Hofstra Model UN 2019: The Thirty Years War

The Thirty Years War Hofstra Model United Nations Spring Conference 2019

“The Holy Roman Empire is neither Holy, nor Roman, nor an Empire� - Voltaire

1 Welcome Letter Delegates, Welcome to HUMUNC 2019! My name is Landri Kennedy, and I will be your chair this year for the historical crisis committee. Coming into my junior year, this is my second year with Hofstra MUN, after four years of previous high school experience. I am a Linguistics major, Criminology minor, in the 5-year BA/MA Forensic Linguistics program. When I’m not acting as your benevolent chair, I am a writer for the Hofstra Chronicle, a member of the club dance team and Hofstra Newman, an employee of the Office of Event Management, and, sadly for me, a misplaced Texan. With my years of MUN experience, I hope to provide each of you with an enriching experience that sheds light on the importance of history and how the world we live in today is dependent on the decisions of the past. We are so excited to have you, and hope you enjoy the scenario we have created for you at the upcoming Hofstra Model UN Conference.

The inspiration for this year’s topic, the Thirty Years War, lies in the current political climate as the nations of the world strive to come together to find solutions for a series of pressing issues from the impending threat of global terrorism to the rising concerns over climate change. While this goal might seem difficult today, Europe in the 17th century was splintered and far from unified as a result of religious wars and territorial conflict; yet, in the face of continental catastrophe, each nation managed to find common ground and institute political treaties whose themes ring true still today. As a member of the historical crisis committee, your job is to figure out how to be diplomatic, create treaties, and work with your enemies to reestablish the peace throughout Europe. The Thirty Years War acknowledged themes of religious discrimination, political hegemony, and the nature of civil liberties. By learning and roleplaying the diplomacy of the past, perhaps we can strive for political cooperation and worldwide activism in the future.

Best, Landri Kennedy lkennedy1@pride.hofstra.edu

2 Introduction to Crisis The Thirty Years War was ultimately the result of several years of religious tension and territorial conflict that exploded after a perceived attack on an entire group of religious practitioners. Just as World War I was not solely the result of the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Thirty Years War was decades in the making, with one singular event igniting a conflict involving a multitude of nations. Fought mainly between European Catholics and the Protestants, the war was waged by Sweden, France, Spain, Denmark, and the Holy Roman Empire.1 While it may appear at first that the purpose of this war was to create a religious hegemony by declaring the dominance of one religious group over the other, the political bias and desire for expansion cannot be ignored. Initially, the battles were local and religiously based; however, as the war dragged on over the course of three decades, the later phases were deeply continental and political in nature, reflecting a desire by parties for land and territorial control, rather than simply siding with Catholicism over Protestantism, or vice versa.

Largely considered one of the most devastating wars in European history2, the effects of the war were devastating, impacting infrastructure, political systems, and led to a massive loss of life. Throughout Europe, nations were plagued by illness, famine, and crop-destruction as a result of deferring of state resources towards the war effort3, in addition to an increasing amount of religiously influenced witch-hunts.4 While infrastructure declined, technology soared as Gustavus Adolphus, general for the Swedish military, invented the mobile artillery unit and earned the moniker “…the Father of Modern Warfare”.5 The assortment of individuals on this panel are, in part, those who attended the Peace of Westphalia—that is, the conference that proclaimed the end of the war and strove for international peace and cooperation6, with some liberties taken regarding the interest of representing those who were active leaders during war

3 time. This cabinet consists of Cardinals, military leaders and generals, sovereign rulers, and religious spokesmen to better represent the conflicts of interest and the variety of voices that contributed to the goal of Pax Europa or European peace. Over the course of the conference, the major conflicts to keep in mind are the rights to religious freedom, the European balance of power, the infrastructure of failing states, and the constantly evolving technologies of the period—in addition to confronting the variety of battles and decrees that took place. Take yourself back to the 17th century: no cell phones, computers, trains, cars, or lightning fast methods of communication. Delegates must be mindful of the technological limitations of the period, and be able to adapt to the lifestyle and reality of a radically different age.

Setting “Cuius regio, eius religio” “Whose Realm, His Religion”

To understand the Defenestration of Prague, one must first be aware of three prior events: the Protestant Reformation, the Peace of Augsburg, and the Letter of Majesty. Fed up with

4 Church abuses and selling of indulgences7, Martin Luther writes a scathing review of the Catholic Church and nails it to the wall of the Wittenberg Cathedral. These complaints, known as the “Ninety-Five Theses”, spark the Protestant Reformation wherein a new sect of Christianity is born to fight perceived abuses of doctrine by the Catholic Church.8 Following the Reformation, numerous acts of violence are incited against members of the opposing denomination, splintering the Holy Roman Empire (HRE), which was composed of a variety of nation-states. To rectify this, the German princes of the HRE gathered to declare the Peace of Augsburg (1555), which stated the principle of cuius regio, eius religio or “whose realm, his religion”.910 Finally, the Letter of Majesty (1609)11 was published by the Holy Roman Emperor (and King of Bohemia), Rudolf II, granting religious freedoms to Protestants living in Bohemia, inside the Catholicmajority of the HRE; however, this was not enforced very strictly and did little to prevent the oppression of the religious minority.

Divine Intervention: The Defenestration of Prague

In line with the spirit of cuius regio, eius religio, the King of Bohemia, Ferdinand II , newly elected in 1596, insisted that the entire region must practice Catholicism as he himself was a devout Roman Catholic; however, a majority of Bohemians at this time were Protestant, and

5 were not willing to denounce their beliefs. Thus, the Protestant population experienced a series of obstacles to worshipping freely, such as the closing of churches and the punishment of those seen practicing Lutheranism in public. On May 23, 1618, Protestant Bohemian representatives met with diplomats of the Catholic League of the Holy Roman Empire to declare their grievances and demand religious freedom in the face of subjugation. The Protestants argued that the Letter of Majesty was not being honored, and that according to the official ruling of the previous king, there should be no punishment for practicing Lutheran teachings.12 After Ferdinand II’s ambassadors denied their demands, the representatives of the Protestant Union threw William Slovata, Jaroslav Borita, and Philip Fabricius out of a third-story window.1314 The Defenestration immediately caused an outcry from the HRE, with Bohemians rallying to defend the Protestant Union and the Catholic Kingdoms of the empire calling for war.

After decades of in-fighting and oppression at the hands of greater kingdoms in the HRE, the Bohemians launched the Bohemian Revolt in an effort to unseat Ferdinand II and to regain religious freedoms in their own territory, while ultimately attempting to break away from the empire as a whole. This revolt launched the Bohemian phase of what became a full-blown continental war.15

6 Timeline October 31, 1517: Martin Luther publishes the Ninety-Five Theses, detailing his complaints with the Catholic Church, initiating the Protestant Reformation and the Reforming of the Catholic Church’s policies and practices.16 September 1555: The Peace of Augsburg is signed, attempting to put an end to violent conflict within the Holy Roman Empire. It states that cuius regio, eius religio, “whose realm, his religion”. This allowed the princes of the HRE to choose the religious affiliation of their territories.17 1596: Ferdinand II is given command of the Kingdom of Bohemia. He is notably cruel towards Protestants and enacts forced conversions of Protestants to Catholicism.18 1609: The Letter of Majesty is signed by Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor, entailing religious freedom for Protestants in Bohemia in spite of the Catholic affiliation of the kingdom.

It is not enforced.

May 23, 1618: The Defenestration of Prague occurs. Three Catholic representatives of the HRE are thrown out of a window by Bohemian members of the Protestant union.

This sparks the Bohemian phase and marks the official start of the Thirty Years War.19 August 26, 1619: Bohemia offers the throne to Frederick V, Elector of Palatine, in an effort to garner the support of the Protestant Union.

August 28, 1619: Ferdinand II is officially coronated King of Bohemia in spite of religious turmoil and dissent upon his nomination.

November 4, 1619: Ferdinand II is dethroned by Protestant Bohemians, and replaced with Frederick V, an ardent Protestant.

7 1619: The Ottoman Empire fights alongside the Bohemians as a trade-off for annual dues paid to the head of the Empire, the Sultan.

July 3, 1620: The Treaty of Ulm is signed, declaring the neutral stance of the Protestant Union in the conflict between the Catholic League and Frederick V. *November 8, 1620: Bohemian forces are destroyed at the Battle of White Mountain, a decisive victory for Catholic forces in the HRE. Johann Tserclaes, Count of Tilly, leads the offensive attack. This is the unofficial end of the Bohemian phase.

May 6, 1622: The Count of Tilly crosses into the Lower Saxon circle, a lucrative sphere of interest to the Danish crown.

November 1625: The Dutch, English, and Danes signed an alliance to form the Hague League, which implored Christian IV to maintain a 38,000-man army with the English and Dutch footing the bill for this venture.

August 27, 1626: Danish forces are crushed by the Count of Tilly at the Battle of Lutteram-Bamberg. This leaves the Danes exposed and vulnerable to further attack.

November 29, 1626: General Mansfeldt dies, leaving Protestant forces without a strong leader and contributing to the downfall of the Danes.

September 14, 1627: The last of the Danish forces are defeated at Grossenbrode. This ends the Danish phase of the war with the Catholic League holding a clear advantage.

March 6, 1629: The Edict of Restitution is proclaimed by Ferdinand II, demanding that all land seized by Protestants be returned to the Roman Catholic Church, a move strongly disliked by Wallenstein.

8 1630: Sweden joins the war under Gustavus Adolphus, ushering in the Swedish phase and shifting the conflict from local and religiously-based to a multi-national, continental conflict dealing with territory and political gain.

August 13, 1630: Wallenstein is publicly removed as commander of the Imperial army. *November 1630: Adolphus vows to protect the German city of Madgeburg; however, he could not hold back Imperial forces. This downfall leads to the Sacking of Madgeburg, a massive loss of life and a devastating defeat for the Swedish army. *January 13, 1631: The Treaty of Barwalde is signed, declaring an alliance between France and Sweden. France provides massive subsidies to the Protestant armies in spite of their Roman Catholic majority, in the interest of politique. This treaty stated that France would provide funds to the Swedes to hold off HRE forces in return for the protection of their Catholic citizens, and forbid any attacks on Catholic worship. *May 20, 1631: The Sack of Madgeburg ends with massive fires across the city, and nearly 20,000 civilian deaths at the hands of the Imperial Hapsburg army. *May 30, 1631: Treaty of Fontainebleau is signed between France and Bavaria, the head of the Catholic League fronted by Maximilian I. The French and the Bavarians agree to a secret defensive alliance. *September 17, 1631: Battle of Breitenfeld occurs, with Adolphus crushing Tilly’s armies, marking the first major victory for Protestant forces in the Thirty Years War and propelling Gustavus Adolphus to international acclaim.

April 1632: Wallenstein returns to act as the commander of Imperial forces after the crushing defeat at Breitenfeld.

9 September 18, 1632: The Swedes are pushed out of Nuremberg by an Imperial siege, forcing them out of the immediate area by Wallenstein’s forces.

September 21, 1632: Wallenstein’s forces exit their siege of Nuremberg in pursuit of Swedish forces.

November 15, 1632: The Battle of Lutzen pits Wallenstein and Adolphus against each other. The battle ends in a draw, with no clear winner; however, the battle is devastating for the Swedes for the following reason: Gustavus Adolphus is killed.

September 6, 1634: With the aid of the Spanish and a newly weakened Swedish army, the Imperial forces defeat the Swedes at the Battle of Nordlingen.

September 15-30, 1634: The Spanish and Imperial forces take the following cities: Goppingen, Heilbronn, Rothenburg, Stuttgart, Aschaffenburg, and Schweinfurt.

1635: The last phase of the war begins with official French Intervention.

March 26, 1635: Spanish forces kidnap the Elector of Trier, a French prince.

May 26, 1635: France declares war on Spain.

May 30, 1635: The Peace of Prague is declared between the Catholic Imperial forces of the HRE through Ferdinand II and the Protestant Elector of Saxony in the HRE, John George I. This suspended the Edict of Restitution, with land concessions awarded to Saxony. Despite this peace, war continues due to the intervention of Swedish and French states versus Austrian and Spanish powers.

October 16, 1635: Now reunited with Imperial forces, Saxony declares war on Sweden.

December 1, 1640: Spain is weakened as Portugal and Catalonia revolt against the Spanish crown, leaving them distracted and less able to continue fighting.

June 30, 1641: The Treaty of Hamburg confirms the alliance of France and Sweden.

10 November 2, 1642: The Second Battle of Breitenfeld leads to another Swedish victory over Imperial forces, putting Protestants at an advantage.

May 14, 1643: Louis XIII dies, shaking up the French power dynamic and weakening the resolve to continue fighting the Thirty Years War. July 26, 1644: The Treaty of Hamburg is ratified, leading to Westphalian peace talks and the beginning of the end of the war.

March 6, 1645: Swedish forces destroy the Imperial army at the Battle of Jankau in a devastating victory for Protestant forces.

April 14, 1646: Saxony and Sweden make peace under the Peace of Eilenberg.

March 15, 1647: The Second Treaty of Ulm declares peace between Bavaria and its allies with France and Sweden.

January 30, 1648: The Spanish and Dutch make peace under the Treaty of Munster.

May 17, 1648: France defeats the Imperial army at the Battle of Zusmarhausen in one of the final conflicts of the war.

October 24, 1648: The Peace of Westphalia is proclaimed, with each contender gaining something in the peace talks. This sets the stage for global cooperation and religious freedoms, creates the basis for modern day Germany, and allows Calvinists the same right as Lutherans and Catholics. As it was in the beginning, so it is in the end: cuius regio, eius religio.202122

11 Actors *If your actor’s death occurs before 1648, don’t worry! We’re keeping you alive for a reason!* Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642) Cardinal Richelieu, advisor to Louis XIII, left France in a strong position following the Thirty Years War due to his policies of politique, where political gain was valued more than religious fervor.23 By funding the Swedish forces against the Pope’s wishes and inherently supporting the Protestant cause, Richelieu tipped the post-war balance of power in favor of France.24

Duke Maximilian of Bavaria (1573-1651) As the elector of Bavaria, Maximilian I acted as a leader of the Catholic League and protected the interest of the HRE. A firm proponent for the House of Hapsburg and German Catholics, Maximilian I advocated for Bavarian gain and fervently opposed the Swedish and the French as their conflict led to significant destruction of his territory.25

12 Frederick V (1596-1632) Raised a Calvinist, Frederick V acted as the leader of the Protestant Union in the beginning of the war. Humorously nicknamed the “Winter King” for his short reign, Frederick V was the defining force of the Protestant effort before the Battle of White Mountain. Declared an outlaw by Ferdinand II, he made his triumphant return to plunder Maximillian I’s property following the Catholic League’s loss at Breitenfield.26

Albrecht von Wallenstein (1583-1634)

Wallenstein rose to fame during the Danish phase of the war when Ferdinand II championed him to raise an army to defeat incoming Danish forces. After political clashes with Ferdinand II and his crushing defeat by Gustavus Adolphus, Wallenstein was ousted, vowing revenge on both Ferdinand II and the Imperial army. However, Imperial forces took him back after their humiliating defeat at Breitenfield indicated that they required the type of military support that he could provide.27

13 Gaspar de Guzman (1587- 1645) Not among the battlefield characters of the war, Guzman was instrumental in representing Spain during the negotiations of the Peace of Westphalia. One of Guzman’s defining characteristics was his belief in austracismo, or the joint domination of the Hapsburgs in Austria and Spain. His early training for the priesthood led to a strong Catholic affiliation, and a near unwillingness to compromise on religious freedoms. He is later questioned by the Spanish Inquisition.28

Frederick Henry of Orange (1584-1647) Frederick Henry was a strong diplomat for the Netherlands, urging Dutch independence from Spain at the Peace of Westphalia, which was achieved in the final negotiations. He received financial backing from France to continue Dutch involvement in the war against the Holy Roman Empire and was a driving force in the Danish and Swedish phases of the war, leading Protestant battlefield victories.29

14 Christian IV (1577-1648) Christian IV served as the King of both Denmark and Norway as he ruled over his sphere of influence in Scandinavia. He was a firm proponent of the economic advancement of the Danes and is a great resource for other delegates to develop trade relationships.

He controlled major operations against the Catholic League but was crushed at Lutter-am-Barenberge. He later severed his ties with Gustavus Adolphus and made a separate peace with the HRE. He is characterized as being quick to change his mind.30

Maximillian con Trauttmansdorff Trauttmansdorff was the chief diplomat and ambassador of the Holy Roman Empire in the Peace of Westphalia, representing the desires of Ferdinand II and III. He was incredibly influential in arguing the interests of the empire, and a long career of defending Hapsburg legitimacy. His arrival at the Peace of Westphalia marked the beginning of the official peace talks.31

15 Henri II d’Orleans (1595-1663) Henri II led the French delegation at the Peace of Westphalia and brought forth anti-Hapsburg rhetoric and policy. His most successful gain was the separation of the Swiss Confederacy (the early states that contributed to modern Switzerland) from the HRE by aligning France with the Swiss forces in an effort to weaken the empire.32 His negotiations, under the philosophy of Richelieu, led to France coming out of the war truly successful as opposed to other nations, who were destroyed by the battles.33

Leopold Wilhelm (1614-1662) Son of Ferdinand II, Leopold Wilhelm fought viciously against the Swedish forces in the name of the HRE and the Catholic Church. He governed the Spanish Netherlands and was an important Hapsburg influence in the austracismo34. A significant patron of the arts, Wilhelm championed to protect the culture of the Hapsburgs and the Catholic ideology in any peace talks.35

16 Axel Oxenstierna (1583-1654) Chancellor of Sweden, Oxenstierna represented the ideals of the late Gustavus Adolphus at the Peace of Westphalia and was a military commander during the Swedish phase of the war. A fervent Protestant, Oxenstierna disagreed on several key aspects of Adolphus’s battle strategy: he detested the French alliance, sought to end the conflict with Denmark, whom he also detested, and resented Swedish intervention in Germany.36

Alvise Contarini (1597-1651) Contarini served as a neutral party in the Peace of Westphalia as the ambassador of the papacy. Politically, he influenced Louis XIII’s decision to fund the Swedish intervention in the war and worked closely with Richelieu. He was a trusted ambassador for all parties involved in spite of his Italian heritage, as he was seen as a thirdparty negotiator and referee of peace talks.37

17 Johann Tseraclaes, Count of Tilly (1559-1632) Tseraclaes (Tilly), was the chief commander of the Catholic League and won many of the important battles against Swedish and Danish forces. His efforts crushed the Protestants at the Battle of White Mountain. He was notoriously brutal and led the siege of Madgeburg that resulted in over 22,000 civilian deaths.

His cruelty led to several German princes to switch sides.

Violence comes natural to this general, and he will be difficult to negotiate peace with.38

James Hamilton (1606-1649) Hamilton represented the Scottish interest in the war. Though they interacted very little in the actual warfare, the Scots were Protestant, and are allies in the Protestant effort. Hamilton sent forces to aid the Swedish in Germany albeit unsuccessfully, and threw his support behind the Swedish cause against the dominant power of the HRE. While supportive of the Protestant cause, Hamilton was distracted by the English Civil War at home and could not actively participate in peace talks. He was later executed by Oliver Cromwell.39 Visuals Due to the time period, the available maps and battle blueprints of the major conflicts are limited; thus, the provided visuals represent both available battle plans, geography of the period, territory lines, and demographic information.

18

This map represents the religious demographics of the period. Note the large Lutheran population in Denmark and the Northern HRE, the Catholic majority in France and Bohemia, and the small pockets of Calvinism throughout.40

The Hapsburg dynasty is an important historical empire to understand: here, we see the reaches of their territory in both Austria and Spain. Similarly, the Holy Roman Empire is outlined in black to show the extent of their territory, which largely composed of modern-day Germany.41

19

Here we see the progression of the Swedish forces in the war, along with the religious boundaries of each territory in the HRE and beyond. Largely challenged by the Spanish army, Gustavus Adolphus route of travel is significant in understanding the mobilization of troops.42

Following

the

Westphalia,

Peace

several

of

changes

occurred in European borders as a result of territorial changes. Note the independence of the Swiss Confederacy Netherlands.43

and

the

20 Destruction of German Infrastructure A majority of the battles fought in the Thirty Years War occurred in modern-day Germany which lay in the middle of the Holy Roman Empire. Consequently, the thirty-year bloodshed and warfare devastated the region, with suffered the utter destruction of economic systems, community activities, and public health. One of the most debilitating factors of the war that claimed more lives than the actual battles was disease, as plague and typhus swept through the Holy Roman Empire and decimated vulnerable civilian populations. It’s important to note that a battle of this scale had never been fought in Europe before, and the nations involved were unprepared to handle such a long, continental conflict. There were no formalized laws of warfare, infrastructure plans, or institutions like the United Nations, or civilian protection agencies in place at this time to keep the death toll limited to the soldiers fighting in battle.

Famine, disease, and collateral injury all contributed to making the Thirty Years’ War one of, if not the, most devastating battles in European history.44

21 The Peace of Westphalia Nobody won the Thirty Year’s War; however, that does not mean no one benefited at the end. The Peace of Westphalia was enshrined in two treaties, the Treaty of Munster and the Treaty of Osnabruck, which each contained detailed specifics for territorial gain, religious sanctions, and political armistice. The most important takeaway from the Peace of Westphalia is the extent to which the HRE was weakened by the proceedings. No longer protected by a Catholic dominion, the HRE was now obligated to abide by cuius regio, eius religio without the cushion of the Catholic League protecting misbehaving princes and lords. Similarly, the HRE was all but destroyed by the warfare, and was left in shambles from a civil standpoint as the entire empire suffered the lingering effects of such a drawn-out conflict. Both the Netherlands and Switzerland achieved their independence, adding new nations to the European balance of power. Prussia also rose following the Peace of Westphalia, as they gained major territory through Brandenburg. The rise of Prussia consequently led to the rise of the unified German state. 45 As a result of the Peace of Westphalia, France not only gained the Alsace-Lorraine territory, it escaped serious damage from warfare and soon had a booming economy46, putting them in position to become a premier European power. Religiously, Calvinism was accepted as a valid Protestant option next to Lutheranism.47 In addition, it was now illegal to be persecuted in the HRE on religious grounds. Private worship was established, leading to sanctions against any nation or kingdom that disrupted the ability of the religious minority in an area to practice religion peacefully. The Peace of Westphalia marked the last major European religious war, and put an end to Reformation-induced violence, ushering in a new age of religious toleration and cooperation. 48

22 **This paper should serve as your lifeline in the Historical Crisis: everything outlined here is what you should know. The Thirty Years’ War is a long, vast conflict with a variety of different events: do not get overwhelmed! We only have so much time to cover the topic. I urge you to do your own independent research, as it will help you better grasp the material.

We look forward to seeing all of you in March! **

23 Notes 1

Thirty Years War”. 21 August 2018. HISTORY.com. https://www.history.com/topics/reformation/thirty-years-war.

“Thirty Years War”. 21 August 2018. HISTORY.com. https://www.history.com/topics/reformation/thirty-years-war 3 “Thirty Years’ War” New World Encyclopedia.org. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Thirty_Years%E2%80%99_War#Casualties_and_disease 4 Doward, Jamie. “Why Europe’s Wars of Religion put 40,000 ‘witches’ to a terrible death”. 6 January 2018. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/society/2018/jan/07/witchcraft-economics-reformation-catholic-protestantmarket-share 5 Smith, Scott S. “Gustavus Adolphus Revolutionized European Warfare”. 18 August 2015. Investor’s Business Daily. https://www.investors.com/news/management/leaders-and-success/gustavus-adolphus-father-of-modernwarfare/ 6 Cavendish, Richard. “The Treaty of Westphalia”. October 1998. History Today. https://www.historytoday.com/richard-cavendish/treaty-westphalia.

7 Luther, Martin. “The 95 Theses”. Luther.ed. https://www.luther.de/en/95thesen.html 8 Palau Orta, Josep. “How Martin Luther Started a Religious Revolution”. 12 October 2017. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/history-martin-luther-religiousrevolution/ 9 “Cuius Regio, Eius Religio”. Oxford Reference. http://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/acref/9780192802903.001.0001/acref-9780192802903-e-1842 10 “Peace of Augsburg" The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Encyclopedia.com. 17 Oct. 2018 https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/german-history/peace-augsburg.

11 Hillebrand, Hans J. “Letter of Majesty” 2005. Oxford University Press 12 “Defenestration of Prague”. 7 November 2017. New World Encyclopedia. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Defenestrations_of_Prague 13 Kenety, Brian. “The Defenestration of Prague 400 Years On”. Radio.cz. https://www.radio.cz/en/section/curraffrs/the-defenestration-of-prague-400-years-on 14 “Defenestration of Prague” 17 May 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Defenestration-of-Prague-1618 15 Wilson, Peter H. “The Causes of the Thirty Years War”. 1 June 2008. Oxford Academic. https://academic.oup.com/ehr/article/CXXIII/502/554/413775 16 Orta, Josep P. “How Martin Luther Started a Religious Revolution”. 12 October 2017. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/archaeology-and-history/magazine/2017/09-10/history-martin-luther-religiousrevolution/ 17 “Peace of Augsburg" The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed. Encyclopedia.com. 17 Oct. 2018 https://www.encyclopedia.com/history/modern-europe/german-history/peace-augsburg.

18 “Sturmberger, Hans. “Ferdinand II”. 5 July 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ferdinand-II-Holy-Roman-emperor 19 19 “Defenestration of Prague” 17 May 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/event/Defenestration-of-Prague-1618 20 “Thirty Years War, Chronology”. Pipeline. http://www.pipeline.com/~cwa/TYWHome.htm 21 “Thirty Years War Timeline” World History Project. https://worldhistoryproject.org/topics/thirty-years-war 22 “Thirty Years War”. 21 August 2018. HISTORY.com. https://www.history.com/topics/reformation/thirty-yearswar 23 “Politique”. Merriam-Webster Dictionary. https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/Politique 24 O’Connel, Daniel P. “Armand-Jean du Plessis, cardinal et duc de Richelieu”, 5 September 2018, Encyclopaedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Armand-Jean-du-Plessis-cardinal-et-duc-de-Richelieu 25 Parker, Geoffrey N. “Maximilian I”. 23 September 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilian-I-duke-of-Bavaria 26 Parker, Geoffrey N. “Frederick V”. 22 August, 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Frederick-V-elector-Palatine-of-the-Rhine 2

24 27

Steinberg, Henry S. “Albrecht von Wallenstein”. 20 September 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Albrecht-von-Wallenstein 28 Huarte, Zudaire E. “Gaspar de Guzman y Pimental, count-duke de Olivares” 18 July, 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gaspar-de-Guzman-y-Pimental-conde-duque-de-Olivares 29 "Frederick Henry." The Columbia Encyclopedia, 6th ed.. . Encyclopedia.com. 13 Nov. 2018. https://www.encyclopedia.com/reference/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/frederick-henry 30 Engberg, Jens. “Christian IV”. 5 April, 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Christian-IV 31 “Maximillian, count von Trauttmansdorff”. 4 June 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Maximilian-Graf-von-Trauttmansdorff 32 “Thirty Years’ war and independence”. My Switzerland. https://www.myswitzerland.com/en-us/thirty-years-warand-independence.html 33 “Henri II d’Orleans, duke de Longueville”. 7 May 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Henri-II-dOrleans-duc-de-Longueville-duc-de-Coulommiers 34 Huarte, Zudaire E. “Gaspar de Guzman y Pimental, count-duke de Olivares” 18 July, 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gaspar-de-Guzman-y-Pimental-conde-duque-de-Olivares 35 “Leopold Wilhelm”. The World of the Hapsburgs. http://www.habsburger.net/en/persons/habsburg/leopoldwilhelm 36 Roberts, Michael. “Axel, Count of Oxenstierna”. 24 August 2018. Encyclopedia Britannica. https://www.britannica.com/biography/Axel-Greve-Oxenstierna-af-Sodermore 37 Alvise Contarini (diplomat)”. Revolvy. https://www.revolvy.com/page/Alvise-Contarini-(diplomat).

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