and inclusive learning experiences, especially in public school systems facing economic and structural challenges. A total of 36 music teachers from various parts of Northern Greece participated in the training. The invitation was issued by the regional Music Advisor, a public role that coordinates continuing education for music educators. Participants came from a range of school settings, including general primary schools, secondary schools and specialist music schools. The participant group was quite diverse in terms of age, years of teaching experience and technology use. While some had used music-related software like MuseScore or Audacity, most reported either minimal or no experience with sound editing tools or AI-generated music platforms. This made the hands-on, low-barrier nature of the tools introduced, such as Vocal Remover and Suno AI, especially relevant.

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Table 1 Demographic Characteristics of Workshop Participants Characteristic Gender Age Range

Teaching Experience

School Type

Familiarity with Music Tech

Category Female Male 25–34 years 35–44 years 45–54 years 55+ years 0–5 years 6–10 years 11–20 years 21+ years Primary School Secondary School Music School

n 22 14 7 16 9 4 6 9 13 8 15 13 8

% 61% 39% 19% 44% 25% 11% 17% 25% 36% 22% 42% 36% 22%

No experience

25%

Limited (e.g., using playback tools) Moderate (e.g., Audacity, MuseScore) High (e.g., AI or sound design tools)

18 7 2

50% 19% 6%

This range of backgrounds and experiences created a dynamic environment where teachers could share ideas, discover new tools and reflect on how their own teaching might change. Some participants arrived unsure about the relevance of music technology to their classrooms. While some participants arrived unsure about the relevance of music technology to their classrooms, many expressed growing enthusiasm during the session, particularly in nonperformance-based contexts, such as school video projects, emotional literacy activities, or inclusive classroom storytelling. The design allowed for flexibility, dialogue and peer learning; thus, participants were encouraged to experiment, ask questions and adapt ideas to their contexts. The mixed levels of familiarity with technology were not seen as a barrier but as a chance to explore learning as a shared journey, something especially important in schools where resources may be limited, but teacher creativity is in strong supply. The variation among participants contributed to a rich learning environment, where peer dialogue and exchange played a central role. Instead of focusing on performance or mastery, the emphasis was placed on hands-on exploration, collective meaning-making and open-ended reflection. Although the workshop was not externally funded, it was officially approved by the Ministry of Education, the Regional Directorate of Primary and Secondary Education of the North Aegean, and the Regional Supervisor for Quality Assurance in Education. It was facilitated by

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the first author, President of the Primary Teachers’ Union in Lesvos, Greece’s third largest island and a key educational hub in the region. Participation was entirely voluntary and particularly significant given that music is allocated only one hour per week in the national curriculum. Despite this marginalization, 36 music teachers attended, representing a wide spectrum of school types across the North Aegean. The Training Intervention The professional development intervention was delivered as an online workshop, designed to help music educators explore the expressive, emotional and inclusive potential of music soundtrack design in school settings. The training invited participants to reflect on how music and sound can be used intentionally to support storytelling, student expression and inclusive participation in classroom and school events, organized into five pedagogical phases, combining conceptual input, hands-on exploration, and ethical reflection. These stages are outlined in Figure 1, which summarizes the workshop flow from narrative introduction to applied classroom integration. Figure 1 Flow of the Soundtrack Pedagogy Workshop

The session began with an overview of the educational and dramaturgical functions of music in school-based performances, videos and creative projects. Through real-world examples and guided discussion, participants explored the emotional power of music to frame transitions, highlight meaning and evoke atmosphere. Particular emphasis was given to how sound can help students, including those with disabilities, migrant backgrounds, or limited verbal expression, connect to classroom content in affective, non-verbal ways (Hess, 2014; Kenny, 2021).

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The workshop introduced three accessible tools for practical use (See Figure 2 for an overview of the tools): Audacity, for basic audio editing and mixing. Vocal Remover, for extracting instrumental tracks from popular songs. Suno AI, a generative platform that creates custom soundtracks from user-written prompts. Figure 2 Tools Introduced During the Workshop

Teachers used these tools to produce musical sketches for scenarios such as school commemorative events or theatrical scenes. The emphasis was on pedagogical intent: how music can shape student narratives, support emotional literacy and invite broader participation. A key part of the session focused on the ethical use of music in educational spaces, particularly regarding copyright, authorship and AI-generated content. Participants were introduced to royalty-free music platforms such as the YouTube Audio Library and Bensound and were provided with practical advice on licensing and attribution. These conversations addressed an increasingly important aspect of digital literacy, one that extends beyond functionality to include values, responsibility and critical awareness (Zimmerman, 2018). The online format of the workshop supported an open, collaborative tone, with ongoing peer discussion through Zoom chat and shared audio examples. The facilitator emphasized cocreation, flexibility, and personalization, allowing teachers to adapt the content to their specific settings and needs. This aligns with recent research highlighting how online professional development can promote accessibility, equity, and teacher agency (Lindsey, 2021; Van Brummelen & Lin, 2020; Campbell & Hu, 2010). The training served as a creative sandbox, a space where teachers could experiment with tools, reflect on their purpose and imagine new applications for their students. Participants left the session with not only new technical tools, but also a renewed understanding of how music can

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become a narrative, emotional and inclusive language in the classroom. This approach of professional learning, offers a low-threshold, high-creativity entry point for inclusive innovation in music education. Data Collection and Analysis This study adopted a mixed qualitative and diagnostic approach. Although the intervention itself was not structured as formal research, it was informed by a broader investigation into the relationship between music education, technology and inclusive teaching. To understand participants’ needs and design an effective training experience, this study adopted a qualitative, diagnostic approach. Prior to the workshop, participants were asked to respond to a set of reflective questions regarding their familiarity with music technology, their pedagogical attitudes toward inclusion, and their previous experience with open-source and AI tools. The aim was to form the structure and pacing of the session in line with participants’ backgrounds and interests. The survey results helped adapt the workshop content to reflect the realistic capacities and expectations of the group, enabling scaffolding where needed and avoiding overly technical or inaccessible tools. The survey data revealed that 25% of participants had no prior experience with music technology tools and an additional 50% identified only limited exposure, primarily to playback devices or YouTube. Just 6% reported having worked with creative tools like AI-based audio generators or sound design software. These findings reinforced the need for intuitive, open tools and shaped the structure of the session around practical demonstrations and collaborative reflection. Similar studies have emphasized how open-source and AI-enhanced tools can democratize creative practice in under-resourced school environments (Chatzigiannakis & Papadopoulou, 2025). During the training, the facilitator kept reflective notes on participants’ engagement and interaction. These included impressions of spontaneous reactions, creative decisions during hands-on tasks, and moments of peer exchange. While not treated as formal data, these observations supported a deeper understanding of how participants responded to the pedagogical structure in real time. Notes were taken in real-time and supplemented after the session with reflections on participant engagement and perceived transformations in attitude or confidence. As observed in similar PD (Professional Development) environments, online collaboration and real-time peer dialogue contributed to shared meaning-making and professional growth. The data corpus for the study consisted of three sources, a thirty-six pre-workshop diagnostic responses (approximately 650 words in total), two pages of facilitator field notes documenting participant engagement, and a Webex chat log containing 87 individual entries. These datasets provided complementary insights into teachers’ prior experiences, their real-time reactions during the workshop and their emerging pedagogical reflections. Although concise, the corpus was adequate to support a qualitative thematic analysis focused on patterns of creative confidence, inclusive reasoning and shifts in teacher agency.

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Figure 3 Summary of the Thematic Categories

The analysis followed a grounded thematic approach, prioritising emergent insights rather than pre-determined categories. Responses and interactions were analysed through the following lenses: Creative Confidence Many participants reported feeling more empowered to create content independently, particularly after using Suno AI and Audacity. Comments such as “I didn’t know I could do this with so little effort” reflected a shift in mindset from passive media consumers to active audio creators. Similar reflections have been reported in research linking digital creativity with increased teacher self-efficacy (Waters, 2021) (see Table 2). Pedagogical Imagination Teachers imagined new ways to apply the tools in their classrooms, especially in storytelling, video documentation and inclusive events. They suggested scenarios such as adding emotional soundtracks to student interviews or composing music for school assemblies that include refugee students. This aligns with studies on multimodal narrative learning, which suggest that sound and music can expand students' expressive capacity and cultural engagement (see Table 2). Ethical Awareness Participants voiced curiosity and concern about copyright, authorship and the limits of AI. The ethics mini-session sparked meaningful dialogue, indicating the value of pairing tech literacy with critical reflection, especially in public education, where cultural representation and legal compliance are paramount.

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Collaborative Energy Although the session was online, the chat log showed consistent engagement and mutual encouragement. Phrases like “Great idea!”, “Can we try that too?”, and “I’ll use this for our school’s theatrical play!” highlighted the community-building aspect of the training. Prior research has shown that digital co-creation and feedback loops can reinforce inclusive practices and professional trust in distributed environments. These findings align with prior analyses from the national-level version of the same questionnaire, as outlined in the author’s doctoral dissertation. There, participants similarly reported strong interest in arts-integrated and digitally enriched approaches, alongside a lack of structured professional development opportunities to explore them. The key differentiator in the Northern Aegean intervention was its place-based relevance and hands-on immediacy, which allowed teachers to reflect, imagine and act within their professional landscapes. Importantly, data collection during the intervention was framed as participatory and formative, not extractive. The training was designed to support collaborative exploration and participants were not treated as active contributors to the learning process. This perspective aligns with the participatory principles of a/r/tographic and design-based educational approaches. To enhance analytic transparency, this study employed a six-phase model thematic analysis (Braun & Clarke, 2006; Fereday & Muir-Cochrane, 2006; Nowell et al., 2017; Xu & Zammit, 2020). Building on recent arts-based applications of thematic analysis (Laure et al., 2025), the process was grounded in inductive, practice-informed coding. Data were drawn from facilitator field notes and participant reflections collected during the training. Initial familiarization with the data involved repeated reading of chat excerpts and observation summaries. Descriptive codes were generated based on recurring expressions, emotional reactions, and pedagogical suggestions. These codes were then grouped into broader conceptual clusters, reflecting the educational focus of the intervention. The iterative nature of theme development allowed for a dynamic and responsive categorization, in which meaning was co-constructed through the situated lens of music teachers in a borderland context. This analysis did not seek saturation or statistical prevalence but instead prioritized conceptual richness and pedagogical resonance. Following Laure et al. (2025), codes were treated as dialogic markers, hints at how participants positioned themselves in relation to creativity, equity, and digital experimentation. Final themes were refined to ensure internal coherence and external relevance to the study’s two research questions on teacher agency and inclusive pedagogy. A set of methodological considerations relates to the study’s single online session, which naturally limits opportunities for longitudinal observation or deeper follow-up with the participants. The dual role of trainer–researcher may have shaped how participants engaged during the session, despite efforts to remain reflective and transparent throughout the process.

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Finally, the dataset is based on a focused set of materials, drawing on diagnostic input, naturalistic chat exchanges and short field notes rather than extended written narratives. The table below synthesizes the main themes, their subthemes, representative codes, and illustrative quotations. Table 2 Thematic Structure and Sample Codes Theme Creative Confidence

Pedagogical Imagination

Subthemes

Codes

Representative Quote

Creative Entry Points

fun, intuitive, quick result, engaging

“It was so intuitive I felt like a composer for a moment.”

Ownership and Confidence

felt proud, my idea, safe “I actually felt like it was to explore mine, not the AI’s. Is it?”

Classroom Applications

could use it in..., “This would be great for the adaptable, engaging for local national day story students project.”

Ethics and Authenticity

plagiarism, who owns it, “Am I still the author if I just student responsibility clicked a few buttons?”

Social Dynamics Collaboration and shared ideas, chat & Inclusion Dialogue support, peer input easy for all, low entry Accessibility and barrier, everyone could Equity join

“I liked seeing what others came up with and adapting it.” “Even the shy ones felt comfortable contributing.”

Note. Any identifying information has been altered or omitted to protect the privacy of the individuals involved

This coding framework illustrates how the training activated not only technological learning but also ethical, creative, and relational reflection. Teachers moved from tentative experimentation to context-specific imagining, underscoring how arts-integrated technologies can stimulate professional insight. As Laure et al. (2025) observed in their study, when artistic creation is embedded in dialogue and practice, themes emerge not from theory alone but from the lived texture of interaction. In this case, the musical and digital tools served as catalysts for teacher expression and inclusive design. The codes reflect a dual movement: inward, toward renewed confidence, and outward, toward shared educational commitment. This supports Braun and Clarke’s (2006) assertion that thematic analysis, can uncover patterns that are both personal and pedagogically generative.

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Findings This chapter presents the main findings of the study, drawn from the diagnostic questionnaire responses, participant contributions in the training session and observational data collected during facilitation. The results are organized around four emergent themes, creative confidence, pedagogical imagination, ethical awareness, and collaborative energy, which respond directly to the study’s research questions outlined earlier. Each theme is discussed below, supported by examples from participant engagement and aligned with relevant literature on inclusive and technology-enhanced music education. The findings presented below distinguish between patterns that were directly observed during the workshop and those that emerged from participants’ articulated reflections. Observed outcomes relate to visible behaviours and interactions in real time, while perceived outcomes reflect how teachers described their experiences, intentions and evolving confidence. This distinction supports greater transparency in tracing how each theme was constructed. Figure 4 Mapping Analytic Questions to Emergent Themes

Creative Confidence A key finding was the significant boost in participants’ creative self-efficacy during and after their engagement with the tools introduced. While many educators reported minimal prior experience with digital music platforms, their interactions during the training revealed a quick shift from hesitancy to creative experimentation. This shift was especially apparent during their use of Suno AI, Audacity and Vocal Remover. Observed indications of increased technological confidence appeared throughout the session, as several teachers began experimenting with unfamiliar tools independently rather than

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waiting for step-by-step prompting. One participant expressed this shift directly, stating, “I usually avoid digital tools, but today I felt safe enough to try things I never touch”. This reaction illustrates a small but meaningful shift in how the teacher approached unfamiliar tools, moving from discomfort to a willingness to experiment. Participants described the tools as “unexpectedly easy” and “surprisingly powerful”, particularly in allowing them to construct rather than consume music. One teacher noted, “I didn’t know I could produce something that sounds real and emotional in ten minutes” after creating a musical sketch based on a fictional classroom scenario. Another teacher commented, “I’ve avoided these tools for years, now I feel like I could use them next week”. For teachers working in Northern Aegean, a border island often underserved in terms of educational infrastructure, this creative shift carried additional meaning. The accessibility of open tools wasn’t just a matter of convenience, it was experienced as a restoration of professional agency in a region where educators frequently juggle fragmented resources, transient student populations and socio-emotional challenges tied to forced migration. As one teacher shared: “When the system doesn’t support us, at least we can build something of our own. Sound helps me give shape to my class”. These experiences reflect what Burnard (2012) calls “musical creativities,” plural, accessible forms of artistic engagement that challenge the dominance of expert-only models in music education. In a context like Northern Aegean, where cultural difference and educational precarity intersect, such accessible creativity is essential. Pedagogical Imagination As teachers gained familiarity with the tools, their reflections shifted from how to use them to why and where they could apply them in practice. Many began to imagine how sound could serve as a non-verbal bridge between students of different backgrounds and levels of language fluency, particularly relevant in schools across Lesvos, where refugee and migrant students often newly arrived, emotionally burdened, and navigating multiple transitions. Teachers also oriented their reflections toward practical application, often linking workshop activities to the realities of their local classrooms. One participant noted, “I can see how I’d use this next week with what I already have at school,” illustrating how creative ideas were filtered through concrete constraints such as equipment availability, student needs and school culture. This brief reflection captures how teachers were already beginning to “translate” creative ideas into concrete classroom possibilities, grounding their imagination in the realities of their school environments.

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One participant shared plans for a student project called My Journey in Sound, in which learners would build a personal soundtrack using Suno AI to represent different stages of their migration experience. “Some of my students have barely spoken in class. But if they can tell their story through music, that’s another kind of voice,” she wrote in the chat. This kind of pedagogical imagination, where tools are adapted not for performance, but for belonging, echoes what Kallio et al. (2021) describe as pedagogies of relationality, rooted in intercultural and inclusive sensitivities. Rather than following a rigid curriculum, participants began proposing emotionally and contextually responsive uses of technology, grounded in their communities. Several teachers also discussed adapting musical soundtracks to support inclusion in school ceremonies, anti-bullying campaigns, and heritage days. These examples suggest that music, in this setting, functioned as a common medium across cultural lines, a place to meet when words fall short. These ideas reflect an ethical commitment to creating classrooms where every student, regardless of origin or status, can express identity, emotion, and memory through sonic storytelling. Ethical and Cultural Awareness As participants engaged with the tools, their reflections quickly moved beyond surface-level functionality. Many expressed thoughtful concern about how such tools could reshape their classroom dynamics, in relation to authorship, representation, and emotional resonance. Several ethical considerations also surfaced through participants’ reflections. As one teacher observed, “Some of my quieter students might finally feel they can join in through tools like these” signalling a recognition that technology can reshape participation patterns in sensitive ways. The comment hints at an emerging sensitivity to how technological choices can affect student participation, especially in classrooms where cultural and emotional contexts are highly diverse. These ethical tensions were especially pronounced given the multicultural, refugeeinclusive context, where classrooms are shaped by migration, trauma, and diverse cultural codes. Teachers raised questions such as: “If the AI composes the music, am I the creator or just the user?” “Can I use AI-made music in a school play without checking licenses?” “What if the music unintentionally offends a student whose culture I don’t fully understand?” As Batlle-Roca et al. (2024) and Chen (2024) point out, AI-generated music challenges traditional definitions of authorship. When creative work is algorithmically generated, the line between user and originator becomes blurred, especially in educational settings, where teachers are ethically accountable for the content they distribute.

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Participants also voiced concern over cultural misrepresentation. Given that most AI systems are trained on unbalanced or Western-centric datasets, their outputs often risk homogenizing sound or inadvertently encoding cultural bias (Alamin & Sauri, 2024; Zainuddin et al., 2024). In a borderland region like Lesvos, where Afghan, Syrian, and African students may sit sideby-side, such oversights are not abstract problems, but deeply personal. One teacher shared, “I worry that music I find “neutral” might actually carry emotional or political meaning for my students.” Another commented, “If I don’t ask who the sound represents, I might be speaking over someone without realizing it.” These insights align with Nguyen et al. (2022), who argue that culturally responsive use of AI in education must begin with critical examination of training data and contextual application. Simply providing tools is not enough; educators must assess how those tools reflect or distort the lived realities of their students. Emotional impact was also a recurrent theme. Teachers noted that AI-generated music, while sometimes effective, could feel “too generic” or “emotionally distant” unless carefully curated. Others saw potential for healing, reflection, or identity expression, especially for students with limited verbal fluency. As Chisom et al. (2024) highlight, meaningful emotional engagement in AI-enhanced education depends on the teacher’s ability to filter and adapt outputs to student contexts, not just on the tool’s technical capability. Teachers were not seeking black-and-white answers, but rather ethical flexibility: the ability to adapt their decisions to the emotional and cultural realities of each class. This echoes the call by Holster (2024) for music educators to act as ethical mediators, balancing access to innovation with responsibility to learners’ identities and experiences. Collaborative Dialogue and Peer Learning The workshop fostered a remarkable degree of collaborative energy among participants, evolved into a dynamic professional learning space and co-constructed environment shaped by teacher contributions, feedback, and real-time adaptation. The Zoom chat served as both a pedagogical backchannel and a reflective mirror: participants echoed ideas, extended each other’s examples, and spontaneously proposed ways to apply the tools in their own classrooms. Such peer engagement aligns with recent studies emphasizing that collaborative online spaces can significantly enhance teacher agency, creative risk-taking, and professional identity, especially in arts and music education (Robson, 2017; Wang et al., 2021). Rather than viewing professional development as content delivery, this format positioned educators as co-creators of knowledge, validating their local expertise and practical wisdom. Collaborative engagement was equally visible in moments when teachers encountered technical obstacles and naturally turned to one another for clarification or encouragement. One participant shared, “It helped to see others trying things out and it made me feel we were

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figuring it out together,” capturing how peer-led dialogue reduced uncertainty and strengthened collective agency. This reaction reflects how peer dialogue eased initial uncertainty and encouraged teachers to take small collaborative risks during the session. Several participants noted that they had felt hesitant entering the session, particularly around AI tools and sound editing. But by mid-way through, responses had shifted: “This idea could work for our refugee poetry event, what if we score their voices with ambient music?” “This reminds me of our school’s remembrance day project, I can use Suno to help students reflect emotionally.” These comments reflect contextual sensitivity, a shared effort to adapt tools to the emotional and cultural specificities of their learners. This mirrors findings by Isharyanti et al. (2023) and Ma et al. (2022), who note that peer interaction during technology-focused PD encourages inclusive thinking and pedagogical imagination. 11-out of the 36- participants’ responses reflected enthusiasm for the collaborative atmosphere. One teacher wrote: “I appreciated the balance between the technical and the artistic, it felt like the tools had a soul, but the people made them alive.” Another noted, “It wasn’t just training, it felt like a conversation. That made me braver.” These sentiments echo Felice et al. (2021), who argue that social interaction is a catalyst for adult learning, allowing for deeper integration of new ideas through emotional and cognitive exchange. Importantly, this collaborative dynamic was scaffolded through the pedagogical design. Prompts were intentionally open-ended, tools were framed as invitations rather than prescriptions, and participants were encouraged to “build together, not just listen.” This structure reflects best practices in online PD, as identified by Koukis & Jimoyiannis (2019) and Wollscheid et al. (2020), who argue that interactive formats promote sustainable engagement and reduce teacher isolation. In the unique sociocultural context of Northern Aegean, this kind of collective dialogue is more than enriching; it is vital. It provides emotional support, pedagogical resilience and allows teachers to innovate under pressure by drawing from one another.

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Synthesis Toward Inclusive Practice through Creative Agency This final section brings together the key findings of the study and relates them back to the two guiding research questions. It synthesizes the thematic insights that emerged during the workshop and situates them within the broader scholarly conversation on creative teacher agency, inclusion, and the use of open technologies in education. The training demonstrated that when music teachers are provided with accessible tools, they are able to shift from hesitant -teachers- users to confident creators. More importantly, they began to reclaim their creative agency, reimagining sound not only as a curricular component but as a tool for emotional, cultural, and narrative inclusion. These actions directly address RQ1, which asked how teachers can reclaim agency through arts-integrated, open-access practices. Such findings are echoed in Paek and Sumners (2017), who note that when teachers hold creative mindsets, they are more likely to perceive inclusion as attainable and to adapt their methods to meet diverse student needs. This connection between creative self-efficacy and inclusive pedagogy became visible in the way participants envisioned using soundtracks for migrant storytelling, non-verbal emotional expression, and cultural bridge-building in classrooms with newly arrived students. Addressing RQ2, the findings showed that accessible music technologies, can offer new pedagogical routes toward inclusion. Teachers began to use the tools to recognize and reflect student identities in meaningful ways. This is in line with Belda-Medina’s (2021) research on digital storytelling, which underscores that open tools can enable students and teachers alike to express experiences and identities that may otherwise remain unspoken. The study also highlighted that arts-based approaches, when grounded in teacher agency, support sustainable pedagogical shifts. Arrington (2023) and Doktorová and Baranovská (2024) both emphasize that creative and expressive practices, such as music composition and curated listening, help educators move beyond compliance to transformative inclusion, where students’ emotional, linguistic, and cultural resources are fully acknowledged. Importantly, the findings revealed that even short-term interventions can spark longer-term pedagogical reflection when teachers are treated as active co-designers. Muñoz-Oyarce et al. (2023) found that teachers’ evolving conceptions of inclusion are shaped not only by policy, but by experiences that honor their professional autonomy. In this seminar, this combination of creative tools, emotional dialogue, and peer validation, allowed teachers to reimagine their practice in a politically and culturally complex setting. Finally, the value of collaboration and co-creation was evident throughout the workshop and as Thomas (2021) argues, the cultivation of 21st-century competencies, particularly in

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inclusive classrooms, depends on teachers’ willingness to innovate, improvise, and support each other. The seminar did not offer pre-packaged solutions, but instead provided a relational space for experimentation, aligned with a view of equity that centers dialogue, sensitivity, and artistic engagement. As shown in Figure 5, these dynamics form an interrelated model linking creative pedagogy with inclusive participation in borderland contexts. Figure 5 Model of Creative Pedagogy and Equity in Borderland Contexts

Note. The model depicts the interaction of creative pedagogy, technology and agency in fostering equity.

Discussion This study explored how open tools, music technologies, and collaborative training can support inclusive teaching practices and teacher agency, particularly in culturally complex and underresourced contexts. The findings suggest that the intersection of teacher creativity, arts-based pedagogy, and accessible digital tools offers meaningful pathways toward equity in education, addressing both research questions and contributing to current conversations on inclusive innovation. This study contributes to ongoing debates by demonstrating how creative professional development can thrive in challenging environments. It highlights how teacher agency is influenced by material scarcity, cultural complexity, and limited institutional support.

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The workshop revealed that reclaiming creative agency does not require advanced technical skills or institutional reform; it begins with low-barrier tools and imaginative practice. Participants moved from passive use to co-creation, reflecting what Rohim and Wulandari (2019) describe as a shift toward equity pedagogy, where creativity becomes a mechanism for recognizing and honoring diverse learner needs. Teachers reconnected with the expressive, emotional, and narrative dimensions of their role, dimensions often diminished in rigid educational systems. Arts-based strategies enabled teachers to imagine sound as a form of inclusive language, a way for students to participate, reflect, and express identity without relying solely on verbal fluency. Caris and Cowell (2016) argue that when teachers engage with artistic processes, they also navigate social and ethical responsibilities. By stepping into the role of what they term the “public pedagogue” educators use creative methods not only to communicate, but to amplify student identity, challenge marginalization, and build emotional connections within diverse classrooms. The integration of accessible digital tools supported pedagogical transformation and as McLaren and Arnold (2016) argue, creative tools can catalyze changes in how teachers see themselves and their students. Participants began to treat technology as an opportunity to reconfigure classroom power dynamics and allow for student-centered innovation. For educators in resource-constrained areas, these tools offered a way to bypass infrastructural limitations and engage students more meaningfully. Drawing on Spratt and Florian’s (2015) framework, the training emphasized inclusive pedagogy as a fluid and relational process. Participants repeatedly emphasized that their most valuable learning moments came from dialogue with peers, through reflection, affirmation, and shared experimentation. This collaborative ethos reinforces Caris and Cowell’s (2016) view of the teacher as a public pedagogue, whose role extends beyond content delivery to include social responsibility and cultural responsiveness. The study also confirms that short-form professional development can spark longer-term professional reflection. Most reported increased confidence and a deeper understanding of how sound, story, and student identity intersect. This reflects McLaren and Arnold’s (2016) argument that engagement with the arts helps cultivate the disposition to teach inclusively. Overall, the findings suggest that music-based training interventions, even in limited timeframes, can offer a relational and imaginative alternative to standardized professional learning. In borderland regions like Lesvos, where educational equity is inseparable from social, emotional, and cultural dynamics, such approaches may be not only effective but essential, especially for students who arrive from war-torn regions and carry complex personal histories.

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Conclusion This study has highlighted how creative teacher training, rooted in music and open technology, can act as a lever for educational inclusion in contexts where social complexity, trauma, and marginalization shape the classroom. The workshop demonstrated that when teachers are treated as artists, researchers, and agents of transformation, can open new pedagogical pathways. Participants were invited into a creative process that linked sound with identity, emotion with pedagogy, and technology with inclusion. Music, particularly in its digital, narrative form, offered a shared language where words often fail. Sound became a bridge between cultures, student and teacher, and the emotional interior and the school community. By empowering teachers to create with and not just for their students, the training affirmed that equity is not only about access to tools, but access to creative voice. Borderland regions are not peripheral, they are sites of pedagogical urgency and innovation. As educational policy grapples with refugee integration, post-pandemic recovery, and technological change, this case shows that investing in arts-based, culturally responsive training is not supplemental, it is essential. Ultimately, inclusion begins not with policy, but with teachers who are empowered to listen, create, and respond. This study offers one such model, born at the margins, but deeply relevant to the educational center. Implications The findings of this study point to several significant implications for educators, particularly in borderland or migration-affected regions (Lesvos, Chios, Samos Islands). For teachers, the workshop underscored that inclusive pedagogy, begins with permission to experiment, to collaborate, and to reclaim creative authorship over their practice. Teachers with limited prior experience in music or technology were able to construct meaningful projects once they were given time, support, and a shared learning space. For students, particularly those navigating trauma, linguistic barriers, or disrupted schooling, the use of sound and music created new avenues for participation and identity expression. Students could be invited to co-create emotional narratives, classroom soundscapes, or thematic compositions that reflected their experiences and perspectives, and engage with learning on their own terms and reinforce the idea that inclusion is not simply about physical presence but about meaningful voice and representation. Education systems must recognize the transformative potential of culturally responsive, technologically accessible and artistically grounded professional development, especially in under-resourced and geographically peripheral regions of Greece. Supporting teacher autonomy through creative practice is not a luxury; it is a strategy for sustainable, emotionally attuned, and socially just education.

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Limitations The national music curriculum in Greece offers limited emphasis on diversity, equity, or intercultural education, and most teachers have not received training to address these themes. For Northern Aegean, this seminar was the first professional development session for music teachers in over 12 years, largely due to prolonged funding cuts and logistical challenges. The regional heads of music education had limited capacity to organize training initiatives during this period. Participation was also affected by economic precarity: many teachers in Greece, according to data from the Greek Primary Teachers' Federation, take on second jobs to meet basic living costs. This significantly limits their availability for voluntary training. More training sessions are planned for the coming year, aiming to build on this foundation and further support inclusive, creative pedagogy in the region.

Declaration of Generative AI and AI-assisted Technologies in the Writing Process The authors would like to acknowledge the use of generative AI tools, specifically ChatGPT (OpenAI), during the development of this manuscript. These tools were used to assist with language refinement and to support the organization of relevant literature in the early stages of writing. No AI systems were involved in designing the study, analyzing data, or interpreting results or replace the authors’ academic thinking or voice but served as a reflective companion in shaping the clarity and structure of the text. Every idea, argument and interpretation presented is the product of the authors’ own research, pedagogical experience and critical engagement. The final manuscript has been thoroughly reviewed, edited and approved by the authors, who take full responsibility for its content.

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Kallio, A. A., Westerlund, H., Karlsen, S., Marsh, K., & Sæther, E. (Eds.) (2021). The Politics of Diversity in Music Education. (Landscapes: Arts, Aesthetics). Springer Nature. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65617-1 Kenny, A. (2021). Body Politics: Positioning the Pregnant Researcher Amongst Asylum Seekers. In: Kallio, A.A., Westerlund, H., Karlsen, S., Marsh, K., Sæther, E. (eds) The Politics of Diversity in Music Education. Landscapes: the Arts, Aesthetics and Education, vol 29. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-65617-1_3 Koukis, N. and Jimoyiannis, A. (2019). Moocs for teacher professional development: exploring teachers’ perceptions and achievements. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 16(1), 74-91. https://doi.org/10.1108/itse-10-2018-0081 Laure, M., Simonič, T. M., & Habe, K. (2025). Composers’ perspectives on creating music for infants and toddlers: A thematic analysis. International Journal of Early Childhood. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13158-025-00429-1 Lindsey, J. (2021). The democratization of learning: The rise of online education. Journal of Education and Technology, 45(3), 87–101. Leggo, C. D., & Irwin, R. L. (2018). Ways of Attending: Art and Poetry. The Canadian Review of Art Education, 45(1), 50–76. https://doi.org/10.26443/crae.v45i1.48 Ma, N., Du, L., & Lu, Y. (2022). A model of factors influencing in-service teachers’ social network prestige in online peer assessment. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 100-118. https://doi.org/10.14742/ajet.7622 McLaren, M., & Arnold, J. (2016). Transforming pedagogies: encouraging pre-service teachers to engage the power of the arts in their approach to teaching and learning. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 41(5), 21–35. https://doi.org/10.14221/ajte.2016v41n5.2 Mills, C. (2008). Reproduction and transformation of inequalities in schooling: The transformative potential of the theoretical constructs of Bourdieu. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 29(1), 79–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/01425690701737481 Montejano, S. (2010). Make a move: Creating a culturally aware community of masters and scholars. The Eagle Feather. https://doi.org/10.12794/tef.2010.149 Muñoz-Oyarce, M., Macaya, M., & Sepúlveda-Vallejos, S. (2023). Teachers’ social representations of inclusive education: a systematic review of literature 2010–2020. International Journal of Evaluation and Research in Education, 12(2), 720. https://doi.org/10.11591/ijere.v12i2.24070 Nguyen, A., Ngo, H., Hong, Y., Dang, B., & Nguyen, B. (2022). Ethical principles for artificial intelligence in education. Education and Information Technologies, 28(4), 4221–4241. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10639-022-11316-w Nowell, L. S., Norris, J. M., White, D. E., & Moules, N. J. (2017). Thematic analysis: Striving to meet the trustworthiness criteria. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 16(1). https://doi. org/10.1177/1609406917733847 Paek, S., & Sumners, S. (2017). The indirect effect of teachers’ creative mindsets on teaching creativity. The Journal of Creative Behavior, 53(3), 298–311. https://doi.org/10.1002/jocb.180 Pantić, N. (2015). A model for study of teacher agency for social justice. Teachers and Teaching, 21(6), 759–778. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2015.1044332

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Pantić, N., & Florian, L. (2015). Developing teachers as agents of inclusion and social justice. Education Inquiry, 6(3). https://doi.org/10.3402/edui.v6.27311 Papadopoulou, A. (2019). Art, Technology, Education: Synergy of Modes, Means, Tools of Communication. Educ. Sci. 9 (3), 237; https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci9030237 Park, J., Teo, T. W. T., Teo, A., Chang, J., Huang, J. S., & Koo, S. (2023). Integrating artificial intelligence into science lessons: Teachers' experiences and views. International Journal of STEM Education, 10(1), Article 45. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40594-023-00454-3 Porayska-Pomsta, K., Holmes, W., & Nemorin, S. (2023). The ethics of AI in education. In B. du Boulay, A. Mitrovic, & K. Yacef (Eds.), Handbook of Artificial Intelligence in Education (pp. 571–604). Edward Elgar. Pyhältö, K., Pietarinen, J., & Soini, T. (2011). Do comprehensive school teachers perceive themselves as active professional agents in school reforms? Journal of Educational Change, 13(1), 95–116. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-011-9171-0 Rajala, A., & Kumpulainen, K. (2017). Researching teachers’ agentic orientations to educational change in Finnish schools. In Agents and Structures in Educational Change (pp. 311–329). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-60943-0_16 Rohim, M., & Wulandari, T. (2019). Inclusive education in the special region of Yogyakarta: equity pedagogy perspective. KNE Social Sciences. https://doi.org/10.18502/kss.v3i17.4666 Shockley, K., & Banks, J. (2011). Perceptions of teacher transformation on issues of racial and cultural bias. Journal of Transformative Education, 9(4), 222–241. https://doi.org/10.1177/1541344612441681 Spratt, J., & Florian, L. (2015). Inclusive pedagogy: from learning to action. Teaching and Teacher Education, 49, 89–96. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2015.03.006 Thomas, B. (2021). The role of teachers in facilitating 21st-century learning skills for development of creative insight among learners in inclusive classroom settings. International Research Journal on Advanced Science Hub, 3(Special Issue ICOST 2S), 6–11. https://doi.org/10.47392/irjash.2021.032 Vähäsantanen, K. (2015). Professional agency in the stream of change: Understanding educational change and teachers’ professional identities. Teaching and Teacher Education, 47, 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2014.11.006 Van Brummelen, J., & Lin, P. (2020). Engaging Teachers to Co-Design Integrated AI Curriculum for K-12 Classrooms. ArXiv. https://doi.org/10.48550/arXiv.2009.11100 Vandeyar, T. (2021). ICT policy appropriation: Teachers as transformative ICT agents. Perspectives in Education, 39(4), 43–56. https://doi.org/10.18820/2519593x/pie.v39.i4.4 Varpanen, J., Laherto, A., Hilppö, J., & Ukkonen-Mikkola, T. (2022). Teacher agency and futures thinking. Education Sciences, 12(3), 177. https://doi.org/10.3390/educsci12030177 Wenner, J., & Campbell, T. (2016). The theoretical and empirical basis of teacher leadership. Review of Educational Research, 87(1), 134–171. https://doi.org/10.3102/0034654316653478

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Woulfin, S., & Rigby, J. (2017). Coaching for coherence: How instructional coaches lead change in the evaluation era. Educational Researcher, 46(6), 323–328. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189x17725525 Xu, W., & Zammit, K. (2020). Applying Thematic Analysis to Education: A Hybrid Approach to Interpreting Data in Practitioner Research. International Journal of Qualitative Methods, 19. https://doi.org/10.1177/1609406920918810 Zainuddin, N., Suhaimi, N., Jaffar, M., Norwawi, N., Sahrir, M., Daud, W., & Ghani, M. (2024). Responsible and ethical use of artificial intelligence in language education: a systematic review. Forum for Linguistic Studies, 6(5), 316–325. https://doi.org/10.30564/fls.v6i5.7092 Zhao, Y., & Watterston, J. (2021). The changes we need: Education post COVID-19. Journal of educational change, 22(1), 3–12. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10833-021-09417-3 Zimmerman, M. (2018) Teaching AI: Exploring new frontiers for learning. Portland, OR: International Society for Technology in Education Corresponding author: Dimitri Chatzigiannakis Email: chatzigiannakis@ionio.gr

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Reviewers: Volume 13 – Issue 3 The editorial team would like to thank the following reviewers for their contributions to the peer review for this issue of the journal. Their dedication and assistance are greatly appreciated. Associate Editors Dr William C. Frick, University of Oklahoma, USA Dr Anemona Peres, European Border and Coast Guard Agency Senior Reviewers Dr Adebisi Thomas Ajibade, United Arab Emirates University, UAE Dr Tyrone Bynoe, St. Bonaventure University, USA Dr Ivy Chia, Singapore University of Social Sciences, Singapore Dr Raymond Q. Datuon, FEU Institute of Technology, Philippines Dr Luisa Daniele, PANPAL - the Italian Agency for Active Labour Market Policies, Italy Dr Yuemin He, Northern Virginia Community College in Annandale, Virginia, USA Dr Andrew Leichsenring, Tamagawa University, Japan Dr Thelma Manansala, Bataan Peninsula State University, Philippines Dr Leonardo Munalim, The Philippine Women's University-School of Arts & Sciences and School of Education, Philippines Dr Jacinta Ifeoma Obidile, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria Dr Cornelius Riordan, Providence College in Providence, RI., USA Dr Ilaria De Santis, National Defense University, USA Dr Elena Raevskikh, Department of Culture and Tourism Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates Dr Ilana Klima Ronen, Kibbutzim College of Education, Technology and The Arts, Israel Dr Meliha Simsek, University of Health Sciences, Istanbul, Turkey Dr Randy A. Tudy, Cor Jesu College, Inc., Philippines Dr Mary George Varghese, HMES Pillai College of Education and Research, India Dr Stephanie Wendt, Tennessee Tech University, USA Dr Huiyuan Ye, Southern New Hampshire University, USA Reviewers Dr Gbolagade Adekanmbi, Botswana Open University Dr Ezekiel Olusegun Babatunde, University of Ibadan, Nigeria Dr Louis Jinot Belle, Open University of Mauritius Dr Melissa Brennan, Our Lady of the Lake University, USA Dr Supamit Chanseawrassamee, TOT Academy, Thailand Dr Priscila Lambach Ferreira da Costa, Pontifícia Universidade Católica de São Paulo, Brazil Dr Ana Garcia-Diaz, UCJC-University Camilo José Cela, Spain Dr Sainbayar Gundsambu, National University of Mongolia, Mongolia Dr Bernardo C. Lunar, San Pablo Colleges, Philippines

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Xianhua Luo, Delaware State University (DSU), USA Dr Ireena Nasiha binti Ibnu, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), Malaysia Dr Lourdes Lobis-Nieva, Central Bicol State University of Agriculture, Philippines Dr Veronica Margaret Makwinja, Botswana Accountancy College (BAC), Botswana Dr Blessing Dwumah Manu, Jiangsu University, China Dr Elsa Gabriel Morgado, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Portugal Dr Cuong Huu Nguyen, Van Lang University, Vietnam Dr Queen Ogbomo, Tennessee Technological University, USA Dr Marcruz Yew Lee ONG, Saint Francis University, Hong Kong Dr Michael Owen, Brock University, Canada Mirella Ramacciotti, Independent Researcher, Brazil Dr Jeyhun Rzayev, ADA University, Baku, Azerbaijan Dr Ruben Sanchez, RAS Research Training Consultancy, the Philippines Dr Ha Young Shin, Semyung University, Jecheon, South Korea Dr Maria Staton, Ball State University, USA Dr Dominika Provázková Stolinská, Palacký University Olomouc, Czech Republic Dr Imran Tufail, Western Heights High School, Rotorua, New Zealand Dr Mubeshera Tufail, Allama Iqbal Open University, Pakistan Dr Janet R. Valdez, Bulacan Polytechnic College, Philippines Dr Miguel A. Varela, International Baccalaureate (IB) School Verification/Consultant/Reader/Workshop Leader, IB Organization Dr Kyle Whitfield, University of Alberta, Canada Dr Mukesh Yadav, Nims University Rajasthan, India Dr Joyce Lee Yang, Biola University, USA

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ISSN: 2187-0594