2019 Architectural Manifesto

In praise ofRu

An Architectural Manifesto Helen Beresford, 2019

ins

Fig. 1. Ancient Palmyra. Colonnade Street with Temple of Bel in background

I N T RODU C T ION All existing buildings must be respected for their architectural and anthropological integrity, but not all are as rich in historical importance as others. Within the field of architectural conservation there are a number of methods of cultural management that can be applied, ranging from preservation to replication and it is vital for the conservation architect to be familiar with all levels of intervention before an assessment can be undertaken (Viollet-le-duc, 1854).

Buildings such as those listed as grade II* and grade I in England are icons of unique evidential, historical, aesthetic value (Historic England, 2008) and are of great benefit to society as a tool for learning and identification. As such a sensitive restoration or consolidation may be necessary and appropriate regardless of questions of authenticity or cost. This manifesto does not deal with the treatment of these icons.

The manifesto focuses on the revival and recycling of countless ruins and remains at risk of demolition or degradation through the UK and abroad.

“Buildings, like people, are individual” (Mainstone, 2003). Each one has its own history that has left scars and richness, and with considerate care

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can be revived into a successful and iconic member of society. The singleuse habits that have been developed within western culture are not sustainable, and the built environment is a sector with plenty of recyclable materials.

This history of conservation as the practice of caring for existing buildings is too vast to be covered within this text. However, Conservation as an architectural movement is far more recent. Architectural critiques and theologians have written manifestos, principles and definitions, many of which conflict; Ruskin (1849), Viollet-le-duc (1854), Morris & Webb (1877) each provided insight into the evolving conversation of conservation, and debate acceptable levels of interference. More recently Finch (1982) and Feilden (2003) provide useful definitions “Once they have acquired this kind of knowledge of their building, they must then have at their disposition several alternative methods of carrying out the works of restoration.

If one method fails, he needs to be able to fall back upon another, and even upon a third, if necessary” (Viollet-leduc, 1854)

IN PRAISE OF RUINS

An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

DEFINITIONS The terms used in the manifesto are briefly clarified as below.

Conservation The overarching term for acts that prolong the life of our cultural and natural heritage.

Preservation 1, 2 Keeping the object in its current state, by controlling its environment and with minor maintenance. Nothing is added or removed Consolidation 1, 2 The addition of adhesive or supporting materials for the purpose of ensuring structural integrity.

Reinstate 4 Returning a feature of the structure, either original or replicated, to a position it previously held.

Restoration 1,2 Returning the condition of the structure to that of a previous state by means of replacement of missing or decayed parts.

Replication 2, 4 The production of an exact copy of a structure or feature for the purpose of mimicry.

Reproduction 1 The re-creation of a structure that no longer existing.

Reconstruction 1 A major re-building of significant portions of a structure, based upon accurate documentation.

Palimpsest 3 Something reused or altered but still bearing visible traces of its earlier form.

Buildings are considered obsolete too quickly, on the basis of superficial examination and inadequate data’ Finch, 1982

Fig. 2 - Remains of peach house on adjacent wall

Rehabilitation or Adaptive Re-use 2 Altering an existing structure for a use other than that which it was initially designed or is currently bring used.

Revival 3 Improvements in the condition, strength, or fortunes of someone or something with the output of becoming popular, active, or important again.

Ruin 3,4 The remains of a structure that is no longer fit for purpose as a result of dilapidation, destruction or decay.

Definitions edited from these sources: 1. Feilden, B. M., 2003. Conservation of Historic Buildings .pp 44-47 2. Finch, J. M., 1982. Historic Preservation: Curatorial Management of the Built World. pp. 9- 12 3. English Oxford Living Dictionary https:// en.oxforddictionaries.com/ 4. Authors own interpretation

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P R I N C I P L E S P R I dirt N and C decay I P L E S Embrace Architecture always degrading.

Embraceisdirt and decayTime and its affects cannot beis stopped, but should be admired.

Architecture always degrading; Time and its effects cannot be stopped.

The traces of himan Traces of human and natural history adorn and ruins natural history that adhorn ruins produce a fragile and fragility of decay beautiful beaity that should be admired and displayed

Evolve ruins with care

Evolve ruins with care and evidential; Building morphology is inevitable inevitable and evidential; noBuilding buildingmorphology has a singleislayer of history.

Each touch no building has a single layer of history. Each touch leaves a trace and adaptive reuse is a method of leaves a trace and adaptive reuse is a method of continuing the building’s lifespan. continuing the building’s lifespan.

Expose Exposethe the palimpsest palimpsest

The is often often disguised disguisedbehind behind TheDNA DNAof ofaa building building is perfect palimpsests, building techperfect finishes. finishes.TheThe palimpsests, building niques and technologies reveal a story worth untechniques and technologies reveal a story worth derstanding. understanding.

Encounter Encounter the the unfamiliar unfamiliar

Architecture isis the the embodiment embodiment of Architecture of the theculture cultureinin whichitithas hasgrown grown and and should should be which beexplored. explored.

Enjoyand and challenge challenge Enjoy

Manipulating or or disregarding disregarding the Manipulating the rules rulesofofsociety society and architecture can give way to adventurous and architecture can give way to adventurousand and bespoke design. bespoke design.

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IN PRAISE OF RUINS

An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

IN PRAISE OF RUINS

An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

Fig. 3 - Abandoned building in ValparaĂ­so, Chile Fig. 4 - Weathering on Newstead Abbey West Facade Fig. 5 - Sketch of The Ruin Room in S. Trinita dei Monti, by Clerisseau

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E M B R A C E

Architectural is always maturing. From the moment a piece of stone hits the air or is rained on it begins to erode, but this is not something we must perpetually fight against. It is this authors opinion that the point at which a building is most interesting, with the most opportunity and intrigue, is at the point of vacancy and misuse. Initial condition surveys are a process of exploration to understand what has been, what is there now and how it got there. These places give us an insight into the things the building has seen and the people that used and inhabited it. The ruins that remain should not be polished and restored to former glory, as this would be to destroy and hide the history that existed. Instead, an appreciation for the evolution and devolution should be embraced.

IN PRAISE OF RUINS An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

It is a waste of time, skill, resource and material to ‘maintain’ many of the UK’s grade II listed buildings. By this I mean the persistent and careful maintenance that Ruskin argues will negate the necessity for later conservation, also referred to by Feilden as Prevention of Decay. It is the literal and figurative example of fighting the wind. Similarly, however, the restoration Viollet-le-duc describes, of restoring exactly as the original author had done is to lie.

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All matter is in a state of evolving or devolving. The Japanese view of wabi-sabi is founded on this, encouraging us to embrace the uncontrollability of nature and be faced with the bitter-sweet knowledge that we are not unique in our own mortality (Koren, 2008) (Davis, 2002). It is a celebration of time and nature. By including existing ruins that display traces of use and misuse, we are given permission by example to slow down and enjoy the idiosyncratic imperfect beauty of degradation. ‘Dirt then, is never a unique isolated event’ (Douglas, 1966, p. 36 ). Our perception of dirt has historically been so intertwined with our societal values of what is acceptable and pure that we must classify, order and decide what is unacceptable and therefore reject as dirt. Douglas defined dirt as matter out of place, but under who’s authority is the correct location determined?

The definition of the inappropriate changes throughout the world, which leaves us with the understanding that nothing is intrinsically dirt itself, and an appreciation for dirt and decay as an expression of beauty can be embraced and celebrated. Ruskin refers to these ‘golden stains of time’ and praises their work in the revelation of architecture ‘preciousness’ (Ruskin, 1849).

Ruins may also be subject to the stains of vandalism or active destruction. Expressions of territory, political opinion, sexual exploits, artistic flare or simply an acknowledgement of presence may have marked the walls of a ruin, but these do not need to be cleansed.

They show the interaction of human and material in a liberating move to act beyond the constraints of society (Edensor, 2005).

The walls of Valparaiso, Chile are adorned with expressions of artistic joy and political dissatisfaction.

Not only can we accept the decaying, imperfect, unbuilt as universally beautiful, but they may in fact be the very nature of architecture itself. ‘All architecture is waste in transit’ Till remembers from a Lecture by Peter Guthrie (Till, 2013, p. 67). Buildings can be imagestic during construction (Koren,

Fig. 6 - Newstead Abbey West Facade

2008, p. 87), during deconstruction, and even in abandonment. Where occupied buildings have been abandoned quickly (in instances of structural instability for example) the uncanny palimpsest of human inhabitation can be found in the form of newspapers, half-drunk cups of teas, and other elements. The room is filled with traces of people, but their presence eludes the space. Fortunately, our unfamiliarity with the sites of ruin we usually visit or work with permits us to playfully imagine what the space could become (Edensor, 2005) (Harbison, 1991); we can avoid the fear of the uncanny that a familiar place disrupted and abandoned would cause (Freud, 1919) (Vilder, 1992) (Zimmerman, 2015).

The palimpsest of humans and nature on a ruin is not a cause for dismay, nor does it demand to be cleaned and hidden. Instead it is the introduction to the lives the ruin has interacted with, and an opportunity to continue its evolution.

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E V O L V E Now that it is established that all buildings will progress through a natural cycle evolution and degradation, the opportunity of this cycle being repeatable is presented.

IN PRAISE OF RUINS An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

It is naïve to think that the ruins or existing buildings we are entrusted with are pure and as the architect first intended. The Violet-leDuc view that once we know enough of a previous architectural style, we can rebuild the same (Viollet-le-duc, 1854) does not take into account the years of minor repairs, or major alterations that the building will have undergone. Whilst working at an architecture firm with a celebrated heritage consultant department, I have seen appraisals that reveal even the multiple coats of paint on a clockface. Just as the layers have been added over the years with each new coat, our intervention is just another layer that may, in the past be covered over or even stripped off. ‘The stain of the preceding period often remains and its meaning can be traced back to it’s origin’ (Sirithanawat, 1990). These truths give us freedom to add our own layer with respect for the past and without fear of contamination.

We can most effectively evolve the structure once we realise that ‘to inherit is to transform’ (Lowenthal, 1985, p. 412), whether tangibly, intangibly, or both.

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It has been agreed by many of the architectural conservation authorities (both individuals and organisations) that the best way of preserving a building is to keep it in use.

Usefulness is recognised as a necessity even with in the Vitruvian triad firmitas (strength), utilitas (functionality), and venustas (beauty) (Vitruvius, 1998). When a buildings use can no longer sustain its longevity, adaptive reuse may be a suitable strategy of conservation, and at least provides many thoughtful avenues of exploration. This revival is more than an aesthetic update to suit the fashion of the time, but more fundamental and radical changes that update the building to suit the needs of a new use or tenant (Finch, 1982).

This is not a modern strategy but requisite in an ever-evolving society. Terminal Station in Chattanooga was made redundant as a train station by impact that the introduction of automobiles and domestic flights in the USA had on the rail industry but was revived as

a hotel years later and is still in use today (Turkel, 2013). Detroit, previously America’s Motor City was abandoned by the industry moved to mass production (Requiem for Detroit?, 2010). The technological revolution had a similar effect in the UK on the buildings of the industrial revolution, which in turn affected agricultural buildings. The life cycle of industry and use is ongoing; so too should our use of buildings. The French refer to this process as mise en valeur, literally translated to setting in value.

Conservation philosophers have agreed as far back as Boito that any repairs or additional works to the building should be made clear.

As we add our own layer of history to the ruins there is opportunity to reflect the beauty of the evolution in the life cycle of the building from dying to living again. The Japanese practice of Kintsugi, a branch of wabi-sabi, restores broken pottery. The pieces are reconciled using a gold (Kin) join (tsugi) in an act that results in an item that is stronger and more valuable than its original form not in spite of its damage, but because of it.

Celia Pym’s work embodies the kintsugi philosophy. Beloved items of clothing are brought to her and she repairs each with beautiful, vibrant darning. Describing her work, she said ‘The damage in the garment is an echo of the physicality of the body... damage and repair go hand in hand’ (Pym, 2018). The wears of the items may not reflect an iconic moment, but simply regular use of the familiar and beloved items. The item carries a sentiment, and Pym evolves it into a new, vibrant design that embraces the wear that love has caused.

Fig. 7 - (above) Graffiti on an abandoned building in Detroit Fig. 8 - (opposite, top) Celia Pym - Elizabeth’s Cardigan Fig. 9a - (opposite, centre), 9b (opposite, bottom) Alexandra Palace Theatre, Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios

So far in architecture there seems to be little evidence of this method used naturally (although mock examples can be found). The methods of consolidation and restoration favour authentic methods, rebuilding as it was built. Perhaps this is due to the direction and request of conservation officers and English Heritage guidance, perhaps effective ways of doing this have not been found, or perhaps it just simply is not fashionable enough.

Instead, it is become increasingly popular to build a new, crisp white shell, revealing and contrasting the ruins and palimpsest left exposed.

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E X P O S E Ruins retain a valuable history, and some care in the treatment and display of these could spark a shift in architectural appreciation, education and representation. This transparency can be used as a tool to honour the history and educate.

A key element in the architectural style ,begrudgingly referred to as High Tech, is the ‘tendency to dramatize the technical function of building elements’ (Davies, 1988, p. 9). In doing so, with services visibly weaving and protruding through the structure, not only are we provided with an interesting visual texture, but we are given the opportunity to learn how the building works. A universal element of any architectural education (both formal and informal) is visiting buildings to gain inspiration and understanding. In engineering, the pedagogy focuses on a handson approach of dismantling and rebuilding; architecture rarely provides this luxury.

IN PRAISE OF RUINS An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

In my third year of university, during a year working for a conservation practice in Cambridge, I saw first-hand a lath and plaster being installed. 6 years later I visit the newly unveiled Bristol Vic foyer/assembly by Haworth Tompkins and saw lath used as an internal finish to a feature wall. The experience I previously had with the technique that is now extinct in modern architecture allowed me to understand that Haworth Tompkins was paying homage to the history of the building.

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The crossover between conservation and high-tech architecture might not be a clear one, but it illustrates an ability to expose evidence that would usually be tidied away.

The benefit of exposing is explored and supported by philosophers of the senses who argue the interaction with images on a page or a screen does not satisfy inquisition, instead we must encounter architecture (Pallasmaa, 2007) (Merleau-Ponty, 2008).

This evidence falls into two categories: the active and the passive. Active evidence would be that such as a lath and plaster wall; and passive as a palimpsest.

The active elements of a building are the functional pieces. Rogers Stirk Harbour & Partners located the lift shaft of the Leadenhall building in a glazed spine, so the pulleys, structure, and trolley can all be seen from street level as users ascend to the 24th

storey. In the stairwell of the architecture school at the University of the West of England a window in the wall lining reveals the insulation, structure and electrics beneath.

More than just a fashion statement, these actions help give students context to their construction technology modules and reveals the construction secrets that would otherwise be hidden by plasterboard. It also has the potential to inspire future architects and engineers. The age at which children become interested in architecture or engineering is highly debated, but keeping the moving parts exposed might inspire a generation the way that a plasterboard wall would not. Research facilities such as the Building Research Establishment (BRE) regularly construct prototypes for new technologies on their campus which are built in this way but making this a standard strategy in architectural fit outs gives opportunity for those who do not have access to the building site from a young age.

Exposing the passive elements of the building refers to its scars, the palimpsest of its experience. During the 1999 refurbishment of Berlin’s Reichstag, Foster and Partners made the decision to expose the graffiti left by victorious Soviet soldiers the day they took the parliament building in 1945 (Kluth, 2014). The graffiti serves as a very personal reminder of the reality Germany’s history, one that Angela Merkel must walk past every day. Haworth Tompkins made the decision to leave the fire damaged walls of the Battersea Arts centre less as a historical reminder than as a testament to the extraordinary richness and complexity that came from disaster (Haworth Tompkins, 2018). Ruskin romantically writes about the life in palimpsest as so: ‘There was yet, in the old some life, some mysterious suggestion of what it had been, and what it had lost; some sweetness in the gentle lines which rain and sun had wrought’ (Ruskin, 1849) It is by exposing these repairs that the restoration of a great architectural asset can become useful and educational in a way that will benefit more than the few who own or profit off the building. We may not regularly build in lath and plaster anymore, but by revealing these elements we can teach and inspire students about the history and future of architecture.

Fig. 10 - Timber structure of pilaster revealed by damaged plaster Fig. 11 - (left top) Door in weatherd wall in Cascais, Postugal Fig. 12 - (left centre) Melted paint on the walls of Battersea Arts Centre Fig. 13 - (left bottom) ‘Arrested decay’ at Alexandra Palace

E N C O U N T E R Woe is the architect who thinks their path of architectural development pure and righteous. Buildings are not relics to be looked at, but physical beings to be encountered (Pallasmaa, 2007).

Architecture all around the world reflects the societies which built it, but often is it not the iconic wonders of the world that reveal the truth, but the ordinary architecture. The Anon architect is collectively the most authentic architectural representation of society for they designed out of necessity, with local resources, aiming not for beauty but for function, and in so achieved a humble and honest beauty (Casson, 1993). Walking through the streets of any alien city the collection of façades presents a different atmosphere and with a keen eye and alert senses we can begin to absorb the place.

World views have spread from schools of thought around the world. A lot of the fundamentals of architectural theory come from ancient Greek scholars, Japanese philosophy teaches us about simplicity and contentment. The conservation movement has become globally homogenised with organisations such as International Council on Monuments and Sites (ICOMOS) and The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). These organisations facilitate the sharing of knowledge around the world, and we should engage in this. There are over 1000 places around the world awarded the title of World Heritage Site by UNESCO, each unique and bursting with valuable sturctures and societies to encounter.

IN PRAISE OF RUINS An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

Whether international travel, or domestic exploration, our architectural knowledge can only be enriched by facing that with which we are not familiar.

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Fig. 14 Texture and decoration on external stairs in ValparaĂ­so, Chile

Fig. 15 The plaster casing has fallen away revealing the timber lath structure that forms this pilaster. Photograph by author.

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A final principle to add to this manifesto is provocative, and perhaps hypocritical. Having set principles I support, I would also argue against them all on occasions where the result seemed unnecessary or did not produce a more valuable outcome.

Ruins may not need to be revived. Their ambiguous nature invites adventurous play, fantastical exploration and imagination. The ruin fetish has been a fashion periodically since the 1800s, an ‘eccentric branch of rococo’ (Harbison, 1991) delighted artists like Piranesi to imagine dream like scenes of destruction and decay, barely distinguishable within the overgrowth. The conventional uses for the structure have gone, and now we are permitted to translate them however our imagination delights. Exploring the remains of Beeston Castle as a child any half-collapsed wall became my staircase, any alcove a hiding place. An ambiguous ruin invites organic, free flowing travel through the space as typical wayfinding methods fall away. The situationists refer to this as derive (Debord, 1957) or as flaneur; strolling curiously yet aimlessly.

Ruins can also be forum for activities that transgress acceptable societal behaviour. They may provide an informal assault course for skateboarders, cliffs face for climbers, canvases for artists. Kids, angry at the world, may just need somewhere to go and break some things.

‘Our only real pleasure is to squander our resources to no purpose’ Bataille muses (1962), a sentiment reflected in the countless windows of abandoned factories with shattered windows.

Inhabitants may also include the social outcasts, rent is rising so why not squat? (Elms, 2011).

(I would draw my own line of acceptable transgression here, aware of the irony). The illicit behaviours may also include sexual, violent, or drug related events, but as taboo these may be in our culture, they are among the most human acts, and in a conversation on transgression they are the epitome (Douglas, 1966) (Bataille, 1962).

Where ruins are revived, we can still design ambiguous spaces that are flexible and will suit a variety of uses. This is a favoured method of futureproofing, so that issues of the building becoming unfit for purpose are reduced.

There are, however, rules to which we must abide to achieve a successful redevelopment.

UNESCO, English Heritage, the Building Regulations all guide us towards safe, universal solutions. These are rules that have evolved from both case study and legislation.

They work, and they provide the greatest good for the greatest number. However, individual buildings require an bespoke response and so I encourage regular ‘new articulation’ of the rules, not merely a systematic and deliberate destruction (Tschumi, 1998). My personal experience with conservation officers as well as a number of case studies has taught me that creative design solutions can justify rule breaks.

Finally, I urge us to fight for the enjoyment of the work we do. Boito describes the necessity for ‘the fervent soul of the artist’ (Boito, 1893) in conservation and architecture and I would agree. The work we do and the hours that the profession demands are often justified by ‘the love of the job by many architects and architectural students I have met, so enjoy your craft.

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Fig. 16 - The Igreja de SĂŁo Domingos, has been revived from ruin. Earthquakes in 1531, 1755 and a fire in 1959 devestated the building. Signs of the fire is still visible on the stone work.

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IN PRAISE OF RUINS

An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

CONCLUSION Architectural ruins may be the most liberating aspect of our built environment. They retain traces of both micro and macro history in picturesque ways that can be strengthened and celebrated.

All of nature is subject to a cycle of evolution and degradation and there is opportunity to embrace this and use the ruins as canvases for education and transgression. It is my belief that these principles of embracing and accepting decay, evolving the existing to its next stage, exposing the methods and the history, exploring the world’s architecture and enjoying the process can be applicable to many types of architecture, but I have a particular fondness for ruins.

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REFERENCES Ando, T., n.d. 10 quotes on minimalism by Tadao Ando. [Online] Available at: https://architizer.com/blog/inspiration/ industry/10-quotes-on-minimalism-by-tadao-ando/ [Accessed 15 04 2019].

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Casson, H., 1993. In praise of the house that Anon built . In: B. Farmer & H. Louw, eds. Companion to Contemporary Architectural Thought. London: Routledge, pp. 29-30.

Davies, C., 1988. High Tech Architecture. s.l.:Rizzoli Intl Pubns.

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[Online] Available at: www.bopsecrets.org/SI/report.htm [Accessed 14 04 2019].

Douglas, M., 1966. Purity and Danger. London: Routledge.

IN PRAISE OF RUINS An architectural Manifestio Helen Beresford

Edensor, T., 2005. Industrial Ruins; Space, aesthetics and materiality. Oxford : Berg.

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Elms, R., 2011. From Frestonia to Belgravia: The History of Squatting. [Sound Recording] (BBC Sounds).

English Heritage, 2011. Vacant Historic Buildings, An owners guide to temporary uses, maintenance and mothballing, London: English Heritage.

Feilden, B. M., 2003. Conservation of Historic Buildings. 3rd ed. s.l.:Routledge.

Finch, J. M., 1982. Historic Preservation: Curatorial Management of the Built World. s.l.:McGraw Hill Inc.

Freud, S., 1919. The “Uncanny”. s.l.:s.n.

Harbison, R., 1991. The Built, the Unbuilt and the Unbuildable. London: Thames and Hudson.

Historic England, 2008. Conservation Principles, Policies and Guidance. [Online] Available at: https://historicengland.org.uk/images-books/publications/conservation-principles-sustainable-management-historic-environment/conservationprinciplespoliciesandguidanceapril08web/ [Accessed 16 04 2019].

Historic England, n.d. Designating and Managing a Conservation Area. [Online] Available at: https://historicengland.org.uk/advice/ planning/conservation-areas [Accessed 07 03 2019].

Haworth Tompkins, 2018. Battersea Arts Centre.

[Online] Available at: http://www.haworthtompkins.com/ work/battersea-arts-centre [Accessed 17 04 2019].

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Koren, L., 2008. Wabi-Sabi for Artists, Designers, Poets and Philosophers. 2nd ed. California: Imperfect Publishing.

Lord Anglesey, 1977. New uses for redundant churches opposed. The Times, 8 September, p. 14.

Lowenthal, D., 1985. The Past is a Foreign Country.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Mainstone, R. J., 2003. Historic Buildings as Structures. In: B. M. Feilden, ed. Conservation Historic Buildings. London : Routledge, pp. 337-345 .

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Oxon: Routledge .

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Pallasmaa, J., 2007. The Eyes of the Skin: Architecture and the Senses. Chichester: John WIley & Sons Ltd. Pym, C., 2018. I didn’t ever see the point of invisible mending [Interview] (23 05 2018).

Ruskin, J., 1849. Chapter VI. The lamp of memory.. In: The Seven Lamps of Architecture. s.l.:Smith, Elder & Co..

Sirithanawat, C., 1990. Palimpsest: A Trace of the “Presence-Absence” in Architecture. The Fifth Column , 7(4), pp. 23-28.

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Tschumi, B., 1998. Architecture and Transgression. In: K. M. Hays, ed. Oppositions. New York: Princeton Architectural Press, pp. 335-364.

Turkel, S., 2013. Built to Last: 100+ Year-Old Hotels East of the Mississippi. Bloomington IN : AuthorHouse.

Vilder, A., 1992. The Architectural Uncanny. s.l.:s.n.

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Journal of Modern Literature, 38(4, Spaces and Places), pp. 74-92.

PLATES Fig. 1 - Ancient Palmyra. Colonnade Street with Temple of Bel in background [Online] Available at: [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 2 - Remains of peach house on adjacent wall.

Authors own.

Fig. 3 - Abandoned building in Valparaíso, Chile.

Authors own.

Fig. 5 - Clérisseau, C. L., 1821. The Ruin Room in the convent of S. Trinita dei Monti. [Art] (The Fitzmuseum Museum ) Fig. 6 - Newstead Abbey West Facade. Authors own.

Fig. 7 - Graffiti on an abandoned building in Detroit [Online] Available at: [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 8 - (top) Celia Pym - Elizabeth’s Cardigan, cardigan and wool darning, 50 x 65 cm, 2002-2016.

Fig. 9 - Alexandra Palace Theatre, Feilden Clegg Bradley Studios [Online] Available at: https://fcbstudios.com/work/view/ Alexandra-Palace [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 10 - Timber structure of pilaster revealed by damaged plaster. Authors own.

Fig. 11 - Leadenhall building [Online] Available at: https://www.rsh-p.com/projects/theleadenhall-building/ [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 12 - Melted paint on the walls of Battersea Arts Centre [Online] Available at: http://www.haworthtompkins.com/work/ battersea-arts-centre [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 13 - ‘Arrested decay’ at Alexandra Palace Theatre [Online] Available at: https://fcbstudios.com/work/view/ Alexandra-Palace [Accessed 19 04 2019].

Fig. 14 - Texture and decoration on external stairs in Valparaíso, Chile. Authors own.

Fig. 15 The plaster casing has fallen away revealing the timber lath structure that forms this pilaster.

Authors own.

Fig. 16 - The Igreja de São Domingos, has been revived from ruin. Earthquakes in 1531, 1755 and a fire in 1959 devestated the building. Signs of the fire is still visible on the stone work. - Authors own

Fig. 4 - Weathering on Newstead Abbey West Facade. Authors own.

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