Future Crisis Committee

Hofstra University Model United Nations Conference

Future Crisis Committee

______________________________________________________________________

Bryan Cuellar Chairperson

Mirabai Siegel Chairperson

Daniel Davidson Crisis Director

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Letter from the Crisis Director

Dear Delegates, Welcome to Hofstra Model United Nations Conference of 2017. My name is Daniel Davidson, and I am the crisis director for the South China Sea Crisis Committee. I am a college sophomore political science major hailing from a town near Seattle called Kent in Washington State. I have previously been a delegate to the 2015 University of Pennsylvania Model United Nations Conference on the Disarmament and International Security Committee. I was also the dais for SPECPOL in Hofstra’s MUNC of 2016, where the issue voted on was the Arctic Circle. In high school, I was on two different robotics teams and briefly on a crew team. I enjoy reading and writing both poetry and prose on variety of topics and genres.

I chose the Spratly Islands issue because of the multitude of states with opposing claims on the islands and the various alliance structures and economies they are a part of that may have an effect, and because the People’s Republic of China announced prior to the ruling by the Court of Arbitration (or the ‘Hague Court’) on the Spratly Islands that it would ignore any such ruling. Another reason I chose this crisis is because it is proving to be more tense among the variety of island disputes between many states in the Pacific off the coast of Asia.

Moreover, various states of Asia are working with the U.S. to respond to pressure regarding control of the seas by China, a state also building an oceanic fleet. As a delegate for a Crisis Committee, things will be a bit different from a general assembly. You will still be pursuing a resolution in this particular Crisis Committee and abiding by MUN parliamentary procedure (most of which will be unmoderated). Regarding this Crisis involving the United Nations Security Council, however, there are some things that are important to note.

You will not have to vote on a topic to pursue a resolution for, as there is but one crisis. There are simulated real world events going on during the duration of your committee.

This is done by the crisis director with the help of a variety of other people. Your working papers and resolutions along with communications with your and other states may or may not have an impact on these events. Furthermore, you are a delegate of your state, rather than being the state. For the sake of this committee your states will give you discretion on negotiations and so forth within a realistic response of what your state would do or suggest.

As representatives of the Security Council of which there will be at most 15 as there currently are, the five permanent members (the United States of America, the People’s Republic of China, the Russian Federation, the United Kingdom, and the French Republic) have veto power, but it is suggested that a diplomatic solution be pursued to prevent a breakdown into conflict. I look forward to meeting and working with you and wish you all well with the committee!

Sincerely, Daniel Davidson ddavidson1@pride.hofstra.edu

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Introduction the Spratly Island Crisis Disputes over the various islands of the South China Sea have existed for less than a century. Today, though, disputes over South China Sea islands, including the Spratly Islands, are an important issue for a variety of states, including China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines. It will be the task of the Security Council to find a solution to this critical issue.

The annexations of East China Sea islands began at the end of the first Sino-Japanese War in 1895, and disputes have gone on since the end of the Second World War. The late Great Empire of Japan occupied the uninhabited Pratas (September 3rd, 1938), the Spratly Islands (December 1938), and the inhabited Hainan island (February 1939) during the Second Sino-Japanese War. In 1947, the then mainland government of the Republic of China (now Taiwan) demarcated the ‘eleven dash line’ which the People’s Republic cut down to nine dashes in 1953, removing claims to the Gulf of Tonkin. In the Treaty of San Francisco, or the “Treaty of Peace” on September 8th 1951, “the State of Japan ceded claims to Korea, Formosa (Taiwan), and the Spratly Islands.” China took over South Vietnam administered islands during the Vietnam War, but at the end of the war the North Vietnamese government continued the claims made by South Vietnam.2 In 1982, United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea established state rights and responsibilities of surrounding waters based on exclusive economic zones and continental shelves. Clashes occurred between Vietnam and China in 1988 in Johnson Reef, with China sinking three Vietnamese ships and killing over seventy sailors. In 1992, China passed the Law on the Territorial Sea and Contiguous Zone in 1992, laying claim to the entirety of the South China Sea. In 1996, three Chinese warships engaged in a ninety-minute battle with a Philippine ship by Mischief Reef. The US responded by engaging in naval exercises with the Philippines, and the Philippines and China proceeded to sign non-binding conduct accords

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calling for peaceful resolution of territory dispute. In 2002, China put forth a non-binding agreement, the Declaration of Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea, in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) to ease tensions and pursue conflict resolution regarding the islands.2 In 2009, Malaysia and Vietnam jointly submitted to the UN Commission on Limits of the Continental Shelf to demarcate territory limits.3 This increased tensions of maritime sovereignty in the South China Sea, particularly with China.2 One of the main disputes in the South China Sea involve the Spratly Islands, which are claimed by the China, Vietnam, Malaysia, and the Philippines.2 The islands are known for fishing grounds, reefs, oil and gas reserves, and half of the world’s maritime trade passes by the Spratlies year-round, including billions of barrels of oil and cubic feet of natural gas.4 The purpose of this Crisis Committee is to resolve the issues regarding the Spratly Islands.

States have used various mechanisms to contest South China Sea island claims, including

international

arbitration

and

various international courts. In a case that culminated in early 2016, the Philippines and China

submitted

their

claims

to

the

Permanent Court of Arbitration at the International Court of Justice, or the Hague Court. This court ruled against Chinese claims to the islands in the South China Sea in addition to ruling that China has caused irreparable environmental damage. The issue here has various details: The Hague Court

The Permanent Court of Arbitration The Permanent Court of Arbitration, more commonly known as the Hague Court, founded in 1899, predates the United Nations and the defunct League of Nations, and has been ruling on international law for more than a century.

Unlike a typical court, countries can send judges to be selected to preside over a case.

The Hague Court was established by the Convention for Pacific Settlement of Disputes, for resolving international disputes especially regarding international arbitration.

Accordingly, Article 20 of the 1899 Convention formally established the PCA, stating: [w]ith the object of facilitating an immediate recourse to arbitration for international differences which it has not been possible to settle by diplomacy, the signatory Powers undertake to organize a Permanent Court of Arbitration, accessible at all times and operating, unless otherwise stipulated by the parties, in accordance with the rules of procedure inserted in the present Convention.1

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ruling in favor of the Philippines’ claims to the islands that China declared it would ignore beforehand, and the same ruling against China’s “irreparable environmental damage”5 because of Chinese actions to create artificial reefs and islands that could potentially have military applications.

Vietnam and Taiwan have both constructed fortifications in the Spratly Islands but have built on preexisting land rather than building over reefs.6 Furthermore, the Permanent Court of Arbitration, has ruled that none of the maritime features that constitute the Spratly Islands can generate exclusive economic zones, as none of them can sustain human life from the resources on them and the historical context of human activity in the reefs has been extractive, in this case fishing, and ruled that some areas can be declared exclusive economic zones of the Philippines as they don’t overlap with Chinese claims, and furthermore that China had violated the sovereign rights of the Philippines by interfering with Philippine fishing and petroleum exploration, (b) constructing artificial islands and (c) failing to prevent Chinese fishermen from fishing in the zone. The Tribunal also held that fishermen from the Philippines (like those from China) had traditional fishing rights at Scarborough Shoal and that China had interfered with these rights in restricting access. The Tribunal further held that Chinese law enforcement vessels had unlawfully created a serious risk of collision when they physically obstructed Philippine vessels.7 Although states have to agree to take cases to arbitration and agree to follow the ruling of the Permanent Court of Arbitration, both China8 and Taiwan have rejected the ruling on the Spratly Islands by the PCA.6 As such, there are many, many unresolved issues involving claims in the South China Sea that could have very large economic, political, strategy, and even military implications.

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The UN Security Council and the South China Sea Islands Disputes This meeting of the United Nations Security Council (UNSC) has convened specifically to respond to the South China Sea disputes. It is important to keep in mind that each of the five permanent members of this council, the United States of America, the French Republic, the Russian Federation, the People’s Republic of China, and the United Kingdom, have veto power as stipulated by Articles 23 and 27 of Chapter V of the UN Charter.9 The temporary members for this committee drawing on the members present in 2016, the Republic of Angola, the Arab Republic of Egypt, the State of Japan, Malaysia, New Zealand, the Republic of Senegal, the Kingdom of Spain, Ukraine, the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, and the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela,10 do not have veto power but can still put forth resolutions and vote in accordance to their interests. In an actual Security Council meeting, a United Nations member state that is not a member of the Security Council may participate but not vote in discussions “when the Council determines the country’s interests are affected (United Nations Security Council Members),” and sets the Security Council sets the conditions for their participation.9 For the sake of this committee, the chair will announce a statement by such states, which in this case are the Nation of Brunei: Abode of Peace, the People’s Republic of Vietnam, and the Republic of the Philippines, and these states, and any other state, can be communicated to through the crisis director through notes. For the sake of this committee, the chair will act as the president and moderate and rather than one of the member states.

The Security Council is the one body that can pass binding resolutions in the United Nations. That is, UNSC resolutions are binding on all UN member states.9 But Security Council delegates, as representatives of their state, cannot take legislative, executive or

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judicial action for their states. For example, they cannot declare war on behalf of their state, or pass laws. Resolutions can be passed by the UNSC authorizing military action, such as a call to action against a terrorist organization, but the UNSC does not direct military forces.

Bear in mind that for a substantive resolution to pass, nine UNSC members must vote affirmatively with no P5 member voting against the resolution. This latter part constitutes the veto power of the P5. An abstention – or refusal to vote – is not a veto and thus a resolution can pass with the proper number of affirmative votes even if one or more P5 states does not vote.

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Factions, Politics and Possibilities Today Over Spratly Islands Generally, states involved in this disputed have several common interests.

Maintaining economic relations is a part of this, for all countries involved. War as a solution is also undesired by all parties, especially considered at least two of the states with interests in the region have nuclear weapons. Moreover, avoiding actions that could result in more disputes is likely in the interests of all states as well.

The possibility of military conflict is real, though, but any type of large land invasion would be quite challenging for all parties involved. The most likely type of military dispute would be short-lived, limited warfare between military units and installations to attain naval supremacy. But this could be quite dangerous, as these types of limited military engagements have a tendency to spiral out of control.

Below is a list of states directly involved in the South China Sea dispute and a more specific introduction to their politics regarding other states that may impact the formation of a resolution. Keep in mind that even for states not directly involved that may only have some economic relation with those states more directly invested, the resolution from this committee may have an impact on issues of sovereignty, the environment, dealing with non-government actors, and trade.

Following the description of interest by states with direct involvement in the South China Sea Islands disputes, the full composition of the UN Security Council for the Future Crisis Committee is listed.

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States with Direct Interests in the Dispute

The Republic of the Philippines (Not on Security Council; Represented by Committee Chair) The Republic of the Philippines has a vested interest in maintaining its claims to the islands in the South China Sea, both for resources and because of geopolitical issues. Like all countries of the Pacific near the South China Sea or East China Sea, having a buffer from China is considered desirable. The Philippines was also the state that pursued a case at the Hague Court against PRC regarding the nine-dash line claims.

The Philippines military struggles to with funding issues and corruption. Throughout the Cold War and onwards, the Philippines, like all former territories of the United States, maintained close relations with the U.S and is party to three different treaties: a Mutual Defense Treaty, Enhanced Cooperation Agreement, and the Visiting Forces Agreement. This has not been without tensions, stemming from crimes committed by stationed US Marines against Philippine civilians, such as the sexual assault of a Filipina woman in 2005 and the murder of a trans Filipina woman in 2014. The Military Bases Agreement was not renewed in 1992 as it was viewed as the extension of the US colonialist legacy,10 of the time as a territory resulting from the Philippine-American war, a war of the US against the Philippine revolutionaries after defeating the Spanish in the Spanish-American War a year prior in 1898.11

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People’s Republic of China (Permanent Member of the Security Council) The two states of China that have a dispute over the South China Sea are the Republic of China (Taiwan) and the People’s Republic of China (PRC). There is an interest in the islands for resources. For the PRC, which is the only representative of China to the United Nations, this is also a chance to expand its projection of power and create a buffer against the United States and allied states, particularly Japan, and to pressure states of South East Asia and northern Oceania. PRC military installations in the region both serve the purpose of claiming and defending territory. For Taiwan, the defensive benefits of control of these islands is desirable, as it would help to prevent more pressure from PRC. Since the 1970s, economic relations with many states have grown considerably for the PRC as foreign companies have constructed and used factories in PRC since the state moved from a Maoist state controlled command economy to a mixed public/private market economy under Deng Xiaoping.12 The PRC maintains a five-year plan economic policy format whilst opening up to trade and allowing for private corporations.13 The PRC is set on building an ocean fleet that can compete at least defensively with the United States.

The United States of America (Permanent Member of the Security Council) The United States of America has been involved in Asia since long before the Cold War, such as with negotiating the free trade Open Door policy in China with European powers in China at the beginning of the 20th century,18 and earlier demanding through pressure of a naval expedition fleet that Japan open ports to refuel and supply ships, return stranded sailors and the right to consulates in the port cities open to US ships at the time.

After learning of British use of force to open trade in China, Japan agreed to the commercefocused Harris Treaty with the United States in 1858.19 It’s current politics regarding Asia

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were in many ways shaped by the Cold War and relations with states that developed then.

The United States is party to a mutual cooperation and defense treaty with Japan20 and a mutual defense treaty with the Republic of Korea (South Korea).21 The United States still controls a wide variety of military bases in the Pacific in proximity to the South China Sea, such as in Okinawa and the Phillipines.22 The US is also party to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization.23 Economically, Canada, Mexico, China and Japan receive the most USA exports, and the USA imports the most from China, Canada, Mexico, Japan, and Germany.24 The United States itself does not claim any disputed islands, but the Philippines, one of its long-time allies in the region, does. A variety of trading partners with varying perspectives on working with the United States also have claims in the region, such as Vietnam and PRC. The US has not officially stated that the disputed territory claimed by the Philippines is subject to the Mutual Defense Treaty.10 The United States has not ratified the United Nations Convention for Law of the Sea,25 and has started the Southeast Asia Maritime Security Initiative, a five year total $425 million dollar program involving Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, Vietnam, Singapore, Brunei and Taiwan. Out of the $49.72 million approved for 2016, $41 million went to the Philippines. Malaysia received $3 million, Vietnam received $2 million, and Indonesia almost $2 million, Thailand under $1 million, and most countries receive assistance for participation in multilateral engagements.26 The South China Sea is part of the 124 million square kilometers of area of operations for the U.S. 7th Fleet.27

The State of Japan (Rotating Member of the Security Council) Japan and the United States are long-standing allies in the Pacific.28 But Japan is somewhat limited in its ability to act outside its borders, following Article 9 of the Japanese

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Constitution that defines the military as a self-defense force and that declarations of war are illegal. However, Japan as sometimes contribute troops to certain efforts, as with the Iraq War when it sent troops to help with a variety humanitarian and engineering tasks (but never in combat).29 However, there has been a reinterpretation of the Constitution in July 2014 to aid allied states30 and security bills in 2015 that allow Japan to come to the aid of allied states who have been attacked even if Japan is not directly threatened.31 There is also the 1992 Peacekeeping Operations Law that allows Japanese soldiers to be part of UN Peacekeeper forces.32 Disputes particularly with South Korea and the People’s Republic of China regarding Japanese military and government treatment of civilians both in general and the comfort women policies before and during World War II are a factor that continues strain diplomatic relations. There are tensions over US military bases particularly regarding bases in Okinawa due to crimes committed by US soldiers along with accidents such as helicopter crashes on schools, wildfires caused by live ammunition drills, destruction of the environment, chemical contamination of soil and water, off duty accidents, and crimes committed including genderbased and sexual violence.34 Japan has disputes over islands with China, Taiwan,35 South Korea, in the South and/or East China Sea aside from the Spratly Islands disputes.36

The People’s Republic of Vietnam (Not on Security Council; Represented by Committee Chair) Vietnam is engaged in trade with countries across the world, the main partner being the United States.37 Vietnam is moving toward closer political, diplomatic, and economic relations with the United States of America, having agreed to a Memorandum of Understanding on Bilateral Defense Cooperation in 2011, a Comprehensive Partnership of

12

2013, and the U.S.-Vietnam Joint Vision Statement of 2015.38 An arms embargo by the U.S. of Vietnam was completely lifted May 23rd 2016,39 and the U.S. is helping the Vietnamese grow their navy by providing patrol vessels through the Foreign Military Financing program.

In addition, the US is supporting Vietnamese capacity for international peacekeeping through the Global Peace Operations Initiative. Vietnam has established an international port facility capable of receiving foreign warships at Cam Ranh Bay, which has been visited by Japanese, Singaporean, French,40 Chinese41 and American warships.42 The Spratly Islands present similar territorial and economic applications for Vietnam as it does for many of the states involved.

Malaysia (Rotating member of the Security Council) Malaysia has an industrialized manufacturing economy.43 China has encroached on Malaysia by passing ships through the Luconia Shoals, which are claimed by Malaysia.44 Malaysia is a part of the Commonwealth of Nations,45 having attained independence under the former title Federation of Malaysia in 1963.46 Part of present day Malaysia was once conquered by Brunei,47 which ruled over some coastal areas before British rule.48

Negara Brunei Darussalam (Nation of Brunei Abode of Peace) (Not on Security Council; Represented by Committee Chair) Brunei is smallest state of all states with a claim on the Spratly Islands, and has large oil and gas sector in the economy. Brunei is also in the Commonwealth of Nations.49 After gaining full independence from the British in 1984. Brunei claims a 200-nautical mile exclusive economic zone that overlaps with China’s nine-dash line.51

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Composition of the UN Security Council for Future Crisis Committee Permanent Members -The French Republic -The People’s Republic of China -Russian Federation -The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland -The United States of America Rotating Members -The Republic of Angola -The Arab Republic of Egypt -The State of Japan -Malaysia -New Zealand -The Republic of Senegal -The Kingdom of Spain -Ukraine

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-The Oriental Republic of Uruguay -The Bolivian Republic of Venezuela

NOTES 1. Permanent Court of Arbitration. (PCA) History. Retrieved from https://pcacpa.org/en/about/introduction/history/ 2. (2016). Chinese Maritime Disputes. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/asia-and-pacific/chinas-maritime-disputes/p31345#!/p31345 3. National Security Council of Malaysia, Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Socialist Republic of Vietnam, et al… (05/2009). Joint Submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf pursuant to Article 76, paragraph 8 of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982 in respect to the Southern Part of the South China Sea. (pp. 3-5) Retrieved from http://www.un.org/depts/los/clcs_new/submissions_files/mysvnm33_09/mys_vnm200 9excutivesummary.pdf 4. Wholf, T. (05/16/2015). Five Things You Should Know About the South China Sea Conflict. National Public Radio. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/newshour/updates/5-things-didnt-know-south-china-sea-conflict/ 5. Almond, R. G. (07/16/2016). Interview: The South China Sea Ruling. The Diplomat Magazine. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2016/07/south-china-sea-rulingchina-caused-irreparable-harm-to-environment/ 6. Miller, S. (09/30/2016). Taiwan Presses Forward with Secretive Construction After Downgrade of Its South China Sea Island. Voice of America. Retrieved from http://www.voanews.com/a/taiwan-south-china-sea/3531442.html 7. The Hague. (7/12/2016). Press Release: The South China Sea Arbitration: The Republic of the Philippines vs. The People’s Republic of China. (pp. 2) Retrieved from https://pca-cpa.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/175/2016/07/PH-CN-20160712Press-Release-No-11-English.pdf 8. Phillips, T. Holmes, O. Bowcott, H. (07/12/2016). Beijing Rejects Tribunal Ruling in South China Sea Case. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/12/philippines-wins-south-china-seacase-against-china 9. United Nations. Chapter V. UN Charter. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/chapter-v/ (2017). Countries Elected Members of the Security Council. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/en/sc/members/elected.asp 10. Albert, E. (2016, Jun). The U.S.-Philippines Defense Alliance. CFR. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/philippines/us-philippines-defense-alliance/p38101 11. Department of State of the United States of America. The Philippine-American War, 1899–1902. Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/war

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12. Meredith, R. (2007). The Elephant and the Dragon: The Rise of India and China and What It Means for All of Us. (pp. 67) 500 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10110: W.W, Norton Company, Inc. 13. Meredith, R. (2007). The Elephant and the Dragon: The Rise of India and China and What It Means for All of Us. (pp. 27) 500 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10110: W.W, Norton Company, Inc. 14. Miles, R. G. (11/16/2015). China and America, a Tale of Two Nations. Foreign Policy. Retrieved from http://foreignpolicy.com/2015/11/16/china-and-america-a-taleof-two-navies/ 15. (1/20/2016). Taiwan Profile – Full Overview. British Broadcasting Corporation.

Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-16177285 16. Taylor, A. (10/8/2016). Taiwan’s Kinmen Islands, Only a Few Miles From Mainland China. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2015/10/taiwans-kinmen-islands-only-a-few-milesfrom-mainland-china/409720/ 17. The Learning Network. (10/25/2011). Oct. 25, 1971 | People’s Republic of China In, Taiwan Out, at U.N. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://learning.blogs.nytimes.com/2011/10/25/oct-25-1971-peoples-republic-of-chinain-taiwan-out-at-un/ 18. Department of State of the United States of America. Secretary of State John Hay and the Open Door in China, 1899-1900. Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/1899-1913/hay-and-china 19. Department of State of the United States of America. The United States and the Opening to Japan, 1853. Retrieved from https://history.state.gov/milestones/18301860/opening-to-japan 20. (Jan 2017). Treaty of Mutual Cooperation and Security between Japan and the United States of America. Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/japan/treaty-mutual-cooperation-security-between-japan-unitedstates-america/p22270 21. Mutual Defense Treaty Between the United States and the Republic of Korea; October 1, 1953. The Avalon Project: Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy.

Retrieved from http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/kor001.asp 22. Vine, D. (July/August 2015). Where in the World Is the U.S. Military? Politico Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2015/06/usmilitary-bases-around-the-world-119321 23. U.S. Mission to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. Retrieved from https://nato.usmission.gov 24. Central Intelligence Agency Library. (12/21/2016) North America: United States (Economy). The World Factbook. Retrieved from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/us.html 25. Patrick, S. M. (6/10/2012). (Almost) Everyone Agrees: The U.S. Should Ratify the Law of the Sea Treaty. The Atlantic. Retrieved from http://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2012/06/-almost-everyone-agreesthe-us-should-ratify-the-law-of-the-sea-treaty/258301/ 26. Parameswaran, P. (4/10/2016). US kicks Off New Maritime Security Initiative for Southeast Asia. The Diplomat Magazine. Retrieved from thediplomat.com/.../uskicks-off-new-maritime-security-initiative-for-southeast-asia/ 27. The United States of America Seventh Fleet. United States Seventh Fleet Fact Sheet.

Retrieved from

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http://www.c7f.navy.mil/Portals/8/documents/7thFleetTwoPagerFactsheet.pdf?ver=2 016-01-27-061248-087 28. Xu, B. (7/1/2014). The U.S.-Japan Security Alliance. (Introduction) Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/japan/us-japan-securityalliance/p31437 29. Razak, A. A. (06/19/2006). Japan to Withdraw It’s 600 Troops from Iraq. USA Today.

Retrieved From http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2006-06-19-japaniraq_x.htm Cached from Google 30. Xu, B. (7/1/2014). The U.S.-Japan Security Alliance. (The Future of the Alliance) Council of Foreign Relations. Retrieved from http://www.cfr.org/japan/us-japansecurity-alliance/p31437 31. McCurry, J. (10/18/2015). Japanese Soldiers Could Fight Abroad Again After Security Bill Passed. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/18/japanese-soldiers-could-fightabroad-again-after-security-bill-passed 32. Oi, M. (3/15/2012). Japan’s Contradictory Military Might. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-17175834 33. (11/21/2016). In Potential Setback for Abe, Putin Maintains Tough Stance on Island Dispute. The Japan Times. Retrieved from http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/11/21/national/politics-diplomacy/putinmaintains-tough-stance-japan-russia-island-row/ 34. Kozue, A. (2010). Okinawa: Life on the Island of U.S. Military Bases. Peace and Freedom Volume 70 No. 2 (Women’s International League for Peace and Freedom).

Retrieved from the ProQuest Political Science Database via the Joan and Donald E. Axinn Library, Hofstra University http://search.proquest.com.ezproxy.hofstra.edu/politicalscience/docview/816536866/9 D56E1E1B09840B3PQ/1?accountid=11449 35. (11/10/2014). How Uninhabited Islands Soured China Japan Ties. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asiapacific-11341139 36. Wiliamson, L. (10/05/2012). Japan and South Korea in Dispute Over Tiny Islands.

British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/worldasia-19841645 37. (1/27/2016). Vietnam Profile – Overview. British Broadcasting Corporation.

Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-16567834 38. Office of the Press Secretary of the United States of America. (05/23/2016). Joint Statement: Between the United States of America and the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Office of the Press Secretary of the USA. Retrieved from https://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/2016/05/23/joint-statement-betweenunited-states-america-and-socialist-republic 39. (23/05/2016). Obama Lifts US Embargo on Lethal Arms Sales to Vietnam. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia36356695 40. Parameswaran, P. (05/27/2016). US-Vietnam Defense Relations: Problems and Prospects. The Diplomat Magazine. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2016/05/us-vietnam-defense-relations-problems-andprospects/ 41. Johnson, J. (10/23/2016). Chinese Warships Make First Visit to Vietnam’s Cam Ranh Bay as South China Sea Tensions Simmer. The Japan Times. Retrieved from

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http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2016/10/23/asia-pacific/chinese-warships-makefirst-visit-vietnams-cam-ranh-bay-south-china-sea-tensions-simmer/ 42. Parameswaran, P. (12/16/2016). Third US Warship Visits Vietnam’s Cam Ranh International Port. The Diplomat Magazine. Retrieved from: http://thediplomat.com/2016/12/third-us-warship-visits-vietnams-cam-ranhinternational-port/ 43. (12/1/2016). Malaysia Country Profile. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-pacific-15356257 44. Parameswaran, P. (3/25/2016) Around 100 China Ships Encroaching Malaysia’s Waters: Minister. The Diplomat Magazine. Retrieved from http://thediplomat.com/2016/03/100-china-ships-encroaching-malaysias-watersminister/ 45. Malaysia. The Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/malaysia 46. Malaysia: History. The Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/malaysia/history 47. Bee, O. J. Thambipillai, P. Damit, M. Y. (6/20/2016). Brunei. (History) Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Brunei 48. Ahmad, Z. B. Leinbach, T. R. Lockard, C. A. Bee, O. J. (1/6/2017) Malaysia.

(History: Early European Intrusions and Emerging Sultanates) Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved from https://www.britannica.com/place/Malaysia/The-adventof-Islam#toc52556 49. Brunei Darussalam: Economy. Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/brunei-darussalam/economy 50. Brunei Darussalam: History. Commonwealth of Nations. Retrieved from http://thecommonwealth.org/our-member-countries/brunei-darussalam/history 51. Brunei. Maritime Awareness Project. http://maritimeawarenessproject.org/profiles/brunei/