Autopia Upwards

AUTOPIA UPWARDS -The Influence of Autonomous Transportation on High-Rise Design

by

Bong Hong Chun

Dissertation 1 Written Draft: Introduction and Literature Review

Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the degree of Master of Architecture, Semester 3 School of Architecture, Building & Design Taylor‘s University

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CONTENT CONTENT ............................................................................................................ 2 ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................... 4 CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 5 1.1

Background study .................................................................................... 5

1.1.1 1.2

Urban Development; Transportation and Infrastructure .................... 5

Definition of High-Rise Building ............................................................... 6

1.2.1

What Is a High-Rise Building? ........................................................... 6

1.2.2

Evolution of Accessibility in High-rise building ................................... 7

1.3

The Fourth Industrial Revolution .............................................................. 8

1.3.1 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7 1.8 1.9

Definition of Autonomous Vehicles .................................................. 10

Problem Statement ................................................................................ 10 Research Questions .............................................................................. 12 Aims and Objectives .............................................................................. 12 Research Methodology and Methods .................................................... 12 Significant of Study ................................................................................ 14 Limitation and Delimitation ..................................................................... 14

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW .............................................................. 15 2.1 2.2

Why Tall Buildings? ............................................................................... 15 Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings ............................................. 16

2.2.1

First Generation .............................................................................. 16

2.2.2

Second Generation ......................................................................... 16

2.2.3

Third Generation ............................................................................. 17

2.3

Types of High-Rise Buildings ................................................................. 18

2.3.1 2.4

Summary ......................................................................................... 19

Why Autonomous Vehicles? .................................................................. 20

2.4.1

Levels of Automation ....................................................................... 20

2.4.2

Advantages and disadvantages of AVs ........................................... 21

2.5

How AVs will Impact our Future Urban Landscape ................................ 24

2.5.1 2.6

Summary ......................................................................................... 27

Significant Study Correlate with AVs and Urban Landscape ................. 27

2.6.1

Broadacre City -1950s..................................................................... 27 2

2.6.2 3

Droneport - 2015 ............................................................................. 28

CHAPTER 3 – CONCEPTUAL CASE STUDIES ......................................... 30 3.1 3.2

Comparative Methods ............................................................................ 30 Conceptual Studies Incorporate with High-rise Buildings and AVs ........ 30

3.2.1

Ville Contemporaine -1922 .............................................................. 30

3.2.2

‗The Moon Doom‘ -1928 .................................................................. 33

3.2.3

The City of London, Liverpool Street Station -1945 ......................... 36

3.2.4

Walking City .................................................................................... 39

3.2.5

The Hive: Drone Skyscrapers ......................................................... 42

3.3

Matrix Data Analysis Results ................................................................. 44

CHAPTER 4 – TRANSLATION OF ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS .................. 45 4.1 4.2

Themes Generated in Findings .............................................................. 45 Design Elements of Future High-rise Building ....................................... 46

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION............................................................................ 46 REFERENCES ................................................................................................... 46

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ABSTRACT Today, urbanization and mass movement of people from rural to urban area have become a global phenomenon across the spectrum of developed and developing country. According to United Nation report, 54% of the world‘s population lives in urban areas, a proportion that is expected to increase to 66 per cent by 2050. Mega cities with the population over 10 million people are growing rapidly and changing the way we design and live in a city. Primarily, larger infrastructure and new set transportation methods are created to address the unique issues resulting from the unprecedented rate and scale of urbanization. Over the centuries, technology advancement of transportation methods path the way we access our city; the canal age gave way to the railway age, followed by the century of vehicles and planes. The advancement of technology allows high-rise buildings to be built at an exceptional scale in an urban context. Within that, our city grew taller and larger in scale to accommodate the growth in the city with the limited land available. Hence, with the increase of population, accessibility towards the urban centre becomes more complex and challenging for future designer with limited land that change the way we visual our city and society. Thus, people began to rethink on the new possibility of the next generation transportation in a high density area and ways to access the building. Therefore, finding out and position of the next generation architecture tendency has become a research gap in this paper. Can we predict the next disruptive technology that will change the form, function, accessibility and layout typology in a high-rise building in an urban environment? Moreover it raises another question; to what extent can architecture elements in a high-rise building evolve towards the projection of the next disruptive transportation technology? The aim is to explore forward-thinking design solution that analysis different conceptual perspective, and creates conducive architecture elements that respond towards the next generation disruptive transportation technology. This research also scrutinizes the different conceptual perspective as a tool to assemble and project the new architecture elements.

In this regard, a comparative approach is used to study six main conceptual perspectives of next generation accessibility, form, function and circulation in high-rise building. The findings will expand the understanding and providing predictive framework on designing high-rise building.

Keywords: Next generation architecture elements, high-rise building, technology revolution, technological advancement, designer behaviour, science, environment

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CHAPTER 1 – INTRODUCTION 1.1

Background study

1.1.1 Urban Development; Transportation and Infrastructure Over the past several decades, the world population have increased in a substantial rate whereby the mobility of urban populations within cities, suburb and rural area becomes a challenge in commuting back and forth. It is inevitable that urbanisation is evolving and transportation plays an important role in the growth of urban area. Transportation is as old as urban settlements. It played an earlier indispensable role in the location and growth of urban settlements. Goods were transported to cities developed at good land and water connections from nearby rural areas by way of land transportation and from further areas by way of waterways (Pederson, 1980). The emergence and the rapid growth of cities have both been reflected in an enhanced movement system for goods and people.

The twentieth century has witnessed the evolution of road and truck transportation to accommodate rapid economic growth and changes in locational advantages. This eased the locational constraints of many urban activities, especially manufacturing (Webster, 1986). The growth of major cities and their activities' distribution reflect these rapid changes in goods movement and urban development.

Similarly, as urban areas began to grow, developments of mechanized transportation have increased the radius of people movement and, hence, city size. The automobile and its related facilities have facilitated changes in the structure and patterns of urban development. It increased the relative accessibility of different city activities that had been less accessible by other transportation technologies. These changes led to massive changes in the structure and patterns of urban development. Unprecedented urban sprawl, infill developments, and ribbon developments were made possible by the automobile revolution (Musaad, 1993) Following the breakthroughs, infrastructures have changed concurrently with the improvement of transportation technology. Whereby, the cities today can accommodate millions of people in a same footprint of land comparing a century ago. The infrastructure of high-rise building and different transportation methods transformed the urban structure and movement patterns. This transformation was fueled by increases in real personal income, urban population increases, changes in household composition, and declines in real transportation costs (Meyer and Gomez-Ibanez, 1981).

Throughout subsequent history there have been tall structures like the pyramids, castle, cathedrals and towers but not until the end of 19th century that the skyscrapers or highrise was born. ―Historically, the word tower usually designated the church and the town hall until the birth of skyscrapers. The main evolutionary change has been in function, from a Campanile watchtower of the Renaissance or minaret of Islamic architecture to 5

the office building‖ (Beedle LS, 2007). The major developments led to the skyscrapers that dominate major city skylines throughout the modern world are the safety of elevator and steel frame (To be elaborated further in page 14) In summary, the relationship between urban development to transportation and infrastructure is still debatable but inevitability, high-rise buildings are growing rapidly in urban development due to the rise in population. The next sections describe the definition and explore the evolution of accessibility correlating to vertical transportation of high-rise building.

1.2

Definition of High-Rise Building

The purpose of this section is to improve the understanding of high-rise building. This section focused on the types of the high-rise building which gives a general knowledge in the area.

1.2.1 What Is a High-Rise Building?

A building is an enclosed structure that has walls, floors, a roof, and usually windows. ―A ‗tall building‘ is a multi-story structure in which most occupants depend on elevators [lifts] to reach their destinations. The most prominent tall buildings are called ‗high-rise buildings‘ in most countries and ‗tower blocks‘ in Britain and some European countries.

The terms do not have internationally agreed definitions (Challinger D, 2008) However, a high-rise building can be defined as follows: 

―Any structure where the height can have a serious impact on evacuation ” ( The International Conference on Fire Safety in High-Rise Buildings) (Challinger D, 2008)



―For most purposes, the cut-off point for high-rise buildings is around seven stories. Sometimes, seven stories or higher define a high-rise, and sometimes the definition is more than seven stories. Sometimes, the definition is stated in terms of linear height (feet or meters) rather than stories (Hall Jr JR, 2005: 2)



―Generally, a high-rise structure is considered to be one that extends higher than the maximum reach of available fire-fighting equipment. In absolute numbers, this has been set variously between 75 feet (23 meters) and 100 feet (30 meters), (Knoke ME, 2006) or about seven to ten stories (depending on the slab-to-slab distance between floors).

The exact height above which a particular building is deemed a high-rise is specified by fire and building codes for the country, region, state, or city where the building is located.

When the building exceeds the specified height, then fire, an ever-present danger in such facilities, must be fought by fire personnel from inside the building rather than from outside using fire hoses and ladders.

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For practicality and convenience such a multi-level or multi-story structure uses elevators as a vertical transportation system and, in addition, some utilize escalators to move people between lower floors.

1.2.2 Evolution of Accessibility in High-rise building Technological Timeline Context Staircase Since the early age of civilization, the understandings of stairs or steps allow the people to access to higher attitude from various level points. Our accentors explored high terrain and cave to seek safer shelter from the nature. Although the origin of staircase is uncertain, but Swiss architect named Werner Bösendörfer first attempts to standardize staircase guidelines in 1948 based on the book of ―Staircases‖ written by James W.P. Although the architect does not deserve all the credit: stairs evolved right along with society while having some different variation (James W.P, Michael T. 2014). Werner staircase standardization allow staircase to be built in common places like residential and offices. With the first building that staircase connected the ground and first floor; it opened up new possibility for designer to explore buildings in different levels.

Elevator With the advancement of technology, buildings started to tower from the ground and staircase becomes a tiring journey for occupant to access the highest floor of a building.

Hence, the very first elevator was built for his majesty King Louis XV to carry him to his mistress from first to second floor at 1743. However, elevator evolution took years to mature and become practical and safe where steam power and braking system is designed respectively. Elisha Graves Otis is the inventor of the safety device in elevator in 1850s where he dramatized his invention on the floor of the Crystal Palace Exposition in New York (Bellis, M. 2017). Hence, people become more optimistic with the idea being lifted up in a multi-level building. In the present day, elevator technology has become more accessible and convenient for all users. Whereby, elevator is safer, more efficient and flexible in terms of accessibility while following the design code requirements.

Helipad At the early 20th century, high-rise started to emerge with the invention of steel structure where the scales become larger and larger. The accessibility of a building for high-rise is only in the ground floor. Whereby, the romantic illusion of great architect like William F. Lamb designed the Empire State Building (1931) with a blimps dock for airships at the roof top level. (Pearman 2004: 28) However, airship was a disastrous concepts which the idea of roof top access only possible until the 1963 with the advancement of helicopter technology. In 1963, the first helipad was built on top of PANAM building by Walter Gropius. Whereby the architect designed the building with the idea of roof access and 23 elevators was built to allow smooth circulation in the building (Gary, C. 2001).

These pattern of accessibility in ground and roof changes the layout of the building design. Therefore it a gap through understanding of different accessibility in building 7

causes changes of layout, form and function. It is important to analysis the issues and solve the urban environment of high-rise building accessibility. Whereby, the density population increases in urban city and new form of transportation method is required to access a building.

In summary, the evolution between the staircase, elevator, escalator and helipad shows the important vertical transportation in a high-rise building. The next section attempts to identify the next generation vertical transportation methods and examine the possibility of new way transport method with the study of the industrial revolution.

Figure 1.1: Evolution of Accessibility in High-rise Building (source: Author,2017)

1.3

The Fourth Industrial Revolution

Historical Context The word ―revolution‖ indicates the abrupt and radical change through significant event.

The abruptness of these changes takes years to unfold where historical event is used in this context as reference.

The first industrial revolution happened around 1760 to 1840 where it is triggered by the construction of railroads and the steam engine. The second industrial revolution happened around late 19th century and into the early 20th century where the invention of electricity by Thomas Edison in which fosters the idea of mass production and assembly line. The third industrial revolution began in the 1960s where the birth of computer age or digital revolution because it was catalyzed by manufacturing of semi-conductors.

Hence, it evolved to the idea of mainframe computing (1960s) to personal computer (1970s and 80s) and finally the internet (1990s) (Klaus 2016: 7).

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Based on the book of ―The Fourth Industrial Revolution‖, Klaus believe that we are the beginning of the new revolution where it builds on the digital revolution or programming.

Artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning was once a sci-fiction idea in the 1990s in which becoming reality in the 21st century. Klaus argument is based on the World Economic Forum (WEF), entitled Deep Shift, Technology Tipping Points and Societal Impact which justify the data using survey methods from selected 800 executives based on their expertise (WEF 2015). In Germany, a term called ―Industry 4.0‖ which discussed at the Hannover Fair in 2011 where the ideology of having ―smart factories‖ that creates a virtual and physical system of manufacturing goods globally. This enables the customization of products that path the new way to operate our traditional factories.

Although the Fourth Industry Revolution scopes coverage are wide which fusion with current physical, digital and biological domains. For example, in our present day, smartphone and watches allow us to monitor our health and daily needed just a touch on the screen. These products are made possible in this evolution where it increase our efficiency of our personal lives as consumers. From buying products online, making payment, ordering rides, watching movies and listening to music changes all traditional industry which can done remotely (Klaus 2016: 14).

Projection of Technology The focuses of projected technologies from the revolution that affect architecturally are predominantly in the new transportation methods of autonomous vehicles. Based on the WEF driverless cars and drone that able to transport human autonomously in the future are becoming reality in the present day. In the forum, by 2025, around 79% of the respondents agreeing that 10% of all cars on US roads will be driverless. Car Company like Tesla already started the path of electric vehicles that could autonomously pilot passenger from Los Angeles to New York (Heisler, Y 2017).

Moreover, drones also path a new way of transportation methods in our daily life.

Although drone technology still in the infancy stage whereby air traffic regulation are still under debate by the Aerospace Industries Association (AIA). This scenario does not stop the experimental exploration on the capable of drone technology. For example, Amazon had successfully delivered package (Prime Air) from warehouse to house whereby it can done remotely using the AI controlled system (Amazon 2015).

Furthermore, drone taxi whereby the transportation of human using drones are been tested rapidly in Dubai. Dubai has big ambitions to become a smart city, in which drones and robots centralized to its plans by the Crown Prince Sheikh Hamadan bun Mohammed. His ambition is to have self-driving vehicles of 25% on road and successful drone taxi by 2030 (Wakefield, J. 2017). Autonomous vehicles can solve our current urban environment problem like congestion of traffic in a high density area. The purpose of this paper explore the ideology of this technology that can solve the city issues and how it can impact architecturally; form, function, accessibility and circulation in a highrise building.

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1.3.1 Definition of Autonomous Vehicles From the Ancient Greek, autonomous means auto-"self" and nomos-"law". The word autonomy represents the one who gives oneself their own law, that means, an entity capable of making an informed, un-coerced decision. On the other hand, a vehicle (from the Latin vehiculum) is a device qualified to transport people or cargo, over land or in space.

One should not confuse being autonomous with being intelligent. However, when comes to vehicles, regarding the complex interactions of such systems and their environment, an autonomous vehicle is commonly considered an intelligent vehicle.

Looking from a today‘s perspective, there are already some autonomy features present in production vehicles, such as ABS or ESC (Anti-lock breaking system & Electronic Stability Control), and there are some other in development as Automated Parking or Vehicle Platooning. However, despite these methods are considered to be driver assistance components as well, the ultimate effort is the deployment of such a vehicle as actually being capable to perform a full point-to-point journey without human intervention, maintaining rather complex aspects in consideration such as security, efficiency and scalability, and respecting the time and space constraints human travellers are used to.

1.4

Problem Statement

As referred from the abstract, the rising in population and growth in density of cities have changed the landscape of urban city whereby the need of high-rise buildings is increasing substantially. With limited land available, road transportation method is limited by its growth. Hence, new transportation methods are needed to provide alternative transport method in a city. Advancement of technologies allows us to integrate different system of transport link from trains, LRT, MRT and even helicopter to the city centre.

Today, transportation hub is common in major city whereby it is important to interlink between different locations to reduce the dependency of personal vehicles.

From the background study, technology revolution disrupted the way we commute and design our city. The invention of staircase, elevator and helipad shows the disruptive changes in the building typology and it leave a gap of the upcoming technology towards the future. Therefore, it is important to study the upcoming disruptive technology of autonomous vehicles that potentially changes the way we design our building especially on the accessibility in a high-rise building. Hence it raise a question that how destructive technology will change the form, function, accessibility and layout typology in a high-rise building in an urban environment with the projection of autonomous vehicles? What other architectural concepts underpinning the scenario in a high-rise or urban environment? How different conceptual studies influence the scenario of autonomous vehicles in the future

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Definition of Terms The following definitions are used in this study: High-rise: A building ―that extends higher than the maximum reach of available fire fighting equipment. In absolute numbers, this has been set variously between 75 feet (23 meters) and 100 feet (30 meters),‖ 70 or about 7 to 10 stories (depending on the slab to - slab distance between floors). The exact height above which a particular building is deemed a high - rise is specified by the fire and building codes in the area in which the building is located.

Skyscraper: A very tall building consisting of many floors. ―Today the word is rarely used to describe a building of fewer than fifty stories.‖ (Sonder B. 1999) Elevator: A means of vertical transportation in a building. Two main types of elevators are used in high - rise buildings: traction and hydraulic. An elevator is also known as a lift.

Escalator: ―An escalator is just a simple variation on the conveyer belt. A pair of rotating chain loops pulls a series of stairs in a constant cycle, moving a lot of people short distance at a good speed.‖ (Harris T. 2008) Helipad: A take-off and landing area for helicopters, usually without commercial facilities whereby in this study it only refers to helipad on a top of high-rise building.

Autonomy: Independence or freedom, as of the will or one's actions Autonomous Vehicles (AVs): Having autonomy of vehicles (Cars & Drones in this study) navigated and maneuverer by a computer without a need for human control or intervention under a range of driving situations and conditions Car: A road vehicle with an engine, four wheels, and seats for a small number of people which transport occupant from a destination to next.

Drones (Unmanned aerial vehicle, UAV): A drone, in a technological context, is an unmanned aircraft. Drones are more formally known as unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) or unmanned aircraft systems (UASes). Essentially, a drone is a flying robot. The aircrafts may be remotely controlled or can fly autonomously through software-controlled flight plans in their embedded systems working in conjunction with onboard sensors and GPS.

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1.5

Research Questions

Main Research Question 1. How disruptive technology of AVs will affect the form, function, accessibility and typology of high-rise building in an urban environment?

Supportive Research Questions 2. How will AVs affect architectural concepts relating to high-rise building in the future?

1.6

Aims and Objectives

The main intention of this research is to establish architecture concepts that will change form, function, accessibility and typology in high-rise building due to the appearance of AVs. This paper gives a rationalism idea that draws from the conclusion different concepts studies that studied carefully using comparative method.

The aim is underpinned by the following objectives; 1. Produce a database of various concepts and approaches that reflect the projection of autonomous vehicles.

2. To synthesis the concepts and approaches using comparative method in architecture elements.

1.7

Research Methodology and Methods

This research would review historical evolution of high-rise focusing on the accessibility in a building. Therefore, it is important to identify the studies of future architectural conceptual. Hence the methodology in this research is adopted a qualitative approach with combination of literature reviews and case studies.

With the problem statement of no future studies about new transportation method that affect high-rise building, literature review of studies are required to study the architecture elements. The literature review is made up of a list of comprehensively selected theoretical writings in the form of books, published articles, reports, and academic papers. The literature reviews covers the different approaches and elements towards new accessibility in high-rise building such as form, function, circulation, accessibility and layout typology.

To reinforce the notion of the literature review, case studies of five conceptual literatures using comparative method that further breakdown in details; plan, openings, walls, roof, scale, columns etc. This research also compares and contrasts the different approach

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and synthesis the pattern that suits best towards future typology of high-rise building with the projection of autonomous vehicles.

Research Structure

Figure 1.2: Organization chart (Author, 2017) 13

1.8

Significant of Study

This research intends analysis the future high-rise building with the projection of autonomous vehicles. The discoveries of the research expand the understanding of architecture elements that can affect the way the future architect design. It gives another point of variables in terms of design solution and unforeseen cost to include all the parties in the initial planning stages without compromising the safety, security, privacy and accessibility.

1.9

Limitation and Delimitation

The research fundamentally faces difficulties with limited resources about the proper precedent studies. However, conceptual proposal give us some guidelines to further understand projection of aerial transportation in designing a building that based on the autonomous vehicles projection.

As the future architectural concepts give only a broad idea on the vision having aerial transportation, further analysis and synthesis of data are required to draw pattern in the conceptual proposal. The research also fixes some delimitation to form a feasibility study that possibly to complete in the given period. For example; form, function, circulation, accessibility, layout typology and etc can be studied to reflect the research intention to design high-rise building with the projection of autonomous vehicles.

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2

CHAPTER 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW

This chapter present a conceptual perspective on the relationship between high-rise building and autonomous transportation technology in urban environment. The first section provides the reason why high-rise typology is choose Historical and types of high-rise is given special attention to identify the future typology of the study. The second section provides the understanding of autonomous vehicles in urban context which discuss the impact of the technology towards the future city. The third section explores the significance study correlated to high-rise and autonomous vehicles in urban context. Lastly, a concluding remark are analyse from the literature review. Then, second methodology of case study is needed to study the relationship of autonomous vehicles and high-rise is elaborated in the next chapter.

2.1

Why Tall Buildings?

Leaving aside the belief that ―mankind‘s aspiration to reach the sky, the ‗Tower of Babel Complex,‘ drives us to erect higher and higher buildings, (Salvadori M, 1980:2) there are many other reasons why tall buildings are given emphasis in modern urban architecture.

According to The Skyscraper and the City, two reasons are paramount: First, the exploding population, largely urban, creates an increasing demand for tall buildings. The ever increasing population and growing economies in major cities of the world mean increasing urbanization globally and the continuing rise in population density in urban areas. Arable land areas are constantly being eaten away by urban spreading through suburban developments. The tall building can accommodate many more people on a smaller land than would be the case with low-rise building on the same land. A tall building is in effect a vertical transformation of horizontal expansion.

Second, it is generally [acknowledged] that there has been evident neglect of the human factors in urban design at the expense of liveability and quality of life. The outward expansion of cities into the suburbs has resulted in increased travel time and traffic gridlock. The prospect of traveling for a long time, to and from work, is detrimental to social well-being of the commuter and results in losses of fuel and productivity. Clustering of buildings in the form of tall buildings in densely built-up areas is the opportunity for creating open spaces like playgrounds, plazas, parks, and other community spaces by freeing up space at the ground level. Besides the impact on the city skyline, tall buildings thus influence the city fabric at the level where they meet the ground. The improvement of the ―public realm‖ has become a necessity exerted by planning authorities in major cities (Beedle LS. 2007:13 &14)

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2.2

Three Generations of High-Rise Buildings

Since the first appearance of high-rise buildings, there has been a transformation in their design and construction. This has culminated in glass, steel, and concrete structures in the international and postmodernist styles of architecture prevalent today. The following information, adapted largely from High Rise/Fire and Life Safety (John T. 1977:145,146) by the late John T. O‘Hagan, former fire commissioner and chief of the New York City Fire Department, describes three generations of high-rise buildings in the United States since their inception.

2.2.1 First Generation The exterior walls of these buildings consisted of stone or brick, although sometimes cast iron was added for decorative purposes. The columns were constructed of cast iron, often unprotected; steel and wrought iron was used for the beams; and the floors were made of wood. ―In a fire, the floors tend to collapse, and the iron frame loses strength and implodes.‖ (Seabrook J. 2001: 66) Elevator shafts were often unenclosed. The only means of escape from a floor was through a single stairway usually protected at each level by a metal-plated wooden door. There were no standards for the protection of steel used in the construction of these high-rises.

2.2.2 Second Generation ―The second generation of tall buildings, which includes the Metropolitan Life Building (1909), the Woolworth Building (1913), and the Empire State Building (1931), are frame structures, in which a skeleton of welded- or riveted-steel columns and beams, often encased in concrete, runs through the entire building. This type of construction makes for an extremely strong structure, but not such attractive floor space. The interiors are full of heavy, load-bearing columns and walls.‖ (Abbort RJ. 1994: 3) As Brannigan described them, Pre-World-War II buildings were universally of steel-framed construction. Floor construction and fireproofing of steel were often of concrete or tile, both good heat sinks and slow to transmit heat to the floor above. The construction was heavy but no feasible alternative existed.

Relatively small floor areas were dictated by the need for natural light and air.

Advertisements for the RCA Building in New York proclaimed, ―no desk any farther than 35 feet from a window.‖ This limited both the fire load and the number of occupants. … The typical office was quite spartan, though executive suites and eating clubs often were panelled with huge quantities of wood.

Nevertheless, most fire loads were low.

Each floor was a well-segregated fire area in these buildings. Wall construction was frequently of wet masonry, joined to the floor so that there was an inherent 16

fire stop at the floor line. Masonry in the spandrel area (the space between the top of one window and the bottom of another) was adequate to restrict outside extension.

In these buildings vertical shafts were enclosed in solid masonry with openings protected with proper enclosures. Fire department standpipes of adequate capacity were usually provided. These were wet and immediately pressurized by gravity from a tank in the building.

Exterior fire tower stairways with an atmospheric break between the building and the stairway, the finest escape device available, were provided in many of the buildings. Such a stairway can be compared to an enclosed tower located away from the building which is reached by a bridge open to the weather, so that smoke cannot pollute the tower.

Windows could be opened in buildings of this era. This provided local ventilation and relief from smoke migrating from the fire. (Brannigan FL. 1992: 458) In this generation of buildings, developments such as the following occurred:   

The use of non-combustible construction materials that reduced the possibility of the collapse of structural members during a fire.

The inclusion of assemblies rated for a particular fire resistance. The enclosure of vertical shafts with protected openings.

The use of compartmentation.

2.2.3 Third Generation Buildings constructed from after World War II until today make up the most recent generation of high-rise buildings. Within this generation there are those of steel-framed construction (core construction and tube construction), reinforced concrete construction, and steel-framed reinforced concrete construction.

Steel-Framed Core Construction These structures are built of lightweight steel or reinforced concrete frames, with exterior all-glass curtain walls. As Salvadori stated, ―The so-called curtain walls of our high-rise buildings consist of thin, vertical metal struts or mullions, which encase the large glass panels constituting most of the wall surface. The curtain wall, built for lighting and temperature-conditioning purposes, does not have the strength to stand by itself and is supported by a frame of steel or concrete, which constitutes the structure of the building.‖ (Salvadori M. 1980) In the centre of these buildings, or infrequently to the side, there is an inner load-bearing core constructed of steel or reinforced concrete. Most building utilities and services — stairway shafts (stairwells); passenger and service/freight elevator shafts; air 17

conditioning supply and return shafts; communication systems (telephones, public address systems, and computer networks); water, electrical power, and gas; and restrooms (toilets) — are enclosed in this central core. The core braces the building against wind.

Reinforced Concrete Construction ―Concrete that has been hardened onto imbedded metal (usually steel) is called reinforced concrete, or ferroconcrete… . The reinforcing steel, which may take the form of rods, bars, or mesh, contributes tensile strength. ‖ 46 Reinforced concrete is ―concrete containing reinforcement and [is] designed on the assumption that the two materials act together in resisting forces.‖ (Construction Dictionary, 1996: 432) Also, according to Encyclopaedia Britannica, High-rise structures in concrete followed the paradigm of the steel frame.

Examples include the 16-story Ingalls Building (1903) in Cincinnati, which was 54 metres (180 feet) tall, and the 11-story Royal Liver Building (1909), built in Liverpool by Hennebique‘s English representative, Louis Mouchel. The latter structure was Europe‘s first skyscraper, its clock tower reaching a height of 95 metres (316 feet). Attainment of height in concrete buildings progressed slowly owing to the much lower strength and stiffness of concrete as compared with steel (Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2008) ―Parallel to the development of tall steel structures, substantial advancements in highrise structural systems of reinforced concrete have been made since 1945. The first of these was the introduction of the shear wall as a means of stiffening concrete frames against lateral deflection, such as results from wind or earthquake loads; the shear wall acts as a narrow deep cantilever beam to resist lateral forces. ‖ 49 ―Concrete requires no additional fireproofing treatments to meet stringent fire codes, and performs well during both natural and manmade disasters. Because of concrete‘s inherent heaviness, mass, and strength, buildings constructed with cast-in-place reinforced concrete can resist winds of more than 200 miles [322 kilometers] per hour and perform well even under the impact of flying debris.‖ (Madsen JJ. 2005) Steel-Framed Reinforced Concrete Construction These structures are a mixture of reinforced concrete construction and steel-framed construction, hence the name steel-framed reinforced construction. An example would be ―a steel framed structure with a concrete shear core and composite floors built with steel decking.‖ (Celikag M. 2004) The term mixed construction is sometimes used to describe this type of high-rise construction.

2.3

Types of High-Rise Buildings

The use of a building has considerable influence on its security and fire life safety needs.

There are different types of high-rise buildings classified according to their primary use.

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This book addresses the following ones: 1. Office buildings. An office building is a ―structure designed for the conduct of business, generally divided into individual offices and offering space for rent or lease.‖ (Chicago, IL 2003) 2. Hotel buildings. ―The term ‗hotel‘ is an all-inclusive designation for facilities that provide comfortable lodging and generally, but not always food, beverage, entertainment, a business environment, and other ‗away from home‘ services.”

(Beaudry MH. 2006) There are also hotels that contain residences. Known as hotel-residences, this type of occupancy is later addressed in mixed-use buildings.

3. Residential and apartment buildings. A residential building contains separate residences where a person may live or regularly stay. Each residence contains independent cooking and bathroom facilities and may be known as an apartment, a residence, a tenement, or a condominium. An apartment building is ―a building containing more than one dwelling unit.‖ (Chicago, IL 2003) ―Apartment buildings are those structures containing three or more living units with independent cooking and bathroom facilities, whether designated as apartment houses, … condominiums, or garden apartments.‖ (Bush K. 2008) 4. Mixed-use buildings. A mixed-use building may contain offices, apartments, residences, and hotel rooms in separate sections of the same building. Hotel residences are another type of mixed-use occupancy. ―The hotel residences trend is notably different from its predecessors such as fractional/time share hotel units, which are not wholly owned, or condo hotels, which are wholly owned hotel rooms without, for example, kitchens. Not only do hotel residences have kitchens and everything else an owner would expect in a typical abode, they also include amenities such as maid and room service, plus restaurants, spas and gym.

Typically, [these] residences are on the top floors of hotels.‖ (Olmsted L. 2008)

2.3.1 Summary  

Since their first appearance toward the end of the 19th century, the design and construction of high-rise buildings have changed considerably.

The use of a building impacts its security and fire life safety needs. There are different types of high-rise occupancies classified according to their primary use.

This book primarily addresses office buildings, hotel buildings, residential and apartment buildings, and mixed-use buildings, with some mention of the other types of high-rise occupancies.

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2.4

Why Autonomous Vehicles?

New technologies in communication and robotics have had a substantial influence on our daily lifestyle of which transportation is no exception. These technologies have given rise to the prospect of autonomous vehicle (AV) technology which aims to reduce crashes, energy consumption, pollution, and congestion while at the same time increasing transport accessibility. Although the idea of driverless vehicles has been around for decades, the exorbitant costs have hindered large-scale production (Fagnant DJ. 2015). Nevertheless, there has been acceleration in the research and development efforts in the last decade to bring the idea of the AV to fruition. For example, the advent of the Google car brought AVs to the spotlight (Guizzo E, 2011) Moreover, the automotive industry spends around €77 billion worldwide on R&D in order to nurture innovation and to stay competitive (ACEA, 2015) The AV is associated with a variety of positive societal impacts such as a safer transport system, a lower cost of transport as well as enabling a modicum of mobility to the nonambulatory and disabled as well as to those in lower income households. It is estimated that the direct societal value that will be created will be between 0.2 and 1.9 trillion dollars annually by 2025 (Manyika J. et al. 2013). Such positive impacts are the driving forces behind the emergence of AV technology, making it a viable, economic model in the near future and beyond.

The aim is to highlight the opportunities and the challenges that may arise from the introduction and application of AVs. Firstly, the studying the levels of automation is important to the understanding of the concepts. Secondly, the study analyse the impact of AVs for the short- and long-term future based on previous studies. Thirdly, the summary of AVs will be drawn. Lastly, the relationship between AVs and urban development is to give a global perspective on the people who work on the idea.

2.4.1 Levels of Automation It is important to note that the level of automation can vary from zero to full automation.

NHTSA classifies vehicle automation in five levels (NHTSA 2013): 

  

No-Automation (Level 0) At all times, the driver has complete and sole command and control of the vehicle with respect to steering, braking, throttle and motive power.

Function-specific automation (Level 1) Some specific control function(s) such as electronic stability control or precharged brakes is(are) automated.

Combined function automation (Level 2) At least two main control functions such as adaptive cruise control4 in combination with lane centring are automated.

Limited self-driving automation (Level 3) Under certain traffic or environmental conditions, the driver cedes full control of all safety–critical functions and relies heavily on the vehicle to watch for any changes in conditions requiring transition 20





to driver control. The driver will be required to resume control of the vehicle, but with sufficient transition time.

Full self-driving automation (Level 4) The vehicle is intelligently designed to monitor roadway conditions and act solo, performing all safety–critical driving functions for an entire trip Full Autonomy (Level 5) The vehicles is driving itself only the human have control over the destination. There will be no steering wheel or control in vehicle.

Figure 2.1: The Level of Autonomous Vehicles (Kelly 2016)

2.4.2 Advantages and disadvantages of AVs Although transportation is a means to foster the prosperity of societies, it inevitably is coupled with negative externalities such as pollution, accidents, and human casualties.

There are a large number of studies estimating these costs in terms of human-driven vehicles (Blinco L et al. 2015). These costs differ from direct costs incurred such as the cost of petrol, vehicle maintenance, vehicle registration, and licensing or public transport tickets. The externality cost is a hidden cost imposed on society as a whole; it includes costs such as traffic congestion, accidents and environment degradation, as well as security. In general, AV technology is largely perceived to have the potential to substantially abate (if not eliminate) many of these existing negative externalities. AVs can also create additional benefits such as increasing accessibility and mobility and even improving land use. Although there could be significant disadvantages associated with AVs, it is widely believed that these disadvantages are largely outweighed by the advantages. (Asadi S. et al. 2016) In the following section, the positives and negatives of AVs will be elaborate.

Safety and Crashes The statistics for road accidents in the United States in 2010 is shocking: 32,999 killed, 3.9 million injured, and 24 million vehicles damaged the tangible and intangible costs of 21

which total $277 billion (Blincoe L. 2015). This cost burden has a ripple effect, having an impact on productivity, medical costs, legal and court costs, workplace losses, emergency service costs, the congestion burden, insurance administration costs, and property damage. A downward trend in the number of crashes in the United States (NHTSA 2012) is significantly indebted to the adoption of new technologies such as airbags, anti-lock brakes, electronic stability control,8 head-protection side air bags, and forward collision warnings (Jermakian JS. 2011: 732-740). These are features that will be adopted in AV technology. In particular, some studies estimate the reduction of crashes could be as high as one-third if all vehicles are equipped with adaptive headlights, forward collision warnings, lane departure warnings, and blind spot assistance (Jermakian JS. 2011: 732-740) which are attributed to Level 0 or Level 1 vehicle automation. Human error is blamed for more than ninety percent of crashes (Maddox J. 2012). Therefore, AVs should be able to prevent an appreciable number of these crashes, in turn eliminating the vast majority of all traffic delays (Anderson JM. Et al. 2014).

Congestion Anderson et al. (Anderson JM. et al. 2014).have attributed three main factors related to AVs that affect congestion positively and sometimes negatively: (i) reducing traffic delay due to a reduction in vehicle crashes; (ii) enhancing vehicle throughput; and (iii) changes in the total vehicle-kilometre travelled (VKT). An anticipated reduction in vehicle crashes would result in fewer delays and, in turn, higher reliability of the transport system. The changes in VKT due to the advent of the AV remain unclear, though some researchers hold the view that VKT in fact would increase (known as the ‗‗rebound effect‘‘)(Litman T. 2015). For that, they speculate on a combination of factors such as additional VKT due to self-fuelling and self-parking, increased use of AVs by those unable to drive, an increased number of trips (both unoccupied and occupied), a shift away from public transport and longer commutes. (Greenblatt JB, Shaheen S. 2015) The fact that AVs are connected may also provide an opportunity to mitigate the congestion burden. Dresner and Stone (Dresner K, Stone P. 2007) propose a reservation-based system for alleviating traffic congestion, specifically at intersections when the vehicles are connected. The results show that the reservation-based system designed for connected AVs can perform two to three times better than traffic lights. As a result, it can smoothly handle much more congested traffic conditions. Dresner and Stone show that as the number of AVs on the road increases, traffic delays decrease towards the levels exhibited in their previous work. A similar conclusion was drawn by Fajardo et al. (Fajardo et al. 2011) Consequently, it is crystal clear that AV technology will soon have a positive effect on traffic congestion abatement unless it induces additional demand that in turn might add further burden to an already congested network. The overall impact of the AV on traffic congestion has yet to be investigated.

22

Sharing Cab and Car Ownership AV technologies can be conducive to driverless similar car-sharing schemes in which the cost of compensating cabdrivers‘ time and talent is excluded. As a result, driverless cabs are expected to become cheaper and which eventually may discourage car ownership.

The concept of driverless taxis is analogous to car sharing which is a thriving business model. AVs can boost car and ride sharing schemes as they can cater to multiple persons on demand. Consequently, households may find driverless cab more convenient and cheaper to hire than owning a vehicle. Furthermore, compared to carsharing, driverless cab should not be costlier. Given the fact that the driverless taxi obviates the need for annual fixed costs and maintenance normally associated with car sharing as well as parking, it would provide even greater convenience. In actual fact, car-sharing has recently been found to lower VKT in the United States market.

Nevertheless, as previously mentioned, cheaper rides would be accompanied by new demands, especially from destitute (low-income) people who can now afford to either drive or to take a cab. (Martin EW, Shaheen S. 2011) A recent analysis of US household data shows a significant reduction in vehicle ownership and an accompanying shift to vehicle sharing (Schoettle B, Sivak M. 2015).

This reduction could be as high as 43 %—from 2.1 to 1.2 vehicles per household.

Conversely, it is anticipated that this shift would inflate individual vehicle usage up to 75 %, from 11,661 to 20,406 miles per vehicle annually. (This increase in mileage does not factor in the additional miles generated during each ―return-to-home‘‘ trip.)

All in all, AVs possess great potential to lower many costs associated with private modes as they are likely to instigate more trips, resulting in growth in VKT. AVs may also instigate an emergence in driverless taxis for which the ultimate effect on VKT is still unclear.

Value of time AVs release drivers from engaging in the physical and mental actions associated with driving, allowing them to utilize this time on other productive activities en-route. As a result, AVs further reduce the opportunity cost of travel in terms of the saved value of time pertaining to off-wheel activities (Anderson JM. et al. 2014).

Land use AVs may have a profound and prolonged impact on the land-use pattern. The value of land increases proportionally with its proximity to the central city where job opportunities exist in many industries such as banking, financial markets, and many other service areas. Proximity is manifested by transportation. The advent of automobiles in the beginning of the 20th century resulted in the emergence of suburbs. The relation between AVs and land use is both complicated and somehow paradoxical. In one scenario, the introduction of AVs could invigorate a trend towards even more dispersed and low-density land-use patterns surrounding metropolitan regions. In other words, AVs may result in the further growth of suburbs and may even push further into exurb areas.

23

In the completely opposite scenario, AV technology obviates the acute need for parking spaces meaning parking space in the heart of cities can be freed up for other usage.

Therefore, AVs could end up stimulating urban growth in central districts, adding to the density of CBDs. It is important to note that parking facilities monopolize a big chunk of space in CBDs. Shoup [58] estimated that the total area dedicated to parking space is on average equivalent to about 31 % of district areas.

In summary, the long-term expectation with the adoption of level 4 AVs is that one would likely see denser urban cores, more buildings and fewer parking spaces. At the same time, AVs could lead to even greater dispersion of low-density development in metropolitan fringe areas given the ability of owners to engage in other activities while vehicles pilot themselves (Anderson JM. et al. 2014).

Environment (energy and emission) AVs also provide an opportunity for vehicles to communicate their manoeuvres and actions with each other which may reduce idle time, improving both traffic and drivecycle efficiencies (Anderson JM. et al. 2014). Furthermore, a platoon of closely spaced AVs that stops or slows down less often will resemble a train. The result is expected to result in lower peak speeds (improving fuel economy) but higher effective speeds (improving travel time) (Brooker AD et al. 2013).

From a completely different perspective, the increased level of safety of AVs may lead to lightweight vehicles from car manufacturers. In fact, safety efforts are being directed towards accident avoidance and away from old fashioned crash worthiness cars.

Therefore, light vehicles are promising by-products of AV technology which in turn greatly contributes to less fuel consumption. For conventional vehicles, up to 20 % of the weight is attributed to safety-related features (NRC N.R.C. 2010) hidden as an engineering rule-of thumb, a 10-percent reduction in weight can lead to a 6- to 7-percent reduction in fuel consumption (US-EPA. 2013) Turning to electric cars (from fossil-based cars) also brings added-value to fuel efficiency.

It has been proven that the efficiency of the transformation in fossil-based cars versus electric cars is sustainable towards environment.

2.5

How AVs will Impact our Future Urban Landscape

With the basic understanding of the advantages outweighs the disadvantages of AVs technology, it is important for future designer to understand complex multi-dimensional transportation network of drones in the future.

Denser Developments The typical individually owned car is parked 95% of its lifetime. The typical AV is predicted to be a centrally owned hire vehicle, almost constantly on the move from job to job. Individual ownership could plummet, and demand for parking space would go with it.

That would mean very little space would be needed for parking in new developments, 24

allowing higher density of other uses – perhaps partly alleviating the housing crisis?

Some new space would be needed though for loading and unloading to accommodate the way people would access buildings by AV (Milakis D, 2015) A Rush of Retrofits Many existing buildings with in-built parking space might not need it anymore, so there could be a lot of work to be done converting it into further accommodation, loading areas, storage space or other building amenities.

If AVs enable a large-scale shift from shop visits to deliveries, perhaps supermarkets and other retailers will convert from customer shops to logistical centres (Anderson JM. et al. 2014).

New City Centre Development Sites Watch out for the opportunities as landowners from local authorities to supermarkets sell off their car parks for development. Urban in-fill sites more than easy walking distance from public transport could also become more valuable sites as the availability of AVs make them more attractive residential locations (Folsom TC. 2011) Improved Urban Environments If AVs use existing roads more efficiently, less space would be needed for vehicles. This could lead to a range of changes to make streets safer and more pleasant including wider pavements, seating areas and more trees. More of the street area could be permeable sustainable drainage systems, which could help reduce the urban heat island effect (Anderson JM. et al. 2014).

Roadside Infrastructure Strictly speaking, a fully autonomous vehicle does not need roadside infrastructure – it can drive itself without any external assistance. In reality, even fully autonomous vehicles will probably make use of roadside infrastructure to improve functionality, and it will be crucial in the beginning as less than fully autonomous vehicles are first introduced to the roads.

25

Figure 2.5.1: Road infrastructure and urban Environment (Before)

Figure 2.5.1: Road infrastructure and urban Environment (After)(source: Patrick Sisson)

26

2.5.1 Summary AVs have been an active area of research for some decades but particularly in the past five years. The recent joint efforts by universities and manufacturers have brought AVs to near readiness. AVs are believed to considerably lower transportation costs. In one estimate, social AV impacts in terms of crash savings, travel time reduction, fuel efficiency, and parking benefits may be as much as $2000 per annum per AV and may be as high as $4000 when comprehensive crash costs are accounted for (Fagnant DJ, Kockelman K. 2015). The AV is still in the infancy stage. There is a considerable road to travel before maturity, implementation, and mass-market release are achieved.

The path is still problematic, facing several challenges. Perception of the environment remains the biggest challenge to reliable, smooth, and safe driving (Anderson JM. et al.

2014). There is a long list of research questions covering a wide scope that will need to be addressed and answered, including but not limited to customer acceptance, societal impacts, communication technologies, ethical issues, planning, standards, and policy (Anderson JM. et al. 2014). These studies in turn have a number of policy implications including the challenge for policymakers and architect to streamline and regulate many diverse vehicles with different operating constraints.

2.6

Significant Study Correlate with AVs and Urban Landscape

2.6.1 Broadacre City -1950s

Figure 4: Broadacre City

27

Broadacre City was a project occupied Frank Llyod Wright at intervals from the early 1930s until his death. Wright is always fascinated with motorist and was inspired to take his idea of transportation into the skies. In the Broadacre plans, his little personal helicopters, which he called ‗aerotors‘ were used to commute between area of land. The whole idea is based on an acres of land where each specialisation of different filed were laid out which Wright trying to avoid centralized facilities. (Wright,F.L. 1995: 37) ―Each citizen of the future will have all forms of production, distribution, selfimprovement, enjoyment, within a radius of a hundred and fifty miles of his home now easily and speedily available by means of his car and plane‖ (Wright,F.L. 1932: 37) in his book of The Disappearing City 1932 whereby Broadacre vision are based on.

Wright‘s utopia idea was deem to failure due to the awkwardly continue to required airfields of their own which will cause isolation between society in a suburban. His vision also causes unregulated personal aircraft for everyone whereby safety and safety were some concern in his plan. However, his vision did not failed completely whereby indeed today only tiny planes and helicopter are flown by wealthy individuals from their wellspaced homes, just as Wright envisaged (Pearman, H. 2004: 80)

2.6.2 Droneport - 2015

Figure 2.6: Droneport Perspective Render (right). & One to one built up in Veniece Biennale (left). (source: Foster, 2016) Droneport is conceptual humanitarian initiative that seeks to jumpstart and navigates the infrastructural challenges of emerging economies. Foster and others involved in the project explain the process of realizing the droneports, giving further details on its inclusion in this year‘s Venice Biennale—with engaging new architectural visualizations to boot.

The project‘s execution the firm envisions a ―kit-of-parts,‖ providing only the basic formwork for the structures and the brick-press machinery—with labor and materials 28

sourced locally. The project‘s greatest attribute is described best by Norman Foster himself: it is about helping emerging economies ―with minimum imported products and maximum engagement with the local communities.‖ (Foster, 2016) The droneport project not only bypasses immediate technologies that are traditionally considered necessary infrastructure for developed countries, but it also envisions a new kind urbanism—one that is perhaps less dependent upon highways, personal automobiles and subsequent gridlock. These are all elements of cities which, in recent years, have been problematized but at the same time have been irreplaceable in servicing the metropolis (Archdaily, 2015).

Figure 2.6: An overview map of urban planning of Droneport interlink within cities. (source: Foster, 2016)

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3

CHAPTER 3 – CONCEPTUAL CASE STUDIES

This chapter focus of the five architectural concepts and analysis the common ground.

The case study allow designer to find the pattern and synthesis the best possible architecture elements in designing future high-rise building. Comparative method is used to find the architecture elements pattern of different case studies. Different important architecture elements are identified as it give a good baseline study of any architecture building from the form, function, accessibility, circulation , layout typology and etc.

3.1

Comparative Methods 1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

3.2

Plan, or general distribution of the building Walls, their construction and treatment.

Roofs, their treatment and development.

Openings, their character and shapes.

Columns, their position, structure, and decoration.

Form, their scale and levels.

Accessibility, their transportation method to the building Building Typology, their function and use.

Conceptual Studies Incorporate with High-rise Buildings and AVs

3.2.1 Ville Contemporaine -1922

Figure 1: Ville Contemporaine

30

The first manned flight has sparks attention of architects and utopianisms. Whereby, if the Modernism era is all about machine age, air travel logically represent the peak of technological achievement in transportation. Le Corbusier (1887-1965 and Frank Lloyd Wright (1867-1959), who shows interest in motorist looked to the skies for inspiration, albeit in very different ways. Ville Contemporaine was one of Le Corbusier utopian dreams where having a centralised commute transportation system between skyscrapers which adapted city-central airport design (1922-5) (see in figure, 1).

However, his vision while designing the utopian ideas are restricted to the tighter regulation and scarcer land of Europe whereby future aircraft is for public transportation rather than private. The scenario was to inhabit 3 million people with a central transport interchange. Although today the plan was never built due to scale and society influence that changes the need of such project. His proposal also shows one major flaw whereby the airfield was landlock and it could not expand for future intervention. However, the scary prospect of planes landing among skyscrapers was becoming reality in some parts of the world. For example, old Hong Kong‘s airport and London City, where departing planes fly straight towards the clustered towers of the Canary Wharf financial district before diverting towards its‘ destination (Pearman, H. 2004: 80).

Findings: Ville Contemporaine Plan

Description

Diagrams / Pictures

-Grid plan master plan -Office tower in the center of the masterplan -Moving outwards is commercial followed by residential.

-Distance among building is far apart and does not promote walkability

Walls

-Clean and construction method

minimalist

-Flat surface wall throughout the design of the building

Roofs

-Flat roof building

on

the

individual -

31

Openings

-Repetitive opening throughout the elevation -The idea of mass production and machines was with the architect‘s vision

Columns

-Concrete & Steel structure

-

-Every block of building is spread out far apart -Lack of connection between buildings Form

-Cross-plan block massing -Each office blocks have approx.

35 level -Urban Interlink

Accessibility

-In the centre of the city structure -Different transportation method is integrated towards the centre transportation hub -Stacking level from lowest to highest ; train, car and landing zone for airplane

Building Typology

-The cross plan building is office tower in the centre of the masterplan -The outer masterplan consist of commercial and residential

Translation of Design Idea for Today

Centralised Transportation Hub

32

3.2.2 ‘The Moon Doom’ -1928

Figure 2: ‗The Moon Doom‘ In the 1900, visions of future Manhattan were been informed by the invention of airships transporting people high up in the skies. In the New York World magazine of 30 December, an illustrator named Biedermann imagined a densely packed city of skyscrapers. Apart from the fact that his illustration includes two prophetic pairs of twin towers in Lower Manhattan – which curiously reminiscent of the Petronas towers the Cesar Pelli build in the 1990s in Kuala Lumpur. Biedermann illustration shows the idea of big rectangular landing strips on the roofs of lower, squatter towers. He further elaborated the transport system in the sky, including huge steel-truss landing platforms for all kinds of flying machines (Pearman, H. 2004: 86).

Similary, Herman Brinsmade‘s Utopia Achieved (1912) draws on the imagery illustration of Biedermann idea with bridge-linked skyscrapers and landing platform for flying machines. Brinsmade‘s solution to the problem of where to land plan in a vertical city was using a hybrid aircraft with vertical landing capability. From the top of his neoclassical skyscrapers rises a pylon supporting what looks like a modern helicopter pad or helipad, instead with a large biplane perched on top (Pearman, H. 2004: 87).This proved that an enduring imagination from Brinsmade in both utopian thinking and science-fiction allow him to path the idea that become reality in the 1960s where the first helipad was used on top of PANAM building, New York.

33

Findings: ‘The Moon Doom’ Plan

Description

Diagrams / Pictures

-Grid plan master plan -Densely packed among buildings with narrow streets -Bridge connection for pedestrian at different levels

Walls

-Modern construction walls -Flat surface wall surface with little ornaments throughout the design

Roofs

-Flat roof on the individual building with landing strip for flying machine

Openings

-Repetitive opening throughout the elevation

-

-The idea of mass production and machines was with the architect‘s vision

34

Columns

-Concrete & steel structure -Every block of building densely packed together

is

-Interconnected

Form

-Massive block scale on the base and getting smaller towards the top -Approx. 40 level and above for ground -Many tower interlink

Accessibility

-At Multi-level transportation

for

air

-Air transportation and pedestrian walking are translated in the buildings -Ground level still remained for the vehicular -Stacking level from lowest to highest; car, pedestrian and landing zone for airplane Building Typology

Translation of Design Idea for Today

-

-

Bridge Linkage Between Buildings

35

3.2.3 The City of London, Liverpool Street Station -1945

Figure 3: The City of London, Liverpool Street Station In the late 1931, London was to consider rooftop airport proposal in which time if it had succeeded, it would have incorporate many buildings. There is a pleasing logic to many architects about the proposal at that time. Whereby, different pattern of runway was proposed with the approximate runway length of 800m was considered sufficient.

Different pattern or runway ranging from straight to circular plan to find the best solution for landing and taking off plane on top of a building (Pearman, H. 2004: 89).

Even though the proposal never succeeded, some British architects still yearn for the impossible dream. The year 1945 where architects Kenneth Lindy and Winton Lewis proposed the rebuilding the blitzed City of London financial district, designed a cruciform airport in the sky set on five new skyscrapers over another mainline station, Liverpool Street. The architects‘ inspiration of air transportation was picked up by the Sikorsky‘s invention of the helicopter. Whereby, the proposal was design based on the limited land area on the ground and expensive prices. Various subsequent plans for a City of London heliport were to continue until the early 1990s before finally being killed off on grounds of noise (Pearman, H. 2004: 90).However, today we still see London Airport sitting in the centre of skyscrapers development which still remains one of the centre air transport interchange.

36

Findings: Liverpool Street Station Plan

Description

Diagrams / Pictures

-Grid plan master plan -City at below is densely pack but the main structure is far apart -Reason due to the requirement to length for landing strips of minimum 800m

Walls

-Modern construction walls -Flat surface wall surface with little ornaments throughout the design

Roofs

-Landing strip directly sitting on top of the roof of 5 skyscrapers for flying vehicles -Roof top at main structure house for helicopter landing zone

Openings

-Repetitive opening throughout the elevation -The idea of mass production and machines was with the architect‘s vision

37

Columns

-Reinforced Concrete & steel structure - Constructed in ‗formation‘

Form

-Massive square block scale -Approx. 40 level and above for ground -Landing strip at the roof level -5 tower

Accessibility

-At single transportation

level

for

air

-Ground level still remained for the vehicular and pedestrian -Stacking level from lowest to highest; car, pedestrian and landing zone for airplane

Building Typology

-Commercial Airport in the sky

-

-Due to lack of land in city centre of London

Translation of Design Idea for Today

Helipad

38

3.2.4 Walking City The ―Walking City‖ was an idea proposed by British architect Ron Herron in 1964. In an article in avant-garde architecture journal Archigram, Ron Herron proposed building massive mobile robotic structures, with their own intelligence that could freely roam the world moving to wherever their resources or manufacturing abilities were needed.

Various walking cities could interconnect with each other to form larger 'walking metropolises' when needed, and then disperse when their concentrated power was no longer necessary. Individual buildings or structures could also be mobile; moving wherever their owner wanted or needs dictated (Evers, B., & Thoenes, C. 2015).

Figure 5: Walking City Concept Although the idea of having a city that ―walk‖ is absurd to imagine, Herron concepts did not failed completely whereby the closest resemblance of ―Walking City‖ is current cruise ships. Cruise ships are used for holiday transportation that resemblance a trip in the sea.

It consists of all amenities from hotel, waterpark, casino, shops, restaurants and etc. which resemble a large scale city that float place to places. For example, Harmony of the Sea currently the largest cruise ship that carries guest over 5479 and crews of 2300 at its maximum capacity. (Petty, D. 2017).

39

Figure 6: Harmonic of the Sea, Cruise ship that resemblance part of Walking City Concept Findings: Walking City Plan

Description

Diagrams / Pictures

-Floating Plan design -Moving Structure/machine -Plans overlap among each other as the function change based on the growth

Walls

-Machine constructed wall -Futuristic machine

idea

of

walking

-Metal construction materials

Roofs

-Large opening at top of roof for landing airship or helicopter

-

40

Openings

-Adaptive structure based on the city growth -The idea of mass production and machines was with the architect‘s vision

Columns

-Steel structure / Frame

-

- Constructed in by machines working together Form

-Massive moving machine -Approx. 50 level and above for ground -Oval shape like structure -1 Structure

Accessibility

-Landing pod on top of roof -Materials access is from the ground (machines to load and unload) - Ground level is for access for materials only -There is no need for ground vehicles transportation as all access method is through air

Building Typology

Translation of Design Idea for Today

-City in the sky (mixed typology of function)

Cruise Ships

41

3.2.5 The Hive: Drone Skyscrapers

Figure 7: Evolo 2016, Competition Drones Skyscrapers Concept Drone technology, adopted by many large corporations, has become a leading trend in the field of fast-delivery, aerial mapping, commercial advertising, government inspection, and filmmaking. As recent years have witnessed a rise in the development of drone technology, several major corporations, such as Amazon, DHL and Walmart, have begin investigating the use of drones in high-speed delivery service. As more and more people live on internet-based lifestyles, these ―small flying robots‖ could easily become an ordinary part of future everyday life. The demand for high-speed drone delivery is estimated to increase continuously in the upcoming years. However, legal restrictions on the navigation of drones are currently standing in the way of drastically broadening the use of drones in various aspects of our daily lives. No-fly zones and conditions to maintain visibility with the drone at all times are two of the main constraints.

The drone skyscrapers study the possibility to have such tower to delivers packages for consumer in the next coming decade. Whereby, the proposal provide a safe landing environment, the tower projected a new method for drones to dock horizontally onto their corresponding platforms with the fitting shape and scale; the platform with docked drones can be flipped vertically to be in parallel with the tower façade. The façade is constantly animated as the platforms flip outwards and backwards to nest back into it (Mohammad, H. A., Y. Z., & C. Z. 2016)

42

Findings: Drone Skyscrapers Plan

Description

Diagrams / Pictures

-Hexagonal Plan that maximum the amount of drones able to park -In the building is only machine handling goods and product

Walls

-Live faรงade as drones are parked and fly off - Dynamic yet rigid due to the construction using steel structure

Roofs

-Flat roof to cover weather elements

Openings

-Adaptive live faรงade -Following repetitive sheme of hexagon

43

Columns

-Steel structure / Frame

-

- Constructed in by machines working together Form

-Slim but tall structure -Steel frame construction -Hexagon massing

plan

extrusion

of

-Approx. 100 levels -1 Tower

Accessibility

-Landing pod for drones every part of the faรงade -Specially design for drones rather than human interaction -Multi level access

Building Typology

-Transportation Hub for drones

Translation of Design Idea for Today

3.3

-

Droneport

Matrix Data Analysis Results

44

4 4.1

CHAPTER 4 – TRANSLATION OF ARCHITECTURE ELEMENTS Themes Generated in Findings

45

4.2

Design Elements of Future High-rise Building

5

CHAPTER 5 – CONCLUSION

6

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