HFG April-May 2026 plus BR by Hay & Forage Grower / Journal of Nutrient Managment

hayandforage.com

April/May 2026 CELEBRATING 40 YEARS IN 2026

Make sure legumes add benefit to annual forage systems pg 12 Land use sways soil organic matter pg 14 Battle of the bales: dry hay versus baleage pg 22 Published by W.D. Hoard & Sons Co.

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Stressed corn lowers silage quality pg 30

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Amber M. Friedrichsen

April/May 2026 · VOL. 41 · No. 4

Published by W.D. Hoard & Sons Co. SENIOR EDITOR Michael C. Rankin ART DIRECTOR Todd Garrett EDITORIAL COORDINATOR Jennifer L. Yurs DIRECTOR OF MARKETING John R. Mansavage DIGITAL MARKETING

Sam Rasmussen Sidney Hebbe

ADVERTISING SALES

Kim E. Zilverberg kzilverberg@hayandforage.com Jenna Zilverberg jzilverberg@hayandforage.com

ADVERTISING COORDINATOR

Patti J. Kressin pkressin@hayandforage.com W.D. HOARD & SONS

PRESIDENT Brian V. Knox

Oh brother! These guys can chop

EDITORIAL OFFICE

Two brothers began their foray into the custom harvesting business about 10 years ago. These days, they serve customers in three different states offering a multitude of feed-harvesting services.

28 Milwaukee Ave., West, Fort Atkinson, WI, 53538 WEBSITE www.hayandforage.com EMAIL info@hayandforage.com PHONE 920-563-5551

DEPARTMENTS 4 First Cut 12 Beef Feedbunk 14 Sunrise On Soil

Virtual fence transformed this Vermont goat farm

Grazing for the fun of it

This Vermont commercial goat farm has found success by using virtual fence.

STRAIT TALK

ALFALFA’S CARBON ADVANTAGE

MAKE SURE LEGUMES ADD BENEFIT TO ANNUAL SYSTEMS

BATTLE OF THE BALES: DRY HAY VERSUS BALEAGE

18 Forage Gearhead 20 Alfalfa Checkoff

Arkansas grazier Paul Bush has transformed his farm into a naturally raised, direct-to-consumer beef operation.

LAND USE SWAYS SOIL ORGANIC MATTER

WATER MAY DRIVE THE FED FORAGE

MAKE MAINTENANCE A PRIORITY

STRESSED CORN LOWERS SILAGE QUALITY

BURDENED BY ACIDIC SOILS

IT’S A NEW SEASON

24 Dairy Feedbunk 30 Quality Coach 34 Forage IQ 34 Hay Market Update

ON THE COVER A few of the cows at Annie G’s Dairy graze on a sunny, spring day. Dave and Kat Mageean own and operate the 85-cow grazing operation that features milking robots, a milk processing facility, and a self-serve milk vending machine. The Michigan farm was highlighted in the March 2025 issue of Hay & Forage Grower. Photo by Mike Rankin

HAY & FORAGE GROWER (ISSN 0891-5946) copyright © 2026 W. D. Hoard & Sons Company. All rights reserved. Published six times annually in January, February, March, April/May, August/September and November by W. D. Hoard & Sons Co., 28 Milwaukee Ave., W., Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin 53538 USA. Tel: 920-563-5551. Fax: 920-563-7298. Email: info@hayandforage.com. Website: www.hayandforage.com. Periodicals Postage paid at Fort Atkinson, Wis., and additional mail offices. SUBSCRIPTION RATES: Free and controlled circulation to qualified subscribers. Non-qualified subscribers may subscribe at: USA: 1 year $20 U.S.; Outside USA: Canada & Mexico, 1 year $80 U.S.; All other countries, 1 year $120 U.S. For Subscriber Services contact: Hay & Forage Grower, PO Box 801, Fort Atkinson, WI 53538 USA; call: 920-563-5551, email: info@hayandforage.com or visit: www.hayandforage.com. POSTMASTER: Send address changes to HAY & FORAGE GROWER, 28 Milwaukee Ave., W., Fort Atkinson, Wisconsin 53538 USA. Subscribers who have provided a valid email address may receive the Hay & Forage Grower email newsletter eHay Weekly.

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FIRST CUT

Strait talk F Mike Rankin Senior Editor

ROM the days of Adam and Eve, there has been a synergistic relationship between plants and humans, even when the forage is funneled through livestock to produce meat and milk. Plants also provide other human services. Using solar energy, carbon dioxide, and water, plants produce energy-rich sugars and expel oxygen into the atmosphere. That’s convenient for us humans given that any day without oxygen is going to be a bad one. As with humans, plants must also meet their basic needs. For many grasses, one of those essentials is nitrogen. Purchasing commercial nitrogen fertilizer always results in a drain on the checking account, but some years are worse than others. Unfortunately, 2026 is shaping up to be one of those worse years as farmers get stuck in the crossfire of a Middle East conflict that involves multiple energy-producing countries. In this same column from February 2022, I wrote: “Last year began with urea nitrogen costing less than 40 cents per unit. With each passing month in 2021, nitrogen costs soared. We blew by 70 cents per unit like a Corvette passing a 1963 Rambler station wagon on blocks. The price now sits at somewhere near $1 per pound of nitrogen, and once again we check in at the fertilizer Heartbreak Hotel.” It looks like we’ll be getting more hotel rewards points in 2026. The current rise in nitrogen prices came much faster than in 2021 when a progressive shortage of natural gas occurred. Commodity and hay prices were also much higher than they are now, which helped to soften the blow. The current situation is largely due to the near shutdown of the Strait of Hormuz, which typically has about 30% of the world’s urea and 25% of the global demand for crude oil shipped through its narrow waters. As I currently pen this column, we’re in the throngs of a “fragile” two-week timeout as the teams draw up new plays. Regardless of what happens moving forward, don’t look for urea prices to subside as quickly as they went up. The strait situation is far from stable. As I write this in mid-April, urea nitrogen is averaging 90 cents per pound nationwide. That’s nearly double the typical cost and up about $260 per ton from the beginning of the year. Whenever a nitrogen cost explosion occurs, I like to remind forage and livestock produc-

ers that they are at least better positioned to weather the storm than their row-crop counterparts who are currently determining how many acres of corn they can drop. Most in our industry have forage legumes and/or manure in the toolbox to help numb some of the nitrogen cost pain. For long-term grazing operations, there’s a third nitrogen bullet — organic matter. Managed grazing systems build soil organic matter with enhanced soil biological activity at a brisker rate than most farmed acres. The release of nitrogen from these systems sometimes negates the need for purchased fertilizer, even for pastures that are mostly grass. When fertilizer prices double, so does the value of manure. Thankfully, the manure revolution of the past 25 years has enhanced its status on most farms from peasant to royalty. When manure is handled as a valued resource, farmers can often just visit their fertilizer dealer for the free coffee. One of the keys to getting the most out of manure is to incorporate or inject it into the soil. Often, 30% or more of the nitrogen contained in manure is lost to the atmosphere when it’s left on the surface. For grazing operations, manure needs to be intentionally spread across pastures by the livestock. Fortunately, grazing systems implemented to maximize grass utilization are also optimal for manure distribution. Legumes are the not-so-secret nitrogen weapon for any forage-livestock system. In the early 1900s, when the German chemists Haber and Bosch perfected the process for converting atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia, they had nothing on legumes, which accomplish the same end without needing natural gas for heat. Alfalfa, for example, can often provide all the nitrogen needed for a subsequent corn crop and a significant amount for the next one. A 30% to 40% stand of legumes in a pasture will result in only looking at a fertilizer spreader as it passes by your driveway. Manure, legumes, and soil organic matter have the capability of shrinking a fertilizer invoice, but that only happens with purposeful decision-making. Let’s hope the situation at the strait gets straightened out soon. Happy foraging. •

Write Senior Editor Mike Rankin, 28 Milwaukee Ave., P.O. Box 801, Fort Atkinson, WI 53538 call: 920-563-5551 or email: mrankin@hayandforage.com

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by Mike Rankin, Senior Editor

HE large forage chopper roared to life. Viewing through the cab window, I watched as the machine gobbled standing corn like a Great Dane eating its first meal after two days of fasting. Sitting next to me and manning the controls with precision was Charlie Schultz, the co-owner of Schultz Brothers Forage Service LLC.

On this fall day, we were traversing cornfields on a dairy farm so close to Chicago that you could almost smell the deep-dish pizza. Schultz and his younger brother Dave started their custom harvesting business a little over 10 years ago. Even though they grew up working on both grandparents’ farms, there was metaphorically no room at the inn when they graduated high school. Dave eventually began hauling livestock across the

country while Charlie, after graduating from Iowa State University with a degree in agricultural education,

managed river terminals for a large grain exporter. “The time eventually came when we both wanted to get back into something closer to farming and be near family,” Schultz explained over the clamor of the chopper. “In the fall of 2014 while still working those other jobs, we started doing some custom chopping with a used harvester we had purchased. That went well, and we saw a need and had the opportunity

All photos: Mike Rankin

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to move full time into custom farming in 2015.” That fortuitous opportunity arose when an existing custom business desired to downsize, and the owner wanted to focus more on his own farm. The Schultzes bought some of the equipment, including two more choppers, and began harvesting for the former business’s customer base. Initially, the brothers worked out of a small shop at Dave’s house. As that facility started to bulge at the seams, they began planning for the construction of a new facility. Once again, Lady Luck came calling when an existing set of buildings came up for sale that fit their needs. Although the brothers both lived at two different locations in far northern Illinois, their new base of operation for the business was moved to a location about a mile and a half north of the state line and just south of Juda, Wis.

A full-service provider Schultz Brothers Forage Service stays equipped to provide any services related to feed. The business

currently chops corn and hay crops and does mowing, tedding, merging, large-square baling, and round baling. “When we started out, baling was a much bigger part of our business, but now it’s a lot more chopping,” Schultz noted. “In addition to forage harvesting, we also do some custom tillage, planting, and combining, but those activities are done on a smaller scale than the feed services.” The Schultz’s run three Pottinger triple mowers (one with conditioners), three mergers (two Oxbo and a Kuhn), and have one to two balers of each type, depending on the current demand and the ages of machines. The business also provides packing tractors that are used as needed. Although they don’t own a silage bagger, the brothers work closely with someone who has a custom bagging service. Three Claas 980 choppers and one 970 model, which were all purchased used, comprise the forage harvester inventory. One typically serves as a backup machine. “We used to buy choppers in the 1,000- to 2,000-hour range and found that they were a

good value,” Schultz recounted. “Now, it seems like the industry is changing and those types of machines are more difficult to find. People are running their choppers longer before trading them in. We’d like to update a few of our current machines, but we’re still discussing how we want to deal with that. Our current fleet of choppers are within an age range where parts are interchangeable, so if we buy something new, that’s going to result in the need for an expanded parts inventory.” The custom business also uses about 20 of their own trucks, which include both straight trucks and semitractor-trailers. “We’re kind of unique for this region in that we travel a long way between jobs, so we’ve had to stick with road-ready tires on the trucks and trailers rather than go to the agricultural flotation tires,” Schultz said. “We work about a 150-mile radius from our shop, which includes farms in Illinois, Wisconsin, and Iowa. It would be nice if farms in a certain area were ready at the same time, continued on following page >>>

Schultz Brothers Forage Service LLC offers a variety of feed-harvesting operations, including corn and hay chopping, silage packing, trucking, hay mowing, swath merging, and baling.

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Along with a team of dedicated employees, Charlie and Dave Schultz harvest a combined 20,000 acres of hay and corn silage each year.

but that historically hasn’t happened. Other than the silage trucks, we often need to haul all our equipment to get it on location,” he added.

It’s a business Each year, the brothers chop or bale about 10,000 acres of hay and do a similar amount of corn silage and earlage, with the latter mostly harvested for beef operations. During the busy corn silage harvest, they will run three different crews on separate farms. “We don’t harvest for many operations with storage systems that can handle feed from more than one chopper,” Schultz explained. “Our customer base remains mostly stable, and over time, we have been able to focus on clients that best fit our system and resources. We eventually figured out that it was okay to say ‘no’ to wishful clients.” The two brothers can’t cover the number of acres and miles required to serve customers by themselves. To make that happen, they’ve built a deep and dependable workforce. “We’ve been fortunate to have a good core team of employees,” Schultz said emphatically. “We typically have two to four fulltime employees along with a group of about 50 part-time or seasonal workers. The part-time employees come from a variety of backgrounds, including other local farmers, people with other seasonal jobs, retired farmers, and those that just find silage harvest to be a lot of fun.” A few family members also help

the brothers along with individuals who annually take vacation from their primary jobs to help harvest for a week. Schultz noted that they don’t get as many retirees as they used to. Unlike most corporations, the CEO and CFO of a custom harvesting business are the same individuals who turn the wrenches and unplug the

The best you can do is stay honest with clients and keep them informed of your situation. choppers. For Schultz Brothers Forage Services LLC, Charlie takes care of payroll, client billing, and the financials. “When I worked at the grain terminal, I got a lot of experience with employee and payroll management,” he said. “That was a big benefit when my brother and I started this business.” Dave oversees and organizes the maintenance and repair scheduling for the equipment. All the big decisions are made jointly. The custom business charges their clients based on the running machine hour, but a few field operations such as merging are charged by the acre. Schultz said he’s sharpened his business acumen over the past 10 years. Although he had been used to employee

management in his previous job, he underestimated the amount of time needed for collecting payments, especially at the beginning. “Over time, some of that has sorted itself out, and now we have a customer base that is good about making payments or at least letting us know what their intentions for making payments are.” Finding adequate and affordable insurance coverage has long been a concern for custom harvester businesses because most provider companies don’t have agents who are familiar with the industry or know its needs. “I think we’ve had better luck than some finding reasonable insurance coverage, but it’s still a challenge,” Schultz asserted. “It’s important to find an agent who has some understanding of what we do.”

Relationships breed success Trust and honesty are virtues that stand at the forefront of any successful custom forage harvesting business. When the equipment is working and the weather is good, everyone’s happy. It’s when those things don’t occur that the strength of a relationship is tested. If the weather turns unfavorable for harvesting, Schultz said the best you can do is just stay honest with clients and keep everyone informed of your situation. “Sometimes it just comes down to first call, first served.” Nutritionists also play a key role in helping the brothers prioritize farms since some of them are servicing sev-

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eral of their clients. “We pride ourselves on doing the best quality job that we can and value our relationships with a farm’s nutritionist,” the elder brother said. “If you can please the nutritionist, they are more likely to recommend you to other good farms. Nutritionists have come to appreciate the consistent results we provide to their clients. That level of confidence has taken time to develop, but trust is critical in this business. At a minimum, I check the silage pile every morning and night and then make sure someone is monitoring the silage during the day,” he added. The Schultzes also value their time spent building relationships with others in the custom harvesting industry. They have been active members of the Wisconsin Custom Operators organization since their business began. Charlie currently serves on its board of directors. “It’s been a valuable networking opportunity,” he said of the organization’s annual symposium that they attend every year in Wisconsin Dells. Schultz acknowledged that being in the custom harvesting business isn’t always easy on the families at home, but theirs have always been supportive. He and his wife, Jen, have two children while Dave and his wife, Amy, are the parents of three children. When asked about what the future might look like for the business, Schultz said they are willing to grow but not actively looking to do so. “I still like the variety of work associated with custom harvesting. I appreciate working with our clients and employees and strengthening the relationships we’ve developed

NATIONAL FORAGE WEEK 2026 June 14–20

Charlie (left) and Dave (right) Schultz prefer the model of having numerous clients rather than just a few large-acreage customers. “If one of our clients retires or no longer needs our services, we know we will still be in business,” Charlie explained.

with other custom harvesters.” Schultz noted that they’ve had some clients retire, so that’s allowed them to add a few new ones. He prefers the diverse clientele that they serve. “Some custom operators basically service only a few large dairies, but we’re not comfortable putting all of our eggs in one basket, so to speak,” he explained. “If one of our clients retires or someone calls and says they don’t need us anymore, I know we’ll still be in business. I like the relationships we’ve built with some of our smaller clients, and they really appreciate we’re willing to come in and harvest for them. It makes you feel satisfied.” On this day of chopping, as Schultz hoped to finish the suburban Chicagoland farm and be home before midnight, his brother was back in the Wisconsin shop prepping machinery for his next day’s job in Waukon, Iowa. The goal: Keep the choppers fed. There’s no time for fasting. •

Celebrates Forages as the Foundation of Resilient Working Lands

Learn more and visit for NFW celebration resources. afgc.org/national-forage-week/

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The Schultz brothers pride themselves on doing a quality job at every farm they service. A part of that goal entails developing a good relationship with the farm’s nutritionist. “If you can please the nutritionist, they are more likely to recommend you to other good farms,” Charlie said.

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Dr. Earl Creech, owner of Creech Farms.

A NEW ALLY FOR ALFALFA GROWERS by Nenad Filajdic, PhD, Business Development and Product Manager, Tessenderlo Kerley

Alfalfa growers seesee it time and time again: thethe stand is shaking Alfalfa growers it time and time again: stand is shaking offoff thethe winter frost while early spring weed species and winter winter frost while early spring weed species and winter annuals areare growing fast. Alfalfa may bebe one of of thethe most annuals growing fast. Alfalfa may one most valuable forage crops globally, butbut weed competition cancan valuable forage crops globally, weed competition significantly reduce yield, forage quality, and stand longevity. significantly reduce yield, forage quality, and stand longevity. There is aisshrinking listlist of of herbicide tools to to aidaid growers as as weed There a shrinking herbicide tools growers weed resistance and tightening herbicide programs continue to to resistance and tightening herbicide programs continue challenge production. Growers areare searching forfor reliable challenge production. Growers searching reliable alternatives that offer control without compromising crop safety. alternatives that offer control without compromising crop safety. With these challenges intensifying, thethe arrival of of Linex®4L - a- a With these challenges intensifying, arrival Linex®4L new herbicide forfor alfalfa, brings welcome relief. Long-trusted new herbicide alfalfa, brings welcome relief. Long-trusted onon crops such as as potatoes, sorghum, soybeans, and wheat, crops such potatoes, sorghum, soybeans, and wheat, Linex now gives alfalfa growers a reliable new tool to to Linex now gives alfalfa growers a reliable new tool incorporate into their weed management strategies. incorporate into their weed management strategies.

Why useuse Linex? Why Linex? A new setset of of benefits forfor alfalfa growers: A new benefits alfalfa growers: 1. 1. A new mode of of action forfor better resistance A new mode action better resistance management management Linex (linuron) is aisGroup 5 herbicide that binds at at thethe C2C2 Linex (linuron) a Group 5 herbicide that binds group site, differentiating it from common herbicides likelike group site, differentiating it from common herbicides metribuzin and hexazinone (C1(C1 group binding site). This metribuzin and hexazinone group binding site). This differentiation establishes a more powerful differentiation establishes a more powerful resistance-management program. resistance-management program. 2. 2. Effective early-season weed control Effective early-season weed control Linex provides effective control over a range of of Linex provides effective control over a range hard-to-control weeds including many annual broadleaf hard-to-control weeds including many annual broadleaf weeds and grasses. weeds and grasses.

another anothertool tool Call: 800 525-2803 tessenderlokerley.com

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Advertisement 3. 3. Reliable residual activity with flexibility Reliable residual activity with flexibility Growers gain residual soilsoil activity with a shorter rotation Growers gain residual activity with a shorter rotation interval, leading to to more flexible field planning and interval, leading more flexible field planning and operational efficiency. operational efficiency. 4. 4. FitFit forfor modern systems modern systems AsAs a suitable tank-mix partner forfor enhanced efficacy a suitable tank-mix partner enhanced efficacy treatments and compatible with foliar application treatments and compatible with foliar application equipment, Linex fitsfits seamlessly into existing equipment, Linex seamlessly into existing weed-management programs. weed-management programs.

Part of of a Complete Herbicide Portfolio Part a Complete Herbicide Portfolio Linex joins a long-standing alfalfa herbicide portfolio offered byby Linex joins a long-standing alfalfa herbicide portfolio offered Tessenderlo Kerley Crop Protection. Velpar® formulations Tessenderlo Kerley Crop Protection. Velpar® formulations have been anan established grower standard, in in particular, Velpar have been established grower standard, particular, Velpar AlfaMax and Velpar AlfaMax Gold formulations, which offer AlfaMax and Velpar AlfaMax Gold formulations, which offer thethe effective combination of of hexazinone (Group 5) 5) and diuron effective combination hexazinone (Group and diuron (Group 7) 7) in in two different ratios, enhancing herbicidal activity. (Group two different ratios, enhancing herbicidal activity. This additional herbicide and expanded portfolio offers alfalfa This additional herbicide and expanded portfolio offers alfalfa producers more choice, additional rotation options, and producers more choice, additional rotation options, and greater resistance-management power. greater resistance-management power.

How Linex works: How Linex works: Linex belongs to to thethe substituted urea herbicide class (Group 5, 5, Linex belongs substituted urea herbicide class (Group C2C2 binding site) and acts as as a photosystem II inhibitor, binding site) and acts a photosystem II inhibitor, disrupting electron transport in in plant photosynthesis. NoNo disrupting electron transport plant photosynthesis. matter if weeds absorb it through roots or or foliage, energy matter if weeds absorb it through roots foliage, energy production willwill bebe blocked, ultimately shutting down weed production blocked, ultimately shutting down weed growth. Due to to itsits dual-uptake system, Linex cancan provide growth. Due dual-uptake system, Linex provide consistent control during dormancy and in in between cuttings. consistent control during dormancy and between cuttings.

Future Outlook Future Outlook As As thethe range of of available weed-control tools continues to to narrow, range available weed-control tools continues narrow, linuron-based herbicides such as as Linex willwill play anan increasingly linuron-based herbicides such Linex play increasingly important role in early and in-season alfalfa weed-management important role in early and in-season alfalfa weed-management programs. With its its unique mode of of action, residual activity, and programs. With unique mode action, residual activity, and broad spectrum control, Linex oﬀers a promising new option forfor broad spectrum control, Linex oﬀers a promising new option alfalfa growers seeking to to getget ahead of of weeds before weeds getget alfalfa growers seeking ahead weeds before weeds ahead of of their crop. ahead their crop.

Where Linex FitsFits in in thethe Field Where Linex Field Dormancy Application Dormancy Application When applied at at dormancy, Linex cancan control important weeds When applied dormancy, Linex control important weeds such as:as: such • Shepherd’s purse • Shepherd’s purse • Mustards • Mustards • Other annual winter broadleaf weeds • Other annual winter broadleaf weeds In-between Cuttings In-between Cuttings When applied in-season between cuttings, Linex is aisgreat When applied in-season between cuttings, Linex a great tool to to manage: tool manage: • Lambsquarters • Lambsquarters • Pigweed • Pigweed • Prickly lettuce • Prickly lettuce • Foxtail • Foxtail • Barnyardgrass • Barnyardgrass Linex controls weeds through contact and residual eﬀects. Linex controls weeds through contact and residual eﬀects. Applications might result in in temporary yellowing (chlorosis), Applications might result temporary yellowing (chlorosis), butbut thethe alfalfa crop willwill recover in in a few weeks without alfalfa crop recover a few weeks without reduced yield. reduced yield.

Scan to hear a farmer’s perspective on Linex.

in the toolkit Always read and follow label directions. Follow pesticide container labels for speciﬁc directions for use on your farm.

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BEEF FEEDBUNK

by Mary Drewnoski

DDING legumes to annual forage systems is often encouraged to enhance diversity and improve sustainability. While those benefits can be real, they do not always translate into improved forage production or animal performance. In annual forage systems, whether legumes add value or just cost depends on how they are used. If the goal is simply more tons per acre, legumes are unlikely to help and may even hurt. Across both cool-season and warm-season systems, annual grasses are the primary driver of yield. When legumes are added at higher inclusion rates, they often reduce total forage production. In oat-pea mixtures, forage yield was similar to oats alone when peas made up 25% to 50% of the mix, but peas in monoculture yielded less than oats. In a warm-season grazing system, adding sunn hemp to sudangrass (50:50 seed mixture) did not improve forage production or grazing capacity. From a practical standpoint, pushing legume inclusion beyond 50% of the mixture can result in a yield drag. Grasses produce the bulk of the tonnage, and dilution with legumes reduces total output.

Is more protein needed? Legumes are often included to boost crude protein concentrations, and they can do that. The more important question is whether that additional protein improves animal performance. In many grazing systems, the answer is “no.” When grasses are kept in a vegetative state, crude protein levels are already sufficient and often exceed animal requirements. As grasses mature, protein declines, and this is where legumes can provide some benefit; however, maturity is largely a management decision. Maintaining vegetative growth through timely grazing can often achieve the same protein outcome at a lower cost. Legumes tend to have more value for

Mary Drewnoski

Make sure legumes add benefit to annual forage systems

Legumes are best used in annual forage mixtures when the crop will be allowed to mature before grazing or harvesting. Keep legumes at moderate inclusion rates, generally in the 25% to 50% range.

their crude protein contribution in hay systems, where forage is harvested at a more advanced stage of maturity. In those situations, added legumes can help maintain sufficient protein levels. The benefit is also more likely in higher rainfall environments where rapid growth can dilute forage quality. In drier environments, protein responses to legumes are often limited.

Too slow, too late Legumes fix nitrogen. This is one of the most common reasons producers consider adding them to a mixture and one of the most misunderstood. In annual forage systems, legumes rarely provide adequate nitrogen — fast enough — to meet the needs of high-producing grasses. When nitrogen fertilizer is applied to support grass growth, it reduces the amount of nitrogen fixed by the legume. In other words, the more you fertilize for the grass, the less the legume contributes. This creates a trade-off. Reducing nitrogen fertilizer can promote fixation, but it also limits grass growth

and reduces yield. Applying nitrogen improves yield but suppresses legume activity and minimizes its contribution. In addition, most of the nitrogen fixed by legumes is not immediately available to the grass. It is only released later through decomposition or when recycled in urine and manure by grazing animals, limiting its value within a single growing season. Annual grasses have a high nitrogen demand early in the growing season. In contrast, nitrogen fixation from legumes ramps up more slowly and is often out of sync with peak grass demand. In mixed stands, legumes also tend to make up a relatively small portion of the total biomass. Grasses are highly competitive and suppress legume growth. Even when legumes are present, nitrogen fertilizer remains the primary driver of yield. Research consistently shows that forage production in summer annual systems improves with applied nitrogen — even in mixtures containing legumes. When nitrogen fertilizer is reduced, yield declines, and

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the presence of a legume typically does not offset that loss.

Where’s the fit? If the goal is to fully capture the nitrogen-fixing ability of legumes, that is most effectively done in a legume monoculture system. Without competition from grasses and without added nitrogen fertilizer, legumes are forced to fix nitrogen and can contribute meaningful amounts to the system. However, this approach comes with trade-offs. Although legume monocultures can be high quality, they typically produce less total forage than grassbased systems. In addition, they can present management challenges. Grazing pure legume stands raise the risk of bloat and may require more careful management, while harvesting can be more difficult due to uneven dry down of leaves and stems for hay and challenges with fermentation when ensiling. As a result, while legume monocultures can be effective for building nitrogen, they are often less practical when the primary goal is to maximize forage production or simplify management.

Legumes are not a silver bullet in annual forage systems. They often do not enhance yield, they rarely replace nitrogen fertilizer when added in a mix, and their value in improving forage quality depends heavily on management and environment. Legumes can add value in the right situations, but they should be included with a clear purpose. •

MARY DREWNOSKI The author is a beef systems extension specialist with the University of NebraskaLincoln.

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* Jesse Norcutt, Currant, NV Gra Per Yearl ze 1500 Gain ) 28 Ton Silage f o . i s N n gGrazing Corn (GX80) D nation Greenway is the No. 1 grazing in the 130 Seeds 3.5 lbcorn Pasco, WA 69% T a Acre s on it Day ( t. Cattle* Pivot is 5-6 days earlier than the competition. for 3because 0 Da 5-7 w This allows the reach peak ys rancher to plant 5-6 days later and still

sugar content (pre tassel) before the frost shuts you down!

* Jesse Norcutt, Currant, NV

OVERSEED OVERSEED ALFALFA ALFALFA

Greenway Seeds Grazing Corn (GX80) is the No. 1 grazing corn in the nation because itwith is 5-6 days earlier than the competition. Grazing Corn allows the rancher plant days later and still reach peak with Corn Plant with aThis grain drill following second cutting onto anGrazing older field5-6 alfalfa. Ready to graze in early September. sugar content (pre tassel) before the frost shuts you Plant withGX80 a grain drill following ondoanthat older alfalfa. Ready graze in early “We planted following second cutsecond alfalfa. Ifcutting we had to overfield we would follow thirdto cut. Wedown! grazed 400 head for two weeks on 20“We acres” Cory Veterre - Greenriver,second Utah cut alfalfa. If we had to do that over we would follow September. planted GX80 following

OVERSEED ALFALFA

third cut. We grazed 400 head for two weeks on 20 acres,” Cory Veterre - Greenriver, Utah

HERE’S WHAT RANCHERS ARE SAYING with Grazing Corn HERE’S WHAT RANCHERS ARE SAYING

Mike Rankin

When grasses are kept vegetative, crude protein is often more than sufficient to meet livestock needs.

Legumes can still play a role in annual forage systems, but they need to be used strategically. Adding a legume into the mix makes the most sense when forage will be harvested at more mature stages, such as with hay or stockpiled forage; when protein is limiting animal performance, such as with growing cattle grazing warm-season grasses; or when there is a desire to add diversity for soil health or other ecosystem services. Even in these situations, moderate inclusion rates, typically 25% to 50% of the seed mix, tend to provide the best balance between maintaining yield and improving quality.

Casey Calvin - Monte Vista, CO Plant lambs with aongrain drill following on anUnbelievable! older field alfalfa. Ready graze in early September. We grazed GX80. They ate it all second the way tocutting the ground. (See website forto photos) Casey Calvin - Monte Vista, Crawford Cattle “We planted GX80- Winnemucca, following secondNV cut alfalfa.CO If we had to do that over we would follow third cut. We grazed 400 head for Planted July, on it was our heads. surprised Utah as to how long we were able to graze. We also baled some of it. We’re two weeks 20way acres” Cory Veterre - Greenriver, Wemid grazed lambs onoverGX80. TheyWeatewere it all the way to the ground. Unbelievable! (See website for photos) buying again.

Crawford Cattle Winnemucca, Cory Miller - Grass Valley-Farm, Missoula, MT NV

HERE’S WHAT RANCHERS ARE SAYING

We planted ourmid-July. GX80 under lines and heavily. We Thiswere was keysurprised as the cornas grew tall!long we were able to graze. Planted It wheel was way overwatered our heads. to 7ft how

Casey Calvin Monte Vista,Ranch CO - Baker, OR Tom Kerns for -Mike Becker

We alsolambs some of it. We’re buying We grazed on14 GX80. They ate it allwith the waylate toagain. the ground. Unbelievable! We were able tobaled carry A.U.M.’s per acre our season grazing of GX80. (See website for photos) Crawford Cattle - Winnemucca, NV Farm, Missoula, MT Jesse Norcutt - Currant, NV Valley Cory Miller - Grass

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Planted July,the it GX80 was wayatover our heads. Wefed were surprised as toand howthey longgained we were ablelbs/day to graze. We also baled some WITH of it. We’re We cut andmid baled pre-tussel. It was to 5-7 wt. cattle, 31/2 SEED ORDERS! We again. planted our GX80 under wheel lines and watered heavily. This was key as the corn grew 7 ft. tall! buying

Cory Miller - Grassfor Valley Farm, Missoula, MT Tom Kerns Mike Becker Ranch - Baker, OR

We planted our GX80 under wheel lines and watered heavily. This was key as the corn“Modern grew 7ft tall! Forages Sold Alan Greenway

We Kerns were able carryBecker 14 A.U.M.’s per -acre withOR our late season Nationwide grazing of GX80. And Canada” Tom for to Mike Ranch Baker, Seedsman Over 50 Years Experience WeJesse were ableNorcutt to carry 14 A.U.M.’s per acre with our late season grazing of GX80. - Currant, NV

Jesse Norcutt - Currant, NV Greenway Seeds

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and baled theatGX80 at pre-tussel. was fed to 5–7 wt. cattle, and they gained 3 SEED 1/2 lbs/day. WeWe cut cut and baled the GX80 pre-tussel. ItCaldwell, was fed to It 5-7 WITH ORDERS! IDwt. cattle, and they gained 31/2 lbs/day w w w. g r e e n w a y s e e d . c o m Alan Greenway 208-250-0159 (cell) FREE SWEET CORN “Modern Forages Sold ID and Deerfield, WI “Modern Forages Sold 208-454-8342 (message) AlanWITH Greenway SEED ORDERS!Warehouses in Caldwell,

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April/May 2026 | hayandforage.com | 13

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SUNRISE ON SOIL

by Alan Franzluebbers

Land use sways soil organic matter

OIL is comprised of minerals, organic matter, water, air, and a variety of organisms. The mineral matter is typically thought of as sand-, silt-, and clay-sized particles that provide physical stability. The mass of organic matter is usually only a small portion of the mineral mass, perhaps 1% to 10%. The mass of organisms is only a small portion of the organic matter. In ideal soils, minerals would occupy about 42% of soil volume, organic matter about 8%, and pores about 50%. Those pores would ideally be filled half with water and half with air. The relative balance of water and air will fluctuate daily to weekly with precipitation and drying events. The relative balance of minerals and organic matter might fluctuate over decades and centuries. How soil organic matter content and soil organisms change over time with management are key questions being asked by soil scientists around the world. There are many variations in mineral types and land uses in different locations — among regions within a continent, landforms within a county, and specific parcels on a farm. The Soil Survey Division of USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS)

has differentiated over 20,000 soil series in the United States. Can it be expected that all soils behave the same? Will specific management lead to the same change in organic matter on all soils?

organic matter is comprised of about 58% carbon, so carbon is the element often measured to indicate changes in organic matter. Soil organic carbon stores energy that is released by the activity of soil microorganisms. It also attracts cations to enhance soil fertility, such as calcium, magnesium, and potassium. Soil organic carbon binds soil particles into water-stable aggregates through the action of microbial and faunal activity. Total soil nitrogen represents a reservoir of organically bound nitrogen that can be made available for plant uptake once it is mineralized by soil microorganisms.

Grasslands have been shown to have greater soil nitrogen and soil-test biological activity than woodlands.

Key differences Could usable patterns emerge from sampling soil under a diversity of grasslands throughout a state? This was a question I had a few years ago when I embarked on a mission to characterize soil health conditions under forage and grazing lands in North Carolina. The state has three primary physiographic regions: the high-elevation Blue Ridge in the west, the medium-elevation Piedmont in the central part of the state, and the low-elevation Coastal Plain in the east. Slopes of land could be characterized as steep, moderate, and flat in

Are woodlands superior in storing soil organic matter? Finding patterns and attributing the influence of external factors on soil processes are challenges in the art and science of soil investigations.

Mostly carbon Soil organic matter content is a key feature of almost any soil health determination. The primary constituents of organic matter are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Soil

Average soil properties as affected by land use and physiographic region in North Carolina Total organic carbon (%)

Sand concentration (%) 100

0.4

600

1 BR

0.0

120

400 300

200

0.1

100 BR

Potential nitrogen mineralization (lb./acre/24d) 160

500

0.3 0.2

Soil-test biological activity (mg/kg/3d)

Total soil nitrogen (%)

 Grasslands  Woodlands Regions include Blue Ridge (BR), Piedmont (PD), and Coastal Plain (CP).

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these three regions, but this varies on the specific parcel of land. A total of 338 fields were sampled throughout North Carolina (see QR code). The figure shows that soil organic carbon, total soil nitrogen, soil-test biological activity, and potential nitrogen mineralization were affected by land use, either grassland or woodland. The data also illustrate that physiographic region played a role in the absolute value of these soil properties, which was thought to be most likely due to differences in soil texture. There were no significant interactions between land use and physiographic region, meaning that land use caused a similar change in soil properties in all physiographic regions. In this case, the pattern of land use was consistent. A key difference in results was that soil organic carbon was lower under grassland than under woodland in all regions, while total soil nitrogen and soil-test biological activity were greater

under grassland in all regions. This may have been a result of differences in plant litter quality between grassland and woodland. Nitrogen fertility of grasslands would, therefore, be considered greater than that of woodlands. Tighter control on nitrogen appears to be occurring in woodlands than grasslands. This may result in potentially greater nitrogen conservation in woodlands, albeit with periodic deficiency that would not be desirable in forage and grazing lands. Similar results have been observed on private farms in Virginia and on research stations across North Carolina.

all soil organic and biological properties were lower in concentration. At the surface of this dig into soil organic matter variation under forage and grazing lands of North Carolina, soil texture was found to be the most important factor. Land use was important as well, but perhaps not as anticipated. Future columns will dig deeper into other factors that control soil health under forage and grazing lands. •

Most important factor Each region had variations in soil texture. Knowing how much sand was in soil led to more precise estimates of soil properties as a function of land use. Therefore, it’s actually not the particular region that was most important, but rather the soil texture in a particular field. With sandy soils,

ALAN FRANZLUEBBERS The author is a soil scientist with the USDA Agricultural Research Service in Raleigh, N.C., and past president of the American Forage and Grassland Council.

The QR code provides a detailed look into the research summarized here.

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April/May 2026 | hayandforage.com | 15

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Virtual fence transformed this Vermont goat farm by Sarah Flack

OES’ Leap Dairy, located in northern Vermont, has been making cheese with milk from their certified organic goat herd since 1997. They use horses for much of the farm work, herding dogs to move the goat herd around the farm, and in recent years, they have added virtual fence to replace electric net fencing. This combination of modern technology and animal power has helped them create an efficient and innovative management system. Owners George van Vlaanderen and Kristan Doolan have always used pasture as a significant part of the herd’s feed during the grazing season. The goats get grain when they are in the parlor for twice-a-day milking along with either hay during the nongrazing season or pasture with some hay during the grazing season. The herd gets moved to a fresh paddock twice daily. Since goats are natural browsing animals, pastures include some areas of intentionally managed browse species and forbs. Forbs are flowering plants other than grasses, and in the context of pastures, we usually use the term to refer to the desirable plants other than legumes and grasses.

for pastures used for dairy cows, van Vlaanderen and Doolan wanted to maintain browse and forbs in the pastures since the goats thrived when grazing those plants.

Just browsing Ten years ago when I was writing about this farm as part of my book “The Art and Science of Grazing,” the farm had two different types of pastures. Some were typical Vermont pastures with cool-season grasses, legumes, and some forbs such as dandelion and plantain. But they also had intentionally-managed, brushy “browse” pastures, which had small trees, shrubs, and brambles that the goats clearly enjoyed eating and thrived on. Goats are naturally good at browsing, and their mouth and lips are flexible and strong, allowing them to selectively eat leaves of bushes, trees, and other browse plants while avoiding thorns. Because most woody browse species are not well adapted to frequent or severe defoliation, many of the brushy pastures on the farm naturally converted from browse to more typical cool-season grass/legume pastures over time. While this may be the goal

Goats prefer shade, forbs, and browse species. To maintain them, some form of rotational grazing must be used.

Grazing browse and taller growing forbs encourages goats to graze plant parts that are well above ground level, and thus they are less likely to become infected with internal parasites. Some species also contain secondary plant metabolites that can offer help with the management of internal parasites. In previous years, van Vlaanderen and Doolan were able to maintain browse species by using larger paddock sizes to lower the stocking density so that non-

grazing-adapted plants retained more foliage and some plants were only lightly grazed each time. Longer regrowth periods were also used to give adapted browse and forb species time to regrow. Goats were brought to a new pasture twice a day using well-trained border collies, and they were then fenced into their paddock using portable electric net fence. Moving net fence takes time, and if you’ve ever tried to take down or set up net in an area with brush or brambles, you know it can be challenging and frustrating.

A virtual solution Van Vlaanderen and Doolan have always been innovative farmers. They research new ideas and consider management changes when it will improve the farm’s financial viability and their quality of life. In 2024, they set up virtual fence for the goat herd to see if they could reduce their labor needs and make it easier to graze the forb and browse areas of the farm. Setting up two or more new paddocks daily with portable electric net fence was replaced with collars on the goats and an app on their cellphones. Van Vlaanderen and Doolan draw out the next paddock’s boundaries on their phones, use the herding dogs to move the goats to a new area, and once there, the system sends a signal to the collars. The collar beeps when the goats get too close to virtual fence lines. Goats are notoriously good at escaping from fences, so it was impressive that the goats learned the new system in less than a week. Overall, the virtual fence is working better than even a wellcharged electric net fence. The system they chose was marketed by Nofence, and although it has worked well, there have been challenges due to poor cell service in areas of the farm. This was especially true during the first year of use when they had to set up paddock boundaries the evening before so they had time to load the new information into the collars. During their second season of use (2025), the system had improved to

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George Vlaanderen has found success using virtual fence.

where they could load paddock boundaries within 15 minutes. The flexibility of setting up paddock boundaries with the virtual fence has allowed them to graze in more of the forested or brushy browse pastures. This has been a bonus in hot summer months when cool-season grass/legume pastures are not growing as well, and the goats

prefer shade, forbs, and browse. In addition to being able to graze new areas of the farm, they have also introduced more forb species such as forage chicory and cup plant. These species are so highly palatable to the goats that they will selectively graze them too often and too short, which can damage or kill those plants if access isn’t limited. However, with the virtual fence, those new forb plantings can be carefully protected with easily set up boundaries that prevent overgrazing damage. All these advantages come with less time spent moving fences, so there is more time to focus on planting new forbs, improving soil health, making cheese, keeping the on-farm store stocked, and enjoying nonfarm activities. The goats are thriving with this new combination of fence and pasture species. Van Vlaanderen and Doolan reported that since they installed the virtual fencing, milk production rose an average of 13%, which translates into a $5,500 increase in gross income compared to managing goats with net fence.

In addition, they save 230 hours yearly from not having to move net fencing. At a labor rate of $20 per hour, this is an additional cost savings of $4,600. With this latest labor-saving efficiency, they are able to expand the time they spend on other interests. This includes doing some farm consulting, and van Vlaanderen enjoys mentoring other farmers as they train their herding dogs. • SARAH FLACK

Need

The author is a writer, consultant, Photo and speaker who specializes in grass-based livestock farming systems.

You can read more about Does’ Leap Farm and find videos of the operation on their website and social media sites:  Website: doesleap.com  Instagram and Facebook: @doesleapfarm  YouTube: youtube.com/@doesleapfarm

W. BEVERLY FLETCHER, VIRGINIA With over seven decades of farming experience, W. Beverly Fletcher remains actively involved in producing quality hay in Virginia. Over the years, his operation has included grain, string beans, potatoes, cattle and for the past 30 years, hay. One of the first to purchase an accumulator from Kuhns Manufacturing, Beverly later upgraded to a newer Norden model that he still uses today with zero issues.

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April/May 2026 | hayandforage.com | 17

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FORAGE GEARHEAD

by Randy Clark

Make maintenance a priority

Choices abound All major manufacturers have their native apps for tracking maintenance, service, and much more. Many farmers struggle with these apps due to having multiple brands of equipment in their fleet, and most solutions come with a price. If these solutions suit you, take advantage and use them. However, if you have multiple brands of equipment and maybe don’t have all the infrastructure in your operation to track maintenance, consider some of the low-cost resources that can make this easier. Let’s look at some examples. Farm Service Manager is an app that can track your maintenance, repairs, and make it easier to relay that information when you sell or trade the machine. It’s based in Australia, but services farmers around the world for a few dollars per user per month. Another example is TractorPal. This is a simple resource, also for a few dollars per month, that can keep track of everything in a simple format. If you

Mike Rankin

T’S that time of year when we head to the fields. Hopefully, the maintenance has been done that will have your equipment ready to go. There are many resources available that discuss what maintenance needs to be done, but there are few that outline how to manage the maintenance, ensure it is done on time, and how to maintain good records of the maintenance as it is completed. Everyone is busy these days, while trying to do more with less each year; it’s how we stay afloat. With all the demands on our time, it gets harder to maintain equipment, especially for farmers who maintain their own. There are only so many hours in a day, and maintenance isn’t always the first priority. There are some simple solutions available that can help you with maintenance management. Apps can now be installed on your phone that will remind you of a maintenance need, track when it gets done, and give you a future task list to work on. There’s also the opportunity, with the advent of artificial intelligence (AI), to be able to create your own apps to work with, but that’s a conversation for another time.

currently just write things down on a notepad as you do them, this is probably a good app to start with, and it leaves plenty of room to grow. If you want something tailored to you and your operation, consider using your favorite AI tool to compare solutions based on your needs. Tell the AI model about your operation, what you want, what you don’t want, and have it compare all the available solutions. If you haven’t used an AI tool like this before, I’d recommend starting at Grok.com, as it is about the simplest way to try it out, and it seems to understand this industry better than some other models. When you’re adding apps or systems to manage your maintenance, always keep in mind that they should free up time rather than consume more time. Be aware of anything that costs you too much money or time to manage. Don’t be afraid to pivot.

Make the time No matter which app you use, it’s still difficult to manage your time and be able to complete routine equipment maintenance. Maintenance is not worthy of compromise. An hour spent on maintenance may save days during the season. If you work with forages, it may save your crop, as most producers have a 24- to 72-hour window to complete their harvest before changing moisture reduces its value. It’s always hard to commit time to maintenance, especially for farmer-operators, but we all know how important it is. The easiest way to set aside time for maintenance is by linking it to some-

thing solid, such as days of the month or weather events in the offseason when you are unable to do other work. In addition to maintenance, inspect your equipment regularly. This simple task is lacking on many operations and involves much more than just a check of the dipstick, pulling the trigger on an electric grease gun, or putting more fuel in the tank. Inspecting a machine and generating preventative maintenance tasks can pay dividends later. Also, keeping a running list of maintenance tasks that need completing can provide the nudge needed on the predetermined maintenance days to get started on shortening that list. You can also work on smaller tasks from the list when you find yourself with a few minutes to spare in between other work. Without a list, it can seem overwhelming to get started and makes it easy to fall behind. Making maintenance a priority means better crops in storage, more time with your family, or doing things that make you happy. Well-maintained equipment also saves stress and can contribute to stronger mental health while putting more money in your pocket at trade-in. Managing maintenance properly is what makes it all sustainable and involves much more than just topping off fluids and hitting the field. •

RANDY CLARK The author is a mechanical engineer and the owner of RCI Engineering and Ag-Bag in Mayville, Wis.

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BEEF ROUNDUP

APRIL/MAY 2026

3 Develop pastures with intention 4 Alfalfa gains go beyond the bunk 6 Cover crops benefit stocker cattle

F4 BR 1 Apr_May 2026 Cover.indd 1

8 Does your forage pass these tests? 10 Finishing cattle on forages 12 Five spring grazing mistakes 14 It’s the other grazing legume

4/17/26 9:47 AM

All hat. All cattle. Not all rations are created equal. Don’t settle for feed ingredients that are all talk.

Whole cottonseed provides a powerful combination of fat, fiber and protein in one single feed ingredient.1 This triple-nutrient feedstuff offers an effective way to supplement the ration and improve body condition.2,3 See what a higher nutrient profile can do for your operation. Choose the triple-nutrient feed ingredient. Feed whole cottonseed.

Stewart, L. and Rossi, J. (2010). Using cotton byproducts in beef cattle diets. Bulletin 1311. The University of Georgia and Ft. Valley State University, the U.S. Department of Agriculture and counties of the state cooperating.

Jacobs, L. et al. (2019). Whole cottonseed use in beef cattle diets. Alabama A&M and Auburn University Extensions. https://www.aces. edu/wp-content/uploads/2019/12/ANR2608_WholeCottonseed112219L-G.pdf.

Comerford, J.W. (2014). Added fat in the ration of beef cows to enhance reproduction. Pennsylvania State University. https://extension. psu.edu/added-fat-in-the-ration-of-beef-cows-to-enhance-reproduction.

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BEEF ROUNDUP

DEVELOP PASTURES WITH INTENTION [ by Mike Rankin, Senior Editor ]

ASON CAVADINI often finds himself trying to answer the question “What should I plant in my pasture?” The University of Wisconsin Division of Extension grazing specialist recently addressed this same question during a “Focus on Forage” webinar.

“People want to know what species are best to seed a new pasture with or renovate an existing pasture,” Cavadini began. “It’s not an easy question to address because the answer varies with the farm being considered.” Cavadini pointed out that there is a plethora of pasture premixes available on the market. He said that all the premixes may have utility in certain situations, but any given premix may not be the best choice for a specific farm, and planting the wrong one can result in a costly mistake.

First things first Before deciding to seed new pastures, the grazing specialist suggested first asking three important questions: • W hat are my grazing goals? • W hat are my farm’s existing resources? • Can I work with what I’ve got? “We have to determine whether existing forage species in our pastures or hayfields are desirable or undesirable based on our farm’s goals,” Cavadini said. “We also need to know if the existing species are compatible or incompatible with one another. Given that management impacts the species present, it may be that a change in management can be used to improve a pasture’s forage inventory.” Once there is an understanding of the soil types, land use limitations, and the existing species, then the key question becomes “Can I work with what I’ve got?” If the answer to that question is “yes,” Cavadini suggested graziers look toward management changes before purchasing seed. Such changes may include simply “planting more fence posts” or developing a renovation plan, Cavadini noted.

There will be times when the existing pastures or hayfields won’t help meet the farm’s grazing goals. In these cases, a new seeding may be necessary, and Cavadini recommends you start with a clean seedbed because most seed mixes don’t establish well where there is competition from existing plants. A new seeding allows for the greatest opportunity to select forage species that will be compatible to each other and the soil characteristics of the farm. Cavadini cited the example of mixing tall fescue with meadow fescue. “If you mix these two species, the animals will devour the more palatable meadow fescue and leave the tall fescue. Within a few years, you will find yourself with nothing but a tall fescue pasture.”

Selected species also need to meet the overall goals and management of the farm. For example, some species won’t persist if adequate residuals or rest periods aren’t possible. Cavadini pointed out that grass species can be classified as either a bunch grass or sod former. Although both can be used, he cautioned that sod formers can be competitive in a new seeding. They can also make future renovation difficult. For these reasons, most new pasture mixes include several bunch grass types plus some legume species. The correct species to plant will ultimately depend on the individual farm and the type of management being used. Cavadini recently co-authored a fact sheet that can help farmers, technical providers, and grazing planners work through the question of “What should I plant in my pasture?” It can be downloaded at: https://bit.ly/ HFG-pastures. BR

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BEEF ROUNDUP

ALFALFA GAINS GO BEYOND THE BUNK [ by Amber Friedrichsen, Former Hay & Forage Grower Editor ]

In growing beef cattle diets, roughage is strategically fed to animals to reduce fat deposition and limit the cost of gain. Traditionally, this dietary fiber has come in the form of corn silage or alfalfa, but the inclusion rate of the former ingredient has readily outpaced that of the latter in beef feedlots across the country. DiCostanzo, an extension beef systems educator, said corn silage provides more energy, but the digestion of alfalfa fiber in the rumen or small intestine is greater than that of corn silage. This is particularly important in high-grain diets where more digestible starch, such as that from high-moisture corn or steam-flaked corn, reaches the small intestine. “The bacteria in the rumen require nutrients to get feed processed and produce volatile fatty acids that the animal then transforms into energy,” DiCostanzo explained. “The problem is that there is less fiber that we can get out of corn silage

in the rumen, so it’s not helping the bacteria make those transformations of energy. Also, alfalfa protein is highly degradable in the rumen, adding to the supply of nutrients that the bacteria need.” In addition to its utilization as a feedstuff, alfalfa brings many other agronomic and environmental attributes to the table, and this is where systems thinking comes in, DiCostanzo said. Alfalfa excels at sequestering carbon and improving soil health thanks to its deep taproots and perennial lifespan, which also allows for a wider window of opportunity to spread manure. Annual crop rotations, such as corncorn or corn-soybeans, have much less flexibility for manure applications.

as the alfalfa haylage inclusion rate went up; however, at the same time, average daily gain, and thus gain-tofeed conversion, went down. DiCostanzo pointed out that the digestibility of neutral detergent fiber (NDF), crude protein (CP), and dry matter all decreased with higher alfalfa haylage inclusion. In his presentation proceedings, DiCostanzo also notes that the metabolizable

silage, which represented total forage. Researchers then replaced corn silage with alfalfa haylage at a rate of 33%, 66%, and 100% for the respective treatment groups. Depending on initial individual weight, cattle were fed the experimental diet for 42 to 70 days until they reached approximately 960 pounds. There was a linear relationship in animal intake

Table 1. Effect of finishing diet on carcass traits (Study 1) Item

Corn silage

AH_33

AH_66

AH_100

915

904

917

Carcass, lb. Marbling, in.

495

523

504

507

REA,in.2

15.07

15.33

14.85

15.21

Fat depth, in.

0.58

0.65

0.56

0.57

Figure 1. Effect of finishing diet on carcass grades 50 45 Percent of carcasses

HE fact that alfalfa is diminishing in cattle rations is a popular talking point in the dairy industry, but less often discussed is the inclusion rate of alfalfa in beef diets. Alfredo DiCostanzo with the University of Nebraska Extension said the lack of alfalfa in feedlot systems is an issue he just can’t wrap his head around, especially considering the positive, holistic impacts alfalfa can have on crop and livestock systems overall. DiCostanzo encouraged farmers to consider upping the alfalfa inclusion rates in their growing and finishing beef cattle diets at the Midwest Forage Association Symposium held in Wisconsin Dells, Wis., in February.

40 35 30 25 20 10 5 0

CS  Prime, %

AH-33

AH-66

AH-100

 Upper choice, %

 Select, %

Cattle caught up In one feeding study, researchers evaluated how adding alfalfa to growing cattle diets affected weight gain, starting from when animals weighed roughly 760 pounds. The control diet contained 50% corn

Table 2. Effect of finishing diet on carcass traits (Study 2) P-value Source NDF

Item

Corn silage

CS_ AH_14

CS_ AH_18

Carcass, lb.

1,008

1,003

994

0.47

0.41

Marbling, in.

480

488

527

0.14

0.04

REA,in.2

16.34

16.18

15.97

0.19

0.14

Fat depth, in.

0.71

0.60

0.59

0.08

0.31

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energy (ME) value of corn silage and alfalfa haylage were 3.05 and 2.39 megacalories (Mcal) of ME per kilogram of dry matter, respectively, when included at 50% of the total diet dry matter. Those values were greater than previously reported. With that said, after the cattle in the study were harvested, there were no significant differences observed in carcass traits, including marbling, rib eye area, and backfat thickness (Table 1). Carcass grades were also similar (Figure 1). DiCostanzo said the cattle that experienced lower average daily gains when fed alfalfa haylage realized compensatory gains during the finishing period. He added that alfalfa-fed cattle reached comparable harvest weights after similar days on feed as cattle assigned to the corn silage control. “Once they came off the growing phase and went into their finishing period, there was no difference,” DiCostanzo said. “In spite of having lower feed conversions, lower intake, and lower gains in the growing period, these cattle compensated in the last 150 days on feed. The point is that whatever we did not do in the growing phase, we recovered in the finishing phase.”

Cattle finished well In a second study, researchers evaluated how replacing corn silage with alfalfa haylage in finishing diets affected final body weight and carcass traits. The control diet included 12% corn silage with 13.9% dietary NDF. Researchers then replaced corn silage with alfalfa to formulate rations containing 14% dietary NDF (low) or 18% dietary NDF (high), allowing them to analyze effects of fiber level and

source. This study lasted 106 days and concluded with cattle harvest and carcass data collection. Overall, researchers concluded that dietary NDF concentration did not have a significant impact on intake, average daily gain, or feed conversion. “Dry matter digestibility decreased when we increased the concentration of NDF in the diet — that was to be expected,” DiCostanzo said. “In spite of that, cattle performed exceptionally well.” There was no significant difference in carcass weight, marbling, or rib eye area across all cattle in the three treatment groups. One statistical difference among the carcass data was backfat depth, with cattle fed the corn silage control measuring 0.71 inch compared to 0.60 inch and 0.59 inch for cattle fed low-NDF and high-NDF diets, respectively (Table 2). Therefore, DiCostanzo said the lack of performance response suggests that alfalfa can be included in finishing diets with minimal downside. But the benefits of incorporating alfalfa into feedlot rations go beyond what is realized on the rail. DiCostanzo reiterated that adding alfalfa to crop rotations supports soil health, fertility management, and even enhanced wildlife habitat on the farm. And with more forage fiber available in the diet, healthier rumens may translate to healthier cattle. “To me, it’s about rumen health,” DiCostanzo said. “It’s not like alfalfa hay is going to get cattle fatter or make them marble more, but it may help those cattle be more comfortable if they are not hurting from acidosis as much and are probably digesting their feed better.” BR

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BEEF ROUNDUP

COVER CROPS BENEFIT STOCKER CATTLE [ by Cody Gruber ]

C CODY GRUBER The author is a Ph.D. candidate in ruminant nutrition attending Oklahoma State University.

OVER crops are widely used because of their many agronomic and nutritional benefits. Common reasons cover crops may be adopted include nitrogen fixation, soil organic matter accumulation, and weed suppression. In addition, cover crops can serve as a high-quality forage source for growing stocker cattle. During the summer months in Oklahoma, where forage quality rapidly declines, forages that either maintain quality for longer or produce greater biomass can be impactful for stocker weight gains.

We initiated a study to evaluate the impacts of warm-season cover crops and additional nitrogen (N) fertilizer on measurements of individual and per-acre animal performance when compared to volunteer warm-season grasses and no additional N fertilizer. During the summer of 2025, 40 steers weighing an average of 741 pounds grazed eight pastures at the Oklahoma State University Wheat Pasture Unit in Stillwater from June 19 to Aug. 14. These 40 steers were designated as “tester” steers and grazed assigned pastures for the entire grazing period. An additional 28 “grazer” steers were used to maintain the desired forage allowance of 3.5 pounds of forage dry matter per pound of total steer body weight. This was maintained through “put-and-take” stocking, which involved reallocating extra

grazer steers among pastures every other week in accordance with changes in available forage to maintain the desired forage allowance in each pasture. This maintains equal grazing pressure and prevents limited forage for the tester steers. Grazed pastures were either planted with a mixture of warm-season cover crops, consisting of cowpea, sunn hemp, mung bean, brown midrib (BMR) sorghum sudangrass, and okra, or were allowed to transition to volunteer warm-season grasses following graze-out of winter wheat. The cover crop seed mix consisted of 19.6 pounds per acre of cowpea, 14.3 pounds per acre of sunn hemp, 9.8 pounds per acre of mung bean, 9.8 pounds per acre of BMR sorghum sudangrass, and 4.5 pounds per acre of okra. In addition, half of the pastures were fertilized with urea

Tester steer ADG (lbs./day)

Steer ADG with or without cover crops and additional N fertilizer 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0 Volunteer no fertilizer

Volunteer + fertilizer

Cover crops no fertilizer

Treatment

Cover crops + fertilizer

with a total applied N rate of 107 pounds N/acre. The following four treatments were studied: cover crops without added N, cover crops with added N, volunteer grasses without added N, and volunteer grasses with added N.

Early positive results Providing the cover crop mixture improved individual stocker performance as total body weight gain increased 67.7% (from 65 to 109 pounds), and average daily gain

Grazed cover crops can be used to improve individual animal performance.

(ADG) improved by 70.1% (from 1.15 to 1.97 pounds) compared to volunteer grasses. While volunteer grasses produced an average of 18 more grazing days per acre, total body weight gain per acre did not differ between forage type but was increased by 15.5 pounds per acre with N fertilizer. These results display the potential of warm-season cover crops to improve stocker performance. This was year one of a three-year study where changes in forage and soil nutrient contents and N utilization by steers will be evaluated during both the summer and winter wheat-grazing periods to determine the extent of the benefits provided by warm-season cover crops on a winter wheat and warm-season cover crop rotation. BR

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BEEF ROUNDUP

DOES YOUR FORAGE PASS THESE TESTS? [ by Amber Friedrichsen, Former Hay & Forage Grower Editor ]

OW-CALF producers know that sound nutrition is the backbone of a profitable operation. Healthy, productive cows produce healthy, productive calves — and the cycle repeats. According to Elizabeth Belew, a nutritionist on Purina Animal Nutrition’s beef technical solutions team, producers who want to optimize their feeding programs and capture greater profit potential must do three things: test forage, assess body condition, and score manure. When she isn’t traveling across the country to visit her company’s clients, Belew runs a cow-calf operation with her husband, father-in-law, and two children on their farm in central Missouri. With both industry and personal experience in the beef business, as well as a background in animal science and cowcalf parasitology, Belew is an expert in identifying and troubleshooting challenges in beef nutrition, which often tie back to forage quality and fiber digestibility. “At the end of the day, our biggest resource as cattle producers is our forage,” Belew

said. “If we don’t know what we have, we can’t prepare for how we are going to utilize it.”

Test your hay Testing hay provides a snapshot of the amount of nutrients the forage has to offer, which can then be matched with cow requirements. Of all the numbers provided on a quality analysis, Belew homes in on crude protein (CP), total digestible nutrients (TDN), and neutral detergent fiber (NDF). “Neutral detergent fiber is an indicator of intake — if forage is poor quality, cows would need to eat a lot of it,

but they just physically can’t because of the passage rate. The NDF value helps me determine what intake is going to be,” Belew said. She also considers forage moisture and other antinutritional factors reported on a test to inform feeding decisions. For example, high-moisture forages need to be adjusted to a dry-matter basis to effectively calculate inclusion rates. High mycotoxins and mold counts in ensiled forages or susceptible hay crops must also be addressed during ration formulation. And other forages with potential for excess nitrate accumulation — like sorghum species — need to be diluted to safe feeding levels or excluded from the diet entirely, depending on cows’ stage of production. Ultimately, the goal is to make the best use of available forages to keep cows productive despite the ebbs and

flows of energy requirements throughout the lactation curve. When producers can inventory forage according to quality, they can essentially create a timeline for feeding hay and supplementing grazed forages that addresses those changing needs. For instance, after weaning, cows’ energy requirements drop substantially and can usually be met with forage at the lower end of the quality spectrum along with protein and/or mineral supplementation. On the other hand, cows hit maximum energy and protein requirements at peak lactation in order to produce sufficient milk without losing body condition as breeding season approaches. Sampling hay and reserving the highest quality forage for this period helps ensure cows stay productive with calves at their side year after year. “I talk about the long game: How are the decisions I’m making today going to be realized after nine months of gestation and six months weaning — 15 months down the road?” Belew posited. “I want cows to get bred early and I want calves to put on weight. That’s how you make money in the beef business.” But even with forage tests in hand and feeding plans in mind, a cow’s body condition score (BCS) and manure score will reveal if the rubber actually hits the road. If cows can’t maintain a healthy BCS or manure scores indicate poor-quality forage and low fiber digestibility, it’s time to make a change.

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Body condition score The BCS scale ranges from 1, severely emaciated, to 9, obese. “Holistically, we want to be between a 5 and a 6 on a year-round basis,” Belew said. “We want no less than a 5 at weaning and at least a 6 at calving.” At BCS 5, cows have two or three ribs showing, are angular across the top, and have no tail head or brisket fat. At BCS 6, cows have zero ribs showing, are round across the top, and have some tail head and brisket fat. Animals in this category should look strong in their shoulders and hindquarters. In addition to indicating that cows are hitting their maintenance calories and have enough energy for milk production, good body condition puts them in a favorable position to get rebred. “Generally speaking, I need cows to get bred in the first two heat cycles after calving to be profitable,” Belew said. Consider a calf that gains roughly 2 pounds per day and is born into a market where cattle prices are $3 per pound. Every missed estrous cycle puts calving 21 days behind schedule. In this example, that would equate to 42 fewer pounds of gain or $126 less per calf at the sale barn, emphasizing the economic importance of consistently good body condition.

feeding hay, but if you leave a round bale of dry grass hay in the pasture for the first couple weeks of grazing, it’s going to help you get more out of the forage because passage rate will slow down a bit. Cows will be able to break it down instead of it just washing out the back end,” Belew said. • Manure score 3: The ideal manure score takes a normal pat form and stacks about 1 inch thick. This indicates that the rumen is working efficiently and that cows are consuming forage and able to digest the fiber well. • Manure score 4: Manure starts to become thicker; piles are deeper but do not stack. This indicates that the forage is becoming more mature and less digestible. Supplementing protein and minerals is needed to support fiber-digesting bacteria that are breaking down this forage. • Manure score 5: Manure is very firm and stacks over 2 inches tall. Rumen microbes require supplemental protein, energy, and/or mineral to suc-

cessfully digest low-quality forage. “Manure score 5 shows really bad forage digestibility,” Belew said. “When it starts stacking, that’s forage fiber coming out the back end. And if it’s coming out the back end, it’s not being utilized by the microbes in the rumen or the cattle.”

Don’t forget phosphorus When it comes to mineral supplementation, Belew said producers must prioritize phosphorus. “When you feed a cow, you’re not actually feeding her directly — you are feeding her bugs. Through the fermentation process, those bugs create energy, and phosphorus is extremely important for fiber-digesting bugs,” she explained, reiterating that ideal manure scores reflect good rumen function. “If I can go from a manure score 5 to a 4 by adding phosphorus from a consistent mineral, that could pay for your first bag of mineral because of the improvement in feed efficiency of that forage.” BR

Manure measurements If BCS is the long-term measure of forage quality and feed efficiency, manure scoring is the short-term evaluation. Belew said there are key differences along the five-point manure scoring scale that can help producers understand what happens in the rumen three to four days after forage is fed. • Manure score 1: Manure has a thin, runny consistency that indicates acidosis or rumen upset. Add fiber to the diet to help slow passage rate and get the rumen back in balance. “Typically, we think of this for fed cattle that are bumped up too quickly, but that’s not always the case,” Belew said. “We can get some subclinical acidosis in cattle on pasture when we don’t supplement them correctly.” • Manure score 2: Piles are less than 1 inch thick and do not stack, indicating a fast passage rate. This is usually seen during the spring flush at the start of the grazing season. “You might get excited to have green grass out there and that you can be done

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BEEF ROUNDUP

FINISHING CATTLE ON FORAGES [ by Dan Glenn ]

Grass-finishing beef requires that you match forage availability with the final 90 days before harvest.

F YOU bring up the subject of grass-finished beef, you’re likely to get a passionate answer, and there’s a good reason for the passion. Grass-fed and grass-finished beef can be an excellent, flavor-filled, nutrient-rich eating experience. Or it can taste — and smell — bad.

DAN GLENN The author is the owner-operator of Deep Grass Graziers, a seedstock cattle ranch in Osierfield, Ga.

Let’s start with the commodity supply chain. There’s a reason it works: consistent feed supply, large inventory, full carcass utilization, and economy of scale. The product you get at a certain location has often been sized and graded with a consistency you can expect. One goes to their favorite fast food chain because they know what they’re getting and it’s the same every time. Grass-finished beef is different. The forages typically vary every year, the direct marketer has a smaller inventory supply chain, and they may use a butcher or group of butchers that aren’t necessarily held to consistency standards that the larger packers employ. From one animal or package to the next, everything is not the same.

I’ve often thought that these differences should be embraced by our industry as “terroir,” or the flavor imparted by the time and region in which a product was produced. The wine industry has embraced and marketed this concept exceptionally well. However, the key to embracing terroir is to make sure that the flavor parameters fall within acceptable guardrails.

End in mind People can and will argue about the right breed, forages, age at slaughter, or amount of fat needed on a properly grass-finished animal. Before I got lost in the genetics side of cattle production, I was passionate about grass-finished beef and a little quixotic over the chase for the best steak

I could produce. I brought in oldline Angus cattle that had a little too much hair and were maybe a touch too small. I grew annual species and created a forage chain that stretched through all four seasons, and we consequently finished some truly memorable steaks. The key steps were to get the genetics right and keep good nutrition in front of the animals from gestation until harvest, focusing on the last 90 days with the best forages available. You have to start with the end in mind. In Georgia, our best forages were winter annuals stretching into the spring flush — February through the beginning of May. This included ryegrass, oats, crimson clover, white clover, hairy vetch, and triticale. This period was the only great stretch we had for grass finishing. If the cattle had to transition from spring to summer, they typically would sit still or go backward. Summer in Georgia was so hot that even sorghum-sudangrass and crabgrass would struggle to provide the necessary gains for a proper finish. The fall was the worst because energy declined in the perennial grasses, and there usually was a dead spot in the forage chain, so we needed to feed hay to get to our winter annuals. Stockpiled sorghum-sudangrass in a summer mix was about the best we could do for September and October. With all of this in mind, we considered how long it would take to grass-finish those animals from birth in order to know when we wanted to breed the dams so we could line up their last 90 days with our ideal forage window. If you are bringing calves into your program, you’d have to ask your-

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Two-piece tarp shade for ease of handling self the same question from the point at which you receive them. How heavy are they now, and how much will they gain until they’re ready to harvest? If you have a limited high-quality forage window like us, you have to dial in on that time frame. Fortunately, our typical calving period was late winter/early spring, so those animals would be right around 2 years old when finished. Each environment and amount of supplementation will dictate the ideal size and time frame for finishing beef on forages. Some folks use alfalfa hay, soy hulls, winter annual baleage or hay, or forage stockpiles to keep animals moving in the winter or other times when their forage chain is challenged. Whatever you choose as an acceptable supplement, be transparent with your customers about your program. Integrity is built over years and lost in moments. If you tell folks your beef is 100% grass-fed, they might be confused why soy hulls are considered grass.

Checks and balances I believe that cows eating diverse forages creates a nutritious balance of fat and protein, which is health affirming. Because tenderness is corollary to age and affected by genetics, you have to get both of those things right to dial in the steak-eating experience. However, the question becomes, is producing the best steak as profitable as producing a good steak? The answer depends on how much of a premium you make from 15% to 20% of the carcass. This brings up a valuable point: Don’t let perfect get in the way of good. This doesn’t mean you need to settle for less; it means you need to balance what your environ-

ment allows with what your customers want. We focus on our genetics to thrive in our environment with reproductive longevity and fleshing ease in mind, in that order. Our ranching customers can apply a terminal “grass” bull to those females and produce a good product and a profitable herd of cows. Just remember, a terminal grass bull is different than a terminal mainstream bull. We’ll save that conversation for another day. If you chase that “perfect” steak with Wagyu, Akaushi, or other high-marbling breeds, ensure you are making enough of a premium off those handful of steak cuts to make up for the longer finishing times, potentially lower fertility rates, and lower meat yield. Good accounting will let you know if you’re on the right track. Finally, let’s circle back to flavor. Fat contributes heavily to the flavor profile of grass-finished beef. We talked about the role of genetics and the forage chain, but keep in mind some forages can produce off flavors. Brassicas should probably be avoided over the last 90 days as they can impart a pungent quality to the fat. While I think there is still much unknown about plant compounds and soil conditions that contribute to off flavors, winter annuals and clovers are a good fit here, and we build our systems around that season. Your environment might look completely different: orchardgrass and clover in the early summer, stockpiled novel-endophyte fescue in the fall or winter, or alfalfa during a longer window. Dial in your forages, your genetics, and your finishing window so you’re the person they buy grass-finished beef from every time.” BR

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BEEF ROUNDUP

FIVE SPRING GRAZING MISTAKES [ by Ryan Rhoades ]

E RYAN RHOADES The author is an associate professor and extension beef specialist at Colorado State University.

ARLY-SEASON grazing decisions can determine pasture productivity and the number of days cattle graze for the rest of the year. Spring is a crucial time for grazing management across much of the western United States. As temperatures rise and snowmelt makes soil moisture available, cool-season grasses enter a period of rapid growth. In many grazing systems, as much as 40% to 60% of the year’s total forage production happens during this late spring growth phase. That boost in production offers both opportunities and risks for cattle producers.

range specialists suggest keeping forage utilization between 40% and 50%. Practically, this means leaving about half of the available forage after grazing. Maintaining sufficient residual height ensures plants keep enough leaf area to recover quickly.

Proper grazing management during the spring can help capture high-quality forage and promote pasture growth. Conversely, poor management can reduce forage yields and shorten the grazing season. Research from Colorado State University has highlighted several common mistakes made during the early grazing season. Avoiding these errors can help maintain pasture productivity and improve overall grazing efficiency.

ents later on. In semi-arid areas such as Colorado, this problem can be worse because plant recovery depends heavily on moisture. Ranchers looking to cut feeding costs early on might consider using sacrifice pastures or limit feeding hay in designated areas until pastures are healthy enough. Waiting even a week or two longer for proper plant growth can greatly improve pasture performance later in the season.

MISTAKE #1: Turning out too early

MISTAKE #2: Grazing too short

One of the most common grazing mistakes happens when cattle are turned out on pastures before forage plants are ready. In early spring, grasses are still growing leaves and rebuilding carbohydrate reserves that were used up during winter dormancy. If cattle start grazing before enough leaf growth, plants may struggle to recover. Many forage specialists suggest waiting until grasses reach about 6 to 8 inches tall before grazing. This usually means the plants have enough leaf area to continue growing after being grazed. Grazing too early removes leaves needed for photosynthesis, slowing plant growth. Early leaf removal also reduces root growth, making plants weaker and less able to access soil moisture and nutri-

While spring growth often produces plenty of forage, grazing pastures too intensively can have long-term effects. Removing too much leaf area inhibits the plant’s ability to regrow. When grasses are repeatedly grazed before they recover, it results in overgrazing, even if cattle numbers seem moderate. Studies on grazing intensity have shown that heavy grazing can cut forage production by more than 50% compared to moderate grazing. Excessive defoliation also impacts plant root systems. When too much foliage is removed, root growth slows or temporarily stops as the plant focuses energy on rebuilding leaves. Smaller roots limit the plant’s capacity to absorb water and nutrients, enhancing the risk for drought stress. To prevent these issues, many

Although overgrazing is a common problem, allowing forage to become overly mature can also cause issues. Cool-season grasses are most nutritious during early vegetative growth. As plants mature, forage quality drops quickly. Crude protein levels in grasses may decline from about 20% at early stages to less than 10% after they mature. Digestibility also drops as fiber content increases. When pastures become overmature, cattle tend to graze selectively, eating the most palatable parts and leaving behind lower-quality forage. Selective grazing can lead to uneven pasture use and less efficient forage intake. Allowing forage to become overly mature may also reduce cattle performance, as gains tend to decline when cattle are forced to eat lower-quality forage. Rotational grazing can help prevent this by controlling grazing times and keeping plants in a more vegetative stage. In cases where forage production surpasses cattle needs, harvesting surplus forage as hay can be a useful alternative.

MISTAKE #3: Overmature pastures

MISTAKE #4: Failure to rotate Continuous grazing during the spring growth period can put excessive stress on the tastiest plants. Cattle naturally return

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again and again to eat preferred plants, often before those plants have had a chance to recover. Over time, this repeated grazing weakens the good forage species and allows less productive ones to take over. Rotational grazing systems can help break this cycle. Dividing pastures into multiple paddocks and moving cattle regularly gives plants enough time to recover between grazing periods. Research on grazing systems shows that rotational grazing can improve forage production and pasture use compared to continuous grazing. Rotational systems also help distribute grazing pressure more evenly across the pasture, which can enhance plant diversity and promote more uniform forage growth. The number of paddocks and the length of grazing periods depend on the forage growth and stocking rate. Even simple rotational systems can offer advantages over continuous grazing. Early-season rotations are espe-

cially important because plants are still developing root systems and energy reserves that support growth later in the year.

MISTAKE #5: Overlooking nutrition Lush spring forage often provides excellent nutrition for grazing cattle, but it can also pose certain risks. One common concern during spring grazing is grass tetany, a metabolic disorder linked to low magnesium levels in rapidly growing forage. Grass tetany most frequently affects lactating cows grazing cool-season pastures during periods of spring growth. Cold, wet weather and high soil potassium and/or nitrogen levels will increase the risk. Offering free-choice mineral supplements with magnesium is one of the most effective ways to mitigate the risk of grass tetany. Monitoring cattle carefully during early grazing can also help identify potential problems before they

become serious. Proper mineral nutrition is a crucial part of effectively managing spring pastures.

Long-term impacts Spring grazing decisions are crucial for determining pasture productivity for the rest of the year. Healthy pastures depend on strong root systems, sufficient leaf area, and appropriate recovery periods after grazing. Avoid common mistakes such as turning cattle out too early, grazing too closely, letting forage become overmature, failing to rotate pastures, and ignoring the nutritional risks to help maximize the benefits of the spring flush. Careful grazing management during this vital growth period promotes higher forage yields and extends the grazing season. For ranches across semi-arid regions of the U.S., good spring grazing management is more than pasture stewardship — it is a key factor in maintaining a profitable operation. BR

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BEEF ROUNDUP

IT’S THE OTHER GRAZING LEGUME [ by Mike Rankin, Senior Editor ]

HEN thinking about bolstering pastures with legumes, thoughts immediately turn to red or white clover — or perhaps alfalfa. Those are all good options, but there seems to be at least one other legume that’s gaining steady momentum. Annual lespedeza is a warm-season annual legume that, when managed correctly, will reseed itself and provide multiple years of grazing pleasure. Graziers who routinely use lespedeza simply love it. “Annual lespedeza is a forage option that offers a simple, low-input way to help fill the

summer slump while improving overall pasture performance and soil health,” says Caleb O’Neal, a University of Missouri Extension plant science field specialist based in Mt. Vernon. “One of the greatest advantages of annual lespedeza is its ease of establishment and adaptability. Unlike

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many legumes, it can be productive on soils with pH levels as low as 5 and on sites with marginal fertility,” he adds. Although it does much better than many other species on marginal soils, its best production occurs where good fertility and soil drainage exist. As a warm-season species, annual lespedeza is typically seeded in the spring, and there are several viable establishment options. It can be broadcast frost seeded, drilled into existing pastures, or established as a monoculture after a winter-annual harvest or grazing. Current users often put it in their seed mixture to repair winter-damaged feeding areas. Greg Halich, an agricultural economist with the University of Kentucky, is another of those strong proponents for incorporating annual lespedeza into a grazing plan. On his own farm, he’s found seeding later is better than earlier. Halich likes to broadcast lespedeza from mid-March to early April. If it establishes too early, and a frost occurs, the plants will be thinned or lost. In most cases, lespedeza seed will need to be inoculated. Use the same bacteria as that for the cowpea-peanut family of legumes. Annual lespedeza fixes nitrogen, boosts the forage quality of grass-dominated pastures, takes away some of the summer-slump pain, helps dilute the effects of toxic tall fescue, and enhances soil health. Although it’s an annual species, it can reseed

itself for future production when managed correctly. Both O’Neal and Halich note that the best time to let annual lespedeza reseed itself is in the fall.

Variety options Most seed companies selling annual lespedeza will offer either Kobe or Korean varieties. Kobe lespedeza has smaller leaves, a lower growth habit, and matures a little later than Korean. It produces flowers that are closer to the ground, allowing for greater grazing tolerance, and it performs well on poor soils. Korean lespedeza offers a higher yield potential than Kobe. It grows taller and is more adapted to rotational grazing or hay production. It flowers and sets seed earlier than Kobe but is more susceptible to disease pressure and heavy grazing. “Selection should be based on management goals and site conditions,” O’Neal says. “For low-input pastures where persistence is a priority, Kobe lespedeza is often the better option. For producers aiming to maximize summer forage production under managed grazing or hay systems, Korean lespedeza is the preferred choice.” Annual lespedeza has proven its utility as a grazing option. It will never nor should it exceed the utilization of clovers, but it seems that there is a place for this afterthought legume on many more farms than where it’s currently being used. BR

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Burdened by acidic soils by Mike Rankin, Senior Editor

HERE are a lot of farmers who probably wish their ancestors had kept the Conestoga wagon moving before dropping anchor on a plot of land that would challenge generations to come on the family farm. There are also many reasons why this is so. Challenging crop-growing soils come in many flavors, including rocks, clay, steep slopes, saline or sodic conditions, sand, inherent low fertility, and acidity. Each of these soil conditions limit the production of crops — some to the point where they can’t be grown at all, or at least not without significant additional expense. Perhaps there is no better poster child to cite as an example than trying to grow alfalfa on acid soils. Either you invest heavily in lime, accept a significant yield hit, or find another crop to pay the bills. The acidity of soils across the U.S. varies. Some of the largest pockets of acid soils are found in the Northeastern and Southeastern states, although acid soils exist to some degree in nearly every state. Deborah Samac, a USDA-ARS scientist based at the University of Minnesota, and Ali Missaoui, a forage plant breeder with the University of Georgia, recently reviewed the progress being made to develop alfalfa varieties with tolerance to acid soils in a recent issue of the Midwest Forage Association’s Forage Focus magazine. If your family’s Conestoga stopped on an acid soil, it’s likely the parent materials that formed those soils were naturally low in basic chemical ions such as calcium, magnesium, potassium, and sodium. It could also be that those ions have leached from the soil because of rainfall or irrigation. The authors also explain that some soils have become acid over the years because of frequently used ammonium fertilizers. Where soil pH is acidic, aluminum and manganese become soluble and are taken up by plant roots. This results in poor root proliferation and inhibits nitrogen fixation. With root growth compromised, nutrient and water uptake is reduced, which makes plants more vulnerable to drought stress.

Finding aluminum tolerance Although liming soils will raise soil pH, it can be cost prohibitive. For this reason, alfalfa is not considered a viable crop alternative in many areas. However, if alfalfa varieties could be developed that have aluminum tolerance, this could drastically impact the number of acres where alfalfa is grown as a rotation crop. Samac and Missaoui explain that research work is ongoing to develop or identify alfalfa germplasms with tolerance to acid soils. Scientists have shown that some naturally aluminum-tolerant crops secrete organic acids around the root zone, which binds the aluminum. A few studies have shown that overexpressing organic acids in an alfalfa plant can significantly enhance aluminum tolerance. However, to achieve this result requires the transfer of genes, which complicates the process and cost of making such varieties commercially available.

A more conventional approach to developing alfalfa with acid soil tolerance is also underway. Recently, scientists at the University of Georgia tested 1,200 plants from areas around the world with low pH soils. They were evaluated for four years on a low-pH, high-aluminum soil, and the best 200 were selected for further testing in four different states (Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, and Minnesota). These will be evaluated for yield, plant and root architecture, winterhardiness, and fall dormancy over two production years. The top performers from this group will be used to identify DNA markers associated with acid soil tolerance. Ultimately, resources will be developed to allow alfalfa breeders to incorporate low pH and aluminum tolerance into already adapted varieties. Let’s hope this research yields positive outcomes so that alfalfa can be an alternative crop without routine cost-prohibitive lime applications. For now, both lime and gypsum can be used to amend soils. Gypsum, which is calcium sulfate, won’t raise the soil pH, but the high volume of calcium will displace the aluminum on subsoil particles and allow it to be leached below the rooting depths when enough moisture is available. •

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YOUR CHECKOFF DOLLARS AT WORK

Alfalfa’s carbon advantage Hay & Forage Grower features results of farmer-funded research projects through the Alfalfa Checkoff, officially named the U.S. Alfalfa Farmer Initiative, and administered by National Alfalfa & Forage Alliance (NAFA).

ITTLE information exists about greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from irrigated alfalfa production, even though these systems represent nearly half of U.S. alfalfa acreage. Cameron Pittelkow, associate professor in the Department of Plant Sciences at the University of California–Davis, set out to better understand the climate footprint of alfalfa production and how management practices influence emissions. As a perennial legume crop, alfalfa has characteristics that offer climate advantages compared with many annual crops. Its deep root system contributes to CAMERON soil carbon storage, PITTELKOW and its ability to fix Funding: $98,200 atmospheric nitrogen can reduce fertilizer needs for crops following alfalfa in rotation. “Alfalfa likely provides unique climate benefits that are not currently valued in the marketplace,” Pittelkow noted. Understanding those benefits could become increasingly important as agriculture explores ecosystem service markets and carbon accounting. The study examined three major alfalfa production regions in Califor-

nia: the Intermountain region in the north, the Central Valley, and the Low Desert in the south. These areas represent unique production systems. Intermountain fields typically produce three to four harvests annually, while Central Valley and desert production systems may generate eight to 12 cuttings per year. Researchers used a life cycle analysis to estimate greenhouse gas emissions associated with typical alfalfa management practices in each region. The analysis included emissions from fuel used in field operations, energy required for irrigation, fertilizer inputs, and soil nitrous oxide emissions. The study also accounted for potential system-level benefits. These included soil carbon storage and reduced nitrogen fertilizer requirements for crops planted after alfalfa in rotation.

Differences emerged Estimated emissions varied widely among regions, ranging from 919 to 2,114 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalents per acre per year. The primary sources of emissions also differed by location. The Intermountain region had the lowest greenhouse gas emissions per unit of alfalfa produced, even though yields were lower than in

Figure 1. GHG emissions in three California production regions.

The findings highlight how production practices influence both produc-

125 kg CO2e-1 dry weight

2,000 1,500 1,000 500

100 75 50 25

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 Irrigation  Field passes

 N2O emissions  Fertility

 Seed  Pesticide

Low Desert

Central Valley

Intermountain

kg CO2e ha-1 yr-1

Consider rotation benefits

Figure 2. GHG emissions per unit of yield.

2,500

other regions. Researchers attributed this to reduced irrigation energy requirements and fewer field passes during the growing season. In contrast, the Central Valley and Low Desert systems produced higher yields but required more energy inputs. As a result, emissions intensity in those regions was more than 50% higher than the Intermountain region. Despite regional differences, the study identified several opportunities to reduce the greenhouse gas footprint of alfalfa production. The greatest mitigation potential came from soil carbon storage and reduced fertilizer needs for crops grown after alfalfa. When these benefits were included in the analysis, the estimated offset ranged from 593 to 1,030 pounds of carbon dioxide equivalents per acre per year — roughly 50% to 65% of annual emissions. “These system-level benefits are important to consider,” Pittelkow said. “It has long been known that alfalfa can contribute to soil carbon gains and reduce fertilizer requirements in crop rotations, reducing the overall carbon footprint.”

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tivity and environmental performance in alfalfa systems. Irrigation methods, harvest frequency, fertilizer use, and field operations all affect the crop’s emissions footprint. The research also emphasizes the importance of evaluating alfalfa within a broader cropping system. Because alfalfa can build soil carbon and supply nitrogen to subsequent crops, its overall climate impact may be more favorable when viewed within a full rotation

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rather than as a single crop. “Developing reliable models of soil carbon dynamics and greenhouse gas emissions across different alfalfa production systems will require additional long-term data and regional research,” Pittelkow said. A full copy of the report can be found at the National Alfalfa & Forage Alliance’s website. Visit alfalfa.org for more information on this and other Alfalfa Checkoff research projects. •

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BATTLE OF THE BALES: dry hay versus baleage

by Lisa Baxter, William Fleming, and Jennifer Tucker

ALED silage, or baleage, has gained popularity across the southeastern United States, especially in seasons with frequent rainfall events. Baleage is stored forage that is baled between 40% and 60% moisture, wrapped in plastic to create an oxygen-free environment, and allowed to ferment before feeding. It can be an efficient method for storing excess forage, but there are advantages and disadvantages compared to traditional dry hay production. Hence, the battle of the bales. Recognizing the trade-offs of both practices, the following is a summary of what producers must consider before implementing baleage production on their farm.

Round one: inputs Dry hay only requires standard forage harvesting equipment. These tools will vary by region but should generally include a mower, tedder, rake, and baler. Ideally, a mower with a conditioner will be used to speed the drying process. Flail, impeller, or tine type conditioners work best for fine-stemmed grasses like bermudagrass or ryegrass. Mowers with roller or crimper-type conditioners are preferred for thick-stemmed grasses like sorghums or millet and legumes like alfalfa. The benefit of using a mower conditioner and a tedder is synergistic, meaning that the reduction of drying time achieved when operating both implements exceeds that of each individual implement. This is especially

important in the humid Eastern states. Baleage production, on the other hand, requires equipment beyond what is considered standard for a forage operation. There are several bale wrappers available. An individual bale wrapper allows for single bales to be wrapped. Typically, a well-trained operator can only wrap approximately 20 bales per hour, but individually wrapped bales allow for easier feeding. An in-line wrapper allows for an entire row of bales to be wrapped with plastic. Operators can in-line wrap at least 40 bales per hour, but once the tube of baleage is opened, it must be fed at a rate of one bale per day. An integrated baler-wrapper simultaneously bales and wraps the bales in plastic. This is the most expensive option; however, it requires less labor than the other two. Since the bales are wrapped immediately, baleage must be moved using a bale squeeze to prevent puncturing the plastic.

Regardless of the wrapper chosen, the baler should be built to handle the additional weight of the baleage bale. You will often see these marketed as “silage balers.” These balers have modifications such as scrapers on the belts and rollers to prevent buildup of material, and they have heavy-duty bearings to help handle the greater bale weight. Some balers may have a chopping mechanism that can boost bale density and reduce particle size for ease in mixing rations. These balers also require tractors with more horsepower to operate and move the heavier bales. For reference, baleage bales typically weigh about 40% more than a comparably sized dry hay bale because of the extra moisture. Availability of skilled labor is a growing concern on many forage operations. One person can harvest hay on their own if needed, whereas two or more people are generally required for successful baleage production. Round one winner: Dry hay requires fewer equipment and labor inputs.

Round two: harvest flexibility Baleage allows for more harvest flexibility compared to dry hay. Depending on weather conditions, baleage can often be completed within 24 hours, whereas dry hay may require 72 hours or longer to reach the target moisture level. Factors impacting this dry down

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or wilting period include air and soil temperature, wind speed and direction, relative humidity, and sunlight. The warmer, windier, drier, and sunnier it is, the faster the drying process. But periods of frequent rains or cooler temperatures would certainly shift the advantage to baleage. Tedding is considered essential by many producers to speed the hay drying process. Tedding forage may cause significant leaf loss if the implement is not properly adjusted or if it is used on forage that is below 50% moisture or without

Dry hay (left) and baleage (right) both have risks and rewards.

dew. Furthermore, hay is raked at a much lower moisture level than baleage, potentially jeopardizing leaf retention. Baleage does not typically require tedding, and raking generally occurs at 10% to 15% above the target baling moisture level. Therefore, baleage can be raked at a much higher moisture level than dry hay. Raking and baling at a higher moisture level improves leaf retention, protecting more of the nutritive value in the forage, if managed correctly. Round two winner: Baleage provides more harvest flexibility for the producer than is offered with dry-hay

systems and may retain more forage nutritive value.

Round three: loss and risk Dry hay is more prone to harvest and storage losses when it is stored outside. Hay can lose more than 25% of its nutrients if stored improperly. Ideally, all hay should be stored under cover, such as in a barn. Although infrastructure is expensive, hay barns are a good investment on your farm. Otherwise, storage losses will continue to accumulate, amplifying the need for supplemental nutrition for livestock. These expenses can accrue over time to the point that you are paying for a hay barn you never built. If hay must be stored outside, place round bales in rows with the flat sides pushed tightly against each other. Leave at least 4 to 5 feet between the rows to allow air flow between bales and for vegetation control. Store bales on a well-drained site and elevate them off the soil surface to further minimize storage losses. Baleage can reduce storage losses when wrapped and maintained correctly. However, there is a potential risk of molds and/or botulism developing in the baleage if it is not harvested and handled appropriately. White mold is most common in baleage and can develop on the surface of bales, usually on the flat ends and around small pinhole damage to the plastic. These molds are typically harmless, and the animal will eat around them, but use caution if you see red, blue, or green molds. While mold color is not a definitive way to identify toxic organisms, the presence of colorful molds indicate poor fermentation or that oxygen has penetrated the bale. These bales should

not be fed to livestock, and you may need to test for mycotoxins depending on the number of impacted bales. Consult your county extension agent for more information on mycotoxin testing. Good harvest management can inhibit the growth of Clostridium botulinum bacteria and minimize the risk of botulism. Botulism risk can be kept to a minimum by baling between 40% to 60% moisture, using at least four layers of plastic, and preventing damage to plastic during the storage phase. Baleage that has undergone clostridial fermentation will often be more than 70% moisture, have more than 15% of total nitrogen (N) content as ammonia, have more than 1% butyric acid, and have more than 11% ash content from soil contamination. Round three winner: It’s a draw! Both harvest strategies have associated production and storage risks. Decide which risks are acceptable.

Overall winner Ultimately, there is not one clear winner for stored forage on a given farm. Producers must consider the differences in inputs, labor availability, forage needs, storage capacity, and transportation options before settling on which option — dry hay or baleage — is best •

LISA BAXTER The author is an extension forage specialist with the University of Georgia.

 The author wishes to acknowledge William Fleming, a graduate research assistant, and Jennifer Tucker, an extension beef specialist, both at the University of Georgia, for contributions to this article.

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DAIRY FEEDBUNK

by Mike Brouk

Water may drive the fed forage

ATER is a precious commodity, and the availability of irrigation water may determine the forage choices for dairy and beef operations located in areas with limited water resources. With the expansion of the dairy industry in the High Plains and declining water availability, forage choices are being impacted. Corn silage has long been the primary forage utilized in lactating dairy cow diets. It is palatable and provides the starch, digestible fiber, and indigestible fiber necessary for optimal rumen function, which results in high levels of milk production. However, it requires adequate water for normal growth. When considering the total water needed for a dairy operation, 90% is associated with the water necessary to grow the feedstuffs utilized in diets. When irrigation water becomes a limiting factor, producers need to consider other forage choices. This will result in rethinking forage production systems and diet formulations.

production when other feed ingredients were adjusted. Replacing 50% of the corn silage resulted in an 8% boost in energy-corrected milk production. While many of the older studies involved the total replacement of corn silage in a lactating dairy diet, this study suggests that a partial replacement of corn silage with brown midrib, male-sterile sorghum silage can improve energy-corrected milk production.

levels of starch, it is simply not fermented in the rumen due to protection provided by the intact seed coat. Researchers at Kansas State University and Texas A&M have developed a berry processing score to evaluate starch availability in sorghum silage. New berry processing technology has recently provided an answer for improved starch availability in sorghum silage. The DurraCut processor developed by Scherer Inc. has been shown to improve the starch availability of sorghum silage. A study at Texas A&M showed an increase in in-situ starch availability from 25.8% at seven days of ensiling to 65.9% after 90 days of ensiling. Starch availability in unprocessed samples did not improve with the longer ensiling time.

Other advantages

The good news is that there have been many changes to the genetics and harvest practices of sorghum silage. Sorghum generally requires about 30% less water than corn silage. The issue with replacing corn silage in lactating cow diets has been animal performance. While sorghum silage works well in heifer and dry cow diets, it has resulted in lower milk production when compared to corn silage for lactating dairy cows. Forage producers who are dependent on irrigation continue to strive for greater water-use efficiency. The influx of dairy cattle to the High Plains region has further heightened the discussion. Recent improvements in forage sorghum genetics may provide another choice for dairy producers and forage growers. Male-sterile sorghum does not produce seed; it contains lower amounts of starch and much higher amounts of water-soluble carbohydrates. A recent study at Texas A&M showed that replacing 25% of corn silage with brown midrib, male-sterile forage sorghum resulted in a 10% bump in energy-corrected milk

Mike Rankin

Not as thirsty

Sorghum may be a good choice to replace some corn silage if water is limiting.

Although total replacement of corn silage may not be desirable, partial replacement could represent an option for dairy producers and dairy nutritionists.

Processing problem A major issue with conventional forage sorghum has been starch availability. The sorghum berry is much smaller than a kernel of corn; therefore, it is difficult to process. Normal kernel processing rolls utilized for corn silage are not effective for processing sorghum berries. The result is a lower availability of starch in the rumen as compared to corn silage. This has resulted in lower levels of milk production when corn silage has been replaced with sorghum silage for lactating dairy cattle. While the sorghum silage contains high

Compared to corn, sorghum is better suited to withstand extended periods of drought. During drought conditions, sorghum is more likely to revive and produce in response to late growing season moisture. This is another advantage of sorghum where drought frequently occurs. In addition to a reduction in irrigation water needs, input costs for seed, fertilizer, and herbicides are generally lower than for corn silage. In many cases, the dry matter yield of the two crops will be similar, resulting in a lower cost per ton for the sorghum. If you’re looking for a way to reduce irrigation water usage for forage production, sorghum may provide an answer. Recent changes in sorghum genetics and harvesting equipment make it a more attractive alternative for partial replacement of corn silage in lactating dairy cow diets, but it will require some changes in silage management and the design of rations. •

MIKE BROUK The author is a professor and extension dairy specialist with Kansas State University.

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GRAZING

FOR THE FUN OF IT by Amber Friedrichsen, Former Hay & Forage Grower Editor

All photos: Amber Friedrichsen

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OME farm stories feature the individuals in charge of large-scale crop or livestock operations who call the shots and drive business growth. Other farm stories feature teams of family members and employees who manage multiple enterprises under a larger farm umbrella. This isn’t one of those stories.

Paul Bush is a hobby farmer from Greenwood, Arkansas. He spent some time visiting a relative’s farm as a kid growing up in Indiana, but agriculture didn’t extend to his branch of the family tree. As an adult, he got started in insurance, which has comprised the lion’s share of his professional career. However, for more than two decades, Bush has grazed livestock and stewarded backyard pastures as a way to

relieve stress, be active, and breathe some fresh air. His goals have never been to make grass-fed beef production a full-time gig — he simply enjoys farming part time. “I’m just out here having a little fun,” Bush said. That may be true, but he has come to realize that even small-scale grazing systems require careful management to optimize forage production. Not long into his insurance career, Bush

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got the itch to break away from the suburbs and move to a farm outside of Little Rock. “I was a complete city boy, but I wanted to get out in the country and be able to do things with my hands, bring the kids up with farm chores,” Bush said. “We sold a beautiful, 2,600-square-foot home on 5 acres and moved into a double-wide on 40 acres.” That open space allowed Bush’s vision for farm chores and manual labor to become a reality, with chickens, goats, and a few cows and calves to take care of on the homestead. When the Bush family moved from Little Rock to Greenwood several years later, he swore he wouldn’t raise cattle again. But the continued demand for freezer beef from friends and neighbors roped him back in.

Small for a reason Bush’s herd size has fluctuated over the years, but when he was introduced to regenerative agriculture and rotational grazing, he hit the reset button. Downsizing to just 14 cows was his solution to resting chronically overgrazed forages and creating some wiggle room to renovate pastures. “I’ve cut way back because my grass was so poor,” Bush said, hopeful to begin rebuilding his herd soon. “Now, with proper management, I will probably be able to have more cows with less inputs on the same amount of land.” Early on, Bush developed friendships with row-crop farmers, and without baling equipment of his own, he formed relationships with commercial haymakers in order to feed his cattle through the winter. As he began his regenerative journey, he was often met with skepticism. For example, when he broached the topic of The University of Arkansas’s 300 Days Grazing program, he was largely dismissed. “The spray-and-cut-hay guys said that’s just theoretical; it’s not practical,” Bush said. “It was always kind of in the back of my mind, but it didn’t have much support.” A few months later, Bush met a former county extension agent who expressed a similar interest in regenerative agriculture despite a decades-long career spent with the spray-and-cut hay guys. “He said I needed to go home and look up Gabe Brown,” Bush said, reaffirmed in his ideas. “I did, and it

Paul Bush is trying to take advantage of the growing market for naturally raised, direct-to-consumer beef. He doesn’t use chemical fertilizers or herbicides on his pastures, preferring a dense canopy of desirable plants to help choke out weeds. Pastures are routinely overseeded with multiple forage species that enhance stand density.

all resonated with me: cover crops, multiculture, rotational grazing. It just floored me.” Bush decided he would renovate his bermudagrass monoculture that spring. He seeded pastures to a 12-species forage mix — but it never established. Bad weather and poor growing conditions thwarted any potential for a viable stand. Nevertheless, Bush persevered and tried again the following year — this time, it was a success. Before grazing it, he let the forage grow to maturity to choke out weeds. “After the cows ate it, I had no more buttercup the following year. I had no more broomsedge, and woolly croton was way down,” Bush said. “All I did was plant grass, and it didn’t cost me anything because all the money I spent on seed, the cows ate.”

Good company Around this same time, Bush was approached by the Noble Research Institute to participate in a grazing survey. His candid responses about his newcomer status opened doors to classes, workshops, and trainings, which led to connections with grazing experts and educators. “Noble talks about limiting factors, and mine are time and labor,” Bush

said. “I just can’t move my cows as much as I’d like to, but I’m doing my best.” For example, his paddock size and grazing patterns often revolve around his work schedule. Although he would ideally like to move cattle to new grass every day, sometimes work trips and extended travel require him to give animals bigger parcels of land. He’s developed an eye to gauge grass growth and forage quality that assists in rotational grazing decisions. Even so, sufficient ground cover is his number-one priority for drought resistance. “While I’m no scientist, I like the idea of keeping a good cover on the soil in anticipation of no rain,” Bush said. “I probably leave half of the forage to protect the soil from heat and for water retention. I don’t see stress on my plants at all because I’ve always got a really good cover.” Bush routinely overseeds pastures with multiple forage species in an effort to reinforce stand density, but without his own planting equipment, he relies on his cattle to do the work of a seed drill. “A day or two before you move them, throw your seed out among the cows, and they will drill it in. Then, move your cows,” Bush explained. “I’m always

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throwing in seeds here or there: sorghum, turnips, clovers, radishes — everything.”

All for johnsongrass In addition to seeding everything, Bush grazes everything, including johnsongrass. Most graziers settle in one of two camps when it comes to johnsongrass: those who love it, and those who hate it. Bush is a self-proclaimed johnsongrass lover, especially as he has learned to manage it with strategic grazing. “I will shape my paddocks around the johnsongrass and literally chase it,” Bush said. “The cows go right to it.” Even though johnsongrass is a poster child for prussic acid poisoning under drought conditions, Bush regularly tests the forage and routinely receives clean results. He believes dense, continuous ground cover regulates surface temperatures and preserves enough soil moisture to mitigate heat and drought stress in plants. Bush is conscious of heat stress in his cattle, too. He recently introduced South Poll genetics into his mostly Hereford herd to take advantage of the former breed’s heat tolerance and its ability to marble well on grass. Bush said the average South Poll size and stature is also better suited for grazing. Ideally, steers are ready for market at roughly 1,000 pounds. While he still supplements his finishing herd with some grain the goal is to soon be grain free.

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Transparency is key Bush doesn’t use chemical fertilizers or herbicides in his pastures, but his operation isn’t 100% input free like some regenerative philosophy suggests. For instance, he diligently treats sick cattle. With a herd of his size, one sick animal represents a large percentage of the total calf crop. “If you don’t treat, you won’t have any animals,” Bush said. “Not all chemicals are bad, but unnecessary or improperly used chemicals are what I’m trying to get away from.” Bush knows that transparency builds trust among his customers and encourages repeat business. The growing desire of consumers to know where their food comes from is a plus for small-scale direct beef marketers like himself. “I think there is a market for more naturally raised, directto-consumer beef, and I can kind of pay for my hobby by utilizing that,” Bush said. “I have several families that buy a lot of their meat from me. I could make more money if I sold them at the cattle barn today with prices where they are, but I don’t want to do that. I have customers who depend on it.” Bush depends on his cattle, too, but from more of a holistic perspective. “I deal with emails and cell phones all day, so going out and visiting with the cows is pleasant,” he affirmed. Being part of a network of like-minded graziers through the Noble Research Institute and constantly learning about the interconnectedness of forage, livestock, and soil keeps life interesting, too. What all started as a way to unwind after the workday has become a labor of love and a source of joy for Bush. Next on his docket is to develop a “f lerd,” combining sheep with cattle in the same pasture. Just as multiple forage species create a synergistic growing environment, Bush believes the complementary grazing behaviors of sheep and cattle will offer greater benefits to the overall system. “I’m a Mother Earth kind of person — it’s all about the grass,” Bush said. “I think grass needs cows as much as cows — and sheep — need grass.” •

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QUALITY COACH

by John Goeser

Stressed corn lowers silage quality

ITH nearly 20 years of practice as a nutritionist, I continue to learn from bright and experienced minds around me. A couple forward-thinking dairy and crop managers and I were explaining different avenues of high-quality corn silage production during a breakout session. The learning opportunity came into view as we discussed stressed corn plants. In this case study, a producer on the panel described how corn plants responded to straight-line winds by growing additional brace roots after being blown over. In fact, he described how the plants grew four additional sets of brace roots, and he’d never seen anything like it before. This was the first I’d learned about corn plants responding this way, but the stress-induced plant morphology shift seemed logical.

Multiple stressors While the brace roots were needed for corn plant survival, this stress response also corresponded to greater lignification, and fiber digestibility suffered notably relative to corn from

other fields that didn’t experience straight-line winds. Following strong winds, corn will either blow over and gooseneck back up or snap off and die. Goosenecked corn might respond as described here; however, green-snapped corn will not come back and needs to be salvaged as forage if possible. Beyond wind, there are numerous other stressors that can alter corn plant growth and development. Having learned from the brace roots case study, let’s build on this producer’s experience by discussing several other stressors and possible outcomes. Hopefully, it will give you some ideas to aid your in-season management decisions. Drought. Drought stress is relatively well understood to negatively impact yield but positively impact fiber digestibility. While starch levels may be depressed, the feed value of drought-stressed corn silage tends to be better than expected due to the severe reduction in lignin and improved intake potential. Drought stress that occurs earlier in the season, tends to equate to this positive fiber digestibility response. Late-season drought may negatively

affect grain fill, but doesn’t tend to improve fiber digestibility. Wet seasons. Assuming germination has been successful, excessive rain early in the season can cause corn plants to develop shallow root systems. This unique morphology can relate to less sturdy corn and standability issues but has also been correlated to substandard fiber quality. The physiological mechanism behind this response is not clearly understood; however, the phenomena may be related to greater lignification in the plant due to shallower roots or some other internal plant water transport changes. Wetter seasons also tend to be challenging for soil fertility, with nitrogen (N) being mobile and moving with water down in the soil or away from the root zone. Couple N movement with shallower roots, and cornfields are more likely to be short of N during wetter seasons, creating challenges for grain yield and corn plant maturation. Harvest windows for silage can shorten if corn plants run out of nutrients and lose moisture rapidly relative to healthy stands.

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Flooding. Classified differently from a wet season, flooding events can injure corn by disrupting gas exchange in the soil. Depending on the severity of the flood, soil type, and drainage potential, flooding can harm corn and lead to various negative outcomes. One concern is that standing corn becomes coated with soil and ash. When corn is harvested for silage, this situation leads to a challenging fermentation and often higher yeast and mold or bacterial counts. Flooded corn should be kept separate from better corn, if possible, and managed intensively for optimal fermentation. Consult with your agronomist in these situations to determine a game plan. Insect damage. Insects cause physical damage to corn plants, which often equates to more necrotic tissue and lignification in response, contributing to suboptimal fiber digestibility. The insect-damaged plants are also more susceptible to fungal and bacterial diseases, and the resulting silage can be a feed hygiene risk. Pest-damaged corn also needs to be managed intensively for optimal fermentation to keep mold and yeast at bay during ensiling and feed out. Disease. This section could be the subject of its own column as there are a wide variety of plant diseases that will affect corn. The impacts on yield and quality are wide ranging, with some diseases relating to feed hygiene concerns and others relating to yield and fiber quality losses not caused by mycotoxins. In general, diseased corn will have less fiber digestibility due to a higher proportion of dead and necrotic tissue and a shortened harvest window. Later in the season, diseased corn moisture often drops rapidly relative to healthy corn moisture, creating a shorter harvest window and quality issues. The corn plant’s goal is to reproduce and create seed for next year. Different stressors during the season induce different responses, but these responses are often intended to keep the plant alive and bear seed. Think about the stressors and responses discussed here as we head into the growing season to optimize your in-season management. • JOHN GOESER The author is a dairy nutrition and management consultant with Progressive Dairy Solutions Inc., and an adjunct professor at the University of Wisconsin-Madison.

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FORAGE IQ Kentucky Spring Fencing School April 28 –Maysville; April 30 – Elkton Details: forages.mgcafe.uky.edu Appalachian Grazing Conf. April 30, Wardensville, WV May 1, Lewisburg, WV May 2, Point Pleasant, WV Details: bit.ly/HFG-AGC Virginia Basic Grazing School May 12 and 13, Madison, Va. Details: vaforages.org Four-State Dairy Nutrition Conference June 3 and 4, La Crosse, Wis. Details: fourstatedairy.org Silage for Beef Cattle Conference June 18, Ithaca, Neb. Details: bit.ly/HFG-SfBC Wisconsin Farm Technology Days July 14 to 16, Stratford, Wis. Details: wifarmtechdays.org Heart of America Grazing Conference July 15 and 16, Effingham, Ill. Details: bit.ly/HFG-HAGC Farm Progress Show September 1 to 3, Boone, Iowa Details: farmprogressshow.com Husker Harvest Days Sept. 15 to 17, Grand Island, Neb. Details: huskerharvestdays.com National Hay Assn. Convention September 16 to 19, Pasco, Wash. Details: nationalhay.org Intermediate Grazing School September 23 and 24, Princeton, Ky. Details: forages.mgcafe.uky.edu World Dairy Expo World Forage Analysis Superbowl Sept. 30 to Oct. 3, Madison, Wis. Corn silage entries due July 9 Hay crop entries due Aug. 20 Details: bit.ly/HFG-WFAS

HAY MARKET UPDATE

It’s a new season As most fields are headed toward their initial harvest, hope springs eternal for a better hay year than the previous one. The early projection from USDA is for slightly more harvested hay acres this year compared to the last, but it is too early to put much credence in any projected number at this point. For the last several months, hay prices have held a stagnant pattern, though some regions are reporting slightly higher new crop offers than a year ago. The prices below are primarily from USDA hay market reports as of mid-April. Prices are FOB barn/stack unless otherwise noted. •

For weekly updated hay prices, go to “USDA Hay Prices” at hayandforage.com Supreme-quality alfalfa Arizona (central)-ssb California (southeast) Iowa (Rock Valley) Kansas (northwest) Kansas (southwest) Missouri Oklahoma (central) Oklahoma (northwest)-lrb Oregon (Wasco County)-ssb Oregon (Lake County)-ssb Texas (Panhandle) Utah (central) Utah (southern) Washington Premium-quality alfalfa Arizona-ssb Arizona (southeast)-ssb California (central SJV) California (north SJV) California (southeast) Colorado (southeast) Iowa Iowa (Rock Valley)-lrb Kansas (northeast) Kansas (northwest) Minnesota (Sauk Centre) Missouri Oklahoma (northeast)-lrb Oklahoma (northwest) Oregon (Klamath Basin) Pennsylvania (southeastern) South Dakota Utah (central) Washington-ssb Wisconsin (Lancaster) Wyoming (western)-ssb Good-quality alfalfa Arizona California (north SJV) California (southeast) Colorado (southeast) Idaho (southern) Iowa (Rock Valley)-lrb Kansas (southeast)-lrb Kansas (southwest) Minnesota (Pipestone)-lrb Missouri-lrb Montana Nebraska (eastern)-lrb Nebraska (Platte Valley)-lrb Oklahoma (northeast)-lrb Oklahoma (northwest) Oregon (eastern)

Price $/ton 310 205-220 180 250 200 250-300 180-200 170 280 250 255-265 (d) 200-210 240-250 200 (d) Price $/ton 220 220 261 215-225 185-195 225 220 150-153 210-225 185 (d) 175 175-225 205 (d) 160 170 320-350 170 220 255 210-215 240 Price $/ton 195-210 150 160-180 125-180 (d) 165 (d) 125-140 160 125-130 115-140 150-175 175-180 90-95 105-110 150 140 150-170

Oregon (Klamath Basin) Oregon (Lake County) Pennsylvania (southeastern)-ssb South Dakota (Corsica)-lrb Texas (Panhandle) Washington Wisconsin (Lancaster)-lrb Fair-quality alfalfa Colorado (southeast) Idaho (southeast) Iowa (Rock Valley)-lrb Kansas (northwest) Kansas (south central) Minnesota (Pipestone)-lrb Minnesota (Sauk Centre) Missouri-lrb Montana Oklahoma (northwest) Oregon (Klamath Basin) Pennsylvania (southeastern) South Dakota (Corsica)-lrb Texas (Panhandle) Washington Bermudagrass hay Alabama-Prem lrb Alabama-Good lrb California (southeast) Texas (southern)-Fair lrb Bromegrass hay Kansas (northeast)-Prem ssb Kansas (southeast)-Prem ssb Kansas (south central)- Good lrb South Dakota (Corsica)-Good lrb Orchardgrass hay Oregon (Wasco County)-Prem ssb Pennsylvania (southeastern)-Prem Pennsylvania (southeastern)-Good Pennsylvania (southeastern)-Fair Prairie/meadow grass hay Kansas (southeast)-Prem ssb Kansas (north central)-Fair Nebraska (central)-Prem lrb Oklahoma (northeast)-lrb Texas (southern)-Fair lrb Timothy hay Pennsylvania (southeastern)-Prem Pennsylvania (southeastern)-Good Washington-Prem ssb Wheat straw Iowa Iowa-ssb Kansas (south central) Minnesota (Sauk Centre)-lrb Pennsylvania (southeastern)

150 235-240 (o) 245-265 148-190 215-220 (d) 160-170 105 Price $/ton 150 150 115-123 115 (d) 80-105 (d) 65-105 130-140 125-150 140-160 130-140 100 170 113-135 200 (d) 148-160 Price $/ton 150-200 100-120 200 75 Price $/ton 150 (d) 200 70-80 175 Price $/ton 280 325-390 205-210 110-170 Price $/ton 145-195 100 (d) 90 50 75-80 Price $/ton 390 210-240 300 Price $/ton 185 210 75-80 73-110 130-230

Abbreviations: d=delivered, lrb=large round bales, ssb=small square bales, o=organic

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Photo Credit: Dusty Boots Photography

Forage growers across the country are invited to participate in the 2026 World Forage Analysis Superbowl. Award-winning samples will be displayed during Trade Show hours in the Trade Center at World Dairy Expo in Madison, Wisconsin, September 29 - October 2. Winners will be announced during the Forage Superbowl Reception on Wednesday, September 30. Contest rules and entry forms are available at foragesuperbowl.org, by calling Dairyland Laboratories at (920) 336-4521 or by contacting the sponsors listed below.

PUT YOUR FORAGES TO THE TEST

Entries Due

Harvest Year