Historical Crisis Committee

Hofstra University Model United Nations Conference

Historical Crisis Committee

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Rob Bielunas Chairperson

1 Dear Delegates Let me be the first to welcome you to the 2017 Hofstra University Model United Nations Conference Historical Crises committee. My name is Rob Bielunas; I’m a senior majoring in political science and have a minor in rhetoric. I’m a big history buff and an even bigger Star Wars buff. I have a strong interest in foreign policy and I hope to one day go into that field. My area of interest is Eastern Europe and the Baltic states. Here at Hofstra, I have been a part of our Model United Nations club for all four of my years at Hofstra. I have also been actively involved in the College Democrats of Hofstra University, College Democrats of New York, Hofstra Student Government Association, and Hofstra Vs. Zombies. Last semester I was able to participate in a full-time Internship in Washington DC where I did everything from answering the phone to attending congressional hearings on the organization's behalf.

This year’s historical crisis will be a simulation of the 1962 Cuban Missile Crisis. In real life, the Cuban Missile Crisis was a time in the history where the world was very close to all-out nuclear war. Although I want to stay close to the actual crisis, the committee will deviate from the actual historical record in various ways. I encourage members to think of new and innovative ways of solving problems presented to the decision-makers involved in the crisis. I also encourage members to read up on not just the Missile Crisis but also the political situation and political climate of the time. I look forward to working with all of you in this year’s historical crisis. It is going to be a blast.

Sincerely, Rob Bielunas rbielunas1@pride.hofstra.edu

2 Introduction In 1962 President John F. Kennedy brought together his cabinet and other high level officials to discuss possible options for the US's response to the discovery of nuclear-tipped ballistic missiles in Cuba, only 330 miles away from Miami. The placement of these missiles meant that for the first time in the Cold War major US cities such as Washington DC, Miami, New York and Philadelphia were in striking range of Soviet intermediate- and medium-range ballistic missiles. In response President Kennedy believed that he needed advice from more than just his Cabinet so he formed the Executive Committee of the National Security Council, or the Executive Committee for short (ExComm). This Committee was comprised of members of Kennedy's presidential Cabinet as well as members of the intelligence community, the State Department, the Joint Chiefs of Staff, and any other branch of the government that may have insight or an opinion of what the Kennedy administration should do in regards to the crisis.

3 Timeline There are a few key events that lead up to the event of the Cuban missile crisis. These events pave the road for one of the closest encounters to armed nuclear war in world history.

1959: Castro takes power in Cuba in begins to start threatening US interests in Cuba.

1960: Cuba and the Soviet Union begin to the developed diplomatic relations.

The US initiates a trade embargo on Cuba.

1961: John F. Kennedy is elected president of the United States.

The Cuban Government fights off an invasion of US backed Cuban rebels in the Bay of Pigs.

1962: The US places nuclear missiles in Turkey in order to have the strategic ability to strike targets in the Soviet Union. (http://www.cbc.ca/news2/interactives/tl-cuban-missile-crisis/)

4

Key Terms

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Communism - A system of social organization in which all economic and social activity is controlled by a totalitarian state dominated by a single and self-perpetuating political party.

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Domino theory- A theory that if one country is taken over by an expansionist, especially Communist, neighbor, party, or the like, the nearby nations will be taken over one after another.

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Eastern Bloc- The name applied to the former communist states of eastern Europe, including Yugoslavia and Albania, as well as the countries of the Warsaw Pact.

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Embargo- an order of a government prohibiting the movement of merchant ships into or out of its ports.

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Intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM)- any supersonic missile that has a range of at least 3500 nautical miles (6500 km) and follows a ballistic trajectory after a powered, guided launching.

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North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)- North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international organization composed of the US, Canada, Britain, and a number of European countries: established by the North Atlantic Treaty (1949) for purposes of collective security.

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Proxy war- A war instigated by a major power that does not itself participate

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Warsaw Pact- An organization formed in Warsaw, Poland (1955), comprising Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, Romania, and the U.S.S.R., for collective defense under a joint military command. (https://www.vocabulary.com/dictionary/proxy%20war) (http://www.dictionary.com/browse/communism)

5 Setting The Cuban Missile Crisis was the closest the world has ever come to full out nuclear war.

Tensions between the Western allies (i.e., the US, United Kingdom, and France) and their former ally the Soviet Union (USSR) had risen to an all-time high. The Soviet Union and the Western allies had divided Europe in half. Eastern Europe was under the influence of the Soviet’s and Western Europe was under the influence of the Western Allies. The Soviet’s formed the Eastern Bloc, which was made up of communist governments that were supported by the USSR. The purpose of the Eastern Bloc was to help counter the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) as well as provide a buffer against the West.1 On the other hand, Western nations formed NATO in order to Counter the Eastern Bloc and prevent the spreading of communism through Europe.

While the main battle line of the Cold War was Europe, the US and Soviet Union also battled it out in Asia, Africa, the Middle East, and Central and South America, mostly through proxy wars. The West was very aggressive in combating the spread of communism. The US, in particular, adopted a policy of containment, which meant they would combat communism wherever it appeared. The West in general followed the Domino Theory, which was the belief if one nation fell to communism then that nations neighbors then also are at risk of falling to communism.

This theory was the justification for US interventions in Southeast Asia and South America.

6 Both the US and the Soviet Union made concerted efforts to gain military advantages over each other. This could include the strategic placement of nuclear weapons or conventional ground forces, installing puppet governments in nations that are in or around the opposing sides area of control, and supporting guerrilla forces against a government that is fighting for the opposing side. The Cuban missile crisis was a combination of all three of these methods.

Cuba before the Revolution Before Castro rose to power in Cuba the country was run by a US-backed dictator named Fulgencio Batista. Batista was a member of the Cuban military and had been the leader of Cuba once before in 1940. 2 Although he had accumulated a large amount of wealth through his time in office he was widely seen as a successful leader. However, Batista would not stay out of Cuban politics for long. In 1952 Batista led a military queue against the then President Carlos Prío Socarrás. 3 Under Socarrás’s presidency, public corruption was rampant and public services were inefficient and declining.

Because of this when Batista led his military against the Socarrás regime, he was supported by the Cuban people. However, unlike his previous term in office, Batista was more of a dictator and seemed more concerned about obtaining and holding power than being a champion of the people. Batista seized control of Cuban universities, gained control of the Cuban Congress, and manipulated “free” democratic elections to assure that he was the sole candidate running for president. He also was not afraid to use intimidation, torture and imprisonment against political

7 opponents or people who he saw as a threat to his regime. Although Batista was a brutal dictator he was a fervent anti-Communist which was enough for the US to support him as the leader of Cuba. 4 To the US-Cuba was a vital economic and strategic location. And the US had large amounts of public and private investments in the island of Cuba and the Batista regime was interested in protecting them.

Fidel Castro’s Rise Before Fidel Castro became the leader of Cuba he had a long political career leading up to the events that would make him the leader of the Cuban revolution. In 1947 Castro traveled to the Dominican Republic to participate in an armed revolt against the government, but the coup was unsuccessful in overthrowing the Dominican dictator. However Castro was only emboldened by this experience to fight against what he saw as corrupt and tyrannical governments. After the failed coup in the Dominican Republic Castro traveled to Columbia to participate in antigovernment riots in Bogotå. In addition, in 1947 Castro joined a Cuban political party, which was dedicated to political, and government reforms in Cuba. 5 Although Castro's new party lost the 1948 election for president, Castro was fully committed to the cause of revealing government corruption and doing everything in his power to fight against it. In 1949 Castro was exposed to the works of Karl Marx, which changed his life. 6

He became a

dedicated Marxist and intended to run for a seat in the Cuban Congress in the next election cycle. But before Castro is able to run, Fulgencio Batista

8 launched his coup against the Cuban government. After Batista seized power he canceled the upcoming elections, effectively preventing Castro from entering politics. Castro had always been wary of Fulgencio Batista and had warned about his return in the past. And once Batista seized control, Castro and the members of his defeated political party formed a resistance group which they called “The Movementâ€? 7 which planned a revolt against the new Batista regime. The Movement launched their coup on July 26, 1953, Castro and 150 other members of The Movement attacked a military base outside of Santiago de Cuba. The attack failed in Castro was arrested and sentenced to 15 years in prison. Even though he was in prison Castro was still able to organize and direct the resistance movement against the Batista regime. It was also in this time in prison where Castro renamed his resistance movement from The Movement to the "26th of July Movement." 8 In 1955, Castro and other revolutionaries were released from prison in an amnesty deal with the Batista regime. Fidel Castro along with his brother RaĂşl then traveled to Mexico. It was in Mexico where Fidel refined his political ideology and where he planned the next steps of his revolution.9

9 The Cuban Revolution On December 2, 1956, the Castro brothers and about 80 of their followers returned to Cuba to carry out the next phase of their revolution.10 The revolutionaries were few in number and were poorly supplied. In addition Batista’s regime moved quickly to crush the rebellion before it gained momentum.

Batista’s offensive against the 26th of July Movement forced the Castro brothers and what was left of their supporters to flee into the mountains of Cuba where they waged a guerrilla war against the Batista regime. In 1958, Castro's forces launched multiple offensives against the Batista regime witch gave the momentum to the 26th of July Movement. The 26th of July Movement slowly began to gain ground against the Batista regime. As well as the physical gains made by the 26th of July Movement, they were also gaining more and more support for the revolution in the general Cuban public. New revolutionary cells began to pop up in towns all across Cuba. These new cells and Castro's main force in the mountains were boosted by volunteers who were tired of the Batista regime’s heavy-handed suppression methods and by members of the Cuban army who deserted to the 26th of July Movement. 11 With the 26th of July Movement gaining territory, momentum, and support and with popular support for him crumbling, Batista fled Cuba in 1959.12 With Batista out of the way Castro and his 26th of July Movement was able to push aside the opposing government forces and seize control of Cuba. However, even though the

10 government forces were defeated the bloodshed did not end, thousands of members of Batista’s government where Roundup by the new regime and put on trial and executed for their participation in the brutal and corrupt Batista regime.

Cuba's Move to Communism Although Fidel Castro was a socialist he was not formally aligned with the Soviet Union at first5. Actions by both the Eisenhower administration and the Castro regime eventually drove a wedge between the two nations and drove Cuba to inevitably form an alliance with the Soviet Union. The US had a large number of economic interests in Cuba at the time that Fidel Castro took charge in Cuba. The Batista regime had been a willing economic partner with the United States however once the Batista regime was overthrown the new Castro regime became much harder to work with economically. In 1959 the new Cuban government began to pull away from US economic interests to focus on reform in Cuba. In 1960 Cuba began to open up to economic negotiations with the Soviet Union. This was in the form of economic loans and trade agreements between the two nations. In May 1960 the Soviet Union officially recognized the Castro regime as being the legitimate government of Cuba. Around the same time, the Cuban government informed US run oil refineries on the island that they would need to begin refining oil imported from the Soviet Union. Under direction from the US government, these oil refineries refused to refine oil from the Soviet Union. This led to the Castro regime seizing the oil refineries and placing them under control of the Cuban government. The US did not take kindly to the Cuban government nationalizing US economic interests on the island and began to place economic sanctions on Cuba. And in 1961 the US government severed all diplomatic ties with Cuba.13

11 Bay of Pigs In 1960 once the US government saw that the Cuban regime was turning away from US interests in the region President Eisenhower ordered the CIA at the time under the direction of director Allen Dulles to begin training Cuban exiles with the purpose of creating an all Cuban invasion force to overthrow the Castro regime. In total, the CIA trained and equipped 1,400 Cuban exiles to lead the invasion of Cuba. These exiles formed a group called “the Cuban exile brigade.�14 The hope was that once the brigade formed a beachhead on Cuban soil it would spark an uprising against the Castro regime and anti-Communists forces on the island would rise up and join The Cuban Exile Brigade in overthrowing the Castro regime. However, President Eisenhower's term ended before his administration could launch the invasion. President Kennedy then inherited the operation. Although President Kennedy had his concerns about possible political and military backlash from the Soviet Union if it was known that the US government was behind the coup Director Dulles assured him that it could be done in a way that gives the US plausible deniability.15 There were two parts to the invasion plan.

The first part of the operation was a two-day air campaign to destroy Castro's Air Force and to guarantee the invaders would have air superiority over Castro's defending forces. On the third day, The Cuban Exile Brigade would land under cover of darkness and begin their insurgency against the

12 Castro regime.16 The entire plan relied on the Cuban people rising up in revolt against the Castro regime and joining The Cuban Exile Brigade. On April 15th the first part of the Bay of Pigs invasion began. The CIA provided The Cuban Exile Brigade with obsolete World War II aircraft and painted them in a way to make it look as though they were stolen Cuban Air Force planes.17 These planes left their secret base in Nicaragua to strike Cuban military airfields on the island.

However, Castro had learned about the planned invasion months before and was able to move his few airplanes away from the airfields. This and the inaccuracy of the bombs dropped from the rebel planes made the two-day operation a failure. Although the airstrikes failed to cripple the Cuban Air Force the land invasion continued as scheduled.

Just like the air assault the amphibious landing on April 17 was a disaster. The Cuban Exile Brigade was met on the beach with heavy resistance from Castro's forces. The amphibious landing was unorganized and ill-equipped for the terrain of the Bay of Pigs as well as a small group of paratroopers who's job it was to delay enemy reinforcements were dropped in the wrong place and were ineffective at their task. In response to the landing, Castro ordered a full out assault on the invading forces. Castro deployed around 20,000 soldiers to combat the amphibious invasion as well as having his Air Force strafe the landing infantry and attack the ships disembarking the invading force.18 After only 24 hours of fighting, the Cuban exile brigade surrendered to Castro’s forces.

After the smoke cleared the Cuban Exile Brigade had lost two escorts ships and lost about half their aircraft. 19 The landing force did not fare much better with about 100 members of the brigade being killed and about 1200 members of the brigade being captured by Castro's forces.

After the failure of the Bay of Pigs invasion, the Kennedy administration initiated Operation Mongoose,20 which was a plan to sabotage the Castro regime through acts of economic and

13 political sabotage. Operation Mongoose went as far as looking into possibly assassinating Fidel Castro. If Castro hadn't viewed the US as an enemy of Cuba before the Bay of Pigs, there was no doubt that the United States was no friend of Castro's Cuba after the failed invasion.

US Placement of Missiles in Turkey Part of NATO's nuclear deterrent system is a program called nuclear sharing. This is where nations with nuclear weapons station those weapons in other NATO member’s countries. This is in part to help provide protection to that NATO member but also it provides NATO another course of attack on a hostile nation who had used nuclear weapons on one of the NATO members. In 1962 this policy of nuclear sharing was one of the underlying motivations for Russia's placement of nuclear missiles on the island of Cuba.

In 1962 the US placed PGM-19 Jupiter missiles in Turkey as part of their nuclear deterrent against the Soviet Union. The PGM-19 Jupiter missile was an extremely powerful intercontinental ballistic missile however it did not have the range to hit targets in Russia from bases in the US. To fix this problem President Kennedy place these missiles in fellow NATO member nations such as Turkey. This dramatically switched the balance of power in the region because the Soviets had no way to hit the mainland of the United States in any realistic fashion. This meant in the result of a nuclear war the US would be able to hit key

14 targets in the Soviet Union such as Moscow without the Soviet Union being able to hit the United States back directly.21

ExComm The Executive Committee of the National Security Council (ExComm) is comprised of some of the finest minds in the US government. Members of the executive branch, Armed Forces, and diplomatic corps are all represented and all have a say on this committee. Your job as a member of President Kennedy's ExComm committee is to help keep the world from entering World War III and almost guaranteed nuclear annihilation. Each one of the members of ExComm has a specialty in an area that will be deeply important in the decision-making and the operations that the committee will carry out over the next couple days.

Vice President Lyndon Johnson Vice President Johnson was known for his strong opinions an even stronger personality. He was not afraid to use his influence and physical stature to intimidate and persuade other lawmakers into supporting what he wanted. However, these heavy-handed tactics created as many enemies for him as political allies, one of which being the President's brother and fellow ExComm member Attorney General Robert Kennedy. During ExComm meetings Vice President Johnson was uncharacteristically quiet but he still proved to be an influential member of the committee.

15 Dean Rusk (Secretary of State) Secretary of State Rusk was one of the leading advocates for what he called “dignified diplomacy,� he was an unapologetic advocate for negotiating with Russia to remove the nuclear missiles and warheads in Cuba. Secretary Rusk was an advocate against US military intervention in the Bay of Pigs operation and continued that fight against military intervention in the Cuban missile crisis.

Robert McNamara (Secretary of Defense) Secretary of Defense McNamara was an advocate for negotiations with the Russians to remove their missiles from Cuba. Although Secretary McNamara was seen as a foreign-policy hawk in many occasions he feared further Russian involvement in the Cuban missile crisis and escalation of the crisis as a whole if the US was to get to aggressive towards Cuba.

Douglas Dillon (Secretary of the Treasury) Secretary of the Treasury Douglas Dillon was one of the few Republicans serving in Kennedy's cabinet. Secretary Dillon was a strong believer in a strong military response to Russia's placement of missiles in Cuba. He was an advocate for military strikes against the missile placements and consistently sided with more hawkish members of ExComm.

Robert Kennedy (Attorney General) Robert Kennedy was more than just the Attorney General of the United States; he was also the president's brother and one of Kennedy closest advisers. During the Cuban missile crisis, Attorney General Kennedy was one of the leading advocates for

16 a peaceful resolution to the conflict. Though supportive of negotiations with the Soviet Union, Attorney General Kennedy simultaneously supported using a naval blockade to try and force the Soviets to pull their missiles out of Cuba.

John McCone (Director of Central Intelligence) John McCone served as President Kennedy's Director of Central Intelligence during the Cuban missile crisis. Although Director McCone was a Republican he was close with the Kennedy family and because he was seen as a staunch anti-Communist he was placed on the ExComm committee. He was a vocal supporter to of US military action against Cuba. Director McCone supported military airstrikes against the missile placements in Cuba as well as following it up with a US land invasion of the island of Cuba.

General Maxwell Taylor (Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff) General Maxwell Taylor was the chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff during the Cuban missile crisis. He was a decorated an experienced veteran of both WWII and the Korean War. He served as President Eisenhower's Army Chief of Staff and retired after the Eisenhower administration. Kennedy recalled him to active service and placed him in charge of the Joint Chiefs of Staff. Serving on ExComm he was a vocal advocate for the use of military force against Russian missile emplacements.

General Taylor’s preferred method of assault was through coordinated airstrikes on key positions in Cuba.

17 Llewellyn Thompson (Ambassador-at-Large) Llewellyn Thompson was the former Ambassador to the Soviet Union and was an Ambassador-at-large in Washington in 1962 when he was called on by President Kennedy to serve on the ExComm committee. Ambassador Thompson had a good relationship with Nikita Khrushchev, the leader of the Soviet Union at the time. It was his familiarity with Khrushchev which made him an irreplaceable asset to the committee. Ambassador Thompson believed that negotiating with the Soviets would be a much more effective policy instead of military action against missile emplacements.

Theodore Sorensen (Special Counsel) Theodore Sorensen served with Kennedy from the time he was a senator to his ascendancy to the presidency. Theodore Sorensen started off as a legislative staff member for then-Senator Kennedy, becoming a key player in Senator Kennedy's presidential election campaign. Besides Robert Kennedy, Theodore Sorensen was seen as one of Kennedy's closest advisers. During the crisis, he was an advocate for a more diplomatic solution with Russia.

McGeorge Bundy (Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs) McGeorge Bundy was a veteran of World War II where he served as an intelligence officer. After the war, he became an aide for a high-ranking Admiral in the U.S. Navy. After he retired he joined the Kennedy administration as Special Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs. It was Bundy who first informed Kennedy about the intelligence photos of Russian missile sites in Cuba. Bundy also

18 supported a policy of not speaking with NATO or other US allies about how the US should react to missiles in Cuba.

Edwin Martin (Assistant Secretary of State for Inter-American Affairs) Assistant Secretary of State Martin had an important job during the Cuban missile crisis: brief diplomats and other interested parties in what the Kennedy administration was thinking about doing about the missiles in Cuba. Martin also used his diplomatic connections in both North and South America to try to isolate Cuba politically and economically as well as secure US support in Latin America to prevent further Communists ideals from spreading.

George Ball (Under Secretary of State) Under Secretary of State George Ball was a vocal supporter of a full-scale blockade of the island of Cuba. Under Secretary Ball was not sure if the missiles placed in Cuba were nuclear armed by the time of the crisis and advocated for a stringent blockade to prevent the Soviets from being able to ship nuclear warheads to Cuba as well as preventing the Soviets from being able to ship more missiles to Cuba as well.

Pierre Salinger (White House Press Secretary) Press Secretary Pierre Salinger was the public face of the Kennedy administration.

After being kept in the dark about the Bay of Pigs invasion, Press Secretary Salinger insisted that he must be aware of what's happening in the ExComm committee.

Kennedy placed him on the committee and he was tasked with handling the press throughout the crisis. Even though he was not able to discuss everything that was said in the meetings, he had to find a balance between effectively communicating

19 what the administration was thinking while also not giving away any classified information.

Adlai Stevenson (U.S. Ambassador to the United Nations) Adlai Stevenson was the US Ambassador to the United Nations at the time of the Cuban missile crisis. Ambassador Stevenson was the one who revealed to the world that the Soviet Union was building missile sites in Cuba. Ambassador Stevenson was put in a difficult situation because it was his duty to communicate the position of the United States government to the UN Security Council and General Assembly as well as communicating the concerns of the UN about the escalation of events to the ExComm committee. Ambassador Stevenson probably was the most hesitant to support military action out of all the members of ExComm.

Ray S. Cline (CIA's Directorate of Intelligence) Ray S. Cline served as the CIA's Directorate of Intelligence. In this position, he was in charge of the branch of the CIA that analyzed new intelligence. Ray Cline was one of the men who first briefed President Kennedy about the Russian missile sites in Cuba. Every piece of intelligence about the Cuban missile crisis came across Ray Cline’s desk at one point or another.

20

1 History.com Staff. "Cuban Missile Crisis." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2010.

Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

2

Carothers, Thomas. "Backing the Wrong Tyrant." The New York Times. The New York Times, 1994. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

3

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Fulgencio Batista." Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Encyclopedia Britannica, Sept. & oct. 2012. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

4

Ibid.

5

"Fidel Castro." Biography.com. A&E Networks Television, 05 Dec. 2016. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

6

"Batista Forced out by Castro-led Revolution." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d.

Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

7

The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Fulgencio Batista." Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

Encyclopedia Britannica, Sept. & oct. 2012. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

8

Ibid.

9

"Fidel Castro." Biography.com. A&E Networks Television, 05 Dec. 2016. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

10

Ibid.

11

"Batista Forced out by Castro-led Revolution." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d.

Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

12

History.com Staff. "Fidel Castro." History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

13

Fage, Richard R. “Cuba and the Soviet Union.” The Washington Quarterly (Winter 1978).

14

“The Bay of Pigs.” The Bay of Pigs – John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Web. 15 Dec. 2016. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

15

“Bay of Pigs Invasion.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

16

Ibid.

17

“The Bay of Pigs.” The Bay of Pigs – John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Web. 15 Dec. 2016. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

18

“Bay of Pigs Invasion.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

21

19 “The Bay of Pigs.” The Bay of Pigs – John F. Kennedy Presidential Library & Museum. Web. 15 Dec. 2016. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

20 21

“Bay of Pigs Invasion.” History.com. A&E Television Networks, 2009. Web. 15 Dec. 2016.

“Turkey’s Nuclear Missiles: An Important Player in the Cuban Missile Crisis.” Turkey: Nuclear and Political Musing in Turkey and Beyond. https://turkeywonk.wordpress.com/. 15 Dec. 2016.