Undergraduate Thesis

URBAN CO -LIVING Th ro u gh a St u d y o f Co u rt yar d

2 0 1 9 - 2 0 2 0 Ho n g j i n Ya n g

Virginia Tech College of Architecture + Urban Studies Bachelor of Architecture Undergraduate Thesis

Thesis Advisor Aki Ishida Fall 2019 - Spring 2020

This thesis is dedicated to: my family my friends my mentor, Aki Ishida my hometown, Beijing

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CONTENTS

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Abstract

09

Statement Study Process

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Row House Project

15

Investigation of Courtyards in Individual Residential Houses Courtyard Type Analysis

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Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

25

Beijing - Hutong Beijing - Courtyard House

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Courtyard Prototypes

47

2 Prototypes of Courtyards Courtyard Formal Analysis

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Courtyard Housing I

57

Co-Living Courtyard Study

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Courtyard Housing II

69

Co-Living Courtyard Housing Project in Hoboken, NJ

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Afterword

89

8

+ Abstract

9

10

A B STR AC T This thesis aims to systematically understand the nature of shared public spaces in Beijing’s dense, narrow alleys–Hutong–and the courtyard houses situated within them. Learning from Hutong, this thesis investigates potentials of co-living in a contemporary urban space. It envisions an urban life that blends the individual, private domestic spaces with shared public life of the street.

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12

ST UDY PR O C E S S

Row House Project A small self-assigned project within an individual residential setting to investigate the role of the courtyard as spatial extension, connection and separation.

Hutong & Beijing Courtyard House Study An introduction of co-living concept through the exploration of both traditional and contemporary hutong and courtyard houses in Beijing.

Courtyard Prototypes Two prototypes of courtyard houses in both large and small scales demonstrate the study of inside vs. outside, private vs. public.

Courtyard Housing I An attempt to realize a complete design of courtyard house based on the first prototype. The focus is to design an enclosed form and a central semi-public space that responds to a sense of sharing community.

Courtyard Housing II A realization of second prototype in a site in Hoboken, NJ. The concept is to make urban life blend with private domestic space, and at the same time extend the home to the street to reproduce in an urban public space.

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+ Row House Project

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Row House Project The thesis starts with an exploration of courtyards in a Chicago row house, a two-week long self-assigned design study to understand the essence of courtyard space in an urban residential setting. The design intentionally breaks the typical row house composition of front yard, main house, back yard, and inserts courtyards in between as transitions.

Qualities of Courtyards Courtyard space creates a tension between inside and outside.

The juxtaposition of interior and exterior forms a spatial contract that changes people’s perception of original internal composition.

Besides, courtyards enrich the interior architectural space through natural elements such as weather and vegetations. The everchanging characteristic of courtyards stimulates a spatial dynamism and generates an organic combination of living and natural environment.

Functions of Courtyards The design studies of Chicago row house show three functions of courtyard space that will be further investigated in the next phase: connection, separation, and extension.

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Row House Remix Renovation Wicker Park, Chicago

Backyard

Main Building

Frontyard

Front Street

Back Alley

Garage

Typical Row House (top) Break mass and insert courtyards (bottom)

Row House Project

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2 Dining

Guest Room

Great Room

Living

1 Kitchen

3

Ground Floor Plan

Bedroom 1

Family Room

Bedroom 2

Second Floor Plan

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Master Bedroom

1

2

3

Moments

Courtyard 3

Courtyard 2

Courtyard 1 Sunken Courtyard

Connection between Guest room & Great room

Extension of Dining & Living room

Visually Separation of Living room & Kitchen

Row House Project

19

Section Analysis Based on Courtyards Strict order of typical row house in Chicago is broken into a system of secondary courtyards and rooms. The programs are intertwined with each other based on courtyards, forming a dynamic spatial relationship within the house.

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Courtyard Bedroom 2

Great Room

Great Room

Courtyard

Neighbors

Guest Room Ramp to Garage & Back Entrance

Family Room Family Room Courtyard Kitchen

Master Bedroom Living Room Studio Sunken Courtyard

Row House Project

21

Further Exploration Courtyards can have multiple variations ranging from public to private, external to internal, physical to visual, etc. Courtyards create different opportunities, realizing a spatial dynamism in an enclosed domestic setting. Thus, the thesis begins to question a possibility for courtyards as transitions to share among neighbors. Through the analysis of different courtyards as a starting point, the thesis intends to further investigate the courtyard in relationship to a broader urban context.

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Viewing Courtyard

Chatting Courtyard

Separating Courtyard

Extending Courtyard

Connecting Courtyard

Lightbox

Row House Project

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+ Hutong & Courtyard House

25

B E I J I N G - HU TO N G

Historical City Fortification; Contemporary 2nd Ring Road

Hutong, originally constructed from the Yuan to Qing Dynasty (1271 – 1911), is a narrow alley or small lane formed by rows of courtyard houses dwelled by Beijingers in the past. Hutongs constitute several core residential neighborhoods within the historical city wall of Beijing.

They are living spaces of ordinary Beijingers, giving an insight to the lifestyle of the locals.

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Hutong, narrow alleys bounded by courtyard houses

Contemporary Beijing preserves thousands of Hutongs. They are not only pathways within the historical city center, but also witnesses of social life and development of Beijing. The interlacement of the Hutong makes neighborhoods fully engaged.

Commonplace interactions and activities within the Hutong form a strong social network of locality, which is seldom found in contemporary metropolises.

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

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Hutong - An extension of home

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Furniture

Cafe

Market

Restaurant

Office

Gallery

Individual space is quite constrained within the existing narrow urban fabric, but the living space is extended infinitely to every corner of the Hutong. The definition of home is disassembled into fragments of moments in Hutong, where the actual home is spread amongst the neighborhoods. Instead of having complete functions within a private realm, furniture randomly placed on the street becomes an addition to the living room; street market replacing refrigerators becomes an addition of the kitchen; a cozy café converts to an extension of the study room… This causal sharing experience creates an exuberant urban living atmosphere.

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

29

A Social Scene Hutong revitalizes an intimacy of interpersonal relationship that has been absent from a typical urban life. Chatting, gossiping, and playing chess together are all common scenes as the communication among neighbors steadily become a daily routine of strengthening relationships. Thus, Hutong as a social place plays a crucial role on keeping a harmony within the neighborhood.

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Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

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A Marketplace Hutong contains markets, cafĂŠ, shops, temples, and things much more than necessities of daily life. It imprints different aspects of social life for generations, composing an actual living complex in the city of Beijing.

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Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

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A Solitary Space Hutong is a place to get away from the busy urban life. There is always a new surprise behind next corner to explore. Juxtaposed with the hustle and bustle of the big city, Hutong draws close to the intimacy and triviality of the locals, giving oneself a moment of serenity.

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Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

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BEIJING C O URT YA R D H O U S E

Lost & Found,

B.L.U.E. Architecture

Micro-Yuaner,

Standard Architecture

Courtyard houses create the possibilities of residing multiple dwelling units as a micro society within the dense urban fabric. Precedents studies demonstrate possibilities of converting originally chaotic courtyard houses with shared households into various co-housing projects where courtyards are brought back as the generators of programs.

Courtyard houses also build direct relationship with the urban street life of Hutong. Urban vestibule, a flexible urban living room in the front part of the courtyard house, as a transition zone from the private rooms to the street, is a semi-public space used by both the inhabitants of the courtyard houses and 36

the neighbors of the community.

Precedent Study

White Pagoda Temple Courtyard Renovation Shuhei Aoyama - B.L.U.E. Architecture

Micro-Yuaner Zhang Ke - ZAO/ Standard Architecture

Miniature Beijing Atelier Li Xinggang

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

37

Traditional Courtyard House Ancient Chinese philosophy believes that humanity exists coherently with the nature. In traditional Beijing quadrangle dwelling - Siheyuan - courtyard houses, the connection with nature is expressed through the centrally located courtyard.

It maintains the well-being of the inhabitants by bringing in natural light and providing ventilation to the building.

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Quadrangle Dwelling - Siheyuan

Backside House

Main House

Connecting Corridor Central Courtyard Side Houses Guest House

Opposite House

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

39

Courtyard Space A spatial center of the house serves for different family activities. The inner courtyard acts as a circulation zone that determines different modes of access and spatial components.

Veranda An in-between space of inside and outside. This transitional space responds to local climates and provides a gentle connection between building and nature.

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Courtyard Space

Veranda

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

41

Spatial Order Hierarchically organized space builds different layers within a house, strengthening a spatial experience from outside to inside, from publicity to privacy.

Multifunctional Space Multi-purpose space is for holding different actives simultaneously. It gives a flexibility of changing functions of a space depending on various needs.

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Spatial Order

Multifunctional Space

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

43

Public space (only street) bounded by buildings

44

Public space extended to semi-public space

Hutong & Courtyard House Beijing’s courtyard houses as the smallest dwelling units are similar to living cells in the city, and the Hutong become veins connecting the cells. This composition of interdependence composes a unique urban morphology of Beijing.1 The study of Beijing’s Hutong and courtyard houses presents a potential of co-living community prototype. In comparison to the row house project in Chicago, courtyards could not only be situate in an individual homes but could be shared b y different neighborhoods. The definition of home is no longer constrained by the physical boundary but could be expanded to a courtyard, and connected to the streets. Thus, physical homes are integrated with the city instead of being independent and isolated while the streets become a part of a conceptual home, a part of the architecture. This envisions an integration of individual domestic spaces with shared public spaces.2

Beijing’s Hutong & Courtyard House

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+ Courtyard Prototypes

47

Prototype I Courtyard Prototype I is an attempt of designing a courtyard house shared by 4 to 6 households. Each house is comparatively independent yet interconnected through the central courtyard space.

Additional programs such as shared library, gym, kitchen etc. are placed in the courtyard. As the courtyard space naturally become an extension of their homes, the intention of this study is to explore how the conceptual boundary of home would be expanded, and to question whether the perception of inside vs. outside, public vs. private may be blurred under current condition.

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Four houses respond to four different strategies of spatial extension.

Courtyard Prototypes

49

Prototype I Analysis Prototype I is an investigation on the dichotomy between extension and invasion of space. It presents an intriguing scenario: when every inhabitant regards the courtyard as part of their home, the central shared space then is conceived as an invasion or aggression to other inhabitants’ privacy. This conceptual conflict reveals an ambiguity of courtyard space where the sharing quality is contradictory yet valid. Thus, the central courtyard becomes a soft boundary between publicity and privacy, and accordingly the focus of the design is to convert an apparent conflict to an implicit coherence.3 Similar to a condition of Beijing’s courtyard house where everyone feels unrestricted within their conceptual boundary of privacy, the design of prototype I is where a contentious yet coherent space is imagined.

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Extension vs. Aggression

Visual Transparency

Soft Boundary

Inside Out

Courtyard Prototypes

51

Prototype II Courtyard prototype II presents a possibility of smallest courtyard condition. It imagines an alternative of courtyard types in a courtyard housing where the building would be composed by multiple courtyards in different sizes. Unlike the prototype I, prototype II puts the focus on the visual interaction among neighbors, where the extension of physical home to a shared space becomes more conceptual.

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Shared courtyard space suggests the discussion of publicity vs. privacy.

Courtyard Prototypes

53

Further Exploration The study tests various possibilities of courtyard forms based on prototype II. By regarding a courtyard as a basic unit, the study attempts to find a fractal order through multiplication. By the method of fractal densification, these courtyard compositions demonstrate the potential of transforming an extended urban fabric to a collective one with small courtyard dwellings.

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Prototype

Walls enclose a yard

Walls and buildings enclose a yard

Buildings enclose a yard

Singular

Combination

Aggregation

Courtyard Prototypes

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+ Courtyard Housing I

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Co-Living Housing The project is a first iteration of courtyard housing based on prototype I, which focuses on developing a co-living courtyard housing from the typology of single-family home. Within the courtyard, the project investigates in detail how courtyard would foster an experience of co-living community.

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3

3

3

3 2 3

1

3

1. Small library 2. Co-living courtyard 3. Housing

Courtyard Housing I

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Roof structure provides connecting corridors among residents and by creating accessible rooftop gives a sense of playfulness and a space for imagination.

A small library and cafe at the entrance will be open to public; on the second floor a small viewing deck extending out towards street.

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Several shared space on center with small kitchens, small library, activity rooms, and room for meditation.

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Co-Living Courtyard Form Six paths corresponding to six families signify the connection of different units, fostering a penetration of boundary and mutual interaction. Four different programs are arranged at four corners as an extension of home. The structure also has different levels of accessibilities, giving a flexibility of movements.

Concept The courtyard space at the center is an ideal typology for the co-living concept. Courtyard space creates an inward vector that focuses on the center, a “positive space� (P space).4 As the courtyard serves as a center for different family activities, it acts as a circulation zone with various modes of access that would create different spatial experiences. The courtyard space also provides a social place that is not constrained by physical boundary.

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Roof Terrace

Structure

Library

Tea Room

Multipurpose Room

Public Lounge

Courtyard Housing I

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Moments study demonstrates how people interact with the courtyard space

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Courtyard Housing I

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Co-living Courtyard 01

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Co-living Courtyard 02

Co-living Courtyard 03

Courtyard Housing I

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+ Courtyard Housing II

69

.

T.

LD ST

ON S

MFIE

WASH

INHT

BLOO 2 ND ST

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Site in Hoboken, NJ

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PR O J E C T The project, a co-housing in Hoboken, NJ, reconciles dense urban environments with a new idea of home. The design breaks down the existing block with an insertion of multiple courtyards.

An open-air, partially roofed veranda runs through the block to connect courtyards and the two streets; it extends the streets into the block to create a continuous, narrow public space in the city, similar to Hutong. Courtyards as living cells host various private and semi-public activities, and the veranda as a vein links these spaces as a continuation of the city. The outcome presents a prospect of a miniature shared urban community that ultimately bridges independent living spaces with public urban life.

Courtyard Housing II

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Washington St.

Bloomfield St.

72

Central Park

Midtown Manhattan

25 mins

Hoboken, NJ

Site

Lower Manhattan

Jersey City

15 mins

30 mins 40 mins

World Trade Center Williamsburg

20 mins

N

Site Analysis

Courtyard Housing II

73

1 Site Area

2 Break the mass to 3 volumes

3 Central Courtyard

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4 Insert a path to connect courtyard spaces across the block

5 Elevate private functions to 2nd level

6 Create elevated paths on 2nd level & a Veranda on ground level

Courtyard Housing II

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A Continuation of Street The design is imagining a parallel experience as walking into a Hutong.

An entrance extends an inside scene of courtyard to the street, composing a new dialogue to the external urban space; meanwhile a veranda offers a continuation to the city street, inviting oneself to wander of the internal world.

As the congested urban street scenes disappears from the sight, as the noise of busy street life gradually phases out, a peace of mind is slowly restored. What emerges are probably exuberant scenes composed by pieces of trivial moments of people’s life. Contrary to an abrupt delusion, however, an intriguing and enchanting feeling comes across.

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Individual Units

Book Club

Veranda

Co-Housing I Cafe Shop

Gym

Co-Housing II Restaurant Art Gallery

Bookstore

Architectural Strategy The architectural operation inserts a street into the building and breaks down the block into courtyards with various sizes. The strategy is to connect discrete, scattered functions with courtyards and outdoor verandas. Specifically, courtyards produce a rich interaction within the project. The veranda places emphasis upon the movement of space and a shift of scales. It offers a continuation from an urban street to an interior hallway. All in all, through shifting and juxtaposing of volumes, the design generates various layers of visual and physical interactions that are crucial to the experience of co-living concept.

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BLOOMFIELD ST.

7’8”

75’5”

21’

7 8

5

6 3

75’

3

12

7 10

3

11

1

9 7 2

6

3

8

80’

1

5

2 2

1

4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

WASHINGTON ST.

Bookstore Public Courtyard Private Courtyard Restaurant Shared Living Shared Kitchen Shared Dining Laundry Room Gym Cafe Shop Art Gallery Individual Units Activity Room

Ground Floor Plan

Courtyard Spaces The project contains both residential and commercial components to form a complete integration through courtyards. The intention is to construct a dispersed, more informal everyday atmosphere within the block. Instead of having only visual focus on the courtyards, they act as the backdrop in people’s daily life. People will notice what happens in the courtyards and inadvertently glance towards them. Thus, the courtyards as in-between spaces cultivate a dimension of indirect engagement among private and semi-public spaces.

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BLOOMFIELD ST.

12

12

12

12

2

12 2

12 13

2

1 12

12 12

12 2

1

12

1

12

13

12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

WASHINGTON ST.

Bookstore Public Courtyard Private Courtyard Restaurant Shared Living Shared Kitchen Shared Dining Laundry Room Gym Cafe Shop Art Gallery Individual Units Activity Room

Second Floor Plan

b

b

a

a

Public

Washington St.

Public Semi-Public

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Private Semi-Public

Section a-a

Private

Bloomfield St.

Section b-b

Courtyard Housing II

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Parquet Flooring Concrete Slab

Wall Tie

Structural Thermal Break

CMU Wall Rigid Insulation Gypsum Wall Board

Flashing Weep Hole Mortar Fill

Reinforced Concrete Foundation

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Section Perspective - Courtyard in Co-housing

Courtyard Housing II

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Elevation on Washington St. Elevation on Washington St.

Entrance on Bloomfield St.

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Veranda

Courtyard in Co-housing

Courtyard in Co-housing 02

Courtyard in Co-housing (night)

Courtyard Housing II

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+ Afterword

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189

Urban Co-Living Through a Study of Courtyard

Courtyard House Analysis

Backside House

Main House

Abstract Urban Co-Living: Through a Study of Courtyard

Connecting Corridor This thesis aims to systematically understand the nature of shared public

Central Courtyard Side Houses

spaces in Beijing’s dense, narrow alleys – Hutong - and the courtyard houses situated within them. Learning from Hutong, this thesis investigates potentials of co-living in a contemporary urban space. It envisions an

Guest House

Traditional Beijing quadrangle dwelling - Siheyuans - The ancient Chinese philosophy believes that humanity exists coherently with the nature. In Siheyuan houses, the connection with nature is expressed through the centrally located courtyard. It maintains the well-being of the inhabitants by bringing in natural light and providing ventilation to the building.

urban life that blends the individual, private domestic spaces with shared public urban spaces.

Opposite House

Courtyard Space

Veranda

Spatial Order

A spatial center of the house serves for different family activities. The inner courtyard acts as a circulation zone that determines different modes of access and spatial components.

An in-between space of inside and outside. This transitional space responds to local climates and provides a gentle connection between building and nature.

Hierarchically organized space builds different layers within a house, strengthening a spatial experi-ence from outside to inside, from publicity to privacy.

Row House Project A small self-assigned project within an individual residential setting to investigate the role of the courtyard as spatial extension, connection and separation.

Hutong & Beijing Courtyard House Study An introduction of co-living concept through the exploration of both traditional and contemporary hutong and courtyard houses in Beijing.

Courtyard Prototypes Two prototypes of courtyard houses in both large and small scales demonstrate the study of inside vs. outside, private vs. public.

Courtyard Housing I An attempt to realize a complete design of courtyard house based on the first prototype.

The focus is to design an enclosed form and a central semi-public space that responds to a sense of sharing community.

Courtyard Housing II A realization of second prototype in a site in Hoboken, NJ. The concept is to make urban life blend with private domestic space, and at the same time extend the home to the street to reproduce in an urban public space.

Hutong - A Market Place

Hutong - A Social Scene

Hutong - A Solitary Space

Here contains markets, shops, cafes, temples and much more. The Hutong composes a living complex.

Here people meet to talk, play chess, share stories, and to socialize

Here gives a way to get away from the busy life in Beijing. There is always a new surprise behind next corner to explore.

Five renovation precedent studies in relationship with their urban context.

House Formal Analysis

Four houses respond to four different strategies of spatial extension.

Courtyard will always invlove the discussion of publicity vs. privacy when shared by different neighbors.

Regular

Porch

Extend

Recess

Extrude

Recess + Balcony

Porch + Extrude

Loft

Corridor

Study of house’s forms on both 3D and plan through different combinations and variations of extrude, interlock, overlap and intersect.

Central Space Analysis

Extension vs. Aggression

Visual Transparency

Soft Boundary

Inside Out

Smallest possible courtyard space with large openings towards center..

Four houses formed an enclosed space with shared programs on center.

Prototype S

Prototype L

Furture Primitive House - Sou Fujimoto

Serpentine Pavilion - Sou Fujimoto

Moments study demostrates how people interact with the courtyard space

Courtyard Housing I This study is an attempt to realize a complete design of courtyard housing based on the first prototype. The design takes the form of single-family houses as a starting point to implement a co-living concept. A central courtyard connects and extends private space so that the perception of inside vs. outside and public vs. private is blurred. The result is a study of the dichotomy between extension vs. invasion of space, where the design

Roof Terrace

seek to look for an implicit coherence between privacy and publicity.

A

Structure

6

3

Library

8

4 Tea Room

5

2 Multipurpose Room

9

1. Small library

Public Lounge

2. Activity Space 3. Shared Kitchen 4. Connecting Corridors

10

1

5. Residence 1 (2b2b) 6. Residence 2 (3b3b) 7. Residence 3 (3b2b) 8. Residence 4 (2b2b) 9. Residence 5 (2b2b) 10. Residence 6 (3b2b)

A

Scale: 3/32” = 1’-0”

12

Bloomfield St.

13

Central Park

1

Courtyard Housing II Midtown Manhattan

7

8

9

14

10

The project, a co-living housing in Hoboken, NJ, presents a new idea 25 mins

Hoboken, NJ

of home in a dense urban environment. The design breaks down the existing block with an insertion of multiple courtyards. An open-air, partially roofed veranda runs through the block to create a continuous,

Site

LD ST.

narrow public space in the city, similar to Hutong. Courtyards as living

ST. TON

15

WASHINH

BLOO

outcome presents a prospect of a miniature shared urban community that ultimately bridges independent living spaces with public urban life.

6 11

MFIE

cells host various private and semi-public activities, and the veranda as a vein links these spaces as a continuation of the city. Accordingly, the

2

The architectural operation inserts a street into the building and

ND

5 4

ST.

breaks down the block into courtyards with various sizes. The strategy 15 mins

is to connect discrete, scattered functions with courtyards and outdoor

Individual Units

3

Lower Manhattan

Jersey City

30 mins 40 mins

World Trade Center Williamsburg

2

verandas. Through shifting and juxtaposing of volumes, the design generates various layers of visual and physical interactions that are

20 mins

1

crucial to the experience of co-living concept.

1. Entrance 2. Library 3. Kitchen 4. Dining 5. Lounge 6. Laundry; Storage 7 - 13: Individual Units 14. Art Gallery 15. Art Workshop

2

N

N

Book Club

Scale: 1’0”=3/32”

First iteration Plan

BLOOMFIELD ST.

7’8”

BLOOMFIELD ST.

75’5”

21’

7

12

8

12

12

12

5

Veranda 6 3

2

12

75’

3

12

2

12 13

7 10

2

3

Co-Housing I

1 11

1

12

9

Cafe Shop

12

7

12

Gym

2 12

Co-Housing II

6

3

2

Restaurant 1

Art Gallery

1 80’

8 5

12 2 2

Bookstore 1

1

12

4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

WASHINGTON ST.

Bookstore Public Courtyard Private Courtyard Restaurant Shared Living Shared Kitchen Shared Dining Laundry Room Gym Cafe Shop Art Gallery Individual Units Activity Room

13

12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Ground Floor Plan

WASHINGTON ST.

Bookstore Public Courtyard Private Courtyard Restaurant Shared Living Shared Kitchen Shared Dining Laundry Room Gym Cafe Shop Art Gallery Individual Units Activity Room

Second Floor Plan

Mass Diagram

1

2 Site Area

3 Central Courtyard

Break the mass to 3 volumes

4

5 Insert a path to connect courtyard spaces across the block

6 Create elevated paths on 2nd level & a Veranda on ground level

Elevate private functions to 2nd level

Progress in Plan

90

BLOOMFIELD ST.

1

2

3

4

5&6

PRIVATE COURTYARD

PUBLIC COURTYARD

Pella Board

The End of The Beginning This thesis is the culmination of a continuous search in architecture throughout these five academic years. The process is a challenging yet pleasant, constrained yet rewarding journey of exploration on my interests.

However, the thesis never truly ends. This book only comes to a close on my undergraduate thesis, but I hope my passion for these studies and interests will carry on to a new chapter in my future architectural career.

Afterword

91

E N D N OTE S 1.

“Big Messy Courtyard: Micro Yuan’er,” Bayndrian, Joanna, Assemble Papers, last modified August 2, 2019, http://assemblepapers.com.au/2018/04/05/big-messycourtyard-micro-yuaner/.

2.

“Dengshikou Hutong Residence,” B.L.U.E. Architecture Studio, last modified 2016, http://www.b-l-u-e.net/index.php/index/project/index/cid/3/id/39.html.

3.

Sou Fujimoto, Sou Fujimoto: Primitive Future (LIXIL Publishing, 2008).

4.

Yoshinobu Ashihara, Exterior Design in Architecture (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981), 8.

Afterword

93