Honours Review 13

Nr 13

Nature vs Nurture

Honours Review - Issue 13

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Honours Review - Issue 13

Introduction At the Honours Review, our mission has always been to poke and prod the world around us, to reflect on our place in it, and to ask questions of it. Issue 13 of the Honours Review seeks to engage these questions in a more fundamental way. By looking inwards at who we are, where we came from, and the latent capabilities we possess, we gain an understanding of the human condition in all its boundlessness and limitations. That is why this edition of the Review is orientated around the theme of ‘nature versus nurture’. Nature refers to the way we are internally pre-wired, while nurture looks to how the outside world conditions our development.

It is from biology that we learn how our genes and our environment encode the kind of traits we have. These observable characteristics, known as phenotypes, determine our eye colour, as is the case with genes, or impact our body weight, as is often the case with our environment. As such, nature and nurture are agents of differentiation: they empower us, limit us, and define us.

Though owing its origins to the realm of biology, inquiries into nature and nurture conditioning effects are certainly not only bound to the lab bench. From dietary choices that edge our environment towards a perilous precipice, to deep-sea diving that pushes the human physique to the extreme, our authors show that our interest in the forces of nature and nurture is truly interdisciplinary.

At the Review, we also want to remain a canvas for honours students to create and explore topics that matter to them. Therefore, in each edition, we showcase select articles that shine a spotlight into the minds of our talented authors. In articles that take us from Kashmir to Kansas to 80’s nostalgia, ways are brought to reflect on the weight of time – albeit, in rather distinct contexts.

The weight of time has, too, been felt in this past year. 2020 heralded significant upheaval, change, and hardship across our planet. But in rising to the challenge, our species has realised something that is core to all life on our planet: the ability to adapt. Adaptation is embedded into our genetic code as much as it permeates the environment in which we live. In many respects, adaptation transcends the debate on nature versus nurture and reminds us that our species, along with our planet, is always evolving. As the new Editorial Board looks forward to its upcoming year, we aim to embody this theme of adaptation and evolution too.

The Editorial Board

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Honours Review - Issue 13

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Honours Review - Issue 13

Table of Contents Deep Blue Breath Author - Alex Soete Illustrator - Kim Tuin

Innate or Acquired Musicality Author - Welmoed Cnossen Illustrator - Liselotte Bergstra

What Psychopathic Killers are Made of Author - Laura Jark Illustrator - Merel Wendt

Food for Thought: Explaining our Obsession with Meat Author - Jasper Meurer Illustrator - Okki Poortvliet

Kashmir and the Post-imperial Tug of War Author - Umme Aiemun Yousuf Hakim Illustrator - Olivia D’Cruz

80’s Party! Second Hand Nostalgia in Contemporary Youth Author - Joanna Zienkiewicz Illustrator - Marina Sulima

Oz or What I See When I Look Author - Catrinel Radoi Illustrator - Ellen Roof

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Deep Blue Breath

A nature vs. nurture debate in breath-hold diving

Author: Alex Soete Illustrator: Kim Tuin

The deliberate, rhythmic breathing relaxes your body. It helps your mind calm itself and move beyond any current physical restrictions. As the final preparation nears, it is crucial for you to keep a calm demeanor, to make sure that your muscles are not tensed but that the mind and body are ready. A final, large breath out and another large breath in. Shoulders forced back to expand lung capacity as much as possible. As your face submerges your heart rate slows thanks to the mammalian dive reflex. You must equalize the pressure in your ears as you continue to sink, and once you reach the bottom you rely on slow motions to bring you forward. You enter a new world, where every fin stroke uncovers incredible artifacts and living beings. After a while of staring in fascination, the oxygen levels in your blood are reducing quickly, and your lungs are starting to revolt against the strain. You point your body up, keep looking straight and steadily push for the surface. As you break the water tension a quick breath out and as many breaths in as possible bring your body back to equilibrium.

Breath-hold diving (or freediving) is a relatively new and dangerous sport, which will have anyone enamored with the underwater world. As with any sport, people love pushing themselves to their own limits, and training can greatly increase the breath-hold time. Some people are able to go above and beyond, with breath-hold feats such as reaching 214 meters (Herbert Nietsch) or 11 minutes and 35 seconds (Stéphan Mifsud). How did they manage to reach these incredible depths and times? How much was based on nature, and how much was based on nurture?

Due to the novelty of freediving, scientific discussion regarding nature and nurture is limited. However, by taking a trip high into the mountains, a discussion can take place. In an article from Tom Brutsaert, the nature-nurture debate focuses on how the people of the Andes mountain range and Tibetans manage to avoid hypoxia, while still functioning at incredibly high altitudes.

Hypoxia occurs when the level of oxygen within the body, and especially the brain, becomes too low for survival. There are two important functions that the high-altitude natives have at their disposal, which allow them to avoid hypoxia.

The first is the body’s ability to saturate the blood with oxygen (the SaO2 value).

This demonstrates how much oxygen is bound to hemoglobin within the blood stream. The second ability takes the form of the maximum oxygen intake that is possible in high stress environments (the VO2max value). Here, the synergy of heart, muscles and especially lungs is concerned with how effectively oxygen can be exchanged. Due to these two functions being crucial for avoiding hypoxia, they are also incredibly important for freediving, although the SaO2 value carries stronger importance.

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Honours Review - Food for thought

To begin, Brutsaert discusses VO2max. In mountainous areas we see that high-altitude natives (HANs) have “high average aerobic capacity” compared to people living at lesser altitudes.

(2016, p. 104). These higher values could suggest that genetic changes have occurred to better

To maximize the TBT, you need to make sure

suit the HANs to their living conditions, but this

that the body is its own master, and the master

hypothesis is rejected by Brutsaert. It is shown

of its SaO2 value. It is important to note that the

that the links demonstrating the correlation

SaO2 value is influenced by the “hemoglobin

between VO2max and genetic influences are

and oxygen affinity”.1 Essentially, this means that

weak. This means that VO2max is most likely an

depending on how effective your hemoglobin

object of nurture, as can be ascertained from the

is, you can carry more oxygen within your body.

fact that people who migrate to high climates

Within Brutsaert’s research it is shown that there

begin developing stronger VO2maxes. However,

is an immense correlation between genetics and

what does this mean for freediving? In theory, it

the strength value of the SaO2. It is mentioned that it is unclear if high-altitude natives have

“ To maximize the TBT, you need

adapted genetically to have a higher SaO2 value, but it is nonetheless dependent on people’s

to make sure that the body is its

genetic make-up. For freediving, the SaO2 value

own master, and the master of

able within your blood stream. If your muscles

its SaO2 value” suggests that training will have a large influence

can be used to guess how much oxygen is useuse oxygen in a conservative manner, then a high SaO2 value results in much longer breath-hold times. Through this, another important point is raised, namely the muscles themselves.

on how well your body is able to recover from a long dive, as efficient gas exchange will rid the

To look at effective muscle usage, we climb back

body of excess carbon dioxide accumulated at

down from the high altitudes and move to the

the bottom. This effectively means that the total

Olympics. Swimmers from around the world

bottom time (the time one spends underwater

compete here, but all have a similar build: long

during a freedive, also known as TBT) is not

arms, short legs, massive torso. Being born with

influenced by VO2max, but it is still crucial for

these traits seems to be a necessity for compe-

avoiding hypoxia when surfacing. This is also the

ting at this level.3 Here, nature determines how

reason why the VO2max has lesser value (but

well your body will move through water. For

still strong importance) compared to the SaO2.

freediving, if you are able to move through the

During a freedive, gas exchange only occurs with

water at a smoother and more efficient manner,

the gas currently present in the body, as no extra

you use less oxygen. Thus, while you can train

breaths can be taken underwater. This ability is,

your VO2max, it seems that body form and SaO2

sadly, reserved for fish and scuba divers.

are factors that have a much greater influence on your TBT. This means that a freediver may just have to win the genetic lottery. However, there are other adaptions that freedivers such as Herbert Nietsch and Stéphan Mifsud do not have.

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Author - Alex Soete

If we follow the Bajau below the surface, we can

red to those that nurture (train) their way towards

witness an amazing feat of bioengineering within

incredible depths. If the Bajau can beat the record

humans. The Bajau are a group of people that

holders, it would show that nature is the crucial

cover areas of Malaysia and Indonesia, who rely

factor when it comes to reaching the extremes.

on the ocean for everything.2 The BBC documentary titled “Human Planet” gives details about

As of the 19th of April, 2018, a new study was re-

the adaptions the Bajau people have undergone.

leased that proved the nature aspect of freediving.

For example, the eyes of the Bajau have changed

Research into the Bajau has shown that their hypoxia

dramatically, whereby the pupils are constricted

tolerance goes way above that of other human popu-

further, changing the lens shape of the eye. This

lations.4 Research has previously, as discussed, only

allows the Bajau to see underwater at a much

focused on high-altitude natives, whereas this new

greater efficiency, without needing goggles.

study is the first of its kind. It proves that due to a ge-

Their spleens have also adapted to provide extra

netic variation with the gene “PDE10A” spleen sizes

rich blood, meaning a much higher SaO2 value.

have increased, allowing a “larger reservoir of oxy-

A final genetic adaptation is the wiry frames of

genated red blood cells”. Hereby the conclusion can

the Bajau. The low fat percentages and purely

be drawn that while training freediving is possible,

muscular build is caused by higher rates of me-

being able to break records is purely in the hands

tabolism and lower rates of fat production. The

of nature and the genetic makeup of the freediver.

adaption that these Bajau have undergone are

For anyone wanting to enjoy freediving this is not an

almost all genetic (nature). The adaptions that

issue, but for those looking to break world records, it

have occurred due to nurture are negative ones.

can have a massive impact.

Due to poor education, most Bajau are not aware of the need to equalize while diving, meaning

References:

that many have completely ruptured ear drums

1

from the massive pressure caused by water. A fu-

Nature vs. Nurture: Genetic Factors vs. Growth and Development. Advances in Expe-

rther issue is the risk of decompression sickness, which occurs due to repeatedly hitting incredible

rimental Medicine and Biology Hypoxia, 101-112. doi:10.1007/978-1-4899-7678-9_7 2

depths during freediving. This can cause massive pains and even death. Decompression sickness,

Brutsaert, T. (2016). Why Are High Altitude Natives So Strong at High Altitude?

Lane, M. (2011, January 12). What freediving does to the body. Retrieved April 01, 2018, from http://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-12151830

3

Loria, K. (2016, August 10). Heres an exact breakdown of why 64” Michael Phelps

luckily, is rare. The Bajau have the perfect body

has the perfect body for swimming. Retrieved April 01, 2018, from http://www.

type and adaptation for freediving, so the next

businessinsider.com/michael-phelps-rio-olympics-body-swimming-2016-8?in-

question that needs to be asked is: “can they beat the current record holders with proper trai-

ternational=true&r=US&IR=T 4

Ilardo, M. et al. (2018, April 19). Physiological and genetic Adaptions to Diving

ning?” Due to the Bajau being the perfect ‘nature’

in Sea Nomads. Cell, Volume 173, 569-580e15. doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.

example for freedivers, they need to be compa-

cell.2018.03.054

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Author: Welmoed Cnossen Illustrator: Liselotte Bergstra

Innate or Acqui 10

ired Musicality 11

Honours Review - Innate or Acquired Musicality

When we think of a concert pianist or a brilliant violin player, we assume that they have a predisposition in life: musical gift. Of course, they have practised a lot and put in a lot of time and effort, but they had a kickstart. However, how great is this actual advantage? Even the brightest prodigy child must receive some musical education to spark his or her musicality. Would Mozart be as famous if he hadn’t been born in a musical family? Would his musicality have been triggered if he had been raised by farmers in an Austrian rural village? My guess: no. Nurture plays such a big role in musicality, that we must give a genetic predisposition far less credit. Musical education is the vital factor in musical competence, in fact, more important than some lucky genes.

Before we discuss musicality, we must define music. In essence, music is a series of sounds that change in pitch and rhythm.1 Other features of music are expressed in dynamics (loud or soft) and timbre (warm or creaky). When looking at the human experience of music, we can distin-

The ability to objectively perceive musical features is

guish two kinds of perception: discriminating between

found in very small infants, as Chang and Trehub showed.2

changes in pitch, duration, and rhythm and perceiving

They did a study on 5-month-old infants by exposing them

whether the tones conform to the key. We have an objec-

to different kinds of tonal structures. They measured the

tive and subjective music perception. The first perception

deceleration of their hearts, which occurred when they

on perceiving differences, the second one on our expecta-

were familiar with certain music. The researchers found

tions, which are formed by the music we know.

that the infants were able to perceive changes in pitch.

Many more studies have been conducted to show the

Then, what is musicality? Musicality is the competence

innateness of musicality. For instance, Trainor and Trehub

to perceive and assess various aspects of music. In this

showed in 1992 that 8-month-old infants have the ability

definition, no distinction is made between the two kinds

to encode some melodies into their long term memory.3

of perception. Prior to doing research on musicality, one must take two things into consideration. Firstly, musicality

Do the previous findings mean that music cognition is

is a multifaceted, complex skill, that is not easily under-

present in the brain before birth? The problem with such

stood. Sensitivity to rhythm is not the same as a feel for

studies is that it is hard to prove a neural predisposition

harmony, but we unite them under musicality. Secondly,

for music in the brain. Firstly, we cannot point out one area

musicality is a culturally defined concept. What might be

in the brain specifically designed for music. Secondly, it

melodious according to Amazonian Indians might not be

has been proven that babies in the uterus are able to hear

melodious at all in the Western world.

sounds from outside, that makes them biased for certain

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Author - Welmoed Cnossen

sounds when born. So even foetuses are influenced by

As we know, musicality is a multifaceted competence.

external factors. It has long been accepted that genes play

It is evident that there is a correlation between genetics

a role in music cognition, but we might give genes too

and environment in musical abilities.6 Studies show that

much credit.

different musical aspects – rhythmic competence, musical memory or feel for harmony – preoccupy different areas

On the other hand, evidence supports the nurture domi-

of the brain. There is no clear centre for musical abilities.7

nance in musicality. The ability to assess music develops

Instead, substrates of brain regions are used for different

over time. From early on, we are exposed to the music

musical activities. These substrates are not exclusively

that prevails in our culture. Inadvertently, we develop a

built for this alone. For instance, Broca’s area plays a big

specialization for this musical structure. We gain implicit

role in music perception, but is more famous for its great

knowledge of ‘musical syntax’. Many studies support this

role in language production. The prefrontal areas of the

quintessential role of the environment. For example, it

brain, which house our working memory, also comprise

was shown in 1992 that Western toddlers do not sponta-

the storage for melodies. Surprisingly, motor regions also

neously comprehend the idea of discrete notes. Although

process rhythm. This might be the reason why we are

being exposed to Western music, they couldn’t accurately

inclined to tap, swing or dance when we hear a rhythmic

differentiate between notes in juxtaposition. Separation

pattern. What becomes clear, is that music has no specific

between musical sounds seems to be culturally defined,

brain area.

4

not universally encoded. As for sensitivity towards harmoniousness, some questions have been raised about inna-

There is one particularly interesting approach, that allows

teness. Corrigall and Trainor showed in 2009 that children

us to discriminate between nurture and nature. What is

up to 5 years old can detect dissonant chords in familiar

better way than investigating differences in music percep-

songs, but they don’t seem to be able to do the same with

tion between twins? Hypothetically, one expects that twins

unfamiliar songs.5 This finding shows that sensitivity to

perform the same way on tests. For example, they should

harmoniousness could be a more cultural than genetic abi-

roughly achieve the same results in a mentally demanding

lity. Many aspects of musical cognition turn out to be the

test, as they share the same genes and cognitive abilities

consequence of musical experience and education.

are genetic. So, if they have the same results on a music-related test, it may be concluded that that particular ability is genetic. If they do not share the same results on a task, the assessed musical aspect probably relies predominantly on acquired knowledge.

Such a survey has been conducted by a group of Finnish researchers. Seesjärvi and his team distinguished the two kinds of music perception: discrimination and assessment.

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The goal of the research was to assess the influence both

nature and nurture have on musical abilities. The sample in their study consisted of 384 subjects, including 69 full monozygotic twins, 44 full dizygotic twins, 70 monozygotic twins without a co-twin and 88 dizygotic twin without a co-twin. The subjects were born between 1975 and 1979.

Subjects were asked to execute three tasks: the Scale test, the Off-beat test and the Out-of-key test. Unfamiliar melodies were used in all three tests. In half of the trials of

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Honours Review - Innate or Acquired Musicality

factor. The Out-of-key test, which tested melody assessment, revealed a strong environmental factor. Finally, and surprisingly, the Off-beat test showed no correlation with either genetics or environment and rhythm sensitivity.

So, all three tests gave different results. They showed for the first time that genetics and environment influence music cognition to a different degree. The researchers the Scale test, the second line had been altered by changing

concluded that the ability to perceive changes in melody

the pitch of one note. Subjects had to judge whether the

is mostly genetic. The implicit, more biased perception of

two melodies were identical or not. The Off-beat test was

melody and rhythm is acquired in life. This finding is sig-

similar: two lines of melodies, of which in half of the trials

nificant, as the ever-dominant role of genetics has been

the second had been altered by rendering the melody

downgraded. The test that showed a genetic effect tested

arrhythmic. In half of the trials in the Out-of-key test, one

memory, which cannot be synonymous with musicality.

note in the second melody was rendered out of key. The

Instead, the subjective perception, assessing melody and

Scale test tested the objective perceptive skill: discriminati-

rhythm, did show to be environmentally driven. These

on. xecution of the two latter tests relied on the subjective

abilities come a lot closer to our definition of musicality.

perceptive kill: assessment.

In summary, although we cannot deny a genetic factor

14

The researchers compared groups of monozygotic (100

in musicality, its role is not as grand as the environment.

shared genes) and dizygotic (50

Previous studies showed that musical abilities are

shared genes) twins.

As there were no big differences in the environments the

genetic, but often the tests relied on memory. In contrast

individual twins grew up in, the primary difference between

to that, many studies have suggested the vital role of the

these groups was their relatedness. What they found was

environment and education. The study of the Finnish re-

quite special: an extremely contrasting pattern of nature

searchers Seesjärvi et al. shows that genetics indeed play

and nurture influenced the three tasks, which measured dif-

a role in musical memory, but that musical knowledge

ferent aspects of musicality. The Scale test, which deman-

– as nurtured by the environment – determines genuine

ded same-different identification, revealed a clear genetic

musical skills: the skill to ‘feel’ when something is off.

Author - Welmoed Cnossen

References: 1

Seesjärvi, ., Särkäm , T., uoksimaa, ., Tervaniemi, M., Peretz, I.,

aprio, . (2016). The Nature and

Nurture of Melody: A twin study of Musical Pitch and

Reston, A. 5

cal training on key and harmony perception. Annals of the New ork Academy of Sciences, 1169, 164–168.

6

Chang, H. Trehub, S. . (1997). Auditory Processing of xperimental Child Psychology. 24. Pp 324 – 331.

Trainor, . .,

Press. Pp 423 – 497.

7

Trehub, S. . (1992). A comparison of

structure. ournal of xperimental Psychology: Hu-

Trainor, . . Hannon, . . (2012). Musical Development. The Psychology of Music. ondon: Academic Marcus, .F. (2012) Musicality: Instinct or Acquired Skill? Topics in Cognitive Science. Cognitive Science

infants’ and adults’ sensitivity to Western musical

4

Trainor, . . (2009). ffects of musi-

nal ournal Devoted to Research in the Inheritance of

Relational Information by oung Infants. ournal of 3

Corrigall, . A.,

Rhythm Perception. Behavior enetics: An InternatioBehavior,46(4), 506-515.

2

ing of Music. Music ducators National Conference,

Society Inc: New ork.

8

Seesjärvi, ., Särkäm , T., uoksimaa, ., Tervanie-

man Perception and Performance, 18 (2), 394–402.

mi, M., Peretz, I.,

Davidson, ., Mc ernon, P.,

Nurture of Melody: A twin study of Musical Pitch and

ardner, H. (1981).

aprio, . (2016). The Nature and

The acquisition of song: A developmental approach.

Rhythm Perception. Behavior enetics: An Internatio-

Documentary Report of the Ann Arbor Symposium:

nal ournal Devoted to Research in the Inheritance of

Application of Psychology to the Teaching and earn-

Behavior,46(4), 506-515.

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What Psychopathic Killers are Made of Author: Laura Jark Illustrator: Merel Wendt

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Honours Review - What Psychopathic Killers are Made of

Today, around 1% of the general population can be classified as psychopaths in the U.S. Within the number of prison inmates it is almost 25%, a majority of whom are psychopathic killers.1 How can we spot killers, what motivates them and what may be the reasons why they became killers? Popular TV shows such as “Mindhunter”, which are based on real events and actual findings in the field, try to

killer. This claim is based on research conducted in

Psychopathy is a spectrum

explain psychopathic behavior and how psychopa-

the field neurocriminology, especially the rese-

mental disorder where each

ths are different from other people. The popularity

arch by James H. Fallon, which I will present in the

patient exhibits unique,

of these shows demonstrates how much people

following.

individualized signs and

are intrigued by the phenomenon of psychopathic

symptoms. Therefore, there

killers and their motives for committing crimes.

are fundamentally different kinds of psychopaths. Just

Indeed, the case of psychopathic killers is intriguing

as most other neurological

to look at, especially for criminal investigators and

diseases, psychopathy can

neuroanatomists. It is also important for non- ex-

have genetic or prenatal

perts to know about psychopathic killers and how

development causes;

to identify them in order to raise general awareness

however, the disease often

and to hopefully prevent crimes from happening.

does not manifest itself until

But what actually makes a psychopathic killer? This

the person has reached later

phenomenon intrigues people because the average

developmental stages.

person cannot fathom committing violent crimes and not feeling remorse after.2 This area of rese-

“Something psychopaths tend to do very well is cover up their social deficiencies, so that they seem nice and charming in the beginning”

arch has only become of interest over the past few

When we first meet someone on the street and start

decades. Therefore, there is no clear answer to what

a conversation with them, we might not realize that

exactly makes a psychopathic killer yet. However,

they could be a psychopath. Something psychopa-

it seems like there is an interplay of nature and

ths tend to do very well is cover up their social defi-

nurture involved, where nature is the factor that is

ciencies, so that they seem nice and charming in the

more prominent in determining whether someone

beginning. Only after some time, they show a lack of

is a psychopath, but nurture being the important

empathy and it becomes obvious that they lie and

aspect that can turn someone into a psychopathic

manipulate people for their gain.3 There is no apparent feeling of guilt or regret, and their own feelings, as well as the feelings of other people, are often not considered or even properly understood. It seems as if psychopaths do not take morale into account in their judgment or decision- making process, which causes them to feel no attachments. These are internal factors which often lead these people to engage in criminal actions without any apparent reason at all since those factors can usually not be observed by others.3 However, there are certainly cases in which psychopaths can be described as

18

Author - Laura Jark

can include the extent of damage to the brain due to either pre- or post-natal injury, the age at which a person suffers brain damage, as well as the patency of other brain regions which may affect the severity and permanence of psychopathic behavior. He highlights that age plays a crucial role in the development of symptoms, meaning that lesions in the same region of the brain at different ages produce diverse symptoms.5 This is because distinct regions of the brain develop at particular times and specific circuits influencing our behavior are formed at specific ages. What is especially tragic is the fact that the consequences of such brain damage, even damage prior to birth, are often not noticed until the person reaches an older age. Therapy for psychopathy is, until now, still not explored widely enough which makes it impossible to properly treat suffering from the condition.5 All these arguments point to the fact, that there seem to be naturally given aspects to psychopathy.

However, what about environmental and therefore nurture aspects of the debate? According to Rutter,7 “remorseless predators who use charm, intimida-

nature and nurture cannot simply be dealt with se-

tion and, if necessary, impulsive and cold- blooded

parately as it often has been done in the past. Fallon

violence to attain their ends”.4 In this context, there

also mentions briefly that it is accepted to assume

is recent evidence pointing to what actually makes

that there are elements that have to do with nurture

someone a psychopath on an anatomical as well as

which influence psychopathy and he points out that

a genetic level. This brings the nature aspect of this

the first episode of mental diseases often follows a

phenomenon into focus.

James H. Fallon is a

In his 2006 article, James H. Fallon points out that a

Professor of Psychiatry and

major indicator for psychopathic behavior is brain

Human Behavior at the Uni-

damage - more precisely damage to the amygdala,

versity of California. He has

the orbital cortex and adjacent parts of the prefron-

been working on how the

tal and anterior temporal lobe.5 These parts of the

brains of psychopaths differ

brain are commonly associated with controlling

from other people’s brains

social interactions, the inhibition of impulsive

for almost 20 years.

behavior, aggression, and violent attitudes, which is why damage to those areas of the brain can be so destructive.6 Fallon also points out that psychopathy is an illness which can vary widely, and which can be influenced by different factors. Such elements

“Behavior usually develops properly and automatically unless there are intervening catastrophic events, such as brain injury due to abuse or metabolic poisoning” 19

Honours Review - What Psychopathic Killers are Made of

that he might have a biologic reason to show violent and psychopathic behavior. All of a sudden, a lot of his actions made sense to people in his close environment, but also to himself. He is the kind of person who would put himself first, would not strong stressor of some sort. He also discusses that

regard other people’s feelings and would always do

behavior usually develops properly and automati-

what was best for him, no matter the consequences.

cally unless there are intervening catastrophic events, such as brain injury due to abuse or metabolic

However, there is still one big component missing;

poisoning. This would mean that there has to be an

Jim Fallon is not aggressive. He shows no violent

external influence which triggers the aggressive be-

behavior. Instead, he is a renowned professor with

havior. However, Fallon comes back to his prevailing

a wife and three kids and has certainly never killed

opinion of a nature side to psychopathy and leaves

anyone. So, what is it then that turns a psychopath

the nurture aspect somewhat unilluminated.

into a psychopathic killer? There seems to be one

5

last element that creates the kind of person so many Fallon makes up for this in some of his more

people fear but at the same time seem to be intri-

recent research which he presented in a TED talk

gued by. This factor is someone’s childhood.8 Fallon

in 2009.8 Shortly after publishing the paper on the

himself has had a very stable environment and was

“Neuroanatomical Background to Understanding

growing up with loving parents who supported

the Brain of the Young Psychopath”, he found out that his own brain scans actually look exactly like the ones of psychopathic killers that he had been studying for a long time. The exact same areas in the brain were not lighting up on the scans, which means that he is a psychopath himself. This is when he also found out that several generations of men in The warrior gene is located

his family had a violent past and he started investi-

on the X chromosome.

gating them and also himself in more detail.

Daughters receive an X chromosome from both

While working on this project, he found that there

their father and their mother

is another important component in what makes

which means that the effects

a psychopath based on an apparent shift towards

of the warrior gene are

“genetically weighted theories” in explaining psy-

somewhat more neutralized

chopathy. This is the MAO-A gene, or “warrior gene”.

in women. Men on the other

This gene controls serotonin levels in the brain, and

hand receive the X chromo-

it is believed that if a person has a specific type of

some from the mother and

the warrior gene, their brain will not react to the

a Y chromosome from the

calming effects of serotonin and therefore be more

father. This means that even

prone to violent behavior.9 This is a variant of the

though it might not manifest

gene that is only found in men, which points to the

in women, they are usually

idea that it is transferred from mother to son.

the ones to transfer it to

During his investigation, Fallon discovered that he

their sons.

also possesses this variant of the gene which means

20

“There needs to be a trigger in order to determine whether someone develops into a psychopathic killer or not”

Author - Laura Jark

Reference: 1.

Kiehl, K., and Hoffman, M. (2011). The criminal psychopath: History, neuroscience, treatment, and economics.

Jurimetrics, no. 51: 355.

2.

LaBrode, R. T. (2007). Etiology of the psychopathic serial killer: An analysis of antisocial personality disorder, psychopathy, and serial killer personality and crime scene characteristics. Brief Treatment and Crisis Intervention, no. 7(2): 151.

3.

Kiehl, K., and Buckholtz, J. (2010). Inside the mind of a psychopath. Scientific American Mind, no. 21(4): 22-29.

4.

Hare, R. (1996). Psycopathy and antisocial personality disorder: A case of diagnostic confusion. Psychiatric Times, no. 132.

5.

Fallon, J. H. (2005). Neuroanatomical Background to Understanding the Brain of the Young Psychopath.

Ohio State Journal of Criminal Law, no. 3: 341.

6.

Blair, R. (2003). Neurobiological basis for psychopathy.

British Journal of Psychiatry, no. 182: 5-7.

7.

Rutter, M. (1991). Nature, nurture, and psychopathology: A new look at an old topic. Development and Psychopathology, no. 3(2): 125-136.

8.

Fallon, J. H. Exploring the mind of a killer. TED, Accessed February 2009.

https://www.ted.com/talks/

him. For psychopathic killers that is usually very

mental influences

different. The vast majority of them has experien-

can reinforce violent

ced some form of abuse in their early childhood

behavior to a large

Epigenetic considerations. New Genetics and Society,

or has witnessed brutal forms of violence. Having

extent. The neurological

no. 31(1): 41-53.

experienced such trauma influences the brain and

and genetic deficits that

its further development. For someone who already

were mentioned before are what makes someo-

lacks empathy or moral judgment, such experiences

ne predisposed for certain violent behaviors, but

in childhood can work as a form of trigger, and it

they cannot solely be responsible for the fate of

becomes easier for psychopaths themselves to exert

someone’s life. There needs to be a trigger in order

violence.

to determine whether someone develops into a

2

jim_fallon_exploring_the_mind_of_a_killer 9.

Gillett, G., and Tamatea, A. (2012). The warrior gene:

psychopathic killer or not. What needs to be kept in To come to a conclusion, there seems to be a

mind is that psychopathy is a very faceted disorder

delicate mixture between nature and nurture that

and further research has to be conducted, especially

influences whether someone is or will become a

on the interplay of nature and nurture. However,

psychopathic killer. It is important to keep in mind

the natural predisposition seems to be the most

that there are various events coming together in

important factor in determining whether someone

making someone a psychopathic killer. Even though

is a psychopath and the nurture aspect, meaning a

more approaches are favoring the nature side of the

form of trigger, is what can turn them into psycho-

debate, it can clearly not be ignored that environ-

pathic killers.

21

Food For Thought Explaining Our Obsession with Meat Author: Jasper Meurer Illustrator: Okki Poortvliet

22

23

Honours Review - Food for Thought

There is not much in favour of meat consumption these days.

We are aware of the devastating effects it has on the environment. We know it is detrimental to our health. We know about

Whenever science produces pieces of evidence

the suffering inflicted upon the billions of animals we slaugh-

linking our ancient relatives to meat consump-

ter every year. And yet on average worldwide meat intake is

tion or announces the finding of a “meat-eating

skyrocketing and debates between meat eaters and vegans

gene”, the self-proclaimed natural carnivores in

are dominating the public sphere. In this context, an argument

our ranks creep out of their hides to lacerate the

that some people seem to be holding on to in a quasi-religious

discovery and proclaim it as the final blow to the

fashion is: Humans are natural meat eaters.

vegan philosophy. In a desperate effort to sooth the cognitive dissonance between the taste and convenience of meat and the disastrous effects on health, environment and animal welfare that vegans have uncomfortably made us aware of, the Nature vs. Nurture debate has been invited to the discussion in order to find some kind of a justification for our meat heavy diet. Yet does a look into the age old Nature vs. Nurture debate trully shed a new light on the current carnivore vs. herbivore debate? I say it does, but not in the way that people seem to think: nurture might help explain why we are so obsessed with meat.

To substantiate my contention, I will first take a look at two studies that provide some genetic and evolutionary background on human meat consumption. I will then analyze how these studies were instrumentalized by the media to underline the ‘natural meat-eater theory’, before debunking this interpretation of the results of these studies and explaining in what ways our meat obsession can be linked back to the effects of nurture.

In 2016, a study conducted by Harvard scientists revealed concrete evidence that our ancestors included some form of meat in their diet. As far

24

Author - Jasper Meurer

back as 2.6 million years ago hominis started

meat eating that didn’t really exist in academic

increasing their meat intake to significant levels

circles. We can also see this based on reports on

and stuck with a meat heavy diet until the advent

the “genetics” of meat consumption. If we were

of agriculture. According to the study, it was the

to abide by the articles in mainstream media,

emergence of new tools and the accompanied

we would arrive at the conclusion that we are

discovery of food processing techniques that

born with genes which make eating steak and

lead to this shift. From that moment on, meat

sausage as natural as drinking water. The Wall

could be sliced, pounded and generally pro-

Street Journal uses a study on a human gene

cessed in a way that “require[d] fewer chews to

called apoE (apolipoprotein E in its full form) as

consume” (Zink, 500). The scientists measured

evidence to declare the existence of a “human

the energy efficiency of different processed and

‘meat-eating gene’’ 4. Nevertheless, pretty writing

unprocessed foods and came to the conclusion

does not disguise the fact that a look into studies

that hominis started eating more meat, as the

on apoE proves that the gene is a far stretch

amount of energy derived from eating processed

from being a “meat-eating gene”. The writings

meat relative to the energy needed for chewing,

of the biologist Caleb Finch from the University

made meat a more efficient energy source than

of California on apoE reveal that the gene is very

root plants like yams or beetroot (Zink, 500-503).

much linked to meat consumption, but only as a “meat-adaptive gene”. Finch states that when

These findings are interesting as they show us

early hominids started increasing their meat

why our ancestors ate meat, but the fact that

consumption they were met with a heightened

they did so in the first place is not really big

disease risk, especially Alzheimer’s and vascular

news. Cut marks on bones and tools left next

disease. Mutations of the apoE3 gene helped our

to carcasses have already shown us that meat

ancestors to “shift from an herbivorous ape diet

was in some shape or form part of our ancient

to the more omnivorous diet of hominids, while

family’s diet. Nevertheless, this did not stop the

also enabling a major increase in life-span”3.

media from making the findings of the study out

ApoE ,therefore, helped us digest and process

to be the ultimate argument against veganism.

meat better that could otherwise cause deadly

“Sorry Vegans: Here’s How Meat-Eating Made

diseases.

Us Human”, proclaims an article published in TIME magazine with the author saying that

All of the above serves as evidence for the fact

“our genes (...) give [meat] a loud and rousing

that we have eaten meat for the longest part of

yes”. The Washington Post shows an awkwardly

our history and our bodies have evolved over

similar approach in their article “Sorry, Vegans:

millions of years to be able to process meat

Eating Meat and Cooking is how Humans got

better, but saying meat consumption is per se

their big Brains”, where the correlation between

natural is also a far-fetched contention. As Finch

increased meat consumption and early human

explains, we actually started off as vegetarians

brain growth is used to discredit any arguments

(Finch 4). That is obviously not to say that we

against eating meat .

should never eat meat again and the studies

3

10

discussed do show that meat has now evolved The media has been manipulating these studies

to become an integral part of the human diet.

to create a Nature versus Nurture debate around

But the fact that we generally have always eaten

25

Honours Review - Food for Thought

meat doesn’t justify the sheer amounts we consume today in the Western World and beyond. There is no natural genetic predisposition that explains our modern meat obsession.

Until recently meat was a scarcity, a treat. It’s acquisition was expensive and laborious. This changed with the advent of factory farming and the mass production of meat. Factory farming made it possible to turn livestock into mass consumer products.

Meat is now omnipresent and easily accessible and, as a result, our meat consumption has exploded over the last decades. The world population consumed about 70 million tons of meat in 1961. By 2014 it was 317 million tons 7. With the increasing

Moreover, one cannot neglect the connection bet-

industrialization and modernization of developing

ween the finished product we find neatly packaged

countries that figure can only be expected to grow

on the supermarket shelves and the suffering and

in the upcoming years. Accessibility, however,

killing of the animal before. The average US citizen

cannot be the only reason for our obsession with

eats about 27 animals a year 2, but nobody really

meat. A look into the meat industry shows us that

thinks about those animals once they land on the

our meat heavy diet has also been nurtured along

plate, and that’s because animal agriculture is de-

the way.

signed to eliminate that connection. The enormous factory farms are kept hidden away from the public eye, they are securely guarded and difficult to get access to and slaughter transport only happens in night time.

A look at the terminology of the slaughter industry is also telling: we don’t eat cows, we eat beef. We don’t eat baby sheep, we eat lambs. We don’t eat animal flesh, we eat meat. Removing the internal organs of a slaughtered animal is called dressing. Fancy, right? The examples are endless yet all of them pursue the same effect: the connection between the sausage on our plate and the dozens of animals we personally eat in a year erodes until it doesn’t exist in our minds anymore. For some people, however, that connection is very real: slaughterhouse workers. For them killing has become routine, but no less traumatic. Depression, PTSD and even suicide attempts are of a noticeably high rate amongst employees in slaughterhouses 6.

And then there’s the health risks of a meat heavy diet. Everything from cardiovascular disease to colon cancer has been directly linked to meat consumption (Bakalar 2017), but these facts have limited tangible impact on our food choices.

It’s easy to see why: the meat industry and lobbying around it is immense. In the US, the meat industry is worth 894 billion dollars, and that money flows into advertising, government campaigns and lobbying 8. The result is a general con-

26

Author - Jasper Meurer

ception of meat being the healthy and sustainable dietary option. The same technique applies to the environmental aspect of meat consumption. Animal agriculture’s carbon footprint is devastating: it accounts for 18% of human produced greenhouse gas emissions (more than ships, planes, cars and trucks combined), and is the leading cause of rainforest deforestation, water degradation, biodiversity loss, the list goes on (Vergunst and Savulescu 2017). Still it doesn’t look like we are in any way close to changing our habits. Arguably, this is because we have been trained not to. Because the industry is telling us not to. Because we have been nurtured not to.

Reference: 1

Now, where do we go from here? Continuing to

Times,May 15, 2017, https://www.nytimes.com/2017/05/15/well/eat/red-meat-

argue over the Nature versus Nurture sides of our diet is futile: like most fields of this age-old debate,

increases-risk-of-dying-from-8-diseases. html 2

there is no clear-cut answer proving either side. As I have shown, there is indeed evolutionary and gene-

Kean, Sam. “On the Origin of Homo Grillicus.” Wall Street Journal, July 20, 2012, https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303933704577533271378820202

5

are, it does not change the fact that a change ought to happen. In applying the Nature versus Nurture

Finch Caleb, and C.B. Stanford. “Meat-Adaptive-Genes and the Evolution of Slower Aging in Humans.” The Quarterly Review of Biology 79, no.1 (2004): 3–50.

4

the history and causes of our obsession with meat can be helpful in showing us why we are where we

Cosier, Susan. “How Much Meat We Eat.” NRDC.org, December 23, 2014, https://www.nrdc.org/onearth/how-much-meat-we-eat

3

tic evidence on the one hand but also societal and economic factors on the other. While looking into

Bakalar, Nicholas. “Red Meat Increases Risk of Dying From 8 Diseases.” The New York

Kluger, Jeffrey. “Sorry Vegans: Here’s How Meat-Eating Made US Human.” Time, March 9,2016, http://time.com/4252373/meat-eating-veganism-evolution/

6

Richards, Emma, Tania Signal, and Nik Taylor. “A Different Cut? Comparing Attitudes

debate to this discussion we run the risk of shying

Toward Animals and Propensity for Aggression Within Two Primary Industry

away from the actual problem: we eat too much

Cohorts-Farmers and Meatworkers.” Society and Animals 21, no. 4 (2013): 395–413.

meat. The warning signs are ubiquitous and its high time to finally realize that we need to rethink our

Doi:10.1163/15685306-12341284 7

diets.

Ritchie, Hannah and Max Roser. “Meat and Seafood Production and Consumption.”

Our World in Data, August 2017, https://ourworldindata.org/meat-and-seafood-pro duction-consumption

8

Shanker, Deena. “The US meat industry’s wildly successful, 40-year crusade to keep its hold on the American diet.” Quartz, October 22, 2015, https://qz.com/523255/ the-us-meat-industrys-wildly-successful-40-year-crusade-to-keep-its-hold-on-theamerican-diet/

9

Vergunst, Francis and Julian Savulescu. “Five ways the meat on your plate is killing the planet.”The Conversati on, April 26, 2017,https://theconversation.com/five-waysthe-meat-on-your-plate-is-killing-the-planet-76128

10

Wanjek, Christopher. “Sorry, vegans: Eating meat and cooking food is how humans got their big brains.” The Washington Post, November 26, 2012, https://www.washingtonpost.com/national/health-science/sorry-vegans-eatingmeat-and-cooking-food-is-how-humans-got-their-big-brains/2012/11/26/ 3d4d36de-326d-11e2-bb9b-288a310849e e_story.html?utm_term=.b68f3f0366d0

27

Kashmir and the post-imperial Tug of War 28

Author: Umme Aiemun Yousuf Hakim Illustrator: Olivia D’Cruz

29

Honours Review - Kashmir and the Post-imperial Tug of War

The panoply of incessant economic and social injustice has become an increasingly significant phenomenon in today’s capitalist world order. In this dominant discourse, the biggest sufferers are the colonial subjects who are being acrimoniously quelled in the political hegemony. “The term neo-colonialism generally represents the actions and effects of certain remnant features and agents of the colonial era in a given society.” 1 In cases like that of Kashmir, it’s essence is that while the state appears to be independent and have total control over its dealings, it is in fact controlled by foreign economic and political influences. Hence, it is a label for policies and subtle mechanisms of control actively contributing to indirectly serve and grant continuity to the practices of the colonial era.

Kashmir (1947-2019)

Indian government to provide military backing

The Kashmiri conflict has been a much disputed

and fled to India, ceding Kashmir to India. Indian

and sensitive political debate for decades. Situ-

and Pakistani forces thus first fought a war over

ated in the northernmost geographical region

Kashmir in 1947-48.

of the Indian subcontinent, this area has been subject to territorial clashes between India and

On January 1, 1949, a ceasefire was agreed, with

Pakistan. In order to interpret the rhetoric and

65% of the territory in Indian control and the

violence that currently surrounds the Kashmiri

remnants with Pakistan. However, when a third

region, one must first understand the history of

round of fighting prevailed, the 1966 Tashken

the area.

agreement stated that Indian and Pakistani military would pull back to their pre-conflict

“The partition of the Indian sub-continent along

positions, the nations would not interfere in each

religious lines led to the formation of India and

other’s internal affairs, economic and diplomatic

Pakistan. However, there remained the problem

relations would be restored, and the two leaders

of over 650 states, run by princes, existing within

would work towards convalescing bilateral

the two newly independent countries.” 2 Because

relations.

of its location, Kashmir could choose to join either India or Pakistan. Maharaja Hari Singh,

Within a span of 15 years, the balance of power

the ruler of Kashmir, was Hindu while most of

had decisively tilted in Pakistan’s favour, as the

his subjects were Muslim. Unable to decide

majority no longer sympathised with the Indian

which nation Kashmir should join, he chose to

Union. “Mrs Gandhi’s attempts to install puppet

remain neutral. However, in October 1947, facing

governments in state capitals, manoeuvring the

increasing pressure and threats of violence from

democratic process in the state legislatures, infu-

the Pakistani side, the moghul ruler urged the

riated the Kashmiris. The status quo was largely maintained until 1989 when pro-independence and pro-Pakistan guerrillas struck in the Indian Kashmir valley.” 3 They established a reign of terror and drove out almost all the Hindus from the valley before the Indian army moved in to flush them out. Meanwhile Indian and Pakistani troops regularly exchanged fire at the border.

30

Author - Umme Aiemun Yousuf Hakim

This conflict has since continued and escala-

elitism and authoritarianism’ in Aazaad Kashmir

ted, with both sides prying for territory, and a

basically inherited a transformed version of

movement for an “Aazaad Kashmir” (Urdu for

the British colonial administrative legacy. For

‘Free Country’) has circled the news for years.

instance, the Indian and Pakistani agents occupy

However, even now one can observe that

key positions in the governmental structure and

Kashmir possesses all of the characteristics of a

wield tremendous power and authority in civil

failed post colonial state. The following are, in

service. They preserve and reproduce this ‘power

my opinion, strategic instruments of control that

at the top’ by regulating civil service recruitment

were used by both the Indian and Pakistani state

and placements. Restructuring ventures failed to

in order to acquire and sustain control of the

make inroads into altering bureaucratic beha-

Kashmir region.

viour mainly due to resistance from the elitist

“Modern colonialism won its great victories not so much through its military and technological prowess as through its ability to create secular hierarchies incompatible with the traditional order.”

Political Control

cadre, which remains the prevailing instrument

This assiduous quotation logically encapsu-

of the political executive from foreign powers

lates the phenomenon of modern day ‘hybrid’

like India and Pakistan. This is also evident in

colonialism as it explores at its core, “the concept

the structure and infrastructure of cities like

of being owned or ruled through instruments

Jammu and Srinagar as most of them lead to the

of control.” 4 Kashmir for example, has had an

predominantly Indian controlled market places

amalgam of puppet governments and pro-Indian

where merchants from across the border, dump

or pro-Pakistani political parties that repre-

cheap products onto the lower middle class

sent its interests on the international stage. By

Kashmiri citizens that rely heavily on agricultural

controlling the policy making and governmental

goods for their income. Hence, proving that such

decisions, these states have a comprehensive

authoritarian hold on public services and gover-

political control and power over the functioning

nance (through exploitation and social variation)

of the ‘colonised’ country.

attributes to a pivotal characteristic of colonial practice today.

Bureaucratic elitism is one such aspect of modern colonial practices. This system of

The collective consciousness

authoritarianism outlines how colonies remain

Identity is political, and the Kashmiri conflict

subjugated through the medium of fear or lack of

is rooted in identity. Religion, culture, food,

choice. This phenomenon can be seen in “Aazaad

language, and art in society contribute to a sense

Kashmir” as it is a nominally self-governing

of self and unique identity. When nations are

polity administered by Pakistan and heavily in-

subjugated or pressurized by foreign powers,

fluenced by Russia and India. This ‘bureaucratic

this fabric of society is violated. Within this tug

31

Honours Review - Kashmir and the Post-imperial Tug of War

of war between Indian and Pakistani influence,

regions of Kashmir are almost extinct as schools and educational centres

the clash of these enduring identities makes the

were stopped from teaching these languages as they were blamed to have

problem of Kashmir so persistent.

‘indoctrinated’ youngsters into adopting foreign culture.

One extremely polarizing issue is the difference

The collective identity and Kashmiri spirit is also embedded in its art, mu-

in religious allegiance. There is an opposition

sic, film, cuisine and architecture. This aspect of their society is also under

between Hindus and Muslims, moderate Islam,

attack during this time of friction as in the course of the fight, Kashmiri

fundamental Islam and secularism and central

museums, artefacts and music are deliberately destroyed to eliminate all

government control in opposition to self-go-

structures that are out of step with their narrow understanding of ‘Hindu/

vernment. Hence, this dynamic sense of self or

Muslim nationalism’. Archaeological digs, minarets, citadels and Sufi shrines

cultural identity is ignored under the concept

of cultural significance have been destroyed to obliterate the historical and

of colonialism as the colonizing power focuses

ethnic basis of the identity of a people. Unfortunately, while the diverse

on forming a hegemonic ideology rather than a

result of the decades of ethno-religious discord in the State of Jammu

holistic citizen base. The religious grounds for

and Kashmir is common news, the destruction of its lush heritage remains

partition between India and Pakistan provide

largely neglected. “Militant insurgents have deliberately targeted religious

enough historical contexts to ensure that friction

sites while security forces have occupied other monuments. The unprece-

is inevitable in the Kashmiri region if the two

dented flooding and torrential rains due to climate change only exacerbate

powers continue to influence the public rhetoric

this situation.” 5

and reinforce the religious differences.

Ideological Control: Propaganda In addition to that, Kashmiri heritage does a

Negative stereotyping and propaganda from both the Indian and Pakistani

beautiful job of amalgamating Muslim, Hindu,

side accentuate why one may believe that Aazaad Kashmir is a mere colo-

Sikh and Buddhist philosophies and creating

ny grappling between two power wielding nations. Pervasive stereotyping

a composite culture based on the values of

has sowed the seeds for the converse state of affairs that subsist today on

humanism and tolerance collectively known as

the issue. This is the result of distortion of information in the schooling

“Kashmiriyat”. This cultural identity too, is in

system and media. Education performs the essential role of secondary so-

decline at the brunt of the war in the region. This

cialisation which can aid in revolutionizing the mind of a generation to be

is evident as the celebration of various pandit

more tolerant and to employ edification as a tool to differentiate between

festivals has recently been shunned upon in the

what is right and wrong. However, in this case they sustain the problems

predominantly Muslim regions for having links to

and conflicts of the past by deliberately perpetuating religious and ethnic

Hindu mythology and polytheist connotations.

differences through discriminatory and biased practices and a restricted,

Such bans not only repress essential aspects of

preferential curriculum. An apt illustration of this is the history textbooks

Kashmiri heritage but also hinder the community

used in most Kashmiri public schools, as they misinterpret history and

spirit.

include blatant factual errors to highlight a predisposed image, providing an enduring platform for baseless hatred and little critical thinking.

32

The language spoken in Kashmir too is impacted

Correspondingly, mass media produce few programs that humanize the

by this neo-colonialist influence. Kashmiri lite-

other by reflecting true realities and connections, targeting instead stark

rature is increasingly being replaced by Sanskrit

differences. Therefore, media, fail to embrace this opportunity to serve

and Urdu books that follow a common under-

as ‘watchdogs’ and ‘mouthpieces’ but instead perpetuate the untoward

lying thread of biased socio-political agenda

socialization process. 7 The controversial social media ban of April 2017

and rhetoric. Over 17 Indo-Aryan and Tibetan

too was an attempt to shut out any rebellious rhetoric from the younger

languages that were spoken in the mountainous

generation.

Author - Umme Aiemun Yousuf Hakim

Guns, Germs & Steel

percent of its requirements, creating a cycle of

Historically, one of the core reasons for fighting

deprivation. Kashmir is rich in natural resources

for territorial gain or establishing empires was

and possesses a talented, entrepreneurial labour

economic benefit and access to resources. This

force, but its growth and progress has been

was done by organizing a political system in

bogged down by injudicious economic strate-

which the colonizing state has substantial centra-

gies, corruption and prevalent socio-political

lized control over social and economic affairs. An

instability. 9 Similarly, land of critical importance

instance of this can be seen in Aazaad Kahsmir’s

to Kashmiri agro-based industries have been

untenable economic development, as they are

taken from locals and allocated to Indian security

unable to even pay official salaries without the

forces. This heavily infringes on the locals’ land

grants and aid from the Indian government,

rights. This dependency and commercial pene-

in the form of subsidies. Due to the on-going

tration of Kashmir reiterates the fact that it is an

crisis and fiscal block enforced by the Jammu

apt case study for a subject of modern colonial

agitation, the domestic market is in shatters and

practice. In order to actually help the Kashmiri

tourism, which has otherwise been important

people, Indian and Pakistani governments must

for generating incomes, has declined. (6)Also,

take appropriate steps to reduce the trade barri-

Kashmir’s natural resources are exploited, and

ers and restrictions put on businesses, terminate

the profits are reaped by other parts of India.

state monopolies in commerce, and make way

For instance, a significant amount of electricity

for foreign direct investment or no-strings-atta-

generated by Kashmiri hydroelectric plants is

ched aid.

exported to India, while the country itself suffers from incapacitating power shortages. The large deployment of troops further impacts economic activities (especially in agricultural zones) as it restricts critical movement between cultivation

References:

fields and market. 8

1

Taiwo, A. (2017). “Neo-colonialism. Internet Encyclopaedia of Philosophy.”

2

Prasad, N. (2016). “Contemporary Pakistan: Political System, Military and

Water is one of the most contested resources in Kashmir. According to the Indus Water Treaty

Changing Scenario.”

3

(IWT) of 1960 ratified by India and Pakistan, the three rivers which traverse Jammu & Kashmir

telegraph.co.uk/news/1399992/A-brief-history-of-the-Kashmir-conflict.html 4

were given to Pakistan. As a consequence of the treaty, people of Jammu and Kashmir, were

Nandy, A. (1983). “The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self Under Colonialism”

5

denied the right to a basic necessity like water.

By placing numerous restrictions on use of water

The Telegraph. (2001). “A brief history of the Kashmir Conflict” http://www.

Carduggi, A. (2008). “F. Franconi, The 1972 World Heritage Convention: A Commentary”

6

for irrigation and harnessing of energy, this form

Antall, C. (2008). “Reflections on Religious Nationalism, Conflict and Schooling in Developing Democracies: India and Israel in Comparative Perspective”

of legal deprivation paved the way for Kashmir

7

Chenoy, K. (2007). “Contending Nationalisms”

to stagger behind India in the field of renewa-

8

Manzo, K. (2003). “Africa in the rise of Rights-based Development.”

ble energy production, despite possessing the

9

Navlakah, G. (2007). “State of Jammu and Kashmir’s Economy”

hydroelectric potential. 10 Thus, even where

10

Nkrumah, K. (1965). “Neo-colonialism: The last stage of imperialism.”

the state has a real advantage it is paradoxical-

11

Sumantra, B. (2007). “Kashmir in Contested Lands.”

ly dependent on outside sources to meet 80

12

Young, R. (2001). “Post-colonialism: An Historical Introduction”

33

34

Second-Hand Nostalgia in Contemporary Youth Author: Joanna Zienkiewicz Illustrator: Marina Sulima

35

Honours Review - 80’s Party!

Already in the 1980s, in his famous essay The nd of

is the widespread involvement, and often initiative

Art”, Arthur Danto proclaimed a posthistorical state

of the younger generations in those practices, that

of art. According to him, art was now to approach

remains a novelty. In this paper, I will theorize what

an extent of pluralism the previous epochs did not

can trigger the fascination with the near past in young

have, resulting in a reality where time periods would

people who never experienced it, assuming that the

intersect, and new works would lack a place on a

parental influence is not always a case. I argue that

strict timeline.3 30 years later, the pluralism of taking

it is a result of two previously described phenome-

cues from passed times has expanded its influence

na: displaced nostalgia (Wilson),10 and generational

to make the contemporary popular music culture

aura attribution (Lepa and Tritakis),5 combined with

swarm with revivals of old bands, reinterpretations

the mediatized reduction of the bygone decades to

of past genres, return of the past audio formats (such

unified and idealized narratives (as opposed to the

as the LP and cassette tapes), or decade-themed

confusing present). The methodology used to support

“retro” parties. Simon Reynolds described our time

the thesis will include an application of prior research

as experiencing retromania, arguing that we live in

to contemporary online discourse, bringing into light

an era obsessed with cultural artifacts of its own

how the past is perceived by the youth and why the

immediate past”. Looking back at the past as “better”

youth is interested in the past: leading to a holistic

or simpler , a nostalgia for one’s youth could be

understanding.

7

argued to be universal throughout ages however, it

Nostalgia or Something Else? The Theoretical Framework.

With contemporary nostalgia defined as an image of previous time when life was “good” (nostos- “return home”; algia - “pain”, “longing”); a bittersweet emotion requiring an active reconstruction of the past from memories,10 the term may seem strange to apply to those who never had an opportunity to gather such memories personally. In Retromania, Reynolds described more subcultural (hipsters) than generational aspects of different social groups of nostalgic retromaniacs, only briefly mentioning a possibility to feel for the glory days of ‘living in the now’ that you didn’t

actually live through .7 Reluctant to call younger

people nostalgic, epa and Tritakis introduced a firm separation between nostalgia and generational aura attribution (in their study on LP listening in the digital age titled, interestingly, Not every vinyl retromaniac is a nostalgic ).5 Basing on Walter Benjamin’s terms of aura (originality, uniqueness, rarity) as opposed to exhibition value (reproducibility, mass media),1 they proposed

36

Author - Joanna Zienkiewicz

that, from the perspective of members of digital media culture of the 21st century, analogue records and record players may regain the status of original artworks if they are rather seldom in the everyday repertoire, and thereby fulfilling symbolic demands that other audio media do not afford . In their view, it would be the aura : a rare, unique status of past audio formats (and by extension, past music) that would afford it the current popularity: this paranos-

talgia would have nothing to do with longing for the actual past, but rather longing for cultural artifacts

“Looking back at the past as ‘better’ or ‘simpler’, a nostalgia for one’s youth could be argued to be universal throughout ages; however, it is the widespread involvement, and often initiative of the younger generations in those practices that remains a novelty.”

perceived as more authentic than those of today.5 On the other hand, in her book Nostalgia: Sanctuary of Meaning, anelle Wilson was eager to call the phenomenon “nostalgia”, or more accurately, “displaced nostalgia” (researched among Generation in relation to their 1950s and 1960s fascinations). In her view, longing for the time one has never experienced firsthand reflects an unclear identity of the present, (which eneration felt in particular), enhanced by media images of the past as fun , simple , politically meaningful or free .10 In Boym’s terms, this nostalgia would be rather reflective (reflecting on the past) than restorative (attempting to restore the past),2 and dependent on collective memory. Wilson suggests that such a nostalgia may play a positive, crucial role: forging identities that are lacking in confusing times.10

37

Honours Review - 80’s Party!

“Music is not the only aspect of the phenomenon, however, one particularly widespread: with old albums outselling new ones since 2016 and millennials found to recognize more top tunes from 1960s-1990s than from 2000-2015.”

Displaced Nostalgia and Aura Attribution Today Since Wilson’s book wherein she suggests the 90’s lack a distinctive identity, the millennial en fascination with the past shifted from an emphasis on the 50’s and 60’s to the widespread popularity of the 60’s, 70’s, 80’s and 90’s (now seen as a colorful, optimistic, and playful decade). Music is not the only aspect of the phenomenon, however, one particularly widespread: with old albums outselling new ones since 2016,6 and millennials found to recognize more top tunes from 1960s-1990s than from 20002015.4 Online, countless opinion articles from young adults with titles such as Reasons why music from the 60’s-80’s is far better than today , Why 80’s music is still the best , Why 90’s Music is Better Than Music Today and similar overflow the search results for each decade, and ouTube comments under popular hits from the past are particularly frequent to mention preferences for this music despite being born later. Decade-themed parties are a popular trend among student associations in Groningen but also elsewhere in the Netherlands (researched

by Arno van der Hoeven in Remembering the Popular Music of the 1990s: Dance Music and the Cultural Meanings of Decade-Based Nostalgia ) 9 even a daily evening at karaoke bars tends to feature more songs chosen from the 70’s-90’s than from the 21st century.

The past is everywhere: but how and why do young fans of past music culture engage with it? To illustrate, I have chosen to explore the perception of the 1980s based on millennial forum discussions, opinion articles, and ouTube comments under the ‘greatest hits’ of the time. et the fans’ words speak for themselves.

38

I wasn’t born at that time, but I miss the 80’s.

Ameer Aziz on Bon Jovi’s “Livin’ on a Prayer”, YouTube 0% porn 0% naked girls 0% gold chains 0% gangster criminals 0% poppin’ bottles 0% useless bling bling - 100% real pure music pionapior on Bon Jovi’s “Livin’ on a Prayer”, YouTube God the 80s are my favorite I hate my generation. I wish I could have lived in the 80s so f*cking bad Ally S on Bon Jovi’s “Livin’ on a Prayer”, YouTube When you weren’t born in the 80’s but this song makes you nostalgic....

Milay on Journey’s “Don’t Stop Believing”, YouTube Whenever I listen to this, it makes me desperate to go back to the 80s.

Why’d I have to be born in 2005? I’ve tried searching up time travel, but my results have come back negative and have to live in the most messed up decade :( you guys had Michael Jackson, Whitney, James Brown, good music, no cellphones, and kids would actually go outside. brb while i go cry nyavak on Journey’s “Don’t Stop Believing”, YouTube The bitter truth is that our perception of the electric, wondrous and energetic era of the eighties is a recreated reality, influenced by the manifestations of its pop culture that has managed to withstand the test of time The Retrospekt opinion article “Why Millennials love the 80’s even if we’ve never lived in it” Since I am teenager, Sophomore in High School, I believe I can answer this, as I am listening to What Have I Done to Deserve this by Pet Shop Boys as I write this. I honestly believe 80s music is probably the best era of music. Absolutely clean lyrics, unlike today’s music, especially rap music where its just super degrading to women (I do like the Weeknd though, his music has actual meaning to it and although he does cuss, its not all bunched up together and given out to the public).

Zuhayr Ali on “Why do so many teenagers today love 80s music?”, Quora There’s no denying that the 1980’s were an offbeat decade.

But in 2016, offbeat is cool.

Millenial Influx opinion article “Why Are Millennials So Obsessed With The 80s?”

39

Honours Review - 80’s Party!

Those chosen and many other opinions expressed by young people online appear to confirm both a sort of generational aura attribution as described

by Lepa and Tritakis 5 (the 80’s as pure, authentic, clean), as well as include expressions of displaced nostalgia 5 (restorative: the wish to go back to the

to certain moods and pick only the manifestations

80’s, and reflective: reflecting on the 80’s as an

of pop culture that could withstand a test of time

eclectic and energetic era). A particularly nostal-

as the source material. As such, today’s “posthisto-

gia-proving case appears to be the phenomenon of

rical” period 3 of, as Reynolds put it, directionless

teenagers who identify themselves as born in the

direction” 2 ends up being far less appealing than

wrong generation (like nyavak in the mentioned

a unified narrative of authentic, simpler, better

quotes), self-describing themselves as old souls ,

popular culture of the bygone decades.

“not like other millennials”, and (interestingly)

In the light of Wilson’s book, one can notice an

“counter-cultural” (which may confirm Reynold’s

interesting pattern. At the time of its publication 14

argument that “In many people’s minds, retro is

years ago the 1990s and Generation X were percei-

8

twinned with hipster”). The sentiment is being

ved as the times that didn’t have a clear direction or

increasingly bashed and made fun of online, ne-

identity;10 now the millennials and eneration in

vertheless prevailing it can be seen as an extreme

the late 2010s see the 1990s as a source of nostal-

version of the overall idealization of past prevalent

gia, simpler and more authentic times with a clear

far beyond hipster communities. Displaced nostal-

narrative. When Danto wrote The nd of Art in

gia affects a large portion of demographic, albeit

the 1980s, he too was preaching the posthistorical

on various levels. At the same time, a bias against

period in which there would be no more linear de-

technology, reproducibility, and audio processing

velopments:3 yet, as young people today look at the

seems to be often intertwined with complaints on

later decades they are ready to describe them in just

the modern era and the quality of current music,

a few keywords, and reduce them to source material

echoing Walter Benjamin’s arguments of exhibition

for decade-themed parties that are overwhelmingly

value (reproducibility, widespread popularity) being

similar in content. The generational aura appeal and

7

opposed to aura (authenticity, rarity). Both the aura

the displaced nostalgia, both of which I have argued

attribution and the displaced nostalgia are in addi-

are the elements of the youth’s obsession with the

tion influenced by the working of collective memory

past, they did not live through may be expanding

which, as described before, tends to reduce decades

due to the digital age (the “access to the immediate

1

past” 7 and a possibility to readily reach communities of people with similar sentiments), however, it might be a universal sentiment which once began, will only grow. In 20 years there may be teenagers nostalgic for the 2010s, attributing to it an aura we now deny; as Simon Reynolds stated, retromania is indeed, here to stay.7

40

Author - Joanna Zienkiewicz

References: 1.

6.

Ever, Older Albums Are Out-Selling Newer Albums”.

Digital Music News. Retrieved from https://www. i ital usicne s co

Boym, S. (2001) The Future of Nostalgia. New York: 7.

Reynolds, S. (2011). Retromania: Pop Culture’s Addiction to Its Own Past. New York: Faber and Faber. Print.

8.

Stacia, J. (2017, May 30). ‘‘10 Signs You Were Born In

Hamill, J. (2019, February 7). “Millennials prefer

the Wrong Generation”. Thought Catalog. Retrie-

music from 20th century ‘golden age’ to the pop of

ved from https://thoughtcatalog.com/jillian-sta-

today, research suggests”. Metro. Retrieved from

cia/2017/05/10-signs-you-were-born-in-the-wrong-

https://metro.co.uk/2019/02/07/millennials-prefer-music-20th-century-golden-age-pop-today-rese5.

rst ti e e er ol-

der-albums-selling-newer-albums/.

Danto, A. C. (1984). “The End of Art.” The Death of Art. Ed. Beril Lang. New York: Haven Publishers. Print.

4.

or the irst i e

Mechanical Reproduction”. Illuminations. Ed. Hannah

Basic Books. Print.

3.

anuary

Benjamin, W. (1969) “The Work of Art in the Age of Arendt. New York: Schocken Books.

2.

esni o

generation/.

9.

Van der Hoeven, A. (2014). “Remembering the popu-

arch-reveals-8462993/.

lar music of the 1990s: dance music and the cultural

Lepa, S. & Tritakis, V. (2016). “Not every vinyl

meanings of decade-based nostalgia”. International

retro aniac is a nostal ic a social experi ent on the pleasures of record listening in the digital age”.

Medien & Zeit, 4. pp. 16-30.

Journal of Heritage Studies, 20 (3), pp. 316-330.

10. Wilson, J. (2005). Nostalgia: Sanctuary of Meaning.

Lewisburg: Bucknell University Press. Print.

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Author: Catrinel Radoi Illustrator: Ellen Roof 42

43

Honours Review - Oz or What I See When I Look

Under the question mark of what is and what is not, many things occurred to me as being sole projections of my mind. As much as I believe in the plasticity of human life, separating what could be shaped with a tiny drop of will and imagination from fixed events, led me to certain aspects of our existence that surpass the level of mendable perspectives. The focus of my observation lays upon the process of growing

We get scared or excited by the way in which we are waiting without waiting, by the way in which we are witnessing without observing, by the way in which time becomes more than a social concept when looking at ourselves up, growing old, growing: the transcendence of life through unseen, impalpable, short term moments with observable, undeniable results.

This surprise we are constantly setting for ourselves and its almost invisible transition is ironically the only change that has infallible results. We are inevitably growing up and we are never younger than we were one second before.

We can see how our bodies grew, our features changed, how we progressively start fitting the image we had of what an adult is. We get scared or excited by the way in which we are waiting without waiting, by the way in which we are witnessing without observing, by the way in which time becomes more than a social concept when looking at ourselves.

Realising that I was permanently sited on a ticking clock’s arm, steadily introduced me to the anxiety of growing up. It tied my brain around

44

Author - Catrinel Radoi

spiralling thoughts in the attempt to find links within the stretch of ageing. In more concrete, daily examples, sometimes I find myself eating things that I did not like before, wondering what I felt and what I did not like about these and how fascinating it is how little I used to know if one of my fears would be that of a bad taste.

Sometimes, I would read my own diary and every time relate to it in a different way. How can time change itself so radically in our ordinary passing through its extension? How can so many things that I don’t remember be a part of me?

Frequently, I realise that I treat the existence of my memories as being independent of my present self, making me feel weirdly unacquainted with my own foundations. Even so, for me, going back to old habits has a peculiar comfort that resembles the satisfaction of solving riddles.

Dot by dot, I try to put them together in what is already a messy map of forgotten lines. We do grow up and each of us has its own, but more or less similar, way to mourn their never lost losses.

could be found over the rainbow, sets the stage

A very dear reminiscence of my childhood, that

of one of the most important themes: the dream.

deserves its forthcoming analysis, in tight link

Kansas and the World of Oz, both projection of

to the invisibility of processes, is the movie “The

Dorothy’s mind, represent the shift from reality

Wizard of Oz”.

to ideality and our difficulty of going against

1

habitual settings. In Kansas, place suggestively “For nearly forty years this story has given

filmed in sepia tones, the girl lives with her aunt,

faithful service to the Young in Heart, and Time

uncle and three cousins on a farm. Toto, her

has been proven powerless to put its kindly phi-

dog was violently taken away from her by their

losophy out of fashion. To those of you who have

evil neighbour, causing a rupture between her

been faithful to it in return.. and to the Young in

feelings and the rationality of her family. Con-

Heart.. we dedicate this picture”. The opening of

nected by the cyclone, that could be meant as a

The Wizard of Oz, the most watched movie in the

symbol of mutation between the earthy and the

history of cinema, gives us an insight into what

“over the rainbow” spaces, the Emerald City is

is frequently neglected for its implicit meanings.

the second set in which most of the plot unfolds.

In explicit terms, this could be seen as the story

The World of Oz is filmed in colour and presents

of a young girl running away from home just to

Dorothy, accompanied by her dog, as a young, fe-

realise that, regardless of the troubles, “there is

male saviour. Her adventure on the yellow brick

no place like home”.

road can be seen as her initiation way towards

]

maturity. It is to understand that the journey to Dorothy’s wish to escape in a world without con-

Oz is a complex metaphor that connects bits of

cern, a world which, in her childish imagination,

our unconsciousness to our conscious.

45

Honours Review - Oz or What I See When I Look

ved by the decision made by the four, entire action belonging to Dorothy’s mind dreaming. Nevertheless, the ethical part of value allocation shouldn’t be ignored. After facing numerous challenges that required intelligence from the Scarecrow, feeling emotions and love from the Tin Man and courage from the Lion, the sole moment in which they believed they did hold those traits was after they were awarded. The Wizard gave the Scarecrow a Her cousins are representations of the encounters

diploma and named him a doctor in thinkology after

she has on her way: The Scarecrow, the Tin Man and

telling him that a brain is a mediocre wish. The Tin

the coward Lion, helping them reach their most de-

Man received a heart-shaped pocket watch and was

sired abilities: intellect, a heart, and a brain. This is

taught by Oz that a heart is not judged by how much

one of the closest bonds to reality as those charac-

you love, but by how much you are loved by others

ters are correspondents to what she thinks her

and that heart will never be practical until it will

cousins are lacking and could be brought to them by

be made unbreakable. Lastly, the Lion after being

giving her the chance to lead them to their remedy.

awarded a medal naming him a member of the

Still, in this ideal place in which the girl is acclaimed

legion of courage understood that he was a victim

as she is the hero, and in which she would have

of disorganised thinking and that he was confu-

the chance of living life however desired, her main

sing courage with wisdom. This sequence strongly

scope is still to go back to her aunt and home.

highlights the ridiculous system we accept as

As in most cases of real-world events, the power of

utterly defining for our capabilities: what is seen as

habitude and emotional bonds takes over rationali-

non-valuable gives value and what truly has value is

ty and the opportunity to accustom to novelty.

considered non-valuable as it is not recognised in a

The questioning of the Wizard’s existence based

predetermined way.

on the fact that he was never seen gives another important turn to this movie as it points out how the

On a more political level significantly described in

world actually unfolds and receives meaning in our

the Scarecrow’s words: “I think it’ll get darker before

minds. The solutions to all the problems that were

it gets lighter”, this movie has a complex structure

requiring the help of the Wizard of Oz were truly sol-

as it is an allegory of the Great Depression, bringing forward the model of fantasy movies having hidden meanings. Briefly, every character depicts

It is to understand that the journey to Oz is a complex metaphor that connects bits of our unconsciousness to our conscious.

an interest group and portrays the hardship of the 1930s. The destiny of men was led by naive innocence combined with a political force that seemed almost mystical and watched over by the goodwill of the “Good Witch of the North”. Ultimately, other controversial aspects were early feminist elements since the role of the protagonist, as initially set in the book, was played by a woman and the great, mighty Wizard was forged.

46

Author - Catrinel Radoi

As we are getting older, we have an unexplainable urge to set strict pillars of what reality is, discrediting whatever falls outside the apparent seriousness that comes with adulthood.

The uniqueness of the connections we make between different thoughts or between thoughts and elements brought to life by our perception is something that deserves all of our attention and deeper understanding. As we are getting older, we have an unexplainable urge to set strict pillars of what reality is, discrediting whatever falls outside the apparent seriousness that comes with adulthood. Our shortterm orientated way of thinking often perceives the present as a detached space from the past, when each of us has its own invisible yellow brick road and every corner it turns it is nothing but a continuation of its start. More than anything, this is an open invitation to looking deeper into what is now a part of yourself and to go beyond what seems puerile and meaningless. The Wizard of Oz represents one minor exposition of my previously stated call, as well as a reinforcing element to the importance of the surrounding and inner complexity we sometimes cease to observe.

References 1

The Wizard of Oz, directed by Victor Fleming, performed by Judy Garland, Frank Morgan, Ray Bolger, Bert Lahr, Jack Haley, Billie Burke, Margaret Hamilton, and Charley Grapewin, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, 1939, film.

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Colophon Editorial Board 2019-2020 Umme Aiemun - President Anna Streiber - Organisational Officer Madalina Nicolai - Design Dora Vrhoci - Blog and Website Editorial Board 2020-2021 Eoin Raftery - President Anna Costov - Organisational Officer & Design Reet Varma - Blog and Website Graphic Design Nico de Graaf Ellen Roof Illustrators Kim Tuin Liselotte Bergstra Marina Sulima Olivia D’Cruz Merel Wendt Okki Poortvliet

We thank our reviewers, the Council of Experts, the Honours College team, Geja Duiker and the Minerva Art Academy for their work and support. We acknowledge the University of Groningen Honours College for their financial support.

Issue 13 / February 2021 / ISSN 2214-6083 Edition: 50 copies / digital PDF Honours Review is a publication of students at the University of Groningen, the Netherlands.

For more info, visit: www.honoursreview.com Facebook: Honours Review Instagram: @HonoursReview

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Illustrator Cover- Kim Tuin