THURMAN WELCH
bodymind & voice
bodymind & voice: foundations of voice education
foundations of voice education
“ ...only full-voiced, free-singing bluebirds”
(Book IV, Chapter 1)
A REVISED EDITION Co-editors Leon Thurman EdD Graham Welch PhD
1 P U B L I S H E R S The VoiceCare Network n National Center for Voice & Speech Fairview Voice Center n Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education
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1 6/9/08
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A
REVISED EDITION
bodymind & voice: foundations of
voice education
" ...only full-voiced, free-singing bluebirds" (Book IV, Chapter 1)
Co-editors
Leon Thurman EdD Graham Welch PhD
Publishers The VoiceCare Network National Center for Voice & Speech Fairview Voice Center Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education
bodymind & voice: foundations of voice education A
REVISED
EDITION
Co-editors Leon Thurman, Ed.D. Founder, Development Director, The VoiceCare Network ■ Specialist Voice Educator, Fairview Voice Center
Fairview-University Medical Center ■ Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
Graham Welch, Ph.D. Directorof Educational Research ■ Director, Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education ■ University of Surrey Roehampton London, United Kingdom
Publication Editor Julie Ostrem, B.S., M.B.A. Continuing Education Coordinator ■ National Center for Voice and Speech The University of Iowa ■ Iowa City, Iowa USA
Publishers The VoiceCare Network, Axel Theimer, D.M.A., Executive Director, Music Department, St. John's University Collegeville, Minnesota, 56321 USA, 320/363-3374,320/363-2504 FAX, atheimer@csbsju.edu National Center for Voice & Speech, Ingo Titze, Ph.D., Director, 330 Speech and Hearing Center, The University of Iowa Iowa City, Iowa, 52242 USA, 319/335-6600,319/335-8851 FAX, webmaster@ncvs.org Fairview Voice Center, Leon Thurman, Ed.D., Specialist Voice Educator; Carol Klitzke, CCC/SLP, Speech Pathologist, Fairview-University Medical Center 2450 Riverside Avenue, Minneapolis, Minnesota, 55454 USA, 612/672-7910, 612/672-2189 FAX, lthurmal@fairview.org
Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education; Professor Graham Welch, Ph.D., Director; Froebel College, University of Surrey Roehampton, Roehampton Lane, London SW15 4HT, United Kingdom, +44-181/392-3020, +44-181/392-3031 FAX, g.welch@roehampton.ac.uk
Publication Information Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Bodymind and voice: Foundations of voice education [edited by] Leon Thurman, Graham Welch
pp. 860 Includes bibliographical references and index
1. Voice education-Singing and speaking. 2. Voice-Anatomy, function, acoustics, morphology. 3. Singers/speakers-Health and voice protection. 4. Neuropsychobiology of learning.
I. Thurman, Leon Ed.D., II. Welch, Graham, Ph.D. Revised Edition Copyright© 2000 by The VoiceCare Network®, the National Center for Voice and Speech, Fairview Voice Center, Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education and the contributing authors. Original Edition Copyright © 1997
ISBN:
0-87414-123-0
Printed in the United States of America.
This book, including all parts thereof, is legally protected by copyright. Any use, exploitation or commercialization outside the narrow limits set by copyright legislation, without the publishers' and authors' consents, is illegal and liable to prosecution. No part of this book may be translated, reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the VoiceCare Network, National Center for Voice and Speech, and the contributing authors.
Publication Support Julie Stark, A.A., Production Editor, Doug Montequin, B.A., M.S., Science Reviewer, National Center for Voice & Speech Andrew Hackett, Assistant to the Editors, The Voice Care Network
contributing authors ■
Robert Bastian, M.D. Associate Professor of Otolaryngology, Stritch School of Medicine, Loyola University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
■
John Cooksey, Ed.D. Professor of Choral Music, School of Music, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, Utah
■
Mary Ann Emanuele, M.D. Department of Endocrinology, Loyola University Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois
■
Darrel Feakes, M.S., CCC/A Senior Audiologist, Minnesota Ear, Head & Neck Clinic, Minneapolis, Minnesota
■
Patricia Feit, M.A. Director of Vocal/Choral Music, Elk River Public Schools, Elk River, Minnesota
■
Lynne Gackle, Ph.D. Adjunct Professor of Choral Music Education, Director, Gulf Coast Youth Choirs, Inc., Tampa, Florida
■
Elizabeth Grambsch, M.A. Early Childhood Music Education Specialist, University of St. Thomas Conservatory of Music, St. Paul, Minnesota
■
Elizabeth Grefsheim, B.A. Co-Director, Son-Sheim Music School, Spring Lake Park, Minnesota
■
Norman Hogikyan, M.D. Director, Vocal Health Center, Department of Otolaryngology, University of Michigan Medical Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan
■
Carol Klitzke, M.A., CCC/SLP Speech Pathologist/Voice Specialist, Fairview Voice Center, Fairview-University Medical Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
■
Anna Langness, Ph.D. Music Specialist, Bear Creek Elementary School, Boulder, Colorado
■
Van Lawrence, M.D. (deceased) Senior Otolaryngologist, MacGregor Medical Clinic, Houston Texas
■
John Leman, Ed.D. Professor of Choral Music (retired), College-Conservatory of Music, University of Cincinnati, Cincinnati, Ohio
■
Alice Pryor, M.Ed. Director, Texas Center for the Alexander Technique, Austin, Texas
■
Axel Theimer, D.M.A. Professor of Voice and Choral Music, Music Department, St. John's University, Collegeville, Minnesota
■
Leon Thurman, Ed.D. Specialist Voice Educator, Fairview Voice Center, Fairview-University Medical Center, Minneapolis, Minnesota
■
Mary Tobin, M.D. Division of Allergy and Immunology, Loyola University Medical Center, Chicago Illinois
■
Graham Welch, Ph.D. Director of Educational Research, Centre for Advanced Studies in Music Education, Froebel Institute College, University of Surrey Roehampton, London, United Kingdom
Hi
dedication Leon and Graham Gratefully Dedicate Bodymind and Voice: Foundations of Voice Education to Our Parents...
Marie Campbell Thurman and Virgil Thurman Joyce Welch and George Welch ...and to Our Primary Mentors in Education, Voice, and Voice Health Oren Brown Faculty of Voice, Juilliard School, New York (Retired)
Van Lawrence (Deceased) Senior Otolaryngologist, MacGregor Medical Clinic, Houston, Texas Charles Leonhard Professor Emeritus of Music Education, University of Illinois
Charles Nelson Professor Emeritus of Voice and Choral Music, Abilene Christian University, Abilene, Texas Robert Shaw (Deceased) Conductor Laureate, Atlanta Symphony Orchestra, Atlanta Symphony Orchestra Chorus
Charles Cleall Her Majesty's Inspector for Music (Retired) Stephen Rhys Lecturer in Music Composition, Royal Academy of Music, London (Retired)
Edmund Semmons (Deceased) Head of Music, Sir Walter St. John's School, London Desmond Sergeant Head of Music and Music Education, Roehampton Institute, London (Retired)
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table of contents Contributing Authors................................................................................................................................................................... iii Dedication.................................................................................................................................................................................... iv Preface...........................................................................................................................................................................................ix Reading this Huge Book: Suggestions andOrientations................................................................................................. x Fore-words: Sunsets, Elephants, Vocal Self-Expression, and Lifelong Learning........................................................................ xi Leon Thurman, Graham Welch
Volume 1 Book I: Bodyminds, Learning, and Self-Expression
The Big Picture............................................................................................................................................................................... 1
Chapter 1 A Brief Context about How We Know What We Know, and Do What We Do.................................................. 7 Leon Thurman Chapter 2 The Astounding Capacities of Human Bodyminds............................................................................................... 18 Leon Thurman Chapter 3 The Human Nervous System.................................................................................................................................. 27 Leon Thurman Chapter 4 The Human Endocrine System................................................................................................................................61 Leon Thurman
Chapter 5 The Human Immune System.................................................................................................................................. 68 Leon Thurman
Chapter 6 Human Sensory Experiences................................................................................................................................... 75 Leon Thurman Chapter 7 Internal Processing of Life Experiences and Behaviorial Expression................................................................. 86 Leon Thurman Chapter 8 Bodyminds, Human Selves and Communicative Human Interaction............................................................. 134 Leon Thurman
Chapter 9 Human-Compatible Learning............................................................................................................................... 188 Leon Thurman
Volume 2_____________________________________________________________________________________ Book II: How Voices are Made and How They are ’Played’ in Skilled Singing and Speaking The Big Picture.......................................................................................................................................................................... 303 v
Chapter 1 What Sounds Are Made Of................................................................................................................................... 307 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim Chapter 2 What Resonance Is................................................................................................................................................. 316 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim Chapter 3 What Vocal Sounds are Made Of..........................................................................................................................321 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim Chapter 4 The Most Fundamental Voice Skill....................................................................................................................... 326 Leon Thurman, Alice Pryor, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit, Graham Welch Chapter 5 Creating Breathflow for Skilled Speaking and Singing...................................................................................... 339 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 6 What Your Larynx Is Made Of.............................................................................................................................. 356 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim
Chapter 7 What Your Larynx Does When Vocal Sounds Are Created............................................................................... 367 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim Chapter 8 How Pitches Are Sustained and Changed in Singing and Speaking................................................................ 382 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 9 How Sound Volumes Are Sustained and Changed in Speaking and Singing................................................. 394 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 10 How Your Larynx Contributes to Basic Voice Qualities................................................................................... 409 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim Chapter 11 The Voice Qualities that Are Referred to as 'Vocal Registers'.......................................................................... 421 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 12 How Your Vocal Tract Contributes to Basic Voice Qualities........................................................................... 449 Graham Welch, Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit
Chapter 13 Vocal Tract Shaping and the Voice Qualities that Are Referred to as Vowels'............................................ 470 Graham Welch, Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 14 Consonant Clarity Without Vocal Interference................................................................................................. 484 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Graham Welch Chapter 15 Vocal Efficiency and Vocal Conditioning in Expressive Speaking and Singing........................................... 492 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke, Axel Theimer, Graham Welch, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit
Chapter 16 Singing Various Musical Genres with Stylistic Authenticity: Vocal Efficiency, Vocal Conditioning, and Voice Qualities................................................................... 515 Leon Thurman, Graham Welch, Axel Theimer, Patricia Feit, Elizabeth Grefsheim
Volume 3 Book III: Health and Voice Protection
The Big Picture........................................................................................................................................................................... 523 vi
Chapter 1 Limitations to Vocal Ability from Use-Related Injury or Atrophy................................................................... 527 Robert Bastian, Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke Chapter 2 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Immune System Reactions to "Invaders"........................................538 Leon Thurman, Mary Tobin, Carol Klitzke
Chapter 3 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Non-Infectious Diseases and Disorders of the Respiratory and Digestive Systems....................................................................... 546 Norman Hogikyan, Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke Chapter 4 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Endocrine System Diseases and Disorders..................................... 556 Leon Thurman, Mary Ann Emanuele, Carol Klitzke
Chapter 5 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Diseases and Disorders of the Auditory System............................ 564 Norman Hogikyan, Darrel Feakes, Leon Thurman, Elizabeth Grambsch Chapter 6 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Diseases and Disorders of the Central Nervous and Musculoskeletal Systems................................................................................ 573 Norman Hogikyan, Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke
Chapter 7 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Limited by Anatomical Abnormalities and Bodily Injuries.............................582 Norman Hogikyan, Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke Chapter 8 Neuropsychobiological Interferences with Vocal Abilities............................................................................... 586 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke Chapter 9 Diagnosis and Medical Treatment of Diseases and Disorders that Affect Voice............................................. 598 Norman Hogikyan, Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke
Chapter 10 Medications and the Voice.................................................................................................................................. 613 Norman Hogikyan, Carol Klitzke, Leon Thurman Chapter 11 Vocal Fold and Laryngeal Surgery...................................................................................................................... 620 Robert Bastian, Carol Klitzke, Leon Thurman Chapter 12 Sermon on Hydration (or "The Evils of Dry")................................................................................................... 632 Van Lawrence
Chapter 13 How Vocal Abilities Can Be Enhanced by Nutrition and Body Movement................................................. 637 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke
Chapter 14 Cornerstones of Voice Protection........................................................................................................................ 646 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke, Norman Hogikyan
Book IV: Lifespan Voice Development
The Big Picture........................................................................................................................................................................... 657
Chapter 1 Foundations for Human Self-Expression During Prenate, Infant, and Early Childhood Development........................................................................................................... 660 Leon Thurman, Elizabeth Gramsch Chapter 2 Highlights of Physical Growth and Function of Voices from Pre-Birth to Age 21.......................................... 696 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke
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Chapter 3 The Developing Voice...........................................................................................................................................704 Graham Welch Chapter 4 Voice Transformation in Male Adolescents..........................................................................................................718 John Cooksey Chapter 5 Understanding Voice Transformation in Female Adolescents..........................................................................739 Lynne Gackle Chapter 6 Vitality, Health, and Vocal Self-Expression in Older Adults.............................................................................. 745 Graham Welch, Leon Thurman
Book V: A Brief Menu of Practical Voice Education Methods
The Big Picture.......................................................................................................................................................................... 759
Chapter 1 The Alexander Technique: Brief History and a Personal Perspective............................................................. 760 Alice Pryor Chapter 2 Learning Speaking Skills That Are Expressive and Vocally Efficient.............................................................. 765 Leon Thurman, Carol Klitzke Chapter 3 Classifying Voices for Singing: Assigning Choral Parts and Solo Literature Without Limiting Vocal Ability........................................................................................ 772 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 4 Vocally Safe "Belted" Singing Skills for Children, Adolescents, and Adults................................................... 783 Leon Thurman, Patricia Feit
Chapter 5 Design and Use of Voice Skill 'Pathfinders' for 'Target Practice,' Vocal Conditioning, and Vocal Warmup and Cooldown........................................................................................................... 786 Leon Thurman, Axel Theimer, Carol Klitzke, Elizabeth Grefsheim, Patricia Feit Chapter 6 Helping Children's Voices Develop in General Music Education................................................................... 803 Anna Peter Langness
Chapter 7
Female Adolescent Transforming Voices: Voice Classification, Voice Skill Development, and Music Literature Selection...................................................................... 814 Lynne Gackle
Chapter 8
Male Adolescent Transforming Voices: Voice Classification, Voice Skill Development, and Music Literature Selection...................................................................... 821 John Cooksey
Chapter 9 Redesigning Traditional Conducting Patterns to Enhance Vocal Efficiency and Expressive Choral Singing................................................................................................................... 842 John Leman After-words: Science-Based, Futurist Megatrends - Voice Education in the Year 2100................................................... 848 Leon Thurman
Appendix 1: Brief Biographies of Contributing Authors....................................................................................................... 850 Appendix 2: Brief Descriptions of Publishing Organizations............................................................................................... 856 Index........................................................................................................................................................................................ 861 viii
preface t has given me personal pleasure to help sponsor the production of Bodymind and Voice. As director of the National
I
Center for Voice and Speech, an organization supported by the National Institutes of Health, I have been given a mandate to make research in the area of voice and speech more accessible to the consumer. But who is the primary consumer of information about voice? Professional vocal artists always come to mind first, but they are a small percentage of those who either make a living with their voices or rely on their voices for avocational and recreational endeavors. The many teachers, salespeople, choral singers, and story tellers of our country (and the world) are given far too little information about how that little sound source in the throat works. Even less is given to them about how to protect, preserve, and train this instrument for optimal usage. Bodymind and Voice is a significant step
toward correcting this problem. Scientists and physicians could argue about some of the terminologies, analogies, and
metaphors used in this text, but little argument could be made about the interest of the authors to communicate effectively—to speak in the language of the consumer. Even less argument could be made about the passion the authors display as educators. They are more than lecturers and presenters; they nurture and teach. The love for their audiences and their students rings out. To some their book may be the first and final reading about voice, but I hope that for most it will be the beginning of an adventure into the science and art of vocal communication. Ingo R. Titze, Ph.D. September 1997, May 2000
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reading this huge book! Suggestions and orientations ■
Begin by reading any chapter in the book that attracts your interest
If there is background information that you need for a more complete understanding, you will be referred to the chapter(s) in the book where that information is located, and you may find information in the references.
■
The "Forewords to This Book" is not written in a conventional way Begin with it? It is intended to express the core substance or feeling of this book. The book's editors also express a sense
of where Bodymind and Voice "came from" and what's in it.
■ In Book I, you may wish to begin by reading Chapter 9 first.
Its presentation of "real-world" human-compatible learning practices is based on neuropsychobiological documentation from the first eight chapters in Book I. ■ Bodymind and Voice can be thought of as a kind of turn-of-the-century encyclopedia of human-compatible learning and of vocal self-expression in speech and vocal music. Most any curiosity about human voices and human learning is addressed somewhere herein. When a wonderment or question or a difference of opinion arises in your everyday experience, check the table of contents or the index for where relevant information can be found.
■ In Bodymind and Voice, concepts and actions about human learning are founded in the neuropsychobiological sciences, and concepts and actions about vocal self-expression are founded in the voice, speech, and voice medicine sciences. In so many ways, we believe that the benefits of optimal empathic human relatedness, constructive compe tence, self-reliant autonomy, and exquisite self-expression have been withheld from many human beings. How? Assumptions about "reality", that were once logical and "right", have pointed many people (includ ing ourselves) toward limitations rather than optimal benefit. Many long-held assumptions about the nature of human learning and vocal self-expression are now being questioned or have been shown to be incomplete,
inaccurate, or invalid. In conceiving, writing, and editing this book, we have done the best we can to set aside our own familiar patterns of thinking, feeling, and acting about human learning and about how human beings express themselves
well in speech and song. We undertook a delicious adventure: to look preponderantly into the accumulated perspectives of the relevant sciences in order to learn "what actually happens", from big pictures to finer details, and to present documented evidence for alternative ways of "looking at" human learning, speaking, and singing. We believe that, even though the scientific method is carried out by fallible human beings, it is still the best
means we human beings have of finding out what is "real", or what is more completely "real", in our world of human experiences. That knowledge can help us point ourselves toward perceptions, conceptions, and actions that
are emotionally satisfying and optimally beneficial to us and to our fellow human beings. ■ x
See the "Big Picture" at the beginning of each book for information about content.
fore-words to this book sunsets, elephants, vocal self-expression and lifelong learning Leon Thurman, Graham Welch
This book is too big." "It covers way too much. It's way too complicated-
just look at that table of contents'' "If this book is just a rehashing of what's already been written about voices, why should I go to the expense of buying it and the trouble of reading it?"
pretty sure that much of this book is not a rehash of what has already been written in books about voice skill learn
ing, but again, that's for you to decide. Most of all, we hope to communicate some of the passion that all of the book's contributing authors feel about human beings and vocal self-expression. Along the way,
you just publish five different books? Maybe I don't want
we hope to introduce you to what we believe to be some of the book's unique perspectives.
to know about the effects of endocrine disorders on voices or about bodyminds, whatever that is."
First Wonderings
"A book divided into five different books?! Why didn't
We admit it. The book is big. And some of its parts
are more complicated than some people may ever be ready for. But we wonder if, maybe, some science-based detail about voices or bodyminds may open a door that leads to: 'Aha!!" "Hmmmmmm. So if that's what happens, then maybe if I...." "Ms Music, I really like to sing. It makes me feel like I'm flying" Well, you'll have to judge for yourself about the book, but in the rest of these Fore-Words, we would like to make the case for this book's bigness, its sometime complicated ness, and why it is five books rolled into one. Our intent is that you can begin reading it with any chapter that strikes your interest, and that if you need additional background
to fully understand what you are interested in, you will be pointed to where you need to go. And by the way, we're
The choral conductor was a first-rate musician. His life-mis sion was to serve music by getting singers to make the music of master composers come alive, being true to their vision of how the music was to be performed. He detested recruiting singers for his choirs, but he had to. There was about a 35% turnover in membership every year. He attributed the turnover to a lack of self-discipline by the singers. His singers called him "Old Eagle Ear". He always heard when they made a mistake or did something wrong, and he always pointed it out. He let them know that perfection was the goal in every piece of music they performed. He was the master interpreter and the corrector of their mistakes. On a few occasions, a singer or two asked him, "You always tell us when we do something wrong. Do we ever do anything right?" A well known singing teacher taught private lessons to an 18year-old male singer in that choir. She taught in much the same way
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as the conductor. She said to him once, "Adam, you have a very nice voice, hut it will never be a solo-quality voice." At age 22, Adam learned that he did have a solo-quality voice, and at age 29, he learned that the strong fear he felt at the prospect of singing for others was closely related to his earlier choir and voice lesson experiences.
And thus it was so. Those boys loved to sing so much, that they-with help from their parents-were not going to be stopped by common customs or curriculum policies. They had mastered expressive singing skills and in their six years of music classes, they had learned that music and skilled, expressive singing were fascinating and filled with MMMMMMMMMMMMM experiences.
Linda Mack, Ed.D., Professor of Choral Music at Lewis & Clark College, Durango, Colorado, once started a community chorus of people
who "knew" that they could not sing. As part of her doctoral disserta tion (1979), she interviewed the members of that choir. An 86-yearold man told her: "As a child, I loved to sing. I sang all the time. One day the music teacher at school had us all sing for her by ourselves, and she divided us up into two groups-the bluebirds and the crows. "I was a crow. "Well, I grew up on a farm, and I knew what crows sounded like. I haven't sung since. "But I guess that before I die, I want to learn how to sing."
She taught grades K through 6 for a public school in Minne sota. The first group of 6th grade children that had been her students since their kindergarten year were preparing to audition for the junior high school choir director. During the next school year, they wanted to sing in either the 7th and 8th grade concert choir or the girl's choir. Every single one of her sixth grade students auditioned. When the choir lists were announced, 23 boys were not placed in the concert choir. They were turned away from any singing experi ences at the junior high school. The reasons? (1) The choir director had never had that kind of male turnout for the auditions; (2) the select concert choir had to have a balance of SATB voices and most of these boys were unchanged-too many sopranos who cannot sing in the tenor pitch range; (3) only the best singers could be selected for the best choir; and (4) there was no boy's choir because in previous years, there had never been enough boys who were interested. The story does not end there. Those boys wanted to sing so much, that they asked their par ents to help them be in a choir. Several parents met with the junior high school principal. They pointed out that their sons had been turned away from membership in the concert choir. The girls who had not been selected for the concert choir were placed in the girl's choir. There was no boy's choir, so they urged the principal to create one for the 23 sons of taxpayers who voted in school board elections.
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Physicians change the anatomy the biochemistry the physiology, and the health of people. 50 DO TEACHERS. Physicians have to know rather clearly and in great detail what it is they are changing and how the changes will
affect life processes. They must be intimately familiar with
how their work changes the human nervous, endocrine, immune, digestive-metabolic, and musculoskeletal systems, among others. Does the work of teachers really change the anatomy, the biochemistry, the physiology, and the health of people? Does the education of teachers include a detailed knowl edge of how the nervous, endocrine, immune, metabolic, and musculoskeletal systems of human beings are changed by teaching-learning experiences? When we human beings interact with people, places,
things, and events in our lives, we say that we have percep tions, emotions, cognitions, and memories, and we say we have learned and behaved, and have been in and out of health. When those psychological processes change in us, we say that we are changed, do we not? The evidence is in. There is no question about it. Change in what we call physical, psychological, and health processes are brought into existence by changes in: 1. nervous system anatomy, physiology, and biochem istry; 2. endocrine system biochemistry and glandular anatomy; 3. immune system cellular processes and biochemis try;
4. digestive and metabolic anatomy and biochemis try; and 5. neuromusculoskeletal anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology.
When we encounter a novel sensorimotor experience
that engages our conscious attention (such as learning to drive an automobile or learning a new song), the prefrontal
cortex of our brains activates and "entrains" a wide variety of other brain areas as we make sense of the experience and gain mastery of it. With increased re-encountering of the experience, unneeded brain areas no longer activate. Even
tually, these sensorimotor processes are largely transferred
to subcortical motor areas where more automatic, habitual, or other-than-conscious action is carried out. The more detailed, intricate, and fine-tuned the sen sorimotor experiences become, (1) a greater number of neu rons will be selected into the neural networks of the brain that activate the neuromuscular coordinations that are in volved, and (2) more neuronal dendrites and synapses will be formed. The finger and hand areas of the sensorimotor cortex will be larger, for instance, in experienced piano and violin players, and the laryngeal areas will be larger in ex perienced, expressive singers and speakers (Book I, Chapter 7 has some details). Unpleasant internal feeling states that are enacted dur ing the evolution of these skills involve activation of inhibi tory neurochemical processes that reduce the probability that the experiences will be voluntarily engaged in again. Pleas ant internal feeling states that are enacted during the evolu tion of these skills involve activation of excitatory neuro chemical processes that increase the probability that the ex periences will be voluntarily engaged in again (Book I, Chap ters 2, 3, and 7 have some details). In general, we are more
likely to get sick if our immune system functions have been suppressed by distressful life experiences, and we are more
likely to avoid being sick if our immune system functions have been enhanced by interesting, self-fulfilling experiences
in emotionally safe settings (Book I, Chapter 5 has some details; also Book III, Chapter 8). When we have life-learning experiences, the anatomy,
biochemistry, and physiology of our brains are changed. When we say that a person becomes frightened at the pros pect of self-expression through singing or speaking, we are saying that past experiences with people, places, things, and/ or events related to singing and speaking "taught" that per son a well documented physio chemical reaction that has been given several word labels such as threat, fear, stage
fright, performance anxiety (Book I, Chapters 2 and 4 have
When we say that a child once sang all the time and loved to sing, and something a teacher did, truly following a
well known teaching method of her time, stopped cold that self-expressive love of singing for nearly 80 years, we are re ally saying that what the teacher did changed the child's neuroanatomy, biochemistry, and physiology. That particular teacher, of course, lived in a time when the intricacies of neuroanatomy, biochemistry, and physiology had not yet
been fully discovered. Mind and body were still separate, and teachers affected non-physical minds, not bodies. The teacher was doing the best she knew how to do under her life circumstances, but...she never had a clue about how the
method changed that person's life. On the other hand, when we say that every child in an elementary school's sixth grade wanted to sing in a seventh grade choir, well, that teacher influenced a very different array of perceptions, emotions, cognitions, and memories over their seven years together, compared to the other teacher. And we would say that they learned and behaved differ
ently. Yes, very different neuroanatomical, biochemical, and physiological changes occurred.
Please forgive us for writing some serious introduc
tory words about bodyminds. What Is a Bodymind? At first glance, the term bodymind may create an un easy feeling in some people. It may be associated with interpretative, mystic points of view about human beings that have little scientific basis, if any. The use of bodymind in this book has a scientific basis. Historically, mind has been thought of as a non-physi cal entity that "resides" in each human being and is separate
from a human being's body. The mind "operated" the body. Conscious awareness, rational thinking, and intention were purely "mental" activities that had no physical manifesta tion. The unruly passions or emotions had to be con trolled by a rational mind because they were regarded as two separate mind processes. Currently, the terms psychol ogy, psychological phenomena, or cognition are commonly used as substitutes for mind, but psychological language com monly continues the disassociation between psychological
phenomena and physio chemical processes in the whole body. Among many cognitive psychologists, the biological processes of the whole body, including nervous system
some details.) xiii
processes, are not considered relevant to an understanding
various attachment disorders, and so forth. Their experi
of mind (more details in Book I, Chapter 1). Although mind-body and emotion-cognition duali
ences of the people, places, things and events of their lives have altered their electro-physio-chemical constitution away from a balanced and healthy state of being. Medical practitioners are gradually dismantling the historically separated mind-body concepts of "physical health" and "mental health". There are fewer "plain" psy
ties are still assumed in everyday social interaction, and in nearly all educational practices, there is overwhelming evi dence that these centuries-old duality assumptions are not accurate and never were. Several scientists who have vast backgrounds and renowned research experience in the ge netic and neuropsychobiological sciences (including Nobel laureates) have assembled viable biological theories of con sciousness (Edelman, 1989; Crick, 1994; Damasio, 1994). Based on massive amounts of research that have been car ried out in the past several decades, there now is well estab lished evidence for the inseparable intermeshing of (1) all
human sensory or perceptual experience, (2) all internal bodily processings that are commonly referred to as think ing, reasoning, cognition, feelings, emotions, empathies, in tentions, judgements, memory, learning, immunity, and health, and (3) all of the behavioral expressions of those internal processings (more details in Book I, Chapters 2 through 8). A biological explanation of consciousness and psy chological phenomena represents an astonishingly differ ent explanation of what we refer to as mind. According to
this point of view, for instance, photosynthesis is an adap tive biological feature of plant life, and consciousness and intentionality ("mind") are adaptive biological features of human life (Searle, 1992). The two processes differ vastly in their complexity, of course, and that is part of the reason why photosynthesis does not produce consciousness and intentionality. The world renowned neurologist and cogni
tive neuroscientist, Antonio Damasio (1994, p. 118), adds, "...the separation between mind and brain...is mythical....The mind is embodied, in the full sense of the term, not just embrained." So-called mental diseases are physiochemical diseases of the brain. Although genetic and epigenetic processes can pro vide a greater susceptibility for physio chemical diseases in the brain, life experiences can produce such dispositions as well (see Book I, Chapter 8). For example, people who are emotionally abandoned to some extent during some or most of their growing-up years are likely to manifest a range of self-destructive and/or anti-social behaviors. They may in clude depression, schizophrenia, defensiveness, aggression, xiv
chiatrists, neurologists, endocrinologists, and immunolo
gists in medicine, and fewer plain psychologists. Now, there
are physiological psychiatrists, neuropsychologists, psycho biologists, cognitive neuroscientists, psychoneuroendocrinologists, psychoneuroimmunologists, and so on. The search is on for a single term that reflects the unity of psy chophysical processes. Body/Mind, body-mind, and mind-body are common forms that preserve the duality. The unifying term bodymind appears to have been coined by Candace Pert, Ph.D., former Chief of Brain Bio chemistry for the Clinical Neuroscience Branch of the Na tional Institute of Mental Health, Washington, D.C., USA. [She is now Pharmacologist and Adjunct Professor, Depart ment of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.] The term is based
on the discovery that:
1. biochemical transmitter molecules enable multi channel communication between the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems (Strand, 2000); 2. biochemical receptor sites for these transmitter molecules are embedded in the surfaces of cells in the ner vous, endocrine, and immune systems, and also in cells of organs and systems throughout the body; and 3. all such processes activate the perceptions, feelings/ emotions, memory, learning, behavior, and health of all
human beings. In a 1986 article for Advances magazine, Dr. Pert wrote, "I believe that neuropeptides and their receptors are a key to understanding how mind and body are interconnected and how emotions can be manifested throughout the body. Indeed, the more we know about neuropeptides, the harder it is to think in the traditional terms of a mind and a body. It makes more and more sense to speak of a single inte grated entity, a 'bodymind'" [Neuropeptides are a promi nent type of transmitter molecule.] In this book, we will base our use of the term bodymind in the neuropsychobiology of perception, memory, learn ing, behavior, and health.
• Neuro- because the human nervous system is cru
cially and powerfully involved; • Psycho- because all of our physio chemical processes produce our perceived psychological phenomena; • Biology because human bodyminds and the processes that make us bodyminds are biological in their essential nature. All environmental interactions, adaptations, and learn ings are carried out by our human bodyminds. All self expression, therefore, is a manifestation of bodymind pro cesses including, of course, all vocal self-expression in speak ing and singing. To approach teaching and learning and self-expres sion without a consideration of how bodyminds carry out
those functions, would be like trying to repair a television set without considering its electronic functions. Without considering how bodyminds "work," we run the risk of asking
the impossible of ourselves and others, of bruising or crush ing self-identity, of contracting preventable diseases that limit self-expression, of denying to ourselves and others an op timum fulfillment of our potential for self-expressive speak
ing and singing. We also run the risk of presenting insig nificant, comparatively uninteresting experiences for young
bodyminds to encounter, and we risk being considered an educational frill. [Books I and III address these matters.] On the other hand, if people who are called teachers know how their teaching affects the neuroanatomy, bio chemistry, and physiology of people who are called students, we may be able to teach so that all sixth graders every where will want to audition for their junior high choirs,
into which they will all be accepted because they are all skilled, expressive singers. And they will be more likely to interact more empathically with other people. And they just may grow up to confidently and skillfully speak in front of groups of people, to seek out and be fulfilled by singing solo songs for others, to sing in choirs for a lifetime, be
come members of boards of education who vote enthusi astically for effective school music programs, become mem bers of legislative bodies that stand to sing in four-part harmony before the daily deliberations, and most impor tantly of all, sing expressively for and with their own chil dren.
Second Wonderings
For over two years, a high school choral conductor's high so
prano voice had gradually deteriorated. She spoke and sang with severe hoarseness and very limited pitch and volume range. She had hem examined medically three times by general practice and ear-nosethroat physicians with varying diagnoses. She was treated for aller gies, asthma, upper respiratory infections, post nasal drip, and depres sion. She kept a list of medications that had been prescribed for her over the two years that covered three typewritten pages! One course of speech-voice therapy during that time had not resolved her extreme vocal limitation. A K-12 music educator's voice was severely dysfunctional for ten years. A clear vocal sound could not be made at all, pitch range was limited to about one octave, and vocal volume was greatly dimin ished. So much neck-throat effort was required for speaking and sing ing that neck muscles had bulked noticeably. Four different medical examinations were undertaken, resulting in inconclusive diagnosis. Brief, but unsuccessful voice therapy was provided by one speech pathologist and a singing teacher. Insurance company coverage for continuing treatment had been urged but denied. Eventually, she resigned herself to a permanently dysfunctional voice. A voice educator presented a program on voice skills with a group of 5th and 6th grade children. He noticed a child who had a noticeably hoarse voice quality when she spoke and sang. Her upper register pitch range was severely limited and her voicing was rather effortful. He suggested that the teacher recommend an examination by a voice-ear-nose-throat doctor and the school speech-language patholo gist. The teacher was surprised and said that making such a recom mendation had never occurred to her. When the parents were contacted, they said that the girl had always had a hoarse voice, and they thought that was just the way her voice was supposed to sound. The girl was seen by an ENT physician and she had long-standing vocal fold nod ules in the usual locations and a white nodular area toward the rear of her left vocal fold. Eventually, the two teachers and the child were exam ined by an interdisciplinary voice treatment team made up of a voice-ear-nose-throat physician, a voice experienced speech-language pathologist, and a specialist voice educa tor who was trained and experienced in the therapeutic care
of vocal performers. After taking an extensive medical and
vocal health history, using a fiberoptic laryngeal videostroboscope to videotape her vocal folds with high xv
magnification and slow motion, and observing and dis
cussing all of the diagnostic and evaluative findings, the team concluded that the first teacher had a large hemor rhagic polyp on her right vocal fold (described in Book III,
Chapter 1) and severe laryngo-pharyngeal reflux disease (described in Book III, Chapter 3). Her condition was greatly influenced by a hyper-extroverted personality and profes
sional commitments that several people would be challenged to complete. An extensive medical and vocal health history and fiberoptic laryngeal videostroboscope recordings also were obtained with the second teacher. The school's heating sys tem used coal and the choral room was very close to the furnace. Furniture in the room was covered with coal dust by the end of every teaching day, and this residue was in haled by the teacher and students. Following medical diag nosis and voice evaluation, the team concluded that this teacher had a paralyzed left vocal fold (described in Book III, Chapter 6) and a condition called sulcus vocalis on both vocal folds (described in Book III, Chapter 1). Both teachers required surgery and voice therapy, fol lowed by reconditioning of larynx muscles and vocal fold tissues, so that their voices could assume the best possible function. The first teacher's soprano capabilities returned, but her greatest challenges were to change the lifestyle choices that precipitated the condition, that is, numerous profes sional commitments versus personal restoration time, voice use versus voice recovery time, and her eating and sleeping patterns. The second teacher's surgery moved her para lyzed fold toward her functioning fold so that a clearer voice with minimized effort was possible. Therapy focused on physical and acoustic efficiency in the changed voice-use circumstances and on optimum reconditioning of larynx
Would we have fewer problems with our own voices if we knew more about what can happen to them and how
to deal effectively and quickly with such problems? Would we be able to help other people who have voice problems if we were comprehensively knowledge able about voice disorders, how they happen, how to rec ognize them, how they are treated, and who should treat them?
Third Wonderings An 11 year-old sixth grade hoy has enjoyed singing in music
classes throughout elementary school and admires his music teacher At the beginning of his sixth grade year, he notices that he can no longer sing the higher pitches of the songs that his music teacher and classmates are singing so easily As the year progresses, he notices that his voice is not any good anymore. It cracks when he tries to sing the higher notes, and he has to work his voice muscles so hard when he sings, that he just stops. The teacher is surprised that he is no longer singing and has started disturbing other children when they are sing ing. He occasionally reprimands the boy, and their admiring relation ship deteriorates. The boy does not audition for the junior or senior high school choirs, and rarely sings again after the sixth grade. A high school sociology teacher had been raised by her grandfa ther. She had never been able to sing, and always wanted to. Specifi cally, she had never been able to sing "Happy Birthday" for her beloved grandfather on his birthday. When she was young, siblings, peers, and teachers had ridiculed her early attempts at singing. At the age of 21 years, with her grandfather at age 88, her concern was deeply felt. She had been led to believe that she was a "monotone", and that learn ing to sing was not possible, especially at her age. The boy had begun his pubertal growth. His voice was beginning its adolescent transformation. Perhaps the
Could the teachers' voice disorders have been pre vented by preemptive voice health education during un dergraduate training? Could early and expert medical diagnosis with func tional evaluation followed by specialist voice therapy have prevented the extensive distress over their near loss of voice function?
teacher lives in a culture where male adolescent voices be come broken during early adolescence. In such a culture, adolescent voice transformation is misunderstood and sing ing by boys of that age is "stopped for their own good." Or, perhaps the teacher lives in a culture where the training of music educators rarely provides complete, accurate, and useful education about how to guide adolescents through their voice transformation. Elementary school music edu
Can the voice disorders of school students or family members be observed early and dealt with by an educator
cators do not need that education at all, of course, because the phenomenon never begins during the elementary school
muscles and vocal fold tissues.
who has comprehensive voice education? xvi
years.... The sociology teacher saw an ad for a class that prom
ised to teach people who had never sung with accurate pitches, how to do so. With great apprehension, she en rolled. Her grandfather's birthday was two months away. The teacher of the singing class was especially determined
to see her through this learning process and spent extra time with her. At the birthday party, she sang "Happy Birth day" for her beloved grandfather by herself. Tears and em braces of joyful satisfaction and love followed. What would happen if all educators (especially edu cators of vocal self-expression):
1. were knowledgeable about the effects of physical
maturation on self-expressive vocal capabilities? and 2. knew many ways to help people of all ages to de velop self-expressive sound-making, speaking, and singing skills?
Final Wonderings
The Pirsigs, however, did get to enjoy the mmmmmmm of nature's sights, sounds, and sensations-except when they were waiting for the repairs. So: Could there be a relationship between the mastery of efficient speaking and singing skills, preventive voice health maintenance, and the mmmmmmmmmmmm of expressive speaking and singing? During the past forty years, on our respective sides of the Atlantic, we have sung in a fairly large number of ama teur and professional choirs; performed in solo recitals and operas; acted in plays, musicals, and radio/TV commer cials; and announced on radio. We have studied choral conducting and music education methods in several presti
gious settings. One of us (Graham) has studied singing privately with 3 singing teachers, and the other has studied with nine. In undergraduate and graduate speech and the atre training, voice skills were never addressed. We were asked to use many different vocal techniques in our private singing lessons. In music education and choral methods courses, in the choirs in which we sang, and at the choral conductor convention sessions and summer work
He and his teenaged son traveled on their one motorcycle from
shops that we attended, we learned many quick-fix gim
their hometown of Minneapolis, Minnesota, to the west coast of Or egon. They traveled with a married couple-family friends-who rode on their own motorcycle. They all wanted to experience the real countryside, so they rode the smaller U.S. highways-not the Interstates. Ahhh! Celebrate the sensory joys of the open road-the beautiful scenes offarmland plains, trees, hills, and wide open sky; the sounds of mountain echoes and crickets at night; the smells of newly mowed grass; the feel of the wind and the rain in their faces and hair. Mmmmmmmmmmmm! At the time, Robert Pirsig (1974) was a writer of technical manu als for a manufacturing company in Minneapolis. He appreciated how machines worked, and what to do to maintain them in working order. At the end of each day's ride, he checked the tuning and fluid levels of his motorcycle. Small adjustments were made when neces sary. The couple, on the other hand, were into the sensory joys of the trip—the wind and the rain in their hair, the mmmmmmm of open road travel. They had no interest in how to ride their motorcycle plea surably and protectively, and they were clueless about how their ve hicle worked and the details of motorcycle maintenance. And their motorcycle kept breaking down. The trip was interrupted by visits to motorcycle repair shops and waiting for the delivery and installation of spare parts. For them, mmmmmmmm eventually became arrghhhhh! and even #@%*}:\@%#!
micks to get our students-singers to sing the music correctly. We developed quite a "bag of teaching tricks" such as: 1. sing "on top of the pitch", raise your eyebrows to avoid singing flat or lower them to avoid singing sharp; 2. lift your upper lip and cheeks in a perpetual smile to brighten or focus your tone; 3. avoid singing any vowel that is not a cardinal vowel (will becomes weel, for instance);
4. match voice qualities in choir seating arrangements, so that the reed, flute and string voices will create a blended
choral sound;
5. sing as though you are older singers than you are, or sing like you are opera singers;
6. "place" your upper tones through the top of your
head for good resonance; 7. don't sing loud passages at full volume in the final rehearsal-just mark it and save your voices for later. We know that all of our teachers and conductors taught in the best way they knew how at that time in their lives. They had our best interests in their hearts when they taught us solo and choral singing skills, and we learned useful skills from all of them. Over the years, however, we became somewhat puzzled-especially when we changed singing xvii
teachers or choral conductors. With some frequency we
or between your eyes, or out the top of your head). Lift
were:
your cheeks in a quasi smile to brighten your tone. See that
1. asked to do tasks that conflicted with what a previ ous teacher or conductor had taught;
nail in the wall over there? Drive it into the wall with the
2. given conflicting, sometimes puzzling anatomicphysiologic-acoustic explanations of vocal production, with terminology that sometimes was confusing or unclear.
laser beam of your focused tone. Warmer colors of tone can be added by rounding your lips on all vowels." Other teachers wanted us to produce "more resonant tone" by opening our throats more. We were instructed to use the sense of a yawn when singing, and to sing with a
For instance, at various times we were taught three very conflicting ways to breathe for singing.
low larynx. The /oo/ vowel or the schwa vowel /uh/ were frequently used in vocal exercises. "Lift your soft palate.
1. Some teachers taught the so-called "down-and-out" way to create exhaled breathflow for voicing. "Push your
Feel like you have a pear (or hot potato, or...) in your mouth
gut down with your diaphragm like you are defecating a resistant solid-waste bolus from your body. Your gut must push so strongly that someone could hit you in the stom ach while you are singing and your tone would not be affected. To sing well, you will need to develop powerful back muscles" 2. Some teachers taught the so-called "in-and up" way to exhale breath for singing. "Your abdominal and rib cage muscles contract to press your guts up underneath your
and upper throat, and sing with 'pear-shaped' tones. Feel the yawn in your throat when you sing" At times, in choirs, we were confused about whether
we should sing the /ah/ vowel with a "three-finger-wide" jaw-mouth opening, or a "two-finger" opening. Regardless, one of us (Leon) set his jaw into a held-open position to make sure that his mouth was open widely enough. One
teacher, though, asked him to place a pencil cross-wise in the mouth and gently bite down on it to hold it in place, and then to speak all the vowels of the English language as
diaphragm which moves upward to create a positive air pressure in your lungs." 3. Other teachers wanted us to learn a balanced inter action of the breathing muscles for singing exhalation-
clearly as possible. The point was that all the vowels could be spoken very clearly only by adjusting the pharynx while the jaw-mouth was held in a nearly closed position. This manner of articulating vowels was to result in the purest,
appoggio, in the Italian language. "Your diaphragm muscle is involuntary, so you cannot consciously control it. When
most open-throated and resonant tone possible.
you are balanced, your abdomen and chest wall will barely move, if at all" When we (or a choir we were in) were not singing up
to expectations a common phrase was, "You need more breath support; breathe from your diaphragm," and teach ers or conductors would point to their abdomen. For many years, we had little idea what the term meant. We thought
that the abdominal wall was the diaphragm muscle, and that tightening it was how you increased breath support (we were actually engaging several abdominal wall muscles).
Some teachers wanted us to "focus the tonal reso nance by placing it in the facial mask". We were instructed to place the tone as far forward as possible to make the tone as bright and "ringing" as possible, and to use nasal conso nants and the /ee/ vowel on progressively ascending pitch exercises. "Focus your tone into your teeth (or nose, or face, xviii
Registers and register "breaks" were the greatest mys teries. Different teachers and vocal pedagogues had widely different points of view about what registers are, how many registers existed, and what their appropriate labels should be. What did head voice and chest voice mean? Several teach ers said that everything above chest is your falsetto register, but we could produce two very different sound qualities above chest voice. Heavy mechanism, chest, and modal were terms we encountered for the register that had the lowest pitch range. Some people said that head was just above chest, and falsetto was above head. Others said that falsetto was just above chest, and head voice was above falsetto. [To us, falsetto was that upper pitch range, female-like sound that was unique to males.] Others said that the lowest register was chest voice and highest register was head voice, and there was a middle register in between that was a "mixture" of chest and head.
She slapped her abdominal wall with her hands and said,
"Breathe from your diaphragm, Leon." With that communication,
Irma Lee Batey showed me where my diaphragm was. When my diaphragm "filled up", my chest and shoulders fell down. The falling of my shoulders and chest was never mentioned, so...I had learned how to breathe right. Years later, I learned where my diaphragm muscle was actually located. I also learned what its functions were, and the interrelation ship between how my skeleton was arranged and the efficiency of my breathing and voicing. Ms. Batey was my first college-level singing teacher. I still re member her with great respect and fondness. She was a very strong woman and a good person, but eventually, I concluded that her knowl edge of voice and voice skill teaching was not very extensive.
in nighttime. As any area of the Earth rotates into the sun light, people standing on the planet will experience the illu sion that the Sun is moving up from the horizon, thus the expression sunrise. The illusion continues through the day
time, and daytime ends with sunset, as their part of the Earth revolves away from the Sun. That is what is real about the Earth and the Sun, and
that raises some disturbing questions! Can we human beings make logical assumptions about what is real, based on direct experience, and then accept the assumptions as TRUTH, and convey the assumptions to others as the way things really are? Can what we directly experience with our senses al
ways be reliable? Elephants? Three men-blind from birth-approach an elephant.
Can the credibility of singing teachers, choral conduc tors, and music educators be called into question if confus ing, conflicting, or inaccurate information about voices is delivered to learners as they change from one teacher to another? Can the credibility of the voice education profes
sions become suspect?
Wondering Toward Roads Less Traveled Sunsets? To begin each day, does the Sun really rise in the di rection we call the East, then move across the sky as the day
passes? And to begin each nighttime, does it set in the direction we call the West?
If you've learned something from the legacy of Nicolas Copernicus and Galileo Galilei, you would be inclined to say, "No". But, wait a minute. Nearly everyone-including you-
has been awake early enough in the morning to directly expe rience the Sun rising-and it moves across the sky and it sets, just the way it was described above. How can anyone say that the Sun does otherwise? If you believe Copernicus and Galileo, you would say that the Earth orbits around the Sun, and as it does so, it revolves on its own axis. The half of the Earth that faces the Sun is in daylight and the half that is away from the Sun is
They are asked to describe the elephant. The first man encounters one of the elephant's legs. 'Aha! Elephants are like trees!" The second man encounters the elephant's tail. 'Aha! Elephants are like ropes!" The third man encounters one of the elephant's sides. 'Aha! Elephants are like curved walls!" Are their perceptions accurate? Basically, yes. So, what's the problem? Could the perceptions of the men be limited because they had not yet perceived "whole elephantness"? Can perspectives that are limited to parts of a whole reality, be perceived as the whole reality, until placed in the context of The Big Picture? Sunset Assumptions, Part-Elephant Perceptions, and Voices? In our culture, when a person speaks and then sings,
we become consciously aware of the obvious differences between the two. Singing teachers help people with their singing voices. Speech trainers help people with their speaking voices. So, can we make the logical assumption that we have two anatomical structures that produce our two voices, so that when we sing, we use one larynx, and when we speak, we use our other larynx? And, of course, do we have two completely distinct brain areas that produce sung and spo ken language? xix
Two Scenelets: An elementary school music educator with a hoarse voice sees an ear-nose-throat physician. The physician notes that the patient uses his singing voice in his work, diagnoses "singer's nodules'' and says, "Stop singing for three weeks and then I want to
examine you again'' The patient complies completely, returns, and there are no changes in the size of the nodules. The physician begins to discuss further treatment options including surgery. A choir is singing a composition that includes a section for spoken chorus. The music is about human determination and cour age and the singing is high in volume. The choir sings skillfully with a beautiful choral sound. When the speaking section happens, the group's vocal quality suddenly sounds tense, edgy, pressed, and some what unpleasant to listen to. To that choral director, they were using their speaking voices, and she had never been taught any speaking voice teaching methods, so, they just used their "natural" speaking voices.
We have one voice, not two. We have one collection of neural networks-from both cerebral hemispheres-that produce both singing and speaking (with variations that produce the obvious functional differences). Speaking and singing are two ways we coordinate our one voice to ex press ourselves. There is more similarity in the two coordi nations than there are differences. Most of the types of methods that help speakers speak more skillfully and ex pressively can also help singers sing more skillfully and expressively, and vice versa. But in the United States, most members of the Voice and Speech Trainers Association are likely to say that they are not trained to teach the singing voice to speakers and ac tors, and most members of the National Association of Teachers of Singing are likely to say that they are not trained to teach the speaking voice to singers. Among teachers of singing, including vocal music edu cators and choral conductors, a centuries-long tradition of vocal pedagogy has been developed. According to Mori (1970), the earliest discovered written evidence for a West ern civilization tradition of vocal pedagogy appeared in
documents from the pre-Renaissance middle ages. These concepts were described long before human cadavers had been dissected to find out what was inside and before physi ologists had discovered how voices worked. In those times, when singers sang in their upper pitch range, they felt a prominence of vibration sensations somewhere in the front
and top of their heads. They thought their voices were coming from there, so they called that way of singing their
head voice (voce di testa). When they sang in their lower range, they felt a prominence of vibrations in their throats and upper chests. They then thought that their voices origi
nated from there, so they called that way of singing their throat voice (Mori, 1970). Singers and singing teachers of the 17th century also wrote of two voices, but labeled them chest voice (voce di petto) and falsetto voice (falsetto then re ferred to all pitches produced above chest). When some singers sang in their middle pitch range, they noticed sensa tions and sound qualities that were different from those that they noticed when singing in their uppermost and lower ranges. This came to be called middle voice. How Can We Develop Accurate Assumptions and Whole-Elephant Perceptions of Human Voices? Copernicus and Gallileo set off an enormous revolu tion in human perception and learning that has changed
world history. It grew into a process that we now refer to as science. Before that revolution, sunset assumptions and part-elephant perceptions about the nature of the physical
world were embedded in the tightly controlled doctrine of the Roman Church (Book I, Chapter 1 has some details).
Those points of view were regarded as unquestionable truths, so Copernicus and Gallileo were the first to doubt some very strongly entrenched biases of their time. Originally, the scientific orientation promised to elimi nate the influence of all human biases so that valid and reliable knowledge could be gathered. So, the scientific method was invented as a means of determining objective reality and thus overcoming subjective bias. This is not possible-never has, and never will be. Scientific "objectivity" implies that the human beings who engage in scientific investigation can disconnect the
parts of their brains that process feeling and emotions (bi ases) from those brain parts that process perception and conceptualization. For instance, in scientific investigations there is a possibility that human investigators-inside or out side their conscious awareness-may orient research proce dures and findings so that a previously held, emotionally embedded point of view is supported. In spite of those realities, the methods of science are still the best means we human beings have yet devised to
minimize the influence of human bias. In judging the cred ibility of spoken or written communications-or of teaching methodologies-the scale of validity and reliability in Table
1 may be helpful.
Developing Accurate Assumptions and Whole-Elephant Perceptions When We Teach Expressive Voice Skills In the past few decades, there has been-and continues to be-an explosion in voice research in the fields of anatomy,
Sunset Assumptions, Part-Elephant Perceptions, and Voice Education The process of teaching singing skills to other people
physiology, acoustic physics, the neurosciences, medicine,
is commonly referred to as vocal pedagogy. Traditional
voices have been and are continuing to be invented. The volume of this research is now so great that scientists who study the nature of vocal anatomy, physiology, acoustics, and health are now allied in new scientific fields of voice
vocal pedagogy has a long and distinguished history. It originated at least in the middle ages and includes a centu ries-long accumulation of knowledge about singing by adults. The tradition developed and grew during times when
human beings had little or no idea what vocal anatomy looked like, how it actually functioned, or what the nature of sound was. In order to devise tasks that would help people achieve the goal of skilled singing, sunset assump tions had to be made about such matters, and part-elephant perceptions were inevitable (Jorgenson, 1980). Mostly, the assumptions were based on physical sensations observed by experienced singers, and on sound qualities observed by experienced singing teachers. The absence of precise knowledge about vocal func tion led to the development of: 1. explanations of vocal function based solely on per sonal sensation and opinion; and
2. the use of metaphoric language in the voice skill development process.
Historically, speech training has emphasized language
and psychology. Instruments for gathering more detailed and accurate information about the actual functioning of
science and voice medicine. The new scientific information frequently has impli cations for the teaching of voice skills. Some of the neces-
Table 1 A Scale of Validity and Reliability for Spoken or Written Communications and for Teaching-Learning Methodologies
1. Unsubstantiated, raw opinions:
Hearsay assumption and per
sonal interpretation or judgment is based solely on a person's history of feelings and emotions with little or no "facts" to substantiate it They are speculations based only on personal preferences, pleasant-unpleasant feel ing biases, and associated behaviors. In other words, opinions are like belly buttons-everybody's got one.
2. Opinions or explanations based on careful, studied observa tion and informed intuition: Complex phenomena are repeatedly ob served through one or more of the observer's senses. Categories and sub categories are formed, and then the phenomena are described as extensively and completely as possible in literal or metaphoric language or in the sym bols of mathematics. Studied observations may be generalized to form insights, guesses, or relational concepts related to observed phenomena.
articulation, pitch inflection, and voice projection, and has empha
sized skilled breathing as fundamental to training the speak ing voice. In more recent decades, voice skills have gradu ally been added. Speech sciences have a long history in Western civilization. Most of the science has been devoted to helping speech-language pathologists (referred to as
phoniatricians in Europe) whose occupation is to provide therapeutic voice rehabilitation to people whose voices are not functioning normally. A new program of comprehen sive study in voice is called vocology. It originated at the National Center for Voice and Speech at the University of
Iowa, and it integrates speech communications, speech pa thology, and singing with voice science. A new interna tional voice journal is now named Logopedics Phoniatrics
3. Scientific findings: The method of science is used to systemati cally identify and/or analyze a detail of complex phenomena, and prior findings, scientific procedures, results, and implications are described and published for all to observe and evaluate.
4. Scientific theories: Several-to-many scientific findings related to a complex phenomenon are assessed to explain "big picture" relationships between the findings. Theory must have evidential substantiation but the evidence is always subject to continuing evaluation in the light of ongoing scientific findings. 5. Scientific facts or laws: The scientific method has been used to
observe and explain complex phenomena for cause-effect relationships. Rep lication of early findings have consistently validated and verified the obser vations and explanations, so there is a very high accumulation of evidential substantiation. The probability that the same findings will occur under the same or similar circumstances is extremely high. 6. SWAGs: Speculation that is based on broad science-based knowl edge and personal experiential memory so a Scientific Wild-Assed Guess is made. In other words, same as item two above.
Vocology. xxi
sary assumptions of the past are being confirmed, some are
While the guiding processes of voice education have a
being disconfirmed or challenged, and some are being up
scientific foundation, that does not mean that learners should
dated. All of us who are concerned about expressive speak ing and singing and voice health have an opportunity to
In the 18th century, a common practice among physi
be inundated with uninteresting scientific minutiae that are beyond their current biological and experiential age and are guaranteed to drive them away from passionate vocal self-expression. That would completely violate the most important principles of learning that are derived from the neuropsychobiological sciences. Those principles indicate that when the guidance processes are suffused with fasci nating exploration and discovery of personal self-expres
cians was the cutting open of a large vein in a patient to
sive capabilities, then constructive learning occurs along with
allow a brief period of bleeding in order to rid the body of
a bonded attachment with the people, places, things, and events that were experienced in the process. Voice education guidance processes may be grouped in the following categories: 1. singing and speaking skills; 2. health and voice protection;
examine concepts and teaching approaches in light of more
accurate information about vocal anatomy, physiology, and acoustics. But, why bother?
infectious poisons. Would we choose physicians for our
selves who use practices that are based on assumptions
and perceptions from 300 years ago, 100 years ago, even 30 years ago? Would we see physicians who had not exam ined their own medical practices and updated them as new science-based discoveries, procedures, and approaches were developed? People who see physicians for help typically expect state-of-the-art care. They expect that the physi
3. verbal and non-verbal interactions; and 4. teaching-learning methods that result in people of
all ages loving to express themselves skillfully with their voices.
cians will have had deep training in the physio chemical processes that sustain human life, deep training and experi
Key to the practical usefulness of scientific findings
ence in how to diagnose and treat human disease, and they
and theory is the translation of the scientific language into
expect that physicians have kept up-to-date in the latest knowledge and current practices in their profession.
terms that non-scientists can easily understand and com
How many singing teachers, speech trainers, music educators, and choral conductors are aware of the phe nomenon of acoustic loading and overloading of the vocal folds? It has enormous implications for helping people produce the sound qualities that reveal the innate vocal talent that nearly all human beings possess. The phenomenon of vocal reg isters is richly affected by acoustic loading (Book II, Chap ters 9 through 12 have details).
and How They Are 'Played' in Skilled Speaking and Sing ing" all chapters begin with a section that is written in ev
In this book, the term voice education is an umbrella term that refers to the process of guiding other people (bodyminds) as they develop and maintain self-expressive abilities that include voice. Voice educators, however, base their human-to-human interactions and their guidance pro cesses on the neuropsychobiological, voice, and voice medi cine sciences. These knowledge-ability domains are the foundations of voice education.
xxii
fortably use. Particularly in Book II, "How Voices Are Made,
eryday colloquial language, and only the necessary ana tomic, physiologic, and acoustic terms are introduced. Following that section of the chapters, there is a sec tion labeled For Those Who Want to Know More... It presents a gathering of documented scientific details that are intended not only to deepen the knowledge base of voice educators but to substantiate the concepts presented in the colloquial sections of the chapters as well.
Comprehensive and Specialist Voice Educators As a result of training and experience, comprehensive voice educators are able to guide people in all four of the areas listed above, but in addition, they have the training
and observational skills to determine who may have a voice disorder that may require medical examination and thera
peutic evaluation. Comprehensive voice educators also are able to communicate skillfully with such people, or their parents-guardians if they are under age, so that they under stand the importance of seeking specialist attention, and they personally know the voice-experienced medical and thera
peutic personnel from which help could be sought And finally, comprehensive voice educators also have the skills to serve as an auxiliary member of a cooperative voice treatment team (see next paragraph) in the rehabilitation of people who are recovering from a voice disorder. In other words, when people have been diagnosed and therapeuti cally treated for such a voice disorder, and they are return ing to their "real world", comprehensive voice educators are qualified to assist them in accommodating their new
confidence. Vocal abilities are not just valuable in preparing and presenting musical and dramatic expressions, but are quite valuable in everyday living such as getting and per forming employment and for effective social communica tion. Fear, anxiety, social pressures, stress reaction, burn out, and depression all affect the mastery and display of self-expressive skills and self-confidence (Book I, Chapter 9, and Book III, Chapter 8 have details).
When we help people with their voices, we are influ encing their neuroanatomy, biochemistry, and physiology. "Technique lists," "tricks" and "method procedures" alone, while helpful up to a point, ultimately limit us into roles
thologist, and a specialist voice educator. In addition to all
that are like TV repair technicians. Deep contextual knowl edge and experience empowers us to design learning expe riences that help people develop such life-abilities as em pathic relatedness, constructive competence, and self-reli ant autonomy. Broad context enables us to evaluate our designed learning experiences, modify them or discard them, create new ones and to know how to improvise modifica tions "in the moment". Breadth of understanding undergirds
of the skills that comprehensive voice educators have, spe
the practical, and frees us to be creative, exciting senior learn
cialist voice educators have undergone the training and ex perience that qualifies them to participate as a professional
ers. Vocal self-expression really cannot be separated out from everything that we human beings are and may be
of equal status in the therapeutic rehabilitation of people
come.
whose voices have become disordered. They may be allied
So, all of this book's authors hope that its bigness, complicatedness, and comprehensiveness will help us all be healthier, more fulfilled, and more expressive human be ings, and we hope it will provide more wherewithal' to us so that we can help others be the same. A map is not the actual territory. If you so choose, this book can become part of a map. What you do is the territory.
voice and voice protection skills to that real world. The
colloquial parts of the chapters in Book II are written with comprehensive voice educators in mind. Cooperative voice treatment teams are made up of a voice-ear-nose-throat physician, a speech-language pa
with or employed by a private medical practice or a hospi tal, and legally, their therapeutic work is under the auspices of the physician and speech-language pathologist. The For Those Who Want to Know More... sections of the chapters in Book II are written with specialist voice educators in mind.
The Conclusion Line The parts of us that produce voice are interfaced with
References
a wide array of biological functions. Our voices are inti mately connected with everything we have ever experienced,
felt, learned, or done, and those are all biological processes. So, when we deal with human voices we are not just teach
ing voice skills that can be used as an instrument for music-making.
Crick, F. (1994).
The Astonishing Hypothesis.
New York: Charles Scribner's
Sons. Damasio, A.R. (1994).
Descartes' Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain.
New York: Avon Books.
Edelman, G.M. (1989). The Remembered Present: A Biological Theory of Conscious ness. New York: Basic Books.
The state of our neuropsychobiological selves is re
flected in the state of our voices. Mastery or lack of mastery of self-expressive skills can contribute to or subtract from what we sometimes refer to as self-identity, self-esteem, and self
Jorgenson, D. (1980). History of conflict. The NATS Bulletin, 55, 51-55.
Mack, L. (1979). A Descriptive Study of a Community Chorus Made Up of 'Non-Singers'. Unpublished Ed.D. dissertation, University of Illinois at Ur bana-Champaign.
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Mori, R.M. (1970). Coscienza della Voce nella Scuola Italiana di Canto.
Milan:
Editzioni Curci.
Pert, C.B. (1986). The wisdom of the receptors: Neuropeptides, the emotions, and bodymind. Advances, 3(3), 8-16.
Pirsig, R. (1974). Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance. New York: William Morrow.
Searle, J.R. (1992). The Rediscovery of the Mind. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Strand, F.L. (2000). Neuropeptides: Regulators of Physiological Processes. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
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book one bodyminds, learning, and self-expression
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
the big picture n a book on voice education, isn't it overkill to
I
excitatory synapses will be formed, the functional integrity
address the neuropsychobiology of perception, memory, learning, behavior, and health? Why not
of synaptic connections will be altered physio chemically,
Everything that we human beings experience, do, feel, learn, think, say, or sing involves changes in our anatomy,
ings of human bodyminds points any educational enter
and production of transmitter molecules will be increased just address voice anatomy, function, and health-like or most decreased in the nervous, endocrine, and immune sys voice books do-and be done with it? tems. As a result, unique patterns of perceptual, valuePhysicians change the anatomy and biochemistry of emotive, conceptual, and sensorimotor processing are people, and often their physiology as well. formed. So do educators, be they singing teachers, speech train So, why go into this level of detail about human learn ing and self-expression in a book on voice education? ers, music educators, choral conductors, theatre directors, 1. An appreciation of the absolutely astounding work school teachers, professors, or parents.
biochemistry, and physiology-especially in our brains. Our nervous, endocrine, and immune systems are functionally integrated and can alter electro-physio-chemical processes throughout our bodies at genetic, molecular, cellular, tissue,
prise in human-compatible directions, rather than uninten tional human-hurting ones.
organ, system, and behavioral levels. These changes pro
2. All learning results from interactions between the people, places, things, and events of our world. Those ex periences result in what we call perception, feeling, memory, cognition, learning, behavior, and health. It is changes in the
duce what are commonly termed the human mind and our
nervous, endocrine, and immune systems-regulated and modulated
behavior psychology. But it is our biology that actually processes and constructs what we perceive, feel, remember, and learn.
by transmitter molecules-that bring perception, feeling, memory cog nition, learning, behavior, and health into existence.
When people who are called teachers interact with
Some educators may not be familiar with such an
people who are called students, some types of interactions can contribute to inhibition of vocal self-expression in both
groups. Other types of interactions can contribute to an enhancement of vocal self-expression. Inhibition or en hancement of vocal self-expression can be learned. Learn
ing means that as bodywide physio-chemical networks are altered, new nerve tissue filaments are likely to be grown in various neural networks of the brain, new inhibitory and
orientation.
Actually, this book's framework for human
learning represents a relatively different way of conceiving teaching and learning processes. And even though it may make some of us uncomfortable, we need to know how what we do affects the anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, and health of the people we teach. And, just as importantly,
we need to know how teaching affects our own anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, and health.
the
big
picture
1
Helping People Love to Learn and Express Themselves: Integrating Theory and Practice Nearly all educators have their students' best interests
at heart Always. Just like nearly all doctors have their patients' best interests at heart Educators have had to make practical decisions about what to do based on what was available to them-mostly the accumulated practices of ex perienced teachers, their own accumulated experiences, and culturally delivered implicit assumptions about the nature of human beings and their learning. Three assumptions seem to underlie the real world of class-and-grade assem bly-line schools: (1) minds are nonphysical entities that op erate bodies, and schools are for minds, (2) what we call feelings and emotions are separable from cognition and aca demic behavior, and schools are about cognition and aca demic behavior, and (3) all human beings of the same chro nological age should learn the same abilities at the same rate. To get "results", many such schools predominantly use
the train cannot steer us onto alternative tracks on its own. The train's engineer makes those decisions. The engineer represents our conscious awareness and decision-making capability. If our engineer is to steer us into interesting, beautiful landscapes, she or he will be helped by (1) a jour nal of previously traveled tracks, (2) a map of possible des tinations, (3) criteria by which destinations are selected, and (4) plans for how to get where we want to go. The caboose is at the rear of the train. It represents a place where conscious memories are stored and evaluated, plans for the future are made, and where symbolic expres sion occurs (thinking and talking). So, in order to evaluate past travel, and think and talk about future options, the
engineer has to stop the train of life-living and go to the
are decontextualized away from "real life", (3) conscious
caboose. When the directions are decided and plans are made, the engineer goes back to the engine and starts the train moving again. New experiential adventures are then possible that can add to, subtract, or change the nature of the train's passenger and cargo cars. Instead of "Ready, set, go", a high percentage of our actual experiential reactions are more like, "Ready, go...set" (Oliver, 1993, p. 7). The chapters of this book are written in the caboose of the train of thought and action, and that's where you are now as you read. We're temporarily stopping our experi
analysis, including correction of "errors" and "mistakes", (4)
ential trains so that we can evaluate past and recent educa
(1) linguistic telling, reading, and writing, (2) language-based, short-answer, standardized and non-standardized tests that
extrinsic rewards that have little or no relationship to the
tional tracks that we have traveled, become familiar with
abilities that are to be learned, and (5) military-like coercion
updated maps that present alternate possibilities, evaluate
and punitive discipline. Are these the most effective ways to educate people for 21st Century realities? How do we determine what the most effective ways are? A train of thought and action is moving along the track of an experience (Oliver, 1993, pp. 9-11, 169-171). The first human reaction to an experience occurs in just a few
new travel directions, make travel plans, and anticipate pos
hundred milliseconds: a high-speed, other-than-conscious appraisal of the people, places, and things that we encoun
ter. Within a few more milliseconds internal body sensa
tions are generated that we often refer to as feelings or emo tions. The train's engine represents those feeling sensations because those feelings lead into existence our automatic, habitual, outside-of-conscious-awareness patterns of be havior. Our automatic reactions are represented by the train's
sible new adventures. A term that we all use for such analysis, reflection,
and planning is theorizing. Educational and learning "theory" have a bad reputation among some educators. The "theory" to which many eductors have been exposed has not been useful. There is not enough time to theorize about the most effective ways to interact with learners. The real world of "What do I do on Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, and Friday?" must be dealt with. Typically, teachers activate their habitual teaching patterns that were learned implicitly when they observed their own teachers in elementary, middle
passenger and cargo cars. There are many experiential tracks that our trains of
school, high school, and college. Those behavior patterns are based on assumptions (theories) about how people learn of which teachers are often not consciously aware. What is "theory"? In Western science, theory is an
thought and action can travel on, and the engine that pulls
explanation of what actually happens when observable
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events turn out the way they do. A theoretical explanation must have considerable, studied evidence to substantiate it Research evidence may present many "bits and pieces" of a larger, patterned "picture," but a theory suggests how the parts are related in a "big picture". Effective theory points people toward what to do in order to accomplish goals effectively It is the basis upon which useful practices or objects are created. Practical application of a theory generates observable data that can help validate the theory or be used to modify it. Assuming questions of what to learn are settled, is it reasonable to say that decisions about educational practice (what to do) need to be based on the best available research findings and on theories that address the following ques tions? 1. What happens inside us human beings, and to our behavior, when we learn in the most constructive, produc
tive, and beneficial ways? 2. What are the most effective ways to arrange educa tional environments so that constructive internal events and behaviors are most likely to occur? 3. What are the most effective ways for teacher-people and student-people to interact and communicate so that both groups experience emotional connectedness with the other, and optimally constructive, productive, and benefi cial learning is facilitated?
centered teaching? Some people physically punish children by hitting them in order to teach them "discipline". To them,
that practice is in the best interest of children, so therefore, it is child-centered. What about teachers who regularly use threatening
consequences as a "motivational tool" to achieve compliant behavior by students? Or teachers who commonly use an adversarial language of coercion and control when setting goals, and languages of dependency or accusative judgment when delivering feedback? What about teachers who regu larly call attention to what they perceive to be student in adequacies, and rarely call attention to increasing mastery. A spelling test is given. Ten words. A student spells eight of
them accurately, and two are spelled creatively. Where do
the red pencil marks go to call attention to the results? Are these examples of child-centered teaching? Learning processes involve a great deal of what we call psychology. Speaking and singing with optimum skill and expressiveness are rather complex acts that require a somewhat lengthy string of branched learning experiences.
They necessitate a blending of what can be referred to as cognitive-emotional-behavioral abilities. Whether or not people choose to continue singing over their life-span de pends to a large extent on how their earlier singing experi ences felt to them, pleasant or unpleasant, successful or un successful. Not only must there be decisions about what
"'Tis the gift to be simple..."
Simple generalizations
music to sing, what skills to learn and in what sequence;
about complex realities can produce feelings of pleasant well being and they can arouse feeling-charged commit ment to a preferred course of action. And that can be a very good thing. However, the prickly American humorist and newspaper columnist of the early 20th century, H.L.
there also are decisions about how the human beings in volved will interact with each other (see Chapter 9). Guid
Mencken, is supposed to have said, "To every complex ques tion, there is a simple answer. And it's wrong!" Simple, feel
good generalizations need to be supported by valid, verifi able details. If they are not, they can point us toward unex pected derailments of our trains of thought and action. Can both angels and devils be in the details? For example, an educator may passionately say, "I be lieve deeply in child-centered teaching", and other educa tors may nod affirmatively. The opposite, of course, is teacher-centered teaching. Teachers must lead any orga nized learning situation, so, what criteria will be used to determine the difference between child-centered and teacher
ing the learning of skilled, expressive speaking and singing
includes interactions that significantly influence those reac tions. Constructive verbal and nonverbal communication skills are major tracks to steer our trains onto as we help people develop a love of expressive singing and speaking.
A Teaching Profession *! In the mid-1960s, teachers in the United States at
tempted to establish themselves as members of a profession. Back then, common yearly wages for first-year teachers ranged
from about $4,000 to $6,000. Teachers highlighted their value to society, in part, by claiming that their training and exper tise were comparable to the already highly valued profes
sions such as physicians, lawyers, architects, and engineers. the
big
picture
3
Many similarities between teaching and the traditional pro
engine that requires gasoline or other fuel, that it has brakes
fessions were noted, but one significant difference was never brought fully to the attention of educators or the public. All of the traditional professions require deep education in ex tensive, universally accepted theoretical knowledge. Lawyers must learn many theoretical principles of social organization, law, and jurisprudence as well as the traditions, forms of court room practice, and precedent decisions. Architects and en gineers must learn many forms of mathematics, physics, and other bodies of theoretical knowledge before they can create a bridge or a supercomputer. Physician diagnoses
and lights and so forth. We can call this the orientation
and medical and surgical treatments are built up from de tailed theoretical foundations in human anatomy and physi ology, biochemistry, pharmacology, and years of mentored training in medical practice. In these professions, foundational knowledge begins to be learned during pre-practice training. If pre-practice theoretical knowledge is not assimilated sufficiently, train ing is delayed until it is, or training is discontinued. Practic ing professionals continually update their theoretical knowl edge throughout their careers. If the updating lags, effective practice can be compromised. Why? The day-to-day decisions made by practicing members of those professions are richly rooted in that knowledge, and current decisions depend on its current accuracy Is there a rich tradition of universally accepted theoretical knowledge that guides educational practice? No, but sig nificant progress has been made in the past decade. The big question is, "When will it become a universally standard aspect of pre-service and in-service teacher education?" Leslie Hart was the first person to (1) document the
inadequacies of traditional educational practice (The Class room Disaster, 1969), (2) assemble a brain-based theory of learning (How the Brain Works, 1975) and (3) apply that theory to educational practice (Human Brain and Human Learning, 1983). Hart (1983, pp. 20-27; 1998, pp. 43-54) clarified the practical relationships between theory and practice by con sidering "levels of knowledge structure" and "levels of ex pertise". He used the metaphor of floors in a building and the design, manufacture, and operation of automobiles as a way of conceptualizing his point of view. • "For example, think of the ground floor of our structure of expertise as occupied by those who do not drive, but know what a car is, what it is for, that it has an
4
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level.
• "On the next floor are the many who can operate a car on a procedural basis. They know how to start the motor by turning a key, how to move the gear shift, how to
press the throttle to control speed, and so on; but they may have little idea of just what happens when the key is turned or the gearshift lever is moved. • "On the third floor are those who do have a gen eral grasp of the mechanics of an automobile. This is the comprehension level. By knowing to a degree "what is going on" they drive more expertly, detect developing prob lems, and are able to take simple remedial actions to deal
with difficulties. • "On the next floor of our structure are the mechan ics and skilled amateurs, those whose understanding is deep
enough to test and repair. This is the technical level. • "On the fifth floor are the engineers who employ far deeper knowledge to evaluate materials and parts, direct production, and use sophisticated instruments to test and measure results. This is the lower engineering level. • "On the sixth floor are various design engineers with deep knowledge that permits them to design parts, subsystems, and perhaps an entire vehicle. At this level, more and more of the work is done on paper or on com puters, making more and more use of theory. • "Occupying the highest floor are specialists, scien tists, and researchers; a physicist concerned with the be havior of hot gasses in a cylinder, a chemist involved with antipollution catalysts, a mathematician analyzing front end
geometries, all working intensively with theory." When a car's motor is chugging, an auto mechanic is
the level of expertise needed for testing and repair (technical level). The design and production of reliable, precisionmade, longer-lasting, and aesthetically interesting automo biles requires experts from the top three levels who must use increasingly deep-background theory to guide their prac tical actions. "The higher the responsibility, the greater the need for sophisticated theory" (p. 51) • "Where for millennia we did things procedurally, 'the way things were always done', we now are far more
dependent on theory....a three-year-old can procedurally operate a color television, an incredibly complex, precision
Conclusion
apparatus, because somewhere there are people at the vari
Peter Drucker (1969, p. 192) wrote a book about hu
ous structural levels who utilize the theories that are the foundation for television....
man organizations (including schools), and cautioned that "The most difficult and most important decisions in respect
• "As shocking as it may be, we must realize that we have not had a parallel knowledge structure in education. Education's "higher ups" do not necessarily have more grasp of theory. A viable theory of learning and theory of teach ing just hasn't existed to any extent! The procedures that
to objectives are not what to do. They are, first, what to abandon as no longer worthwhile and, second, what to give priority to and what to concentrate on....The decisions about what to abandon are by far the most important and
are widely used in schools do not rest on sound, substantial theoretical foundations. In that sense, education has never entered the twentieth century. It is still fundamentally back in prescientific times and more and more suffering the con sequences." (pp. 24-26) At which of Hart's levels of knowledge structure and expertise are teachers who begin teaching after four years of
college? Procedural? Do they teach the way they were taught as youngsters in primary, middle, and high school and in college, or do they teach the way they were taught to teach? What if they are taught to teach in the same way that they were taught? At which level do most experienced educa tors function? Comprehensive? How many teachers com bine the use of sophisticated learning and educational theory at the lower engineering and design engineering levels? Would the specialist levels be filled by neuropsychobiological
scientists? At which level are parents, legislators, school board members, educational administrators, or inspectors?
Pre-service educators may take courses that supply an eclectic, simplified sampling of claimed theoretical con tent, such as introductions to psychology, sociology, and philosophy. More often than not, "methods" courses are based on theoretical opinion, practical experience, and, in
some cases, an array of "tricks and gimmicks that work" (What does "...that work..." mean?). Some methods systems have been devised and are based, to some extent, on scien tific research findings. But to what extent have the implicit assumptions about the "nature of human beings", that un derpin the studies, been examined, and how might they affect validity?
the most neglected." What would constitute real learning and educational theory, and would it make a significant difference in what teachers do every day? A "vastly different form of educa tion," as suggested by the Averch Report (1972), would have
to emerge from vastly different theoretical sources than have traditionally existed. Until Hart (1975, 1983) proposed his brain-based "Program-Structure Theory of Learning" (ab breviated to "Proster Theory"), no learning theory had ever been based on wide perspectives of the actual "internal op erations" of human beings such as occurs in their nervous systems. As noted in Chapter 1, most philosophers and psy chologists now realize that all of the human sciences are allies in the process of understanding how human beings learn, that is, (1) make sense of their world, (2) react to threat and benefit, and (3) gain mastery of self and world. A cru cial foundation to that process is understanding how the
nervous, endocrine, immune, and transmitter molecule sys tems interact in whole human beings. The nine chapters of Book I cannot possibly present all of the details of human neuropsychobiological anatomy and function that have been discovered by scientific inves tigation. Neither can all of the implications of those find ings for human learning be presented. A big picture with some details is presented in the hope that voice educators can exert a more pervasive and constructive influence on the human experience. Take a comfortable seat in your caboose, "keep your hand on the plow and hold on" (as the slave spiritual sings). Maybe this can be an adventure.
the
big
picture
5
Chapter 1-A Brief Context about How We Know What We
Know, and Do What We Do Chapter 2-The Astounding Capacities of Human Bodyminds Chapter 3-The Human Nervous System Chapter 4-The Human Endocrine System Chapter 5-The Human Immune System Chapter 6-Human Sensory Experiences Chapter 7-Internal Processing of Life Experiences and Be havior Chapter 8-Human Selves and Communicative Human In teraction Chapter 9-Human-Compatible Learning
References Averch, HA, etal. (1972). How Effective Is Schooling? Santa Monica, CA: Rand
Corporation. Drucker, P.F. (1969). The Age of Discontinuity. New York: Harper and Row. Hart, L.A. (1969). The Classroom Disaster. New York: Teachers College Press. Hart, L.A. (1975). How the Brain Works. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
Hart, L.A. (1983). Human Brain and Human Learning. Kent, WA: Books for Educators.
Oliver, E. (1993). The Human Factor at Work: A Guide to Self-Reliance and Consumer Protection for the Mind. Canton, MI: MetaSystems.
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chapter 1
a brief context about how we know what we know, and do what we do Leon Thurman
uman beings do not move, sense, feel, or
H
think without nervous system activity--
Knowing, and Knowing About Knowing
mainly the brain. The brain is an organ of the According to cognitive archeologists, cognitive fluid adult body that is estimated to contain over 100 billion ity (global mapping within the brain; see Chapter 3) ap neurons and over 900 billion support cells, according to pears to have emerged in the brains of Homo sapiens sapiens estimates by neuroscientists (see Chapter 2). It is the cen (modern humans) between 60,000 and 30,000 years ago tral locus for the regulation of all bodily processes, the (Mithen, 1996, p. 194). Before that time, cognitive domains perception and "interpretation" of all sensory experience, that Mithen refers to as general intelligence, social intelli and the internal initiation of all movement, thought, con gence, technical intelligence, and natural history intelligence scious and other-than-conscious awareness, as well as feel were distinct operations that could not be integrated. The ings, moods, and emotions. The brain is interfaced with earliest language was spoken, and emerged almost exclu the endocrine (glandular) system and the immune system sively within the social intelligence. With the development in carrying out learning, behavior, protective, and healing of cognitive fluidity, however, all of the cognitive domains functions. The complexity of the human brain is greater became integrated and language proliferated. The earliest than for any animate creature on earth, and is the principal speculations about the origins and nature of the physical reason for the vast adaptive (learning) capabilities of hu world, and the nature of human knowing, were elaborate, man beings. anthropomorphic mythologies that were passed to suc We do not consciously sense the operation of the ner ceeding generations by means of crafted objects and im vous system. Other than for some aspects of pain, it does ages and spoken language (Mithen, 1996, pp. 164-167). not have sensory nerves that enable any sensation of its Written symbols of spoken language emerged about function. We do not sense any of the brain's functions. For 5,000 years ago (Mithen, 1996, p. 27), and then the my many centuries of recorded history, little was known about thologies could be recorded in written form. Among di the brain, and nothing was known about its function in, verse peoples, written language also enabled a sharing of for instance, conscious awareness or "knowing." Histori speculations about the physical world and human know cally, therefore, explanations of human knowing were rea ing so that they could be analyzed and evaluated. In West soned speculations, philosophies, or theories that were ern civilization, reasoned speculations about the nature of based on the experiences, perceptions, assumptions, and reasonings of the people who originated them. a
brief context
7
the world and people first emerged in the ancient Greek
Until about the 15th and 16th centuries, the philosophi
civilization and came to be called philosophy (Greek: philo+ sophos = loving that which is wise). The English title of Aristotle's treatise on the natural world, Metaphysics, was adopted as the categorical term for philosophies about the nature of the physical world (Greek: meta- + phusika = pursuit of physical nature). Philosophies about the nature of human knowing have come to be cat egorized by the term epistemology (Greek: episteme + logos = knowledge words). Two other philosophical categories arose, ethics (Greek: ethos and ethikos = moral character) and aesthetics (Greek: aisthetikos = that which is perceptible by the senses; aisthesis = sense experience). Ethics related to interacting morally, justly, and honorably with other human beings, and aes thetics related to the sense reactions that result from con templating nature or expressive "objects" that have been created by human beings. Elaborated, consistent philosophi cal systems such as idealism, realism, and naturalism have
cal writings of Plato and Aristotle, woven together with
been formulated that have encompassed all four of the
above areas of philosophical discourse.
Knowledge About the Physical World In the time of Socrates and Plato, learned people knew that the physical world was made up of four elements— water, earth, wind, and fire. Aristotle introduced methods of descriptive observation of the physical world. Time concepts were derived from observations of astronomical events such as daylight and dark and the cyclical positions of the sun, moon, and stars. The writings of the 2nd century Greek physician Galen (131-220) were quite sophisticated in their knowledge of the human body, including the brain and the vocal organs (von Leden, 1997). He was the preeminent physician of his
time, and he wrote over 300 books, of which only about 120 remain in existence. He was the first to describe the
laryngeal cartilages and paired muscles, and described the larynx as the organ of voice production. He wrote a trea tise on voice (which did not survive), and is regarded as the founder of laryngology. His writings were regarded as the "bible" of medicine for about 15 centuries.
8
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standard religious doctrines, constituted the accepted knowl
edge about the physical world. But, with the invention of printing in the 15th century came gradual increases in the distribution of basic information, written philosophies, in creased critical analyses of them, and richer curiosity about and exploration of the nature of the physical world.
For
example, the first extensive, detailed, printed human
anatomy book was published in 1543, De Humani Corporis Fabrica (the human body structure) by Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564). From the controversies that arose between
diverse philosophies and observations of the physical world, there evolved a need for greater substantiation and valida tion of speculations about the nature of the world. In the 16th and 17th centuries, the pioneering work of such men as Nicolas Copernicus (1473-1543) and Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) contributed significantly to the formu lation of a very new and "dangerous" way of studying the world. They originated a new method of investigating the physical world that began by wondering about and doubt
ing accepted perceptions and assumptions about its na ture. While both of them suffered unpleasant punishments for their "heresies", curious people who followed them, such as Isaac Newton (1642-1727), came to believe that the method would remove subjective investigator bias from the procedures and conclusions of such investigations, so that purely objective knowledge could be obtained. The method and the discoveries that have resulted have come to be known as science (Latin: scientia = knowledge, skill; sciens = having full knowledge). The method of science evolved as a means of exam ining the nature of the physical world in more objective ways than speculative opinion and religious doctrine could allow. In summary, the method involves: 1. identifying a phenomenon to examine and narrow ing the examination of it to achievable proportions; 2. gathering as much existing information about the phenomenon as is available; 3. formulating an hypothesis about how the aspect of the phenomenon that is to be examined is constructed,
and/or how it behaves under various conditions; 4. devising a procedure for reliably examining the phenomenon and converting those observations into valid
symbolic form such as descriptive language and/or math
mind, such as remembering, willing, and so forth, were trans
ematical representations; 5. analyzing the gathered data to detect relational pat terns that confirm or disconfirm the original hypothesis, and presenting conclusions, based on the gathered data, that increase knowledge about the phenomenon beyond what was already known.
lated as faculty of remembering, faculty of willing, and so on (Woodworth & Sheehan, 1964). Early Roman Church phi
Investigation of the natural world with the scientific method eventually resulted in the scientific disciplines that we now know as physics (the study of the nature of mat ter and energy and their interactions); chemistry (the study of the composition, structure, properties, and reactions of matter, especially its atomic and molecular aspects); biol ogy, biophysics, and biochemistry (the study of the na ture and life processes of living organisms). Each of these broad domains of science have subcategories and cross categories, of course, such as astrophysics, acoustic phys ics, biophysics, organic chemistry, plant biology, molecu lar biology, human anatomy and physiology, and so forth.
losophers interpreted the unintended term faculty from a categorical noun to a functional noun, so that people were able to remember because of the mind's faculty of remem bering. Thus, the concept of faculties of mind was evolved. The pivotal philosopher who cemented the mind-body duality in Western culture was Rene Descartes (1596-1650). His proof of his own existence was summarized in his well known phrase, Cogito, ergo sum (I think, therefore I am.) The domain of one's own physical body and the external world, res extensa, could only be perceived by the bodily senses, and the senses could be deceiving. The domain of pure conception or reason, res cogitans, was not physical, so mind could exist without matter and was more important than matter. Descartes' work influenced the current common practice of addressing three entities that constitute the hu
man being—body, mind, and spirit.
Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) and his successor John Locke (1632-1704) were British philosophers who opposed
Knowledge About the Nature of Human Beings, Human Knowing, Human Feelings, and Human Behavior Epistemology, aesthetics, and ethics are the categories of reasoned philosophical debate about the nature of hu man beings and their interactions with people, places, things, and events. The dialogues of Plato—with his teacher Socrates as the central character—and Aristotle's Metaphysics indel ibly implanted the dual identity of body as distinct from soul/spirit into Western philosophy. The duality of body
Descartes. While Descartes was ensconced in the Roman
Catholic church's view of the world, Hobbes and Locke
were not. Hobbes believed that there were only two men
tal operations that accounted for all thought, sensation and association, and association governed recall. Locke reasoned that the senses were a primary source of knowledge and expressed the possibility of a rational demonstration of moral principles. Their work is regarded as the beginning of an important thread in Western philosophy—British empiri cism. David Hume (1711-1776), and others, extended the
and spirit was subsumed into many future Western reli gions including Christianity. Based on the state of knowl
tradition of empiricism, and Voltaire (1694-1778) expressed
edge about human beings at the time, this assumption was consistent with the direct experiences of people—it "made
bring about the demise of the faculties of mind concept.
sense"—and it has been a central assumption of Western religious thought from those ancient times until the present. The terms mental and mind have roots in Latin (men,
mens, mentis), Old High German (gimunt), and Old English (gemynd). Mind, too, was assumed to be a disembodied entity within each person that produced thinking and rea son, and directed the body to move according to the mind's
thoughts. When the works of Aristotle were translated into Latin, his descriptive categorical terms for functions of the
Locke's empiricism in France. Eventually, empiricism helped Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) attempted to reconcile Descartes and Locke with his German idealist orientation.
For many centuries, the passions—sensed feelings and the named emotions—were associated with phenomena that
ranged from infestation by evil spirits to the absence of reason. In Western philosophical and religious thought, a goal of educated people was to use the mind's reasoning capacity to control the passions; thus, there was another duality—a separation of reason from emotion. The Swiss
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author and socio-political activist Jean Jacques Rousseau
(1712-1778) expressed a naturalist orientation. He defied many of the conventional mores of his time, proclaiming that human beings were, by nature, prone to emotion and natural feelings, particularly those of sympathy and empa thy. This orientation was known by the French expression
la sensibilite. His book Emile (1762) described the education of a young gentleman according to "natural" principles. The Social Contract (1762) advocated democracy and denied the divine right of kings. He had to leave France, but his book became the bible of the French revolution and a prime philosophical source for the American revolution. By the 19th century, the sciences of anatomy, physiol ogy, and medicine began to have an impact on epistemo logical philosophy. Pragmatism was advanced by the U.S. philosopher C.S. Peirce (1839-1914). It was not a philo
sophical system but a philosophical procedure which asked the pragmatic question, "What difference will a given course of thought or action make?" This turn in philosophical orientation was influenced by the growing pervasiveness of science in the culture of Peirce's time, and bears a resem blance to the scientific method. John Dewey (1859-1952) became the most famous pragmatist. He was heavily in volved in learning theory and education. He wrote many books such as Democracy and Education, and Art as Experience,
and was the guiding light of the progressive education movement in the 1930s.
The Meeting of Science and Philosophy in the Study of the Human Psyche
ports of subjects in response to verbally delivered or writ ten questions were analyzed to determine the content and structure of mental life. Psychiatrists of the 19th century were physicians who studied and treated mentally ill people who were unable to function in society. Sigmund Freud, M.D., (1856-1939) de veloped introspective psychoanalysis and posited vari ous elements of mind such as the ego, the id, and the su perego, and various mental processes such as repression and defense mechanisms. His work was among the first to introduce an integration of reason and emotion in mental processes, with emotion playing a very significant role. He is credited with "discovering" the existence of the unconscious, that is, aspects of the human psyche that affect the mind,
yet are outside conscious awareness. A student of Freud's, Carl Jung (1875-1961), came to disagree with his teacher in some respects and set out on his own analytical psychol ogy path. He wrote several books such as The Psychology of the Unconscious and The Collective Unconscious. In the latter book he recognized the learning that occurs when groups of people interact over time—culture. The first influential United States psychologist was Wil liam James (1842-1910). He and others were of the func tionalist orientation to psychology. The general purpose of functionalism was to study the structure and function of human consciousness. The functionalist questions were, "What do people do?" "How do they do it?" and "Why do they do it?" Showing a pragmatic orientation, they fo cused on mental functions or dispositions that are experi enced under actual life conditions like perceiving or think ing or recalling. The philosopher John Dewey and the psychologist
The method of science was applied to the study of the
James Rowland Angell (1869-1949) sought to place psy
psyche in the 19th century. The science came to be called
chology in the general field of biological science. At the
psychology, the study of the mental-emotional-behavioral
University of Chicago they developed an animal labora tory on the assumption that when an animal accommo dated to a new environment or solved a problem, they
aspects of individual human beings. The work of Hermann von Helmholtz (1821-1894), Gustav Fechner (1801-1887),
Franz Brentano (1838-1917) and others laid the ground work for the new science. Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920)
were demonstrating evidence of consciousness. The prin
established the first psychological laboratory in 1879, and he is regarded as the founder of the new science. He de vised and elaborated the method of introspection as a means of studying the structure of mental life, and so es tablished a structuralist orientation to psychology. Re
functionalists were incorporated into a laboratory school for children that Dewey founded and through which he
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ciples of psychology that were elucidated by the Chicago
helped develop the progressive education movement.
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) is regarded as a functionalist (his work asked the three questions), but has also been
claimed by the cognitivists (described later). Piaget was a biologist who became interested in how children reason.
He referred to himself as a genetic epistemologist (Gardner, 1985). In 1925, he was appointed Director of Studies at Jean Jacques Rousseau Institute in Geneva. From 1925 to 1933, he very closely studied his own three children as they grew from infancy to adolescence. He devised many clever problems for them to solve and took careful notes on their responses as they aged. His observations became the foundation of an extensive theory about the changing "structures" of perception and reason in children. Affect, feeling, and emotion were not directly included in his work.
ated from that situation, so that when the situation recurs the act is less likely than before to recur (Thorndike, 1905, p. 203). Around the turn of the century, Ivan Pavlov (18491936), a Russian physiologist, studied the responses of re
search animals (dogs) to selected stimuli. He described the
responses as purely physiological, associative, stimulus response connections (Pavlov, 1927). When an experimental dog was chewing meat, a bell was rung. After that event was repeated a number of times, the ringing of the bell in the absence of meat would produce salivation in the dog's
mouth. Pavlov disliked psychological explanations of be havior and sought to remove any suggestion of expectant,
He proposed that processes of assimilation and accom modation interact as children pass through four develop
subjective, or emotional mental states from his scientific
mental stages from infancy through adolescence, that is,
conditioned stimuli (US)—the meat; conditioned stimuli
the sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, and
(CS)—the sound of the bell; and conditioned responses (CR)-salivation. His work was integrated into the behaviorist
formal operational stages of perceptual and reasoning ca pabilities. His work had a profound effect on educational
practice in the second half of the 20th century.
The psychological orientation that is referred to as associationism evolved from the British empiricist orien
tation in philosophy (initiated by Hobbes and Locke). Hobbes' concern with sequences of thought became the
concept of successive association, and Locke's orientation to experiential integration became simultaneous association. The principle of experiential association is still accepted as a basic aspect of psychological processing and learning. Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850-1909), and others, proposed adopting the research model that is used by the physical sciences—the scientific method—and applying it to the study of human psychology. He favored an experimental psy chology, with dependent and independent variables. He demonstrated the method by using it in studies of memory
and physical skills and summarized them in a book, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. His work, and that of contemporary associationists, studied the strength of al ready-formed associations by the extent of subsequent re call. For example, Edward Thorndike (1874-1949) intro duced his "law of effect" which he stated as follows: Any act which in a given situation produces satisfaction be comes associated with that situation, so that when the situation re curs the act is more likely than before to recur also. Conversely any act which in a given situation produces discomfort becomes disassoci
study. He is credited with elaborating the nature of un
school of psychology. In 1912, a new orientation in psychology was born in Germany—Gestalt psychology—and moved to the United States in the first half of the 20th century. Gestalt psychol ogy was a reaction to the structuralist psychology of Wundt, or "brick and mortar psychology", as they referred to it. Max Wertheimer (1880-1943), Kurt Koffka (1886-1941), and Wolfgang Kohler (1887-1967) felt that the scientific approach to psychology had taken an "elements" of mind approach and was studying mind "from below upward" and never a
"wholes" approach that would study mind "from above
downward". They did not believe that higher mental pro cesses were required in order to combine and construct the unorganized elements of a sensory experience into a whole. They believed that the sensory field as a whole unit was self organizing. They opposed notions of connecting links be tween discrete perceptual entities in order to explain per ception and learning. Their research began with how free association tests could uncover hidden knowledge (Wertheimer), imagery and thought (Koffka), and auditory perception (Kohler). Kurt Lewin (1890-1947) was a highly influential Gestaltist who steered his own course. He blended the associationist and Gestaltist orientations in his study of motivation in human behavior. He believed that associa tive and instinctive (Gestalt) processes must be activated
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by needs and temporary interests or intentions. Lewin's field theory therefore, was "...in the realm of action, emo tion, personality" (Lewin, 1940, p. 33), and thus was "...life space, containing the person and his psychological envi ronment" (Lewin, 1938, p. 2), as the person perceived and understood it in relation to personal needs and interests. If objects appear to meet the person's needs, then they have a positive "valence". If objects appear not to meet the person's needs, then they have a negative "valence". Ob jects of a positive valence attract the person; objects of a negative valence repel the person. Another very different rebellion in the science of psy chology traces its roots to the 1914 publication of a book
in the United States. The rebellion was against Wundt's structural psychology and its method of introspection, James' functionalism, the functionalism of the Dewey-Angell Chicago group, and against the then current definition of
psychology as the scientific study of conscious experience. It was initiated by John Watson (1878-1958), a professor at Johns Hopkins University, and the title of his book was Behavior. From the beginning, he called the new school of psychology behaviorism. Watson was frustrated by the intangibles of psychol ogy and was determined to redefine it as "...a purely objec tive experimental branch of natural science. Its theoretical goal is the prediction and control of behavior. It is pos sible to write a psychology, to define it...as the 'science of behavior', and...never to use the terms consciousness, men tal states, mind, content, will....perception, affection, emo tion, volition...imagery, and the like....It can be done in terms of stimulus and response, in terms of habit formation, habit integration, and the like...." (Watson, 1914, pp. 1-13)
Behaviorism became the predominant school in psy chology until the 1970s. Classical or methodological behavior
ism proposed that in the interaction of all organisms with their environment, including humans, the environment se
lected, therefore determined, the organism's behavior. Com plex stimulus-response patterns conditioned the behavior of all animate creatures. Their behavioral repertoire was all that could be observed and analyzed with the scientific method. Physiological processes inside the body were not directly observable with accuracy and should not be part of a science of psychology.
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By about 1930, various behaviorists had veered from pure behaviorist orthodoxy to create their own imprints. An early influence on Clark Hull (1884-1952) was the 1927 English publication of Pavlov's book Conditioned Reflexes. Hull introduced several modifications of early behaviorism as did Edward Tolman (1886-1961) and Burrhus F. Skinner (1904-1990). Skinner became the most prominent advo cate of a form of behaviorism called radical behaviorism. He accepted internal processes as a significant influence on behavior. He asserted that a person's genetic code and environmental history "shape" the physical processes that produce behavior, and that someday physiologists will learn what those internal processes are (Skinner, 1974). Until then, he believed, an individual's interaction with environment
results in consequences that evolve what he called "contin gencies of behavioral reinforcement'' Throughout a person's lifetime, repertoires of behavior are "selected" in a manner that is similar to the selection of physical traits in the theory of evolution. In these processes, affect, feelings, and emo tions were regarded as inconsequential "by-products" of contingencies of reinforcement. Cognitive Science and Cognitive Philosophy of Mind In the middle 20th century, cognitive psychology and
cognitive science emerged. In September, 1948, a sympo sium titled Cerebral Mechanisms of Behavior was held on the
campus of the California Institute of Technology, spon sored by the Hixon Fund. Prominent scientists from a variety of disciplines were invited to discuss how the ner vous system controls behavior. The presentations and dis cussions became a statement of opposition to behaviorism and the Hixon symposium is cited by Gardner (1985, pp. 10-16) as the beginning of cognitivism. Gardner (p. 6) de fined cognitive science as "...a contemporary, empirically
based effort to answer long-standing epistemological ques
tions—particularly those concerned with the nature of knowledge, its components, its sources, its development, and its deployment." Gardner listed five trends in scientific theory and prac
tice that influenced the cognitive revolution against behav iorism: (1) mathematics and computational machines, (2) the neuronal and neuron network model of computational
cognition, (3) the cybernetic synthesis as initiated primarily by mathematician Norbert Wiener in his book Cybernetics, (4) information theory that made the claim that transmis sion or communication between any two or more entities constitutes information, and information is not matter or energy, and, neither mode of transmission nor content is relevant, and (5) findings from neuropsychological studies of brain-injured human patients who display dysfunctions in normal cognition. Gardner also listed five key features of cognitive sci
ence, the first two are key assumptions and the latter three are methodological features (pp. 38-45). • Mental representations of knowledge occur between perceptual input and behavioral output. These representa tions are necessary in the explanation of human thought and behavior, and are described in terms of "...symbols,
schemas, [rules], images, ideas, and other forms of mental representation". • Artificial intelligence (computers) is a key feature that has evolved into a computational model of both cognition and brain operations. • Affect, context, culture, and history are de-emphasized and commonly eliminated in cognitive studies in or der to determine the essential nature of cognition. • Interdisciplinary cooperation is necessary to ascer
tain the many facets of cognition, therefore such disciplines as the neurosciences, linguistics, psychology, artificial intel ligence, and anthropology are included as cognitive sci ences. • Classical philosophical problems are the primary subject matter for study in cognitive science. Critics of cognitive science have noted that its "pure" form divorces it from human reality. For instance, to study
human cognition as though it was disconnected from hu man nervous and endocrine systems guarantees the emer gence of scientific invalidities. To study the parts of ner
vous systems that only produce thought and reason is an
attempt to do the impossible because normal human ner vous systems are completely and vastly interfaced with the
rest of the body. The limbic system, brainstem, and auto nomic nervous system are never disconnected from the cerebral cortex or from the bodywide endocrine system,
for instance. Cultural influences are always influential in human cognition. Gardner (1985, p. 45), with a strong back
ground in the neurosciences, wrote, "...unless the cognitive aspects of language or perception or problem solving can
be joined to the neuroscientific and anthropological as pects, we will be left with a disembodied and incomplete discipline." Andreason (1997) has attempted to update and clarify current developments in the cognitive sciences. She sug gests that "...'mind'...is the expression of the activity of the brain and that these two are separable for purposes of analysis and discussion but inseparable in actuality....mental phenomena arise from the brain, but mental experience also affects the brain, as is demonstrated by the many ex amples of environmental influences on brain plasticity....Mind and brain can be studied as if they are separate entities...and this is reflected in the multiple and separate disciplines that examine them." Philosophers John Searle (1992, 1998), George Lakoff and Mark Johnson (1999) would agree. According to Andreason (1997), the term cognitive has been defined very narrowly by some and very broadly by
others. She proposes a broad definition that encompasses "...all activities of mind, including emotion, perception, and regulation of behavior" The study of mind or mental phe
nomena has been the province of cognitive psychology which has "...divided mind into component domains of in vestigation (such as memory, language, attention), created theoretical systems to explain the workings of those do mains (constructs such as memory encoding versus re trieval), and designed experimental paradigms to test the hypotheses in human beings and animals." Other disciplines have studied the brain in relation to human cognition and behavior. "Neuropsychology has used the lesion method to determine localization [of func tional brain areas] by observing absence of function after
injury in humans." Neurobiology, neuroanatomy, and neurophysiology "...have mapped neural development and connectivity and studied functionality in animal models." Psychiatry "...studies mental illness as diseases that mani fest as mind and arise from brain" (Andreason, 1997)
Because the boundaries of all of these sciences have become blurred over the past few decades, Andreason pro
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poses a blanket designation for them all, cognitive neu roscience. Additional terms have evolved as modular per spectives of mind and brain give way to the interconnected nature of whole human beings, for example, neurophysi ology, psychobiology, psychoneuroendocrinology, psychoneuroimmunology, and neuropsychobiology. In recent decades, nervous system research has focused on the brain and its integration with the endocrine and immune systems. Some brain processes can now be de scribed very precisely and other processes can be described only in more general terms. In most cases the research has not, however, reached a level at which specific neurochemi
"ft does not come easily to believe that I am the de tailed behavior of a set of nerve cells, however many there
cal pathways have been identified as the conduits for spe
istry, and molecular biology. It is largely responsible for the spectacular developments of modern science. It is the only sensible way to proceed until and unless we are con fronted with strong experimental evidence that demands we modify our attitude. General philosophical arguments against reductionism will not do."
cific thoughts.
Cognitive neuroscientists believe that adaptive (learn ing) capabilities are determined by the genetic and epigenetic morphological events that occur as the physio chemical properties of the body emerge after conception. These ini tial properties constitute a primary repertoire of neuron net works that enable base-line survival. Abilities are selected over a lifetime, however, as a result of interaction with the
people, places, things, and events of the experienced world. These experiences result in changes in the nervous, endo crine, and immune systems that are either threatening or beneficial to survival and well being. Over a lifetime, these nervous system changes embody an ever-evolving second ary repertoire of neuropsychobiological networks that coa lesce to form a conscious human self. How can a biological, electromagnetic, physiochemi cal entity give rise to conscious awareness or psychologi cal phenomena? Recently, three authors (Crick, 1994; Edelman, 1989, 1992; Damasio, 1994, 1999) have made ma jor contributions to answering that question. Crick, (1994, pp. 3, 7-9) a Nobel Laureate physicist and biochemist, and the codiscoverer of the structure of de oxyribonucleic acid (DNA), summarized the point of view by writing, "The astonishing hypothesis is that 'You', your
joys and your sorrows, your memories and your ambi tions, your sense of personal identity and free will, are in fact no more than the behavior of a vast assembly of nerve cells and their associated molecules....This hypothesis is so alien to the ideas of most people alive today that it can truly be called astonishing.
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may be and however intricate their interconnections. ...(M)any people are reluctant to accept what is often called the 'reductionist approach'--that a complex system can be
explained by the behavior of its parts and their interac tions with each other....(R)eductionism is not the rigid pro cess of explaining one fixed set of ideas in terms of another fixed set of ideas at a lower level, but a dynamic interactive
process that modifies the concepts at both levels as knowl edge develops....'(R)eductionism' is the main theoretical method that has driven the development of physics, chem
Application of the Cognitive Neurosciences to Teaching and Learning Processes Based on wide assimilation of research and theory in
such fields as the cognitive neurosciences, psychology, so ciology, anthropology, and computer science, Leslie Hart (1975) authored a book called How the Brain Works. It fo cused on the brain's learning capacities, and he proposed a Program-Structure Theory of how brains learn (abbrevi ated as "prostr theory"). Andreason's broad definition of cognitive processing is clearly included (1997), that is, "...emo tion, perceiving, and regulation of behavior Hart's next book, Human Brain and Human Learning (1983, updated with
Olsen, 1998), presented some principles of "brain-compat
His books may be the first to apply neuroscientific research to educational processes. Hart proposed that human beings have three genetically prescribed brain drives that make learning inevitable through out life as a function of survival of the species. Drive #1: Make sense of or "interpret" encounters with the people, places, things and unfolding events of the perceived "world" and of sensed events inside the body; ible" learning.
Drive #2: Protection of the person from perceived threats to safety and well being; Drive #3: Gain and increase mastery of personal interactions with the people, places, things and events of the perceived world, in cluding one's own bodymind (Adapted from Hart, 1983). Hart distilled much highly complex information into four brain processes that enable a person to carry out these drives: Process #1: Active seeking of sensory input; Process #2: Detecting familiar and unfamiliar patterns within the sensory input, interpreting them, and encoding them in memory; Process #3: Formation, elaboration, and selection of bodymind
"programs "for carrying out the three drives; Process #4: "Downshifting" from the current ongoing stream of bodymind programs to protective ones when safety and well being are threatened (Adapted from Hart, 1983). Every person's bodymind receives sensory input, in ternally processes it, and enacts behavioral expressions that form the "scaffolding" of learning that takes place over a lifetime (see Figure I-1-1). Clearly, cultural symbol systems
The vast adaptive or learning capacities of bodyminds and their relationship to perceived environment is the ba
sis of the human enterprise called "schooling," "education," or any form of what we call "teaching and learning." Edu cators have devised many methods, teaching approaches,
disciplinary techniques, assessment tools, and models of school organization that constitute the environment of
learners. How much do we really know about the inter nal physio chemical processing that heavily influences what human beings actually learn during formal education? Appreciating the nature and functioning of the brain— the "primary organ of learning"—and its bodywide inter actions with all the body's systems and organs, can help educators and learners interact more congruently with how
human beings are genetically "pre-wired" to enjoy curiosity and learning (human-compatible learning). On the other hand, human antagonistic teaching-learning experiences can stifle this genetic birthright.
References and Selected Bibliography
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Figure I-1-1: Lifelong experience cycle.
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Hall.
a
brief context
17
chapter 2
the astounding capacities of human bodyminds Leon Thurman
folded and laid flat, it would be about the size of an un usually large table napkin and about as thick [about 2.5 mated to consist of about one trillion neu square feet with varied thickness from about 4.5 to 1.5 ral cells (1012 1,000,000,000,000; Churchland & millimeters (Webster, 1995, p. 240)1. Sejnowski, 1992, p. 51). The activator cells of the nervous system are the neurons (Greek: neuron = nerve), some times referred to as nerve cells. The most commonly ac cepted estimate of the number of neurons in normal adult human brains is about 100 billion (1011, or 100,000,000,000) (Kandel, Schwartz, & Jessell, 1991, p. 18). In order to de Table I-2-1. velop 100 billion neurons from the time they begin to be Units of Dimensional Measurement and created in the neural tube through the time of a nine-month Their Abbreviations pregnancy, an average of about 250,000 neurons must be meter (m) = about 10% longer than a yard; formed every minute (Ackerman, 1992, p. 86). The most about 5.5 feet or 39.6 inches numerous neural cells in the brain are the glial cells (Greek: decimeter (dm) = one tenth of a meter; about .33 of a foot or 3.96 inches (rarely used) glia = glue). They provide protective and facilitative sup centimeter (cm) = one hundredth of a meter; almost port for neuron functions. At minimum, there are about four tenths of an inch millimeter (mm, 10-3m) = one thousandth of a meter; 900 billion glial cells in the nervous system, probably many about l/25th of an inch more. micrometer (pm, 10-6m) = one millionth of a meter; about 1/25,000th of an inch (formerly named a The cerebrum (Latin: brain) is the most commonly micron) recognized and talked about part of the brain. The brain's nanometer (nm, 10-9m) = one billionth of a meter; about 1/25,000,000th of an inch cerebral cortex (Latin: tree bark) is the very thin surface picometer (pm, 10-10m) = one trillionth of a meter; about layer of the cerebrum. It was so named because of the bark Angstrom (A) 1/25,000,000,000 of an inch like appearance of the multi-folded ridges and valleys of Only structures that are .5 mm or larger can be seen with unaided eyes. its surface (see Figure I-2-1). The cerebral cortex is esti mated to contain about 30 billion neurons (Nolte, 1993, p. 360). According to Nobel Laureate neuroscientist Gerald Edelman (1992, p. 17), if just the cerebral cortex was un he human
adult nervous system is esti
T
18 bodymind & voice