Honours Review 15, part 2

Issue 15

2023

Issue 15

NEW START

2023

FOREWORD Everywhere around you, the world is in crisis. Our generation only recently escaped the COVID-19 pandemic, but our suffrage doesn't end there. With the ongoing war in Ukraine, the disastrous impact of large companies on the environment, massive inflation that drains our savings and continuing infringements upon human, women's and minorities' rights, our generation is the first that has become so deeply aware of the painful truths in our societies. We all dream of a clean slate: a way to erase all crises and errors and to simply start over in a way that allows everyone to fruition: this is what NEW START has meant to me--and the artists and writers in this volume as well. This year the Honours Review celebrated its tenth birthday and publishing its fifteenth volume. This called for the largest and most diverse edition that the Honours Review had ever seen--and with great success! This brand new issue will certainly spark your interest. From sexual wellbeing to environmental policy; from linguistics to psychiatry; and from academic essays to fine arts and poetry. May you prosper in your personal NEW START as well!

On behalf of the editorial board, Wally van der Laan

TABLE OF C The Effect of Modern Gender Biases on the Study of Prehistoric Hunter-Gatherer Societies

The Effect of the Chemical Imbalance Myth on Psychiatric Clients

"In the beginning, Time woke up from its endless slumber..." - On Big History and the need to romanticise our scientific grand narratives

A New Day

Facing History: German Reunification and the Renovation of the Reichstag Language and Emotion

CONTENTS The Sexual Wellness Education Initiative: The Missing Piece in the Puzzle of Student Wellbeing

Reforming Environmental Policymaking in International Climate Negotiations: Perspectives from the Margins and Outside the Box

Photographs of Psyche

Embroidery by Radart

Feral Children and Human Development

Nature and Nurture in Addiction and Recovery

LANGUAGE AND EMOTION

AN OPINION-BASED ESSAY ON THE DEPENDENCE OF EMOTION ON LANGUAGE Written by: Lara Avila Recasens Illustrated by: Keks Anastasija

Emotions have always caught me by surprise. It is interesting to sit back and think about how the world around us can trigger something invisible inside of us, that can’t be touched, but that can be felt with such great intensity. It is also interesting to reflect on how we express our emotions and whether this changes depending on the language we are using. If you are somebody who knows more than one language, maybe you can look back on a situation where certain words in one language perfectly express what you were feeling, but the “same” words in your other language wouldn’t have. Härtel et al. in 2009 decided to look deeper into emotions within groups and organizations, and how these might cause conflict and negative work productivity (International Conference on Emotions and Organizational Life, 2008).

Throughout the literature, all studies began with the hypothesis that “cultural values account for differences in emotion dynamics”

(Härtel et al. 2009). Their conclusions were based on that same assumption that culture is the reason why individuals might feel more affected than others.

Having lived in many countries with different cultures, this made me wonder if the cultures I grew up with truly determine the emotions I feel and how I feel them. I came to the realization that emotions are not dependent on where you come from, but rather the language that you speak. This raised a question for me: to what extent are our range of emotions determined by language?

‘Emotions in More than One Language’ is an article written by Francois Grosjean in which he explains how he went through a situation where he got hurt while spending time with his friends (Grosjean, 2011). He described how he could perfectly recall switching back and forth between French and English. He used English to ask his English-

speaking friends to immediately take him to see a doctor and also talk to himself in French to help him ease the pain. This might seem like a typical bilingual scenario, but it shows how language plays the most important role when it comes to expressing our emotions.

In his case, Grosjean turned to his mother tongue to try and calm himself down, because it’s the language that has the right words describing his feelings. For the most part, this is not the case. For example, the pain scale in the English language is much broader than the French pain scale, the latter having fewer pain descriptors. So when expressing a degree of pain in French to an English speaker, the understanding of this pain differs, as it might be less or more intense.

Continuing this train of thought, there might be a limit to the words that exist within a language that describe distinct things, while other languages might not have those words and thus, may not be able to distinguish the same set of things. Legit is a word for an emotion/feeling that is used by an indigenous tribe living in the Philippines (Spiegel, 2017). A researcher named Rosaldo lived

with those people for some time and learned about this emotion for the first time. The struggle he had was describing in words what legit was, even though he understood it when the indigenous people demonstrated this emotion (Spiegel, 2017). Once Rosaldo moved back to his home town and experienced a specific situation, he reacted in the same way the indigenous people used to react in certain moments. This is when Rosaldo came to the conclusion that he was now able to feel legit.

We can infer many things from this. In comparison to Rosaldo, since he had not grown up and been introduced to the emotion named legit, he was unable to recognize the feeling. This serves

as support to the claim that not knowing about an emotion, might make you incapable of feeling it at all.

Not only can verbal language limit us to the emotion we know and therefore feel, but sign language can also play the same role.

In Managua, Nicaragua, a large group of children and young adults reported to have invented a sign language (Morgan, 2002). These individuals were unable to hear, lip-read or even talk, and their illiteracy brought them together to establish a common sign language with grammar. An American linguist, Judy Kegl, did research on this sign language and spent a lot of time in Nicaragua communicating, in their sign language, to find patterns and understand the linguist of it all (BBC, 1997). Not only did she develop proof that the rules for language are mentally fixed in our brains, but she went through a very similar phase like Rosaldo in the previous example.

In their documentary, Judy and her fellow researchers remarked that there were things, such as thoughts and even emotions, that they did not know about from the English language until they learned the Nicaraguan sign language. Unlike Rosaldo, these researchers were only able to describe, think and feel these emotions when using sign language, as if the emotion was not triggered by any other language. Again, this brings us back to the idea of not feeling an emotion due to not knowing about it at all. This also comes with consequences when put into perspective as a rule of thumb for language and emotion.

Considering this main claim of emotions being limited due to language, it is evident that issues such as mental health concerns could be put under the same lens.

In other words, this claim could be groundbreaking for individuals who struggle with depression, for instance. It is seen in many cases that people who suffer from depression have a hard time explaining why they feel down, sad, or hopeless. They usually don't understand why they feel this way,

so might this be because there is no word in the English language, or any other language for that matter, that can express a specific depressive emotion? Might the absence of depressive emotions make one prone to feeling this way and be the reason to struggle with this?

Coming back to the scientific article mentioned previously in this essay, some researchers concluded that “...it is more appropriate to look at emotion in terms of processes and transactions than in terms of simple causes and effects” (International Conference on Emotions and Organizational Life, 2008). Although the focus of their research is on emotion itself and what might trigger emotions in the workplace, I do agree that they can be considered a process. Rather, a process that occurs when learning language and developing the experience of hearing emotional expressions and words being used in contexts, relating it to a mental state or physical feeling and the like.

Instead of seeing emotions occurring as causes and effects, the causation of language allows for the emotions to be born, to be felt, to be experienced in the first place.

Although Härtel et al’s (2009) research can be insightful when studying a specific workplace and how to develop a plan for conflict management when workers’ emotions get in the way, it should be studied from a different angle.

Instead of differentiating an individual's emotions based on their culture, we should distinguish based on the languages that these individuals speak. Developing translation frameworks and schemes that try and match emotional expression and words to the best of our ability, is what will allow us to try and understand each other’s emotional states. Although this is not fully possible as not all languages are spoken by all of humanity, already understanding that language plays a fundamental role in the expression of emotion is crucial.

In conclusion, our range of emotions are determined by language to a great extent. Analyzing how Grosjean used French, his mother tongue, to sooth his pain in a moment of crisis, allowed us to clearly see how words in certain languages can perfectly describe how we feel and even help us deal with them. Rosaldo and his knowledge of the new word Legit showed greatly how all his life up until this point he had no recall of experiencing such an emotion of rage, potentially meaning that he was not able to feel it at all. Similarly, not only is this claim applicable to spoken language but also with sign language, as described with Nicaraguan sign language specifically, and how Judy along with her colleague discovered new feelings, emotions and thoughts within themselves.

References nternational Conference on Emotions and Organizational Life (6th : 2008 : Fontainebleau, France), Härtel Charmine E. J, Ashkanasy, N. M., & Zerbe, W. J. (2009). Emotions in groups, organizations and cultures (Ser. Research on emotion in organizations, v. 5). Emerald.

Grosjean, François. “Emotions in More than One Language.”

Psychology Today, Sussex Publishers, 18 Aug. 2011.

Spiegel, Alix. “Invisibilia: A Man Finds An Explosive Emotion Locked In A Word.” NPR, NPR, 1 June 2017.

BBC. (1997). Silent children’s new language.

Morgan, G., & Woll, B. (2002).

Directions in sign language acquisition (Ser. Trends in language acquisition research, v. 2). John Benjamins Pub.

THE SEXUAL WELLNESS EDUCATION INITIATIVE: THE MISSING PIECE IN THE PUZZLE OF STUDENT WELLBEING Written by: Birgit Eggink Illustrated by: Kasper Heijne The Amnesty International Netherlands report published in June 2021 stated that 12% of the student body, including both men and women, experience rape during their time at Dutch Universities (I&O Research & Amnesty, 2021). For the University of Groningen alone this would mean over 4.000 students. Those numbers are even higher in reality considering that such cases are heavily under-reported due to misinformation, trauma repression and shame. On top of this, the report showed that students had no knowledge as to where to get help, and only 3% of cases got reported officially.

In their Sexual Health in the Netherlands 2018 Monitor, Rutgers showed that 53% of women and 19% of men in the Netherlands faced sexual violence at least once in their life (Rutgers, 2017). For cases of sexual harassment, the CBS concluded that at least 75% of women and 33% of men aged 1825 years old get sexually harassed in their life time.

67% of victims shared that they experience mental health problems as a result of sexual

assault, and did not know where to ask for support (La Roi, 2019).

Dagmar Oudshoorn, the director of Amnesty Netherlands, stated that “Higher education institutions must take much more responsibility for the safety and well-being of their students. To begin with, they must educate their students about consent to sex, provide clear information about available counselling, draw up sound protocols and communicate clearly and regularly with their students about this.”

(I&O Research & Amnesty, 2021).

In addition to this, studies have shown that university students are the group most at risk when it comes to acquiring sexually transmitted infections. For example, over 10% of students will get chlamydia during their time at university (Cassidy, et al. 2019). Due to a lack of knowledge on preventative health care and contraception methods options most students do not get tested regularly, as they are not aware of where and how to get tested, and do not get the appropriate health care when necessary.

Sexual education reduces sexually transgressive behaviours within the student body (Turner MD, et al.

1993). Since 93% of young people learn about sex from schoolrelated activities, rather than at home (Hillier, et al. 2005), the Sexual Wellness Education Initiative (SWEI) came to life. SWEI is an organisation that provides a year-round, holistic sexual education curriculum to university students. The goal of SWEI is to educate the university community, lower transgressive behaviour and protect student wellbeing. This is done by providing workshops, training and interactive talks to bridge the divide between experts in the field and students and fill the current knowledge gap.

SWEI covers the Good, the Bad and the Necessary of sexual education in its curriculum. The ‘Necessary’ contains workshops on consent, LGBTQ+ and STIs and sexual health. The ‘Bad’ provides workshops on catcalling, sexual assault and harassment. Lastly, the ‘Good’ includes talks on pleasure, porn and BDSM. On top of this, SWEI organises party events throughout the year to provide a fun, safe and comfortable environment for participants. With a trained awareness team and a space where everyone can be themselves, SWEI hopes to show how going out culture can change to accommodate an enjoyable night for all students.

As the initiative started during the summer of 2021, SWEI is currently running successfully for its second year. What started as a four-person proposal for a sexual education pilot has grown into a fifteenperson team that provides a fullblown sexual education curriculum. With a reach of more than 400 students and almost 50 staff members, the reach of SWEI is increasingly impactful. And as of next year, SWEI hopes to expand beyond the University College Groningen. However, currently, the initiative is celebrating its Ben Feringa Award nomination. Feeling seen and honoured, we would like to finish this column with some wisdom: ‘Consent is sexy and communication is key’.

References I&O Research & Amnesty, 2021. Eén op tien vrouwelijke studenten slachtoffer van verkrachting tijdens studie.

Rutgers, 2017. Sexual Health in the Netherlands 2017 monitor.

Cassidy, C., et al. (2019). Designing an intervention to improve sexual health service use among university undergraduate students: a mixed methods study guided by the behaviour change wheel. BMC Public Health 19, 1734.

Hillier, L., Turner, A., Mitchell, A., (2005).

Writing themselves in again Australian Research Centre in Sex, Health and Society. La Trobe University, Melbourne, Victoria.

Turner J. C., Korpita E., Mohn L. A. & Hill, W. B. (1993). Reduction in Sexual Risk Behaviors among College Students following a Comprehensive Health Education Intervention.

Journal of American College Health, 41:5, 187193.

La Roi, C. (2019). Stigma and stress: Studies on attitudes towards sexual minority orientations and the association between sexual orientation and mental health.

Rijksuniversiteit Groningen.

REFORMING ENVIRONMENTAL POLICYMAKING IN INTERNATIONAL CLIMATE NEGOTIATIONS PERSPECTIVES FROM THE MARGINS AND OUTSIDE THE BOX Written by: Johanne Hobel Illustrated by: Kim Naber

With 636 fossil fuel lobbyists partaking in the delegations and international organizations at the Conference of the Parties (COP) in Sharm el-Sheikh, the 2022 climate conference “looks like a fossil fuel industry trade show”. At COP27, the number of fossil fuel advocates increased by 25% compared to 2021, now outweighing the delegations of the ten “most climate-impacted countries”.

Meanwhile, fossil fuel emissions are rigorously proven to be the core cause of the climate crisis, and vulnerable Nations and Indigenous peoples continue to be excluded from leading the global institutions that they are subject to. With the goal of global climate change mitigation, United Nations (UN) COP brings together the 197 Parties to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC) annually.

Sharm el-Sheikh is the 27th year of negotiating carbon emissions reductions and financial responsibilities of the different countries- and the stakes have never been higher: Making

efficient and just environmental policy now is the last opportunity for current political leaders to limit catastrophic outcomes for current and future generations. This involves an urgent paradigm shift regarding whose voices are present and amplified at the negotiation tables. ased on postcolonial and feminist perspectives, I argue that an environmentally and socially just approach to policymaking and diplomacy in global climate negotiations must challenge the underlying colonial-capitalist motivations for ongoing fossil fuel extraction. Reimagining whose voices are amplified in global climate negotiations, I suggest that based on strong traditional knowledge systems, Indigenous leadership offers a promising prospect for reforming environmental policymaking. To bring about this reform of Global Environmental Governance (GEG) forums, I suggest short-term, intermediate, and long-term actions to reform leadership in international environmental policymaking.

The ecological crisis we are currently facing is caused by a significant continuous increase in GHG emissions since the beginning of industrialization and globalization. Today we can see that the ongoing commodification of natural resources, especially fossil fuels, is intrinsically at odds with environmentalism since environmental destruction is justified for the sake of human advantage and civilization’s development. The capitalist logic of prioritizing economic efficiency over natural preservation bases resource extraction on a colonial understanding of land and property, thereby disproportionately harming populations in the Global South and Indigenous peoples and perpetuating global inequalities. In Canada for instance, settlers colonized the ancestral lands of the Native peoples and continue to use them for gas and oil extraction, which causes an increase of carbon emissions as well as disrespect for Indigenous ways of living in harmony with the land. Yet, these affected communities are largely excluded from the climate policy discussion: During the signatory process of the UNFCCC in 1992, Indigenous

peoples were denied their “right to participate in discussions”.

Meanwhile, in GEG frameworks, the established patterns of resource extraction driven by colonial power dynamics and profit-based interests persist, with those in positions of authority proving ineffective in their efforts to implement meaningful environmental policies.

It is crucial to confront these colonialcapitalist dynamics to address the crisis, as the nexus between environmental and socio-political injustices underscores why actors that should have critical roles in GEG are systematically excluded from meaningfully participating in these forums. To advance a transition towards Indigenous leadership in environmental policy, it is necessary to acknowledge that nature must not be treated solely as a means to an end or subjected to extraction, but rather recognized as having intrinsic value in itself. This requires adopting a more holistic view of nature, one that places equal importance on the survival of nonhuman species. Hence, it constitutes a shift from the anthropocentric perspective that

prioritizes human needs and desires over the environment to ecocentric policymaking, which recognizes the importance of considering the well-being of the entire ecosystem.

The climate crisis is global, and its causes and effects transgress national boundaries and individual responsibilities. Since those countries that contributed the least to the climate crisis are the most vulnerable to its effects, development aid is needed and must be arranged through global governance frameworks. Hence, a collaborative approach is essential on a global level to streamline environmental policy and come to a consensus on mitigation and adaptation efforts. The UN’s COP is the only governance forum worldwide bringing together representatives of all states since 1995 to negotiate the exact conditions and priorities of international mitigation efforts. To date, the UN are the “primary overarching forum” to discuss global governance activities and Indigenous participation. At COP27, a major achievement has been the Loss and Damage fund to support “climate-impacted countries in the Global South and Indigenous Nations” through financial contributions by the largest emitting countries. While this is insufficient to achieve climate justice in the long run, it is a first step towards recognizing the colonial power dynamics

which underpin GEG today.

However, many critics consider COP27 a failure from an environmental policy and human rights perspective. The UN regulations in Sharm-al-Sheikh were strictly regulating activists and Indigenous representatives regarding their freedom of speech and protest, failing to seriously consider their demands in the negotiations. No activists and barely any Indigenous representatives were meaningfully involved at negotiation tables and even suppressed in the designated protest areas. This is a pattern that can be generalized to other global environmental governance spaces.

Meanwhile, the stark increase in the number of fossil-fuel-affiliated delegates since the last COP increases their power to advocate for the benefit of their respective heavy-emitting sectors. If fossil fuel-affiliated delegates continue to deny their industries’ core responsibility for the climate crisis, effective environmental policy to lower emissions is far from reality.

While this is at its core a flawed system driven by the power dynamics of colonial capitalism, the feasibility of abolishing the international framework of UNFCCC and COP is improbable.

In fact, the unity of diverse stakeholders in an institutionalized setting is a major achievement and currently the strongest framework of global

environmental action available.

Yet, to address the urgent need for effective and just environmental policies on a global scale, GEG frameworks such as COP need critical rethinking and ultimately, a fundamental reform.

At the core of the proposal to reform GEG forums is an approach of equity. According to feminist IR theorists such as Tickner, knowledge coming from “voices of the disempowered and marginalized” hold special value.

Therefore, those who are most affected by the climate crisis, but contributed the least to it, should have power on decision-making tables, including social movements that are not sufficiently represented in environmental governance. Those systematically excluded are communities from the margins of society, facing the most significant obstacles to gaining access to GEG frameworks. Financial and logistical barriers to getting accreditation concern travelling to the meeting locations and gaining political recognition from national governments to become part of the delegation and hence securing access to the negotiations.

Indigenous peoples are especially disadvantaged in this regard since their sovereignty and constituencies are not respected in the international sphere to form their own delegations separate from the settler state which governs over

their ancestral lands and territories. In fact, few states support Indigenous peoples' participation in their national delegations, which continues the historic marginalization and discrimination. Yet, since Indigenous peoples have especially strong knowledge systems of the environment and place-based expertise of their respective territories, their contributions are of particular importance to reform GEG forums and will be the focus of the following suggested actions regarding future COPs. A short-term proposal for future COPs to be more just involves national delegations recognizing the important contributions of Indigenous representatives in finding solutions to the ecological crisis and ensuring that their voices are taken seriously alongside those of corporate representatives. This needs to go beyond tokenist actions of praising themselves for having “one Indigenous representative”, and instead award meaningful and beneficial roles to these delegates.

However, it is to be expected that national delegations have no strong interest in limiting their influence for the benefit of Indigenous representatives.

Therefore, for the proposal to be feasible, strong advocacy efforts on a global and domestic scale are necessary to demonstrate the advantages of increased

Indigenous influence to thinternational community.

Furthermore, to ensure that Indigenous delegates are able to join, resources and translation services are needed to overcome the financial and logistic barriers to participation and guarantee equal opportunities. Outside of the official delegations, the COP must protect freedom of speech, protest and assembly, in order to improve its recognition of social movements’ demands for environmental policymaking. This is a crucial steppingstone to counterbalance the influence of fossil fuel advocates and begin the process of decolonizing and decapitalizing GEG frameworks.

Ultimately, to address the deeperrooted issues of colonial capitalism which shape the dynamics of the COP, more radical actions need to be taken in the intermediate and long term. Firstly, to challenge the profit-motivated framework of global climate negotiations which is inherently at odds with its goals of sustainability, there is a necessity for questioning how these conferences are financed in the first place. COP27 in Egypt was mainly sponsored by Coca-Cola, one of the largest plastic polluters worldwide, depending heavily on fossil fuels for their production. In the intermediate term, the UN should oversee the sponsorships, rather than leaving the host countries with the decision.

Eventually, finding alternatives to

controversial sponsorships with companies that exploit natural resources would be the only environmentally sound action.

While it is evident that changes in the sponsoring and finance structure of the COP must be made, the long-term ethical financing of global climate conferences is a complex issue which goes beyond the scope of this research.

To further decolonize GEG forums, strategies are needed to not only address the barriers but the underlying inequities that prevent the effective participation of Indigenous peoples. Improving empowerment and agency requires respecting Indigenous approaches to environmental governance based on traditional land-based knowledge. This requires “non-Indigenous people to understand themselves in relation to the ongoing legacy of Indigenous dispossession and genocide" and respect alternative epistemologies, which are often of “place-based nature”, yet hold importance for the global scale.

Relatedly, and especially relevant in the context of resource extraction and fossil fuels, Indigenous worldviews regard property as a responsibility to take care of a place, rather than free reign to profit from ‘owned’ land.

By incorporating the ecocentric Indigenous approach to environmental policies and preservation, their participation .

can advocate for policymaking beyond profit and enhance monitoring and stewardship of land based on traditional knowledge systems.

To reform environmental policymaking at the COP in the long run, Indigenous participation must be advanced to Indigenous leadership. Latulippe and Klenk suggest amplifying Indigenous voices by “stepping aside”, thereby transferring authority to Indigenous communities. Within forums such as the COP which are based on the representation of national delegations, this longterm call for reform requires the GEG system to respect Indigenous sovereignty equally to national sovereignty. This includes the demand to refrain from homogenizing Indigenous peoples into one group, and instead recognize the diversity of communities with “different struggles and aspirations” regarding environmental policy.

By focusing on regional branches of GEG forums which allow for greater self-determination and generally removing institutional barriers to self-determination, states would also acknowledge Indigenous peoples’ rights articulated in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP).

Ultimately, the decolonization of environmental policy culminates in Indigenous peoples’ demands for Landback, uprooting the entire

stem of colonial-capitalist exploitation. Beyond the return of “Indigenous lands and cultural values through which the settlercolonial system derives unfettered wealth", Landback demands recognition that the land was never really owned as settler capital for resource exploitation in the first place. Shifting power to Indigenous peoples in global negotiations, Landback implies engaging with Indigenous communities as sovereign equals in international forums. This would be an advanced step towards a COP beyond profit and colonial power asymmetries, while maintaining the strength of the institutional framework as such.

Now we can see the urgency of challenging the colonial power dynamics and profit-based practices that contributed to the current environmental devastation. This paper shows how the continued commodification of natural resources on ‘stolen’ land is in inherent contradiction with effective environmental policy.

Overall, the interests and advocacy of those affiliated with this destructive industry jeopardize the international efforts to mitigate carbon emissions in GEG forums such as the COP. Having highlighted the assets of Indigenous perspectives and alternative knowledge systems regarding environmental preservation and mitigation policies, this paper proposes a

timely three-pronged action plan to reform environmental policymaking in the COP framework. A successful outcome of COP28 would see a decrease in the number of fossil fuel delegates compared to the 2022 conference in Egypt. At the same time, support mechanisms and resources must be in place to increase the number of Indigenous and Activist delegates.

In the following years, a measurable outcome would be achieved if controversial sponsors are no longer financing the COP. Regarding the long-term actions to respect Indigenous sovereignty, the existence of separate Indigenous and Activist delegations without attachment to the respective settler states would be a measurement of success. In 2023, COP28 will be hosted in Dubai by the United Arab Emirates (UAE), one of largest oil-exporting nations in the world.

Notably, the UAE’s delegation consisted of the largest number of fossil fuel-affiliated delegates in Sharm el-Sheikh. With stark criticism following COP27, the Dubai conference in 2023 will be a pivotal moment to determine if these demands for reform will be heeded. As the primary global institution in charge, the UN must take a stance on whether to permit and thereby reinforce colonial-capitalist dynamics or to invoke radical change in the one and only international forum for

environmental policymaking.

References BBC News. "COP27: Sharp rise in fossil fuel industry delegates at climate summit."

IPCC. "Climate Change: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. 6th Assessment Report."

Reibold, K. 2022. Settler Colonialism, Decolonization, and Climate Change. Journal of Applied Philosophy.

Clapp, Jennifer, and Peter Dauvergne. 2005. Paths to a Green World: The Political Economy of the Global Environment. Global Environmental Politics 6, no. 4: 128-130.

Gribben, J.M., and J.M. Fagan. 2016.

Anthropocentric Attitudes in Modern Society: Halting Climate Change will Require a Cultural Shift toward Eco-centrism. New Brunswick: Rutgers University.

Belfer, Emma, James D. Ford, Myriam Maillet, Mariana Araos, and Michael Flynn. 2019. Pursuing an Indigenous Platform: Exploring Opportunities and Constraints for Indigenous Participation in the UNFCCC. Global Environmental Politics 19, no. 1: 12-33.

Zurba, M., and A. Papadopoulos. 2021. Indigenous Participation and the Incorporation of Indigenous Knowledge and Perspectives in Global Environmental Governance Forums: A Systematic Review. Environmental Management.

Napoletano, B. M., and B. Clark. 2020. An Ecological-Marxist Response to the Half-Earth Project. Conservation and Society 18, no. 1: 37.

Hiraldo, Raul, and Thomas Tanner. 2011. The Global Political Economy of REDD+: Engaging Social Dimensions in the Emerging Green Economy. United Nations Research Institute for Social Development.

Kelly, Frank J. 2021. COP26 - Time for Action. Air Quality, Atmosphere & Health 14, no. 11.

Guinto, Ramon R., Thivya A. Deivanayagam, Paul T. Chuji, A.K.M. Hossan, Alison Jensen, and Llewellyn Jung. 2022. Achieving climate justice, safeguarding planetary health: Diagnosis and demands from next generation leaders for COP27 and beyond. PLOS Global Public Health 2, no. 11.

Tickner, J.A. Troubled Engagement: Feminism Meets International Relations Theory. 1992.

International Studies Quarterly 36, no. 4: 498-99.

The Guardian. "Cop27 climate summit’s sponsorship by Coca-Cola condemned as ‘greenwash’."

Latulippe, Natasha, and Nicolas Klenk. 2020.

Making Room and Moving Over: Knowledge Coproduction, Indigenous Knowledge Sovereignty and the Politics of Global Environmental Change Decision-making. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 42: 7-14.

Garnett, Stephen T., Navinder J. Singh, Nigel Dudley, Matt Walpole, and John E. Fa. 2018. A Spatial Overview of the Global Importance of Indigenous Lands for Conservation. Nature Sustainability 1, no. 7: 369-374.

NDN Collective. "The Solution to the Ecological Crisis Isn’t Earth Day– It’s LANDBACK."

PHOTOGRAPHS OF PSYCHE Submitted by: Eva Brank Even though these photos have been created for separate series, to me, they convey the same underlying message: there exist various ways of communicating and understanding psychological concepts, one of which are the visual arts. I have oftentimes been interested in how to ‘translate’ a sort of human condition, a struggle, into a photograph. It’s like asking yourself: “What would an eating disorder or a lack of communication look like?” This is followed by a brainstorming session and contemplation of how to create a composition of bodies that is both intriguing and understandable enough to get the meaning of the original idea across. Being surrounded by fellow open creatives helped me to nurture the development and the making of such visuals. The pictures remain open for interpretation, yet if I were to give keywords as clues, they would have been the following: grief, anorexia, miscommunication, and vulnerability.

EMBROIDERY

BY RADART Submitted by:Radost Lozanova (@radart.t) These were part of a series of works I created when I got into yoga as a way to reconnect with my body, to relax but also to work on gaining strength and flexibility. For me both movement and craft can be used as a way to search for one’s identity, interests and values. Embroidery gives me the opportunity to explore those and express them at the same time. It has the potential to deliver a creative output but also a critique or reflection on certain issues. While I have always been engaged with creative activities, I rediscovered my artistic side when I started a project of painting old shoes and jeans to give them a new life. This led me to also practice embroidery, a NEW START in my artistic journey.

FERAL CHILDREN AND HUMAN DEVELOPMENT Written by: Mariola Adrián Villanueva Illustrated by: Evy Leonida

Feral children grew up outside society, some were allegedly raised by animals. These cases inspired the debate about nature versus nurture, raising the question of how genetics and environment each contribute to human development (Candland, 1995). This article aims to investigate how human development is influenced by inheritance and socialization, focusing on aspects like the source of morality and brain plasticity. To do so, the cases of feral children Victor D’Aveyron, Peter, Amala and Kamala will be discussed. An interview with Dr. Juan E. Adrián was conducted, an Associate Professor in Developmental Psychology at Jaume I University in Castellón, Spain. The selection of this researcher for an interview was

motivated because after learning about feral children there were still many unresolved open questions, such as what are innately human characteristics or to what extent education and living conditions influence development. The interview allowed the article to be more well-informed from a firsthand professional source specialized in child development whose arguments are relevant to this study.

Ultimately, the position of this study is that child development is influenced by the interaction of nature and nurture; and that feral children are a doubtful topic due to a lack of information about possible mental retardations which could have played a role in their development.

Victor D’Aveyron (France, 1800) Victor, approximately age of 12, was found in the forests. He could not speak and walked on all fours.

He climbed trees, ripped his clothes off, and rejected cooked food. He did not make any sound and was indifferent to human voices. He had probably lived his early childhood in the wilderness, which made him a stranger to social norms. Researcher Itard achieved some small gradual progress with Victor, however, Victor was only able to learn action language, the most primitive form of communication (Itard, 1962).

Victor was noble and showed affection. A housekeeper who took care of him was mourning the loss of her husband and Victor showed sympathetic behavior toward her (Itard, 1962). This opens the discussion that children are born good and the environment taints their nobleness, or as philosopher Rousseau claimed, “an originally good human nature is corrupted by society” (Regelsberger, 2010).

Some believe that babies are innately “moral animals with a sense of fairness and justice” (Vaydich, 2015). This supports the nature part since it posits that humans have the inherent ability to show care and compassion for others (Vaydich, 2015).

Nevertheless, psychologist Bloom defends the idea, based on findings of his research, that our sense of what is good is to a great extent based on culture, and that

moral judgments not only result from neurons. He sees morality as derived from a combination of innateness and development: “we create the environments that can transform an only partially moral baby into a very moral adult” (Vaydich, 2015).

Peter (Germany, 1724) Peter was found in the woods. He was around 13 years old. He did not speak or laugh; he captured animals, dismembered and ate them raw, acted four-footed, and rejected clothing. Peter was always alert and suspicious of his surroundings and immediately tried to leave when put in comfortable beds in indoor homes.

Peter learned to articulate a few sounds and enjoyed listening to and even humming to the music.

His hearing and smelling senses were extremely well-developed.

According to some, he was undoubtedly capable of learning, since he had lived in the forest and must have had to learn to deal with challenges and experiences.

However, Peter was never able to engage in any form of socialization. Anthropologist Zingg also observed that Peter was indifferent to the other sex and that “feral men do not show sexuality” (Candland, 1995).

Moreover, a researcher who observed Peter wrote: “His hearing is good, but his pronunciation is more like babbling than like distinctive speech. He does not

know how to answer any question, and his memory is not as good as an animal’s instinct. In conclusion, his nature lacks humanness and there is no hope that he will ever learn anything” (Candland, 1995).

Amala & Kamala (India, 1920) Two girls were found in the jungle.

Presumably, they had been raised by a she-wolf. They are known as the “wolf-children,” because their appearance and behavior were wolfish. They had acute hearing and an animal-like sense of smell, walked on all fours, ate raw meat in a crouched position, kept their tongue out, and panted like wolves. They were unsociable, had a violent temperament, snarled, and even attacked and bit a baby.

After eight years in society, their temper improved (Squires, 1927).

Their case contradicts Rousseau’s theory that humans are born good but corrupted by society to do evil.

Unfortunately, Amala died shortly after they were discovered.

Over the years, Kamala learned to walk in a biped position, eat from a plate, and developed some intellectual functions such as understanding the concept of colors, knowing some of the names of babies who lived there, and learning motor gestures like waving hello with her hand.

Kamala learned sign language (Regelsberger, 2010), to utter about forty words, and form a few sentences of at most three words which were fixed combinations.

However, Kamala never initiated talk and often did not reply (Squires, 1927).

All feral children presented here share some common characteristics. Firstly, they all exhibited animalistic behavior, potentially due to spending a long time in the wilderness which required them to adapt to that environment. This caused quadrupedalism, the overdevelopment of the senses of smell and hearing, and animal-like food preferences. Secondly, the fact that all of them were unable to speak and follow social norms suggests that they were not able to do so because they had not been exposed to social interaction during the decisive development period (Chomsky, 2012).

The inability of feral children to develop normally can also be explained by their lack of brain plasticity; the ability of the nervous system to respond to stimuli through the reorganization of brain connections, functions, and structure. Human development results from high oxytocin levels after birth, increased brain plasticity during this period, and repeated experiences of social interactions e.g. parent-child bonding through gaze, touch, affection, and vocal modalities aid children's development (Feldman, 2015). The lack of brain plasticity and experiences such as parentchild interaction in the critical period could explain why the feral children were unable to learn complex social processes. This relates to the influence of the environment, which psychologist Watson strongly supports: “Give me a dozen healthy infants, wellformed, and my own specified world to bring them up in and I’ll guarantee to take anyone at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select —doctor, lawyer, artist, merchantchief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors” (Skinner, 1959).

Interview with Dr. Juan E. Adrián Dr. Juan E. Adrián is an Associate Professor in Developmental Psychology at Jaume I University in Castellón, Spain. He is an expert in psychology and child development (Adrián Serrano, 2008).

What is your professional opinion about the contribution of nature and nurture to child development?

Both aspects are a constitutive part of children's development. When we speak of nature, we refer to those innate aspects that not only characterize them as human (for example, a brain with structural characteristics typical of homo sapiens) but also make them unique beings, i.e., with singular characteristics that differentiate them from others (for example, a particular temperament, i.e., a specific pattern of reactivity to the environment). On the other hand, when we talk about nurture, we refer to the set of social conditions in which the child develops, and in the first place, to the characteristics of his caretakers and their living conditions. For example, if these caretakers live in one place or another, how do they earn their living, what are their personality characteristics, and their raising styles.

In fact, what will shape the development of a particular child is the interaction between his or her characteristics and the characteristics of his or her rearing environment, i.e., how these two aspects exert a mutual, bidirectional influence. Influence is understood as a set of both opportunities and restrictions on both sides.

Q: What do you think about cases of feral children? he case of wild children in the study of child development has shown the amazing survival capacity of these subjects in very extraordinary conditions. And also that, indeed, a very deteriorated or deficient environment is capable of seriously impairing aspects of human development. Although the subject has the potential to develop them (for example, language, reasoning about mental states or theory of mind, or the recognition of the self), in the absence of a propitious environment, they are seriously affected. However, in the case of the feral children, there is a lack of reliable information on an important issue, and that is that we cannot be sure whether or not any of these children were affected by some kind of developmental problem or disorder that at that time was not or could not be diagnosed, for

example, some degree of autism or some kind of communication and language disorder.

Q: Do you agree with Rousseau's theory that "an originally good human nature is corrupted by society"?

I agree more with the second part of this sentence, and that is that, indeed, the social environment is capable of causing harm to the individual, in any aspect.

However, the opposite is also true, that the same environment, with other characteristics, is capable of causing benefits.

Nevertheless, the assumption that there is a kind, immanent, immaculate human nature is not something that scientific criteria can corroborate. Yes, we are born with certain innate characteristics and potentialities to develop as rational, social, and linguistic beings, but scientific evidence does not allow us to assign to these aspects a moral category in origin. For example, children develop in the first years of life the so-called Theory of Mind, that is, the ability to interpret behavior based on judgments about mental states such as desires and beliefs.

This specifically human ability is extraordinary because it allows us to establish much more complex levels of social interaction than any .

animal. Nevertheless, this same ability can be used for cooperation or competition, to strengthen relationships with others, or to manipulate and deceive The case of feral children seems to demonstrate that nature and nurture interact in influencing children's development. We have seen how some aspects of human behavior such as having desires or the capacity to reason seem to be innate. However, the lack of socialization and brain plasticity during the sensitive period explains why the children were not able to acquire certain abilities in their later development. Those abilities such as speaking or adopting social norms are apparently gained, in part, from socialization during that critical period. Nonetheless, feral children remain a doubtful topic for the nature-nurture debate, as Dr. Adrián explained. Those children could have had special needs such as mental retardation or intellectual disabilities from the start that was not diagnosed in those times. It is possible that some of the children lived in the wilderness because they were abandoned due to their condition.

So the extent of nature and nurture as an influence on their development is unclear.

In conclusion, we cannot fully affirm how much nature and nurture influence feral children's development. Anyhow, the background research, the

interview with Dr. Adrián, and the theories of several researchers contemplated in this study made it possible to determine on the one hand, the common human innate characteristics of nature, and on the other hand the learned human abilities of socialization. These contributions finally lead to the conclusion that human development is in fact influenced by the combination of nature and nurture, that is, genetic factors interacting together with environmental factors.

References Adrián Serrano, J. E. (2008). El desarrollo psicológico infantil: áreas y procesos fundamentales. El Desarrollo Psicológico Infantil, 1-436.

Candland, D. K. (1995). Feral children and clever animals: Reflections on human nature.

Oxford University Press.

Chomsky, N. (2012). On the nature, use and acquisition of language. In Language and Meaning in Cognitive Science (pp. 13-32).

Routledge.

Feldman, R. (2015). The adaptive human parental brain: implications for children's social development. Trends in neurosciences, 38(6), 387-399.

Itard, J.M.G. (1962). The wild boy of Aveyron.

(G. Humphrey & M. Humphrey, Trans.).

Appleton-Century-Crofts. (Original works published 1801 and 1806).

Malson, L. (1972). Wolf children. NYU Press.

Regelsberger, C. (2010). An investigation of feral children and original sin. Verbum, 8(1), 34-43.

Skinner, B. F. (1959). John Broadus Watson, behaviorist. Science, 129(3343), 197-198.

Squires, P. C. (1927). 'Wolf children’ of India.

The American Journal of Psychology, 38(2), 313-315.

Vaydich, J. L. (2015). Just babies: The origins of good and evil. Journal of Moral Education, 44(1), 114-116.

NATURE AND NURTURE IN ADDICTION AND RECOVERY Written by: Maria Nikolova Illustrated by: Emi Plapis

A recent study by clinical psychologist Green and colleagues (2021) compared the main existing models concerning addiction. Based on these models, an alternative model, namely ‘the integrated model of nature and nurture factors that contribute to addiction and recovery’ was introduced.

This nature-nurture model was presented as a useful tool that could potentially have beneficial implications in the discussion about addiction and recovery by the general public.

I argue that the way the drug problem has been presented in Green and colleagues’ nature-nurture model, especially its origins, has direct consequences for the kinds of actions needed to solve it. If the general public, including people struggling with addiction, their relatives and closest environment, changes the way they see and think about addiction, this will have a major effect on whether or not attempts to reduce the onset of addiction as well as facilitate recovery will succeed.

Returning to the initial question, it is necessary to shortly summarize the study by Green et al (2021) and give an overview of the model constituents they identified in order to understand how nature and nurture factors could be better incorporated into the recovery process. The term addiction was used as a general term and the wider framework of drug abuse was discussed, including mainly alcohol and drugs, and focusing on substance use

disorders (SUD) they cause. The model presented substance use as a continuum at one end of which the social trigger was indicated as a starting point, since, they argued, social factors almost always strongly impact initial use. After initial use, the continuum progresses to increased use and consequently, addiction, associated with changes in brain structure and functioning, as well as in behaviours, caused by the substance. The strength of the structural and functional changes in the brain mechanisms are moderated by nature factors, while changes in cognition and behaviour are mediated by environmental, sociocultural, personal and emotional, or in other words, nurture factors.

Let us have a closer look at the nature-side of the question. After

initial substance use, there is physiological reinforcement that influences a person’s choice to use drugs again (Stewart et al, 1984).

Essentially, this refers to the physiological effects of the drug on a person’s body. This is a nature-based effect: it is the biological impact a certain substance has on a user’s functioning. Some effects, such as increased energy, pain relief, and enjoyable bodily sensations, are seen as pleasant, while others, such as, for instance, fast heart rate, nausea, decreased respiration and increased blood pressure, are less positive effects. Whether or not substance users experience both sets of effects and also their intensity is moderated by biological factors, genetic factors and comorbid psychiatric and medical health issues (Goldstein & Volkow, 2002). There is strong support for genetic influence on developing a SUD. According to the United States National Institute on Drug Abuse, genetic vulnerability is responsible for about half of an individual’s risk for developing a SUD (2016).

Furthermore, individual differences in the neural structures of the brain have been proven to have an impact on the way a user reacts to substances (Arbuthnott & Wickens, 2007). Research in neurophysiology even found a

specific dopamine receptor D2, whose biologically-determined density impacts SUD vulnerability (Schultz, 1998). As regards biological factors, the onset of substance use at the adolescent age is another strong predictor of the strength of physiological reinforcement, since adolescents are more vulnerable to the effect on neural mechanisms that substance use causes.

An additional nature factor at play in vulnerability to SUD is comorbidity. Various studies have shown the link between medical and psychiatric disorders and a greater risk of developing SUD, as well as a lower likelihood of recovery. One example is findings that indicate a higher rate of developing SUD among children with ADHD (Lee et al., 2011).

Nature factors substantially impact physiological experiences, which are less personal and subjective when compared to the psychological effects of the substance (Green et al, 2021, p.1099). Psychological reinforcers are mediated by the following components: environmental and social factors, personality, emotions and cognition. Nurturebased environmental reinforcers associated with higher substance use and the development of SUD include high availability of substances, the overt use and sale of substances in the community, in contrast to restrictive drug policies in a given neighbourhood.

For example, Nunez-Smith et al (2010) found that greater exposure to media is associated with higher use of tobacco, drugs and alcohol among children. Similar effects are present for people who experienced sexual or physical trauma in their life (KeyserMarcus et al., 2015).

Social and cultural factors include cultural traditions and beliefs in the community. An important finding in this area is the minority stress model by Meyer (2003), indicating that sexual minority groups face higher stress levels due to discrimination. This constantly high level of stress is in turn associated with an increased risk for substance use problems.

Although the model was developed for sexual minorities, it might have implications for any marginalized group.

Furthermore, the way in which the close environment responds to substance use can either elevate or reduce it.

Substance use is seen as a tradition in some cultures. For instance, Native American groups make use of psychedelic drugs for spiritual practices, which helps in the process of acculturation (Prince et al, 2019).

For a further discussion of nurture factors, we will turn to the emotional aspect affecting addiction. Some research suggests that people with SUD often report feelings of self-d

disorientation, fear of intimacy and low levels of confidence (Thorberg & Lyvers, 2010). Another important reference is made to emotional regulation, specifically coping mechanisms. Eftekhari et al (2004) claims that poor coping mechanisms often lead to high substance use, which has found implication for the recovery processes, namely that successful recovery requires developed coping skills and emotional regulation (Cavicchioli et al, 2019). I suggest the examination and understanding of the nature of addiction is tremendously important for recovery from addiction. On the one hand, if people struggling with addiction feel that people predominantly blame them and their choices, considering the substance user as the only or main reason behind substance use, it may trigger a feeling of shame in them which could certainly slow or even impede the process of recovery.

On the other hand, placing excessive emphasis on the role of external factors has the risk of people feeling completely irresponsible for their addiction.

Therefore, I would argue there is a need for balance in the discussion of factors that have an impact on addiction. The discussion above

about the factors that contribute to addiction and recovery using the nature-nurture framework presented us with a general overview. The question would then be how can we use it in a way that is beneficial for society. In the first place, it would be useful to present empirical evidence in a discourse that is comprehensible for the general audience, as has been done in the article summarized above. The nature-nurture framework used in the study by Green and her colleagues (2021) is a powerful one for a number of reasons. Firstly, the nature-nurture debate is typically known among the general public. It finds its origins back in the nineteenth, possibly even earlier centuries, yet still remains a topic of debate. Although the discussion is still ongoing, some conclusions have been reached.

For instance, the focus shifted from nature against nurture to rather what part of nature and nurture is there in a specific matter, and how are they interconnected. This conclusion is of particular importance for what I argue for, namely the necessity of seeking the right balance in the discussion on drug abuse. The fact that the focus shifted to the interconnected role between SUD

nature and nurture allows for a less categorical representation of the matter in terms of nature and nurture factors. Furthermore, it is a rather straightforward concept that makes use of a common terminology which is easy to comprehend and therefore is able to stimulate interest, while still following findings from empirical research.

If we turn our attention to how addiction is often represented, we will recognize that it is often seen as a failure of the will (Baumeister, 2002). This, however, can be problematic. Snoek et al (2016) concluded in their study that poor strategies and limited opportunities for recovery play a greater role in successful abstinence than a lack of will.

While being sympathetic to this claim, I would argue that there is a plethora of factors that play a role here, rather than solely limited opportunities, one of which is potentially the lack of understanding of the complex nature of addiction by the community at large.

Coming back to the view of addiction as a lack of willpower, it is needless to say that this vision implies placing a person with in the centre as the greatest and often the only contributor to their own addiction, which in most

cases also means a lack of sympathy from the community.

This is a rather false assumption, as has been seen from the integrated model that also included numerous biologically-determined reinforcers. On the other hand, it will be of little help to ignore or intensely diminish the role of a person’s choice to engage in drug use, since it will then leave a person without a sense of responsibility. Conversely, being aware and acknowledging the factors that lead to the choice to use substances can be helpful in finding effective ways to cope with the problem. A comprehensive understanding of the issue has the potential to rearrange the public view on addiction and people struggling with it. Furthermore, getting educated about possible reinforcers will help people recognize themselves or others close to them as having a higher risk of developing SUD. In this way, special attention would be given to people with comorbid medical and psychiatric issues, and other groups that were found to be more vulnerable. While this has to be applied with caution, in order to not cause inadvertent discrimination and separation, it can be argued to be an effective way to recognize the problem at an earlier stage.

References Arbuthnott, G. W., & Wickens, J. (2007).

Space, time and dopamine. Trends in Neurosciences, 30(2), 62–69.

Baumeister, R. F. (2002). Ego depletion and self-control failure: An energy model of the self's executive function. Self and identity, 1(2), 129-136.

Cavicchioli, M., Movalli, M., Vassena, G., Ramella, P., Prudenziati, F., & Maffei, C. (2019).

The therapeutic role of emotion regulation and coping strategies during a stand-alone DBT Skills training program for alcohol use disorder and concurrent substance use disorders.

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Eftekhari, A., Turner, A. P., & Larimer, M. E. (2004). Anger expression, coping, and substance use in adolescent offenders.

Addictive Behaviors, 29(5), 1001-1008.

Goldstein, R. Z., & Volkow, N. D. (2002).

Drug addiction and its underlying neurobiological basis: neuroimaging evidence for the involvement of the frontal cortex. American Journal of Psychiatry, 159(10), 1642-1652.

Green, K. E., Blue, J. R., & Natal, S. N. (2021). An Integrated Model of Nature and Nurture Factors that Contribute to Addiction and Recovery. Substance Use & Misuse, 56(8), 1095-1107.

Keyser-Marcus, L., Alvanzo, A., Rieckmann, T., Thacker, L., Sepulveda, A., Forcehimes, A., ... & Svikis, D. S. (2015).

Trauma, gender, and mental health symptoms in individuals with substance use disorders. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 30(1), 3-24.

Lee, S. S., Humphreys, K. L., Flory, K., Liu, R., & Glass, K. (2011). Prospective association of childhood attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and substance use and abuse/dependence: a meta-analytic review. Clinical Psychology Review, 31(3), 328-341.

Meyer, I. H. (2003). Prejudice, social stress, and mental health in lesbian, gay, and bisexual populations: conceptual issues and research evidence. Psychological Bulletin, 129(5), 674.

National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA). (2016, Feb). Genetics and Epigenetics of Addiction. https://nida.nih.gov/publications/drugfac ts/genetics-epigenetics-addiction Nunez-Smith, M., Wolf, E., Huang, H. M., Chen, P. G., Lee, L., Emanuel, E. J., & Gross, C. P. (2010). Media exposure and tobacco, illicit drugs, and alcohol use among children and adolescents: a systematic review. Substance Abuse, 31(3), 174-192.

Prince, M. A., O’Donnell, M. B., Stanley, L. R., & Swaim, R. C. (2019). Examination of recreational and spiritual peyote use among American Indian youth. Journal of studies on alcohol and drugs, 80(3), 366-370.

Schultz, W. (1998). Predictive reward signal of dopamine neurons. Journal of Neurophysiology, 80: 1–27.

Snoek, A., Levy, N., & Kennett, J. (2016).

Strong-willed but not successful: The importance of from addiction. Addictive Behaviors Reports, 4, 102-107.

Stewart, J., De Wit, H., & Eikelboom, R. (1984). Role of unconditioned and conditioned drug effects in the selfadministration of opiates and stimulants.

Psychological Review, 91(2), 251.

Thorberg, F. A., & Lyvers, M. (2010).

Attachment in relation to affect regulation and interpersonal functioning among substance use disorder in patients. Addiction Research & Theory, 18(4), 464-478.

COLOPHON EDITORIAL BOARD Wally van der Laan - Editor-In-Chief Jakub Andrej Filčák - Organisational Officer Yulia Sargeeva - Internal Officer Nicole Tanase - Social Media Officer

DESIGN Wally van der Laan

ILLUSTRATORS Kim Naber Elvy Leonida Kasper Heijne Emi Plapis Keks Anastasija

COVER Kim Naber Elvy Leonida

INFORMATION We would like to thank our team of peer reviewers and the staff at the Honours College of the University of Groningen for their work and support in the publishing of this issue.

Issue 15 // June 2023 P-ISSN 2214-6083 E-ISSN 2214-6466 Honours Review is a publication of students at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands. For more information, visit www.honoursreview.com or our Instagram page @HonoursReview