Guhring engineer's guide book

ENGINEER'S GUIDE BOOK

Engineer's guide book - 1st edition Copyrihgt Š by Guhring Australia Disclaimer The content of this publication is for information only and is not intended to be engineering advice or opinion.

The content of the guide book has been collected from a various sources and it is presumed that the published data is accurate and complete.

The publisher does not assume any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may have been made in the publication. The publisher does not warrant, guarantee or promise - express or implied - the accuracy, currency, quality and usefulness of the information contained within this publication.

The user of this book agrees to indemnify and hold harmless the publisher and any of its directors, officers, employees and affiliates from any claim or demand (including reasonable legal fees), made by any third party arising out of the use of any part of this publication.

In no event shall the Publisher therefore be liable for any direct/indirect claims or damages arising out of, or in any way, connected with the use or application of the information contained in the Engineer’s Guidebook.

CONTENTS Conversion factors (Approximate) imperial to metric

4

Conversion factors (Approximate) metric to imperial

5

Drill size & decimal equivalent chart

6

Locating hole coordinates for equally spaced holes

10

Trigonometry formulae for solution of triangles

11

Geometrical construction

12

Useful formulae for finding dimensions & area of plane figures

14

Distance across corners of squares & hexagons

17

Useful formulae for finding area & volume of solid figures

18

Useful tolerances

20

Metric & Inch designations for ANSI preferred limits & fits

21

Common workshop metals

24

Common engineering plastics

26

Rise per degree - a quick reference

28

Relative position of various cutting tool materials

29

Common workpiece material comparison table

30

Surface coatings

34

Standard for engineering drawings

36

G-code addresses used in numerical control

37

Letter addresses used in numerical control

38

Miscellaneous function words used in numerical control

39

Surface roughness & conversion tables

40

Common terms used in the heat treatment of steels

41

Hardness comparison chart

42

Cutting speed

44

Tapping size hole for thread cutting

45

Tapping size holes for thread forming (Fluteless tap)

47

Troubleshooting - Drilling

49

Troubleshooting - Tapping

52

Troubleshooting - Milling

58

Troubleshooting - Reaming

61

Troubleshooting - Deep Hole Drilling

63

General calculations

65

3

CONVERSION FACTORS (APPROXIMATE) IMPERIAL TO METRIC To Convert

Into

Acres Atmospheres British Thermal Units Bushels Cubic Feet per Minute Cubic Feet

Hectares Kilopascals

Multiply To Convert By 0.4047 Inches 101.3250 Inches

Kilojoules

1.0551

Kilowatt Hours Megajoules

3.6000

Cubic Metres Litres per Second Cubic Metres Cubic Centimetres

0.0364

1.4667

0.0283

Miles per Hour Feet per Second Miles per Hour Kilometres per Hour Miles Kilometres

16.3871

Miles

Nautical Miles

0.8690

Grams

28.3495

Litres Newtons

0.5683 4.4482

Bar

0.0689

Kilopascals

6.8948

Megapascals

0.0069

Cubic Inches Cubic Inches Cubic Inches Cubic Yards Cycles per Second Degrees Fahrenheit Feet per Second Feet Fluid Ounces Fluid Ounces Fluid Ounces Foot Pound Furlongs Furlongs Gallons per Minute Gallons per Hour Gallons Grains Horse Power (Electric) Hundredweights Inches of Mercury

0.4719

Ounces, Fluid Ounces 0.5767 Avoirdupois Litres 0.0164 Pints Cubic Metres 0.7646 Pounds-Force Pounds per Hertz 1.0000 Square Inch per Degrees Celsius - 32x5รท9 Pounds Square Inch Miles Pounds per 0.6819 per Hour Square Inch Metres 0.3048 Pounds Cubic Inches 1.7339 Pounds Millilitres 28.4130 Square Inches

Into Millimetres Centimetres

Grams Kilograms Square Millimetres Litres 0.0284 Square Inches Square Centimetres Square Newton-metre 1.3558 Square Feet Centimetres Metres 201.0000 Square Feet Square Metres Kilometres 0.2010 Square Yards Square Metres Litres per 0.0758 Square Miles Square Kilometres Second Litres per 0.0013 Ton-Force Kilonewtons Second Tons-Long Litres 4.5460 (2,240 pounds) Tonnes Tons-Short Grams 0.0648 (2,000 pounds) Tonnes Tons per Kilowatts 0.7460 Megapascals Square Inch

Multiply By 25.4000 2.5400

1.6093 1.6093

453.5920 0.4536 645.1612 6.4516 929.0310 0.0929 0.8361 2.5899 9.9640 1.0161 0.9072 15.4000

Kilograms

50.8032

Yards

Metres

0.9144

Millibars

33.7410

Yards

Kilometres

0.0009

4

CONVERSION FACTORS (APPROXIMATE) METRIC TO IMPERIAL To Convert

Into

Bar

Pounds per Square Inch Inches

Multiply To Convert By per 14.5038 Litres Second 0.3937 Litres

Cubic Inches

0.0610

Bushels

27.4962

Cubic Feet Cubic Yards

Centimetres Cubic Centimetres Cubic Metres Cubic Metres Cubic Metres Degrees Celsius

Into

Multiply By

Gallons per Hour 791.8900 Cubic Inches

60.9362

Litres

Fluid Ounces

35.2113

Litres

Pints

1.7598

35.3147

Litres

Gallons

0.2200

1.3079

Megajoules

Kilowatt Hours

0.2778 145.0389

Grams

Ounces

0.0353

Megapascals

Grams

15.4324

Metres

0.0353

Metres

Furlong

0.0050

Grams Hectares Hertz Kilograms

Grains Ounces, Avoirdupois Pounds Acres Cycles per Second Hundredweights

Pounds per Square Inch Tons per Square Inch Feet

0.0022 2.4710 1.0000 0.0197

Yards Inches of Mercury Fluid Ounces Inches

1.0936 0.0296 0.0352 0.0394

Kilograms

Pounds

2.2046

Metres Millibars Millilitres Millimetres Nautical Miles

Miles

1.1508

Newtons

9.8066

Newtons

Pounds-Force

0.2248

Miles per Hour

0.6214

Newtons

Kilogram-Force

0.1020

Foot Pound

0.7376

Square Inches

0.1550

Square Feet

0.0011

Square Feet

10.7639

Square Yards

1.1959

Square Inches

0.0015

Square Miles

0.3861

Long Tons (2,240 pounds) Short Tons (2,000 pounds)

0.9842

Grams

Kilogram Force Kilometres per Hour Kilometres Kilometres Kilometres Kilopascals Kilopascals Kilojoules Kilonewtons Kilowatts Litres per Second Litres per Second

Degrees Fahrenheitx 9รท5+32 Megapascals

Newton1093.6132 Yards metre Square Furlongs 4.9750 Centimetres Square Miles 0.6214 Centimetres Pounds per Square 0.1450 Square Inch Metres Square Atmospheres 0.0099 Metres British Thermal Square 0.9478 Units Millimetres Square Ton-Force 0.1004 Kilometres Horse Power 1.3410 Tonnes (Electric) Cubic Feet 2.1190 Tonnes per Minute Gallons per Minute 13.1980 5

0.0649 3.2808

1.1020

DRILL SIZE & DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge .0039 .100 .0236 .600 .0453 1.150 .0059 .150 97 .0240 .610 73 .0465 1.181 56 .0063 .160 96 .0244 .620 3/64 .0469 1.191 .0067 .170 95 .0248 .630 .0472 1.200 .0071 .180 94 .0250 .635 72 .0492 1.250 .0075 .190 93 .0252 .640 .0512 1.300 1/128 .0078 .198 .0256 .650 .0520 1.321 55 .0079 .200 92 .0260 .660 71 .0531 1.350 .0083 .210 91 .0264 .670 .0550 1.397 54 .0087 .220 90 .0268 .680 .0551 1.400 .0091 .230 89 .0272 .690 .0571 1.450 .0094 .240 88 .0276 .700 .0591 1.500 .0098 .250 .0279 .710 .0595 1.511 53 .0100 .254 87 .0280 .711 70 .0610 1.550 .0102 .260 .0283 .720 1/16 .0625 1.588 .0106 .270 86 .0287 .730 .0630 1.600 .0110 .280 85 .0291 .740 .0635 1.613 52 .0114 .290 84 .0292 .742 69 .0650 1.650 .0118 .300 .0295 .750 .0669 1.700 .0120 .305 83 .0299 .760 .0670 1.702 51 .0122 .310 .0303 .770 .0689 1.750 .0125 .317 82 .0307 .780 .0700 1.778 50 .0126 .320 .0310 .787 68 .0709 1.800 .0130 .330 81 .0311 .790 .0728 1.850 .0134 .340 1/32 .0313 .794 .0730 1.854 49 .0135 .343 80 .0315 .800 .0748 1.900 .0138 .350 .0319 .810 .0760 1.930 48 .0142 .360 .0320 .813 67 .0768 1.950 .0145 .368 79 .0323 .820 5/64 .0781 1.984 .0146 .370 .0327 .830 .0785 1.994 47 .0150 .380 .0330 .838 66 .0787 2.000 .0154 .390 .0331 .840 .0807 2.050 1/64 .0156 .397 .0335 .850 .0810 2.057 46 .0157 .400 .0339 .860 .0820 2.083 45 .0160 .406 78 .0343 .870 .0827 2.100 .0161 .410 .0346 .880 .0846 2.150 .0165 .420 .0350 .889 65 .0860 2.184 44 .0169 .430 .0350 .890 .0866 2.200 .0173 .440 .0354 .900 .0886 2.250 .0177 .450 .0358 .910 .0890 2.261 43 .0180 .457 77 .0360 .914 64 .0906 2.300 .0181 .460 .0362 .920 .0925 2.350 .0185 .470 .0366 .930 .0935 2.375 42 .0189 .480 .0370 .940 63 3/32 .0937 2.381 .0193 .490 .0374 .950 .0945 2.400 .0197 .500 .0378 .960 .0960 2.438 41 .0200 .508 76 .0380 .965 62 .0965 2.450 .0201 .510 .0382 .970 .0980 2.489 40 .0205 .520 .0386 .980 .0984 2.500 .0209 .530 .0390 .990 .0995 2. 527 39 .0210 .533 75 .0390 .991 61 .1004 2.550 .0213 .540 .0394 1.000 .1015 2.578 38 .0217 .550 .0400 1.016 60 .1024 2.600 .0220 .560 .0410 1.041 59 .1040 2.642 37 .0224 .570 .0413 1.050 .1043 2.650 .0225 .572 74 .0420 1.067 58 .1063 2.700 .0228 .580 .0430 1.092 57 .1065 2.705 36 .0232 .590 .0433 1.100 .1083 2.750

6

DRILL SIZE & DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge Fract. (inch) (mm) Gauge 7/64 .1094 2.778 .2010 5.105 7 .3189 8.100 .1100 2.794 35 13/64 .2031 5.159 .3228 8.200 .1102 2.800 .2040 5.182 6 .3230 8.204 P .1110 2.819 34 .2047 5.200 .3268 8.300 .1122 2.850 .2055 5.220 5 21/64 .3281 8.334 .1130 2.870 33 .2087 5.300 .3307 8.400 .1142 2.900 .2090 5.309 4 .3320 8.433 Q .1160 2.946 32 .2126 5.400 .3346 8.500 .1161 2.950 .2130 5.410 3 .3386 8.600 .1181 3.000 .2165 5.500 .3390 8.611 R .1200 3.048 31 7/32 .2187 5.556 .3425 8.700 .1220 3.100 .2205 5.600 11/32 .3437 8.731 1/8 .1250 3.175 .2210 5.613 2 .3465 8.800 .1260 3.200 .2244 5.700 .3480 8.839 S .1285 3.264 30 .2280 5.791 1 .3504 8.900 .1299 3.300 .2283 5.800 .3543 9.000 .1339 3.400 .2323 5.900 .3580 9.093 T .1360 3.454 29 .2340 5.944 A .3583 9.100 .1378 3.500 15/64 .2344 5.953 23/64 .3594 9.128 .1405 3.569 28 .2362 6.000 .3622 9.200 9/64 .1406 3.572 .2380 6.045 B .3661 9.300 .1417 3.600 .2402 6.100 .3680 9.347 U .1440 3.658 27 .2420 6.147 C .3701 9.400 .1457 3.700 .2441 6.200 .3740 9.500 .1470 3.734 26 .2460 6.248 D 3/8 .3750 9.525 .1495 3.797 25 .2480 6.300 .3770 9.576 V .1496 3.800 1/4 .2500 6.350 E .3780 9.600 .1520 3.861 24 .2520 6.400 .3819 9.700 .1535 3.900 .2559 6.500 .3858 9.800 .1540 3.912 23 .2570 6.528 F .3860 9.804 W 5/32 .1563 3.969 .2598 6.600 .3898 9.900 .1570 3.988 22 .2610 6.629 G 25/64 .3906 9.922 .1575 4.000 .2638 6.700 .3937 10.000 .1590 4.039 21 17/64 .2656 6.747 .3970 10.084 X .1610 4.089 20 .2660 6.756 H .3976 10.100 .1614 4.100 .2677 6.800 .4016 10.200 .1654 4.200 .2717 6.900 .4040 10.262 Y .1660 4.216 19 .2720 6.909 I .4055 10.300 .1693 4.300 .2756 7.000 13/32 .4063 10.319 .1695 4.305 18 .2770 7.036 J .4094 10.400 11/64 .1719 4.366 .2795 7.100 .4130 10.490 Z .1730 4.394 17 .2810 7.137 K .4134 10.500 .1732 4.400 9/32 .2813 7.144 .4173 10.600 .1770 4.496 16 .2835 7.200 .4213 10.700 .1772 4.500 .2874 7.300 27/64 .4219 10.716 .1800 4.572 15 .2900 7.366 L .4252 10.800 .1811 4.600 .2913 7.400 .4291 10.900 .1820 4.623 14 .2950 7.493 M .4331 11.000 .1850 4.700 13 .2953 7.500 .4370 11.100 3/16 .1875 4.762 19/64 .2969 7.541 7/16 .4375 11.112 .1890 4.800 12 .2992 7.600 .4409 11.200 .1910 4.851 11 .3020 7.671 N .4449 11.300 .1929 4.900 .3031 7.700 .4488 11.400 .1935 4.915 10 .3071 7.800 .4528 11.500 .1960 4.978 9 .3110 7.900 29/64 .4531 11.509 .1969 5.000 5/16 .3125 7.938 .4567 11.600 .1990 5.055 8 .3150 8.000 .4606 11.700 .2008 5.100 .3160 8.026 O .4646 11.800

7

DRILL SIZE & DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART Fraction 15/32

31/64

1/2

33/64

17/32

35/64

9/16 37/64 19/32 39/64 5/8 41/64 21/32 43/64 11/16 45/64 23/32 47/64

(inch) .4685 .4687 .4724 .4764 .4803 .4843 .4844 .4882 .4921 .4961 .5000 .5039 .5079 .5118 .5156 .5157 .5197 .5236 .5276 .5313 .5315 .5354 .5394 .5433 .5469 .5472 .5512 .5610 .5625 .5709 .5781 .5807 .5906 .5937 .6004 .6094 .6102 .6201 .6250 .6299 .6398 .6406 .6496 .6563 .6594 .6693 .6719 .6791 .6875 .6890 .6988 .7031 .7087 .7185 .7187 .7283 .7344

(mm) 11.900 11.906 12.000 12.100 12.200 12.300 12.303 12.400 12.500 12.600 12.700 12.800 12.900 13.000 13.097 13.100 13.200 13.300 13.400 13.494 13.500 13.600 13.700 13.800 13.891 13.900 14.000 14.250 14.288 14.500 14.684 14.750 15.000 15.081 15.250 15.478 15.500 15.750 15.875 16.000 16.250 16.272 16.500 16.669 16.750 17.000 17.066 17.250 17.462 17.500 17.750 17.859 18.000 18.250 18.256 18.500 18.653

Fraction 3/4 49/64 25/32 51/64 13/16 53/64 27/32 55/64 7/8 57/64 29/32 59/64 15/16 61/64 31/32 63/64 1 1 1/64 1 1/32 1 3/64 1 1/16 1 5/64

(inch) .7382 .7480 .7500 .7579 .7656 .7677 .7776 .7813 .7874 .7969 .7972 .8071 .8125 .8169 .8268 .8281 .8366 .8437 .8465 .8563 .8594 .8661 .8750 .8760 .8858 .8906 .8957 .9055 .9063 .9154 .9219 .9252 .9350 .9375 .9449 .9531 .9547 .9646 .9687 .9744 .9843 .9844 .9941 1.0000 1.0039 1.0138 1.0156 1.0236 1.0313 1.0335 1.0433 1.0469 1.0531 1.0625 1.0630 1.0728 1.0781

8

(mm) 18.750 19.000 19.050 19.250 19.447 19.500 19.750 19.844 20.000 20.241 20.250 20.500 20.638 20.750 21.000 21.034 21.250 21.431 21.500 21.750 21.828 22.000 22.225 22.250 22.500 22.622 22.750 23.000 23.019 23.250 23.416 23.500 23.750 23.812 24.000 24.209 24.250 24.500 24.606 24.750 25.000 25.003 25.250 25.400 25.500 25.750 25.797 26.000 26.194 26.250 26.500 26.591 26.750 26.988 27.000 27.250 27.384

Fraction 1 3/32 1 7/64 1 1/8 1 9/64 1 5/32 1 11/64 1 3/16 1 13/64 1 7/32 1 15/64 1 1/4 1 17/64 1 9/32 1 19/64 1 5/16 1 21/64 1 11/32 1 23/64 1 3/8 1 25/64 1 13/32 1 27/64 1 7/16 1 29/64 1 15/32 1 31/64 1 1/2

(inch) 1.0827 1.0925 1.0937 1.1024 1.1094 1.1122 1.1220 1.1250 1.1319 1.1406 1.1417 1.1516 1.1563 1.1614 1.1713 1.1719 1.1811 1.1875 1.1909 1.2008 1.2031 1.2106 1.2187 1.2205 1.2303 1.2344 1.2402 1.2500 1.2598 1.2656 1.2795 1.2813 1.2969 1.2992 1.3125 1.3189 1.3281 1.3386 1.3437 1.3583 1.3594 1.3750 1.3780 1.3906 1.3976 1.4063 1.4173 1.4219 1.4370 1.4375 1.4531 1.4567 1.4687 1.4764 1.4844 1.4961 1.5000

(mm) 27.500 27.750 27.781 28.000 28.178 28.250 28.500 28.575 28.750 28.972 29.000 29.250 29.369 29.500 29.750 29.766 30.000 30.162 30.250 30.500 30.559 30.750 30.956 31.000 31.250 31.353 31.500 31.750 32.000 32.147 32.500 32.544 32.941 33.000 33.338 33.500 33.734 34.000 34.131 34.500 34.528 34.925 35.000 35.322 35.500 35.719 36.000 36.116 36.500 36.512 36.909 37.000 37.306 37.500 37.703 38.000 38.100

DRILL SIZE & DECIMAL EQUIVALENT CHART Fraction (inch) 1 33/64 1.5156 1.5157 1 17/32 1.5313 1.5354 1 35/64 1.5469 1.5551 1 9/16 1.5625 1.5748 1 37/64 1.5781 1 19/32 1.5937 1.5945 1 39/64 1.6094 1.6142 1 5/8 1.6250 1.6339 1 41/64 1.6406 1.6535 1 21/32 1.6563 1 43/64 1.6719 1.6732 1 11/16 1.6875 1.6929 1 45/64 1.7031 1.7126 1 23/32 1.7187 1.7323 1 47/64 1.7344 1 3/4 1.7500 1.7520 1 49/64 1.7656 1.7717 1 25/32 1.7813 1.7913 1 51/64 1.7969 1.8110 1 13/16 1.8125 1 53/64 1.8281 1.8307 1 27/32 1.8437 1.8504 1 55/65 1.8594 1.8701 1 7/8 1.8750 1.8898 1 57/64 1.8906 1 29/32 1.9063 1.9094 1 59/64 1.9219 1.9291 1 15/16 1.9375 1.9488 1 61/64 1.9531 1.9685 1 31/32 1.9687 1 63/64 1.9844 1.9882 2 2.0000 2.0079

(mm) 38.497 38.500 38.894 39.000 39.291 39.500 39.688 40.000 40.086 40.481 40.500 40.878 41.000 41.275 41.500 41.672 42.000 42.069 42.466 42.500 42.862 43.000 43.259 43.500 43.656 44.000 44.053 44.450 44.500 44.847 45.000 45.244 45.500 45.641 46.000 46.038 46.434 46.500 46.831 47.000 47.228 47.500 47.625 48.000 48.022 48.419 48.500 48.816 49.000 49.212 49.500 49.609 50.000 50.006 50.403 50.500 50.800 51.000

Fraction (inch) 2 1/32 2.0313 2.0472 2 1/16 2.0625 2.0866 2 3/32 2.0937 2 1/8 2.1250 2.1260 2 5/32 2.1563 2.1654 2 3/16 2.1875 2.2047 2 7/32 2.2187 2.2441 2 1/4 2.2500 2 9/32 2.2813 2.2835 2 5/16 2.3125 2.3228 2 11/32 2.3437 2.3622 2 3/8 2.3750 2.4016 2 13/32 2.4063 2 7/16 2.4375 2.4409 2 15/32 2.4687 2.4803 2 1/2 2.5000 2.5197 2 17/32 2.5313 2.5591 2 9/16 2.5625 2 19/32 2.5937 2.5984 2 5/8 2.6250 2.6378 2 21/32 2.6563 2.6772 2 11/16 2.6875 2.7165 2 23/32 2.7187 2 3/4 2.7500 2.7559 2 25/32 2.7813 2.7953 2 13/16 2.8125 2.8346 2 27/32 2.8437 2.8740 2 7/8 2.8750 2 29/32 2.9063 2.9134 2 15/16 2.9375 2.9528 2 31/32 2.9687 2.9921 3 3.0000 3 1/32 3.0313

9

(mm) 51.594 52.000 52.388 53.000 53.181 53.975 54.000 54.769 55.000 55.562 56.000 56.356 57.000 57.150 57.944 58.000 58.738 59.000 59.531 60.000 60.325 61.000 61.119 61.912 62.000 62.706 63.000 63.500 64.000 64.294 65.000 65.088 65.881 66.000 66.675 67.000 67.469 68.000 68.262 69.000 69.056 69.850 70.000 70.644 71.000 71.438 72.000 72.231 73.000 73.025 73.819 74.000 74.612 75.000 75.406 76.000 76.200 76.994

Fraction 3 1/16 3 31/32 3 1/8 3 5/32 3 3/16 3 7/32 3 1/4 3 9/32 3 5/16 3 11/32 3 3/8 3 13/32 3 7/16 3 15/32 3 1/2 3 17/32 3 9/16 3 19/32 3 5/8 3 21/32 3 11/16 3 23/32 3 3/4 3 25/32 3 13/16 3 27/32 3 7/8 3 29/32 3 15/16 3 31/32 4

(inch) 3.0315 3.0625 3.0709 3.0937 3.1102 3.1250 3.1496 3.1563 3.1875 3.1890 3.2187 3.2283 3.2500 2.2677 3.2813 3.3071 3.3125 3.3437 3.3465 3.3750 3.3858 3.4063 3.4252 3.4375 3.4646 3.4687 3.5000 3.5039 3.5313 3.5433 3.5625 3.5827 3.5937 3.6220 3.6250 3.6492 3.6614 3.6875 3.7008 3.7187 3.7402 3.7500 3.7795 3.7813 3.8125 3.8189 3.8437 3.8583 3.8750 3.8976 3.9063 3.9370 3.9375 3.9687 4.0000

(mm) 77.000 77.788 78.000 78.581 79.000 79.375 80.000 80.169 80.962 81.000 81.756 82.000 82.550 83.000 83.344 84.000 84.138 84.931 85.000 85.725 86.000 86.519 87.000 87.312 88.000 88.106 88.900 89.000 89.694 90.000 90.488 91.000 91.281 92.000 92.075 92.689 93.000 93.662 94.000 94.456 95.000 95.250 96.000 96.044 96.838 97.000 97.631 98.000 98.425 99.000 99.219 100.000 100.012 100.806 101.604

LOCATING HOLE COORDINATES FOR EQUALLY SPACED HOLES Multiply values shown by diameter of pitch circle (Metric or Inch Units)

8-Hole

3-Hole B

A

A = 0.25000 B = 0.43301 C = 0.86603

C

D

B

C

A = 0.27059 B = 0.27059 C = 0.46194 D = 0.19134

A 9-Hole

G

B

C

A = 0.18164 B = 0.55902 C = 0.40451 D = 0.29389

A

D B

A

D

H

F

E

5-Hole

C

A = 0.46985 B = 0.17101 C = 0.26201 D = 0.21985 E = 0.38302 F = 0.32139 G = 0.17101 H = 0.29620 10-Hole

6-Hole

C B

A = 0.29389 B = 0.09549 C = 0.18164 D = 0.25000 E = 0.15451

E D

A = 0.43301 B = 0.25000 C = 0.50000

B A

A

C

11-Hole

K 7-Hole

F

E C

B A

D

G

A = 0.27052 B = 0.33922 C = 0.45049 D = 0.21694 E = 0.31175 F = 0.39092

L

H

F

A

D B

C

E

A = 0.47975 B = 0.14087 C = 0.23700 D = 0.15231 E = 0.11704 F = 0.25627 G = 0.42063 H = 0.27032 K = 0.18449 L = 0.21291 12-Hole

8-Hole

E

A = 0.35355 B = 0.14645

C

A B

B A

D A B

10

A = 0.22415 B = 0.12941 C = 0.48296 D = 0.12941 E = 0.25882

TRIGONOMETRY FORMULAE FOR SOLUTION OF TRIANGLES The Pythagoras Theorem

In a right-angle triangle ABC, the square of the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides.

C

c = Hypotenuse; a & b = the other two sides. c2 = a2 + b2

b c a

A

B

` c = a2 + b2 a = c2 - b2 b = c2 - a2 Example: To find c when a = 8 cm and b = 6cm 2

2

c = a +b

2

`c =

2

2

a +b =

2

2

8 +6 =

64 = 36 =

100 = 10 cm

The 3-4-5Rule

To construct a right-angle triangle without measuring instruments, using the 3-4-5 rule.

• Choose any suitable unit of measure (length).

• Construct a ∆ whose sides measure 3 units, 4 units, 5 units.

• The angle opposite the 5 units is a right angle.

5 units

3 units

4 units

Formulae for the solution of Right Angle Triangles A

Sin i =

b C Parts Given

c a

Cos i = i

A

a&c

sin A =

a&b

tan A =

c&b

B

cos A =

Tan i =

c

a b b c

cos B =

tan B = sin B =

=

adjacent

=

hypotenuse opposite

=

adjacent

b

hypotenuse

Cosec i =

c a

b

hypotenuse adjacent adjacent

Cotan i =

a

b =

opposite

b

a c

opposite

Sec i =

c

Parts to be Found a

B a

opposite hypotenuse

c

- a

2

c -b

a

=

b

a

2

+ b

2

A&a

B = 90°- A

A&b

B = 90°- A

a = b x tan A

A&c

B = 90°- A

a = c x sin A

b =

a tan A

c = c =

b = c x cos A

Formulae for the solution of Oblique Angle Triangles a b A

The Sine rule:

c s in A = s in B = s in C

c b

The Cosine rule: a2 = b2 + c2 - 2bc cos A 2 a b = a2 + c2 - 2ac cos B B C c2 = a2 + b2 - 2ab cos C

11

a

2

c =

a =

c

=

b

c

b

c

2

a b

c

=

a sin A a cos A

2

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION

M

Y

To construct a perpendicular to a line at point X

X

• Draw arcs from equidistant points on both sides of point X having the same radius.

• Draw intersecting arcs from M and N. • Connect point of intersection Y with point X. • XY is the perpendicular of MN.

N

To construct a perpendicular to a straight line at its end point X

Y

• With X as centre, draw a sufficiently large arc cutting the base line at one end at M extending upwards.

• With M as centre, draw an arc to cut the former at N. • With N as centre and with the same radius, draw an arc in the same direction.

• Draw a straight line through M and N to cut the last arc at Y. • The line XY is perpendicular to XM at point X.

N

M

X

Y

To bisect a line

A

B X

X

A

Y

O

B

C

B D X

A

C C B

P

To construct a parallel line to AB through point X • With O as centre, at any point on AB, draw a large arc through point X, extending downwards to cut the line AB at C. • With X and C as centres and with the same radius, draw arcs to intersect at Y. • A straight line drawn through points X and Y is parallel to AB. To bisect an angle

Y

D

• With any radius greater than one-half AB, draw two arcs from A on either side of the line AB. Similarly, using the same radius, draw two arcs from B intersecting the arcs drawn from point A. Draw a line joining points X and Y. • The line XY is the perpendicular bisector of the line AB.

• With X as centre, draw an arc intersecting XA and XB at C and D respectively.

• With C and D as centres, draw arcs of equal radii intersecting at Y. • XY is the required bisector.

To locate the centre of a circle/arc

A

• Draw any two chords AB and CD in the circle.

• The intersecting point P of the perpendicular bisectors of the two chords is the centre point required.

12

GEOMETRICAL CONSTRUCTION L

Square/Octagon

N

• Draw two lines LN, MO at right angels and a circle whose centre is the point of intersection of these two lines.

• Join the points LMNO where the circle cuts the lines, to get the square.

• By drawing the two diagonals which bisect the lines LM, MN, NO and OL, the other four corners required to complete the regular octagon can be constructed.

O

M

A

Hexagon/Dodecagon

D

• Starting at point A, mark 6 arcs around the circle equal to the radius of the circle.

• These points are the vertices of the required Hexagon • Draw lines bisecting AB, BC & CD, through the centre of the circle. These points together with the vertices of the constructed hexagon, form the vertices of the dodecagon.

A

Pentagon/Decagon

F

B

E

C

C

P

Y

O

D

B

• Draw two diameter lines AB & CD intersecting at right angles at the centre of the circle.

• Bisect radius PD at O. With O as centre and OA as radius, mark an arc cutting the horizontal line CD at Y. • Length AY is the side length of the Pentagon which can be marked off along the circumference.

• To construct a Decagon, mark 5 additional arcs starting from point B. Ellipse by means of two circles

C

A

B

D

r

• Draw two concentric circles with diameters AB and CD representing the major and minor axis of the ellipse to be constructed. Draw additional diameters.

• Now draw vertical lines starting from the points of intersection of these diameters with the circumference of bigger circle.

• Then draw equal number of horizontal lines starting from the points of intersection of the diameters with the circumference of the smaller circle to meet the vertical lines.

• Joining these intersecting points will complete the ellipse.

Curvature

r

• Draw lines parallel to the curvature at a distance = r.

• The point of intersection is the centre of the required radii.

13

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR FINDING DIMENSIONS & AREA OF PLANE FIGURES Square

c = D # 0.14645 D = s # 1.4142 = 1.414 A

c

D

s = D # 0.7071 = A Area A = s 2 = 1 2 D 2

s

Rectangle

a = d2 - b2 = A ' b b = d 2 - a2 = A ' a d = a2 + b 2 Area A = a x b = a d 2 - a 2 = b d 2 - b 2

a

d

b c

Triangle

c = d x 0.5 = D x 0.25 D = s x 1.1547 = 2 x d d = s x 0.57735 s = D x 0.866

D d

s

Right Angle Triangle

a = b 2 + c2

a b

b = a2 - c2 c = a2 - b 2 Area A = 1 2 b # c

c

Acute Angle Triangle

c

a

Area A = 1 2 b # h

h

Also Area A = S (S - a) (S - b) (S - c) where S = 1 2 (a + b + c) b Obtuse Angle Triangle

c a b

h

Area A = 1 2 b # h Also Area A = S (S - a) (S - b) (S - c) where S = 1 2 (a + b + c) 14

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR FINDING DIMENSIONS & AREA OF PLANE FIGURES Circle

D

Circumference C = 2rr = 6.2832r = 3.1416D D = C ' 3.1416 = 1.128 A r = C ' 6.2832 = 0.564 A Area A = rr 2 = 3.1416r 2 rD 2 Also Area A = 4 = 0.7854D 2

r

Hollow Circle

d D

Area A = 0.785(D2 - d2)

b

Sector of Circle

θ D

Arc length b = Area A =

r

h θ r

a

b#r 2

Segment of a Circle

s

D

r#D#i 360

a

r # r 2 # i s (r - h) - 2 360 i where s = 2r # sin a 2 k i and h = r a 1 - cos a 2 kk Area A =

Trapezium / Trapezoid

h b

a+b 2 #h 2A 2A 2A where a = h - b, b = h - a, h = a + b Area A =

Parallelogram

h b

Area A = b # h A A where b = h , h = b 15

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR FINDING DIMENSIONS & AREA OF PLANE FIGURES Pentagon

D d

s

c

C = D x 0.0955 D = S x 1.7013 = d x 1.2361 d = S x 1.3764 = D x 0.809 S = D x 0.5878 Area A = s2 x 1.7205 Hexagon

D

c = D x 0.067 D = s x 2 = d x 1.1547 d = S x 1.7321 = D x 0.866 s = D x 0.5 Area A = s2 x 2.5981

d

s

c

Octagon

D s

c

d

Decagon (10 sides)

D c

d

s

d

c

r R

c = D x 0.0245 D = s x 3.2360 = d x 1.0515 d = s x 3.0776 = D x 0.9511 s = D x 0.3090 Area A = s2 x 7.6942 Dodecagon (12 sides)

D

s

c = D x 0.038 D = s x 2.6131 = d x 1.0824 d = s x 2.4142 = D x 0.9239 s = D x 0.3827 Area A = s2 x 4.8284

d

C = D x 0.0170 D = s x 3.8637 = d x 1.0353 d = s x 3.7320 = D x 0.9659 s = D x 0.2588 Area A = s2 x 11.1961

Ellipse

r Area A = 4 # D # d = 0.785 # D # d

D

Circumference C can be calculated and depends on the ratio d : D (Refer table) d:D

C = D times

d:D

C = D times

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

2.1010 2.1930 2.3013 2.4221

0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9

2.5527 2.6912 2.9361 2.9866

16

Example : To calculate C when

d = 100 mm, D = 200 mm ratio d : D = 100 รท 200 = 0.5 ` C = D x ratio ` C = D x 2.4221

= 200 x 2.4221 = 484.42 mm

DISTANCE ACROSS CORNERS OF SQUARES & HEXAGONS

AF

H

Metric H(mm) AF(mm) 1.1547 41 2.3094 42 3.4641 43 4.6188 44 5.7735 45 6.9282 46 8.0829 47 9.2376 48 10.3923 49 11.5470 50 12.7017 51 13.8564 52 15.0111 53 16.1658 54 17.3205 55 18.4752 56 19.6299 57 20.7846 58 21.9393 59 23.0940 60 24.2487 61 25.4034 62 26.5581 63 27.7128 64 28.8675 65 30.0222 66 31.1769 67 32.3316 68 33.4863 69 34.6410 70 35.7957 71 36.9504 72 38.1051 73 39.2598 74 40.4145 75 41.5692 76 42.7239 77 43.8786 78 45.0333 79 46.1880 80

S(mm) 57.9828 59.3970 60.8112 62.2254 63.6396 65.0538 66.4681 67.8823 69.2965 70.7107 72.1249 73.5391 74.9533 76.3676 77.7818 79.1960 80.6102 82.0244 83.4386 84.8528 86.2671 87.6813 89.0955 90.5097 91.9239 93.3381 94.7523 96.1666 97.5808 98.9950 100.4092 101.8234 103.2376 104.6518 106.0661 107.4803 108.8945 110.3087 111.7229 113.1371

S

AF(mm) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40

S(mm) 1.4142 2.8284 4.2426 5.6569 7.0711 8.4853 9.8995 11.3137 12.7279 14.1421 15.5564 16.9706 18.3848 19.7990 21.2132 22.6274 24 .0416 25.4559 26.8701 28.2843 29.6985 31.1127 32.5269 33.9411 35.3554 36.7696 38.1838 39.5980 41 .0122 42.4264 43.8406 45.2548 46.6691 48.0833 49.4975 50.9117 52.3259 53.7401 55.1543 56.5686

17

S = 1.414214 x AF H = 1.154701 x AF

H(mm) 47.3427 48.4974 49.6521 50.8068 51.9615 53.1162 54.2709 55.4256 56.5803 57.7351 58.8898 60.0445 61.1992 62.3539 63.5086 64.6633 65.8180 66.9727 68.1274 69.2821 70.4368 71.5915 72.7462 73.9009 75.0556 76.2103 77.3650 78.5197 79.6744 80.8291 81.9838 83.1385 84.2932 85.4479 86.6026 87.7573 88.9120 90.0667 91.2214 92.3761

AF(inch) 1/32 1/16 3/32 1/8 5/32 3/16 7/32 1/4 9/32 5/16 11/32 3/8 13/32 7/16 15/32 1/2 17/32 9/16 19/32 5/8 21/32 11/16 23/32 3/4 25/32 13/16 27/32 7/8 29/32 15/16 31/32 1 1 1/8 1 1/4 1 3/8 1 1/2 1 5/8 1 3/4 1 7/8 2

Imperial S(inch) 0.0442 0.0884 0.1326 0.1768 0. 2210 0.2652 0.3094 0.3536 0.3977 0.4419 0.4861 0.5303 0.5745 0.6187 0.6629 0.7071 0.7513 0.7955 0.8397 0.8839 0.9281 0.9723 1.0165 1.0607 1.1049 1.1490 1.1932 1.2374 1.2816 1.3258 1.3700 1.4142 1.5910 1.7678 1.9445 2.1213 2.2981 2.4749 2.6517 2.8284

H(inch) 0.0361 0.0722 0.1083 0.1443 0.1804 0.2165 0.2526 0.2887 0.3248 0.3608 0.3969 0.4330 0.4691 0.5052 0.5413 0.5774 0.6134 0.6495 0.6856 0.7217 0.7578 0.7939 0.8299 0.8660 0.9021 0.9382 0.9743 1.0104 1.0464 1.0825 1.1186 1.1547 1.2990 1.4434 1.5877 1.7321 1.8764 2.0207 2.1651 2.3094

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR FINDING AREA & VOLUME OF SOLID FIGURES

s s

s

h

Surface area = 6 x s x s = 6s2 Volume = s x s x s = s3

Prism

Surface area = 2(a x b) + 2(a x h) + 2(b x h) Volume = a x b x h

b

a

Cube

A

h

c

a

Prism

Surf.area = 2 x area base A + (a x h) + (b x h) + (c x h) Volume = area base A x h

b

Sphere

S urface Area = r # d 2 = 3.1416d 2 r # d3 Volume = 6 = 0.5236d 3

r d s h r

Spherical Segment

Surface area of segment = 2rrh h s2 h2 Volume = r # h 2 a r - 3 k or = r # h a 8 + 6 k

Cone

s

h

D

r

r Surface area = 4 # D ^D + 2s h r h Volume = 4 # D 2 # 3

Frustum of a Cone

s

d

Surface area = 0.7854D 2 + 0.7854d 2 + r # h

D

r

r Volume = 12 # h ^D 2 + D # d + d 2 h 18

D+d 2 #s

USEFUL FORMULAE FOR FINDING AREA & VOLUME OF SOLID FIGURES Cylinder

r h

Surface area = r # d # h + 2rr 2 r Volume = 4 # d 2 # h or = rr 2 h

d

Frustum of a Cylinder

h

k

r A

Pyramid (Square / Rectangular base)

E D

B

h

A

B

Surf. area = area9BCD + area9ABC + area9ACD + area9ABD area9BCD # h Volume = 3

D C

Frustum of a Pyramid (Square base)

O M D

N C

A B

Surface area = r 2 # D # D c Volume = a # b # r # D c

a

Note: s = centre of gravity of cross-section Dc = diameter of circle of centre of gravity

s

Ring of Circular Cross-Section

d dc

s

h

Surface area = areaABCD + areaLMNO + 4 (areaABML) h Volume = 3 ^LM h2 + LM # AB + ^AB h2 Solids of Revolution

d dc

d

2 ^area9ACD h BC # CD # h 3

Pyramid (Triangular base)

h

b

Surface area = BC # C D + 2 ^area9ABC h + Volume =

C

L

Area of cylinderical surface = r # r # ^h + kh r Volume = 2 # r 2 # ^h + kh

r

Surface area = r 2 # d # D c r Volume = 4 # d 2 # r # D c Note: s = centre of gravity of cross-section Dc = diameter of circle of centre of gravity 19

USEFUL TOLERANCES Nominal Diameter (mm)

HOLES

SHAFTS

1 over 3 over 6 over 10 over 18 over 30 over 50 over 80 Tolerance from to 3 to 6 to 10 to 18 to 30 to 50 to 80 to120 mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

mm

e8

-.014 -.028

-.020 -.038

-.025 -.047

-.032 -.059

-.040 -.073

-.050 -.089

-.060 -.106

-.072 -.126

e9

-.014 -.039

-.020 -.050

-.025 -.061

-.032 -.075

-.040 -.092

-.050 -.112

-.060 -.134

-.072 -.159

f6

-.006 -.012

-.010 -.018

-.013 -.022

-.016 -.027

-.020 -.033

-.025 -.041

-.030 -.049

-.036 -.058

f7

-.006 -.016

-.010 -.022

-.013 -.028

-.016 -.034

-.020 -.041

-.025 -.050

-.030 -.060

-.036 -.071

g6

-.002 -.008

-.004 -.012

-.005 -.014

-.006 -.017

-.007 -.020

-.009 -.025

-.010 -.029

-.012 -.034

h6

.000 -.006

.000 -.008

.000 -.009

.000 -.011

.000 -.013

.000 -.016

.000 -.019

.000 -.022

h7

.000 -.010

.000 -.012

.000 -.015

.000 -.018

.000 -.021

.000 -.025

.000 -.030

.000 -.035

h8

.000 -.014

.000 -.018

.000 -.022

.000 -.027

.000 -.033

.000 -.039

.000 -.046

.000 -.054

h9

.000 -.025

.000 -.030

.000 -.036

.000 -.043

.000 -.052

.000 -.062

.000 -.074

.000 -.087

h11

.000 -.060

.000 -.075

.000 -.090

.000 -.110

.000 -.130

.000 -.160

.000 -.190

.000 -.220

h12

.000 -.100

.000 -.120

.000 -.150

.000 -.180

.000 -.210

.000 -.250

.000 -.300

.000 -.350

k6

+.006 .000

+.009 +.001

+.010 +.001

+.012 +.001

+.015 +.002

+.018 +.002

+.021 +.002

+.025 +.003

n6

+.010 +.004

+.016 +.008

+.019 +.010

+.023 +.012

+.028 +.015

+.033 +.017

+.039 +.020

+.045 +.023

p6

+.012 +.006

+.020 +.012

+.024 +.015

+.029 +.018

+.035 +.022

+.042 +.026

+.051 +.032

+.059 +.037

F8

+.020 +.006

+.028 +.010

+.035 +.013

+.043 +.016

+.053 +.020

+.064 +.025

+.076 +.030

+.090 +.036

G7

+.012 +.002

+.016 +.004

+.020 +.005

+.024 +.006

+.028 +.007

+.034 +.009

+.040 +.010

+.047 +.012

H7

+.010 .000

+.012 .000

+.015 .000

+.018 .000

+.021 .000

+.025 .000

+.030 .000

+.035 .000

H8

+.014 .000

+.018 .000

+.022 .000

+.027 .000

+.033 .000

+.039 .000

+.046 .000

+.054 .000

H9

+.025 .000

+.030 .000

+.036 .000

+.043 .000

+.052 .000

+.062 .000

+.074 .000

+.087 .000

H12

+.100 .000

+.120 .000

+.150 .000

+.180 .000

+.210 .000

+.250 .000

+.300 .000

+.350 .000

20

METRIC & INCH DESIGNATIONS FOR ANSI PREFERRED LIMITS & FITS (ANSI B4.1-1967, R1979) & (ANSI B4.2-1978, R1984)

The following chart covers a selection of Preferred Fits (Hole Basis) for Holes & Shafts which will meet the needs of a large proportion of the requirements for Standard Engineering Components.

Hole & Shaft Designation Symbols Metric

Description / Application

Inch

Clearance Fits H11 / c11

H10 / c9 (Rc8)

Loose running fit Wide commercial tolerances, used where accuracy is not essential.

H9 / d9

H9 / d8 (Rc7)

Free running fit High running speeds, large temperature variations, heavy pressures and where accuracy is not essential.

H8 / f7

H8 / f7 (Rc4)

Close running fit Accurate location at moderate speeds on accurate machines.

H7 / g6

H6 / g5 (Rc2)

Sliding fit Accurate location where components are intended to move and turn freely but not run freely.

H7 / h6

H7 / h6 (Lc2)

Locational clearance fit Snug fit for locating stationary components which need to be freely assembled and disassembled.

Transition Fits H7 / k6

H7 / k6 (Lt3)

Locational transition fit (Tap fit) Accurate location where assembly requires gentle persuasion.

H7 / n6

H7 / n6 (Lt5)

Locational transition fit More accurate location where assembly permits greater interference.

Interference Fits H7 / p6

H7 / p6 (Ln2)

Locational interference Prime accuracy of location where assembly requires alignment and rigidity.

H7 / s6

H7 / s6 (Fn2)

Medium drive fit (Press fit) For assembly of steel parts and shrink fits on light sections.

H7 / u6

H7 / u6 (Fn4)

Force fit (Press fit) For assembly of components where high pressures and stresses are permitted.

21

PREFERRED LIMITS & FITS The following chart covers a simple selection of Preferred Fits (Hole Basis) for Holes & Shafts which will meet the needs of a large proportion of the requirements for Standard Engineering Components.

To scale for diameter range 18mm to 30mm

Type of Fit Clearance Free Running

Close Running

Locational Clearance

Sliding

+ .050 HOLES 0 SHAFTS - .050

- .100 Tolerances in mm

Nominal Dia. (mm) Above Upto & incl.

0

3

3

6

6

10

10

18

18

30

30

50

50

80

80

120

120

180

180

250

250

315

315

400

400

500

H

e

H

f

H

g

H7

h6

+.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.036 .000 +.043 .000 +.052 .000 +.062 .000 +.074 .000 +.087 .000 +.100 .000 +.115 .000 +.130 .000 +.140 .000 +.155 .000

-.014 -.039 -.020 -.050 -.025 -.061 -.032 -.075 -.040 -.092 -.050 -.112 -.060 -.134 -.072 -.159 -.084 -.185 -.100 -.215 -.110 -.240 -.125 -.265 -.135 -.290

+.014 .000 +.018 .000 +.022 .000 +.027 .000 +.033 .000 +.039 .000 +.046 .000 +.054 .000 +.063 .000 +.072 .000 +.081 .000 +.089 .000 +.097 .000

-.006 -.016 -.010 -.022 -.013 -.028 -.016 -.034 -.020 -.041 -.025 -.050 -.030 -.060 -.036 -.071 -.043 -.083 -.050 -.096 -.056 -.108 -.062 -.119 -.068 -.131

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000

-.002 -.008 -.004 -.012 -.005 -.014 -.006 -.017 -.007 -.020 -.009 -.025 -.010 -.029 -.012 -.034 -.014 -.039 -.015 -.044 -.017 -.049 -.018 -.054 -.020 -.060

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000

.000 -.006 .000 -.008 .000 -.009 .000 -.011 .000 -.013 .000 -.016 .000 -.019 .000 -.022 .000 -.025 .000 -.029 .000 -.032 .000 -.036 .000 -.040

9

9

8

22

7

7

6

PREFERRED LIMITS & FITS The following chart covers a simple selection of Preferred Fits (Hole Basis) for Holes & Shafts which will meet the needs of a large proportion of the requirements for Standard Engineering Components.

To scale for diameter range 30 mm to 50 mm + .050 + .025

Type of Fit Transition Interference Locational Locational Locational Transition Transition Interference Medium Drive

HOLES SHAFTS

0

Tolerances in mm

Nominal Size (mm) Above Upto & Incl.

0

3

3

6

6

10

10

18

18

30

30

50

50

65

65

80

80

100

100

120

120

140

140

160

160

180

180

200

200

225

225

250

250

280

280

315

315

355

355

400

400

450

450

500

H7

k6

H7

n6

H7

p6

H7

s6

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000 +.063 .000

+.006 .000 +.009 +.001 +.010 +.001 +.012 +.001 +.015 +.002 +.018 +.002 +.021 +.002 +.021 +.002 +.025 +.003 +.025 +.003 +.028 +.003 +.028 +.003 +.028 +.003 +.033 +.004 +.033 +.004 +.033 +.004 +.036 +.004 +.036 +.004 +.040 +.004 +.040 +.004 +.045 +.005 +.045 +.005

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000 +.063 .000

+.010 +.004 +.016 +.008 +.019 +.010 +.023 +.012 +.028 +.015 +.033 +.017 +.039 +.020 +.039 +.020 +.045 +.023 +.045 +.023 +.052 +.027 +.052 +.027 +.052 +.027 +.060 +.031 +.060 +.031 +.060 +.031 +.066 +.034 +.066 +.034 +.073 +.037 +.073 +.037 +.080 +.040 +.080 +.040

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000 +.063 .000

+.012 +.006 +.020 +.012 +.024 +.015 +.029 +.018 +.035 +.022 +.042 +.026 +.051 +.032 +.051 +.032 +.059 +.037 +.059 +.037 +.068 +.043 +.068 +.043 +.068 +.043 +.079 +.050 +.079 +.050 +.079 +.050 +.088 +.056 +.088 +.056 +.098 +.062 +.098 +.062 +.108 +.068 +.108 +.068

+.010 .000 +.012 .000 +.015 .000 +.018 .000 +.021 .000 +.025 .000 +.030 .000 +.030 .000 +.035 .000 +.035 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.040 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.046 .000 +.052 .000 +.052 .000 +.057 .000 +.057 .000 +.063 .000 +.063 .000

+.020 +.014 +.027 +.019 +.032 +.023 +.039 +.028 +.048 +.035 +.059 +.043 +.072 +.053 +.078 +.059 +.093 +.071 +.101 +.079 +.117 +.092 +.125 +.100 +.133 +.108 +.151 +.122 +.159 +.130 +.169 +.140 +.190 +.158 +.202 +.170 +.226 +.190 +.244 +.208 +.272 +.232 +.292 +.252

23

COMMON WORKSHOP METALS The following is a compilation of metals, commonly used in day-to-day engineering applications. Its aim is to provide a basic knowledge of the metal’s properties and general uses. It is always advisable to seek detailed information from the metal supplier.

Designation Aluminium

Description and Uses

Strong alloy offering excellent machinability for the manufacture of machine components and suitable for high speed repetition machining.

This alloy offers excellent machinability combined with outstanding 7075 wear resistance & excellent polishability.

Bronze & Brass Bronze: Leaded gunmetal Bronze, excellent machinability used in LG 2 bushings, bearings, pump/valve bodies. Also available in Hollow Bar. Bronze: Phosphor Bronze very good corrosion resistance good PB 1 toughness used in gears, bearings and bushes.

Brass: Free machining Brass used for repetition machining, high C38510 speed turning &threading.

Bright Mild Steels Cold finished mild steel for machined parts or shafting, can be case 1020 hardened and welds readily.

Medium tensile steel for shafts and medium stressed parts. can be 1030 welded if precautions are taken.

The addition of lead to this steel gives increased machinability, without 12L14 marked effect on the mechanical properties. For use in automatic and semi-automatic machines for repetition parts.

Carbon Steel A fully killed medium carbon steel, suitable for medium stressed parts 1045 in machinery & industrial tools. Can be flame or induction hardened.

Soft ductile, easily welded grade, case hardenable. Main usage 1010 general fabrication.

Carbon Hollow Bar Improved carbon steel grade, universally used to reduce machining 20MnV6 time, good weldability, can be case hardened.

Case Hardening Steels Case hardening chromium-nickel steel for applications requiring high EN-36A toughness & core strength, particularly in large cross sections. Suitable for highly stressed parts, gearwheels & crankshafts.

Cast Iron Essentially a Pearlitic grain structure Grey Cast Iron with excellent wear 35B resistance and good machinability. Used for Hydraulic & Pneumatic piston, end caps, support bearings, etc.

Chrome Bar A hardened and tempered alloy steel grade suitable for highly stressed 4140 mechanical parts.

2017A

24

COMMON WORKSHOP METALS Designation

Description and Uses

Cold Work Steels D2

Dimensionally stable, high carbon, high chrome featuring excellent toughness can be air hardened or bath nitrided. Suitable for heavy duty cutting tools, blanking and punching tools.

Copper C14700

A sulphur bearing copper for use in automatic & semi-automatic machines for repetition parts.

High Speed Steels M2

Tungsten Molybdenum High Speed Steel with excellent toughness and cutting properties. This standard grade has a wide variety of uses including drills, taps, broaches, milling tools, cold work tools, etc.

High Tensile 4140

Suitable for applications requiring high strength & good toughness, particularly in medium to large cross-sections, medium to high stressed parts, can be flame or induction hardened or nitrided.

4340

For applications requiring high strength & toughness. Molybdenum addition prevents temper brittleness. General engineering, automotive & aircraft applications, can be flame, induction hardened or nitrided.

Key Steel 1026, 1030

It is manufactured to close tolerances and used extensively in the manufacture of keys for shafts.

Plastic Mould Steel M200

Suitable for plastic moulds and holder blocks for the plastic processing, die casting industries and components for general mechanical engineering. Can be case and flame hardened, gas nitrided and chromium plated.

Silver Steel AISI 01

Accurately ground round bar that is used for a variety of applications such as shafts, pins, etc. Oil/water hardenable.

Stainless Steel 303

Free cutting steel for components subjected to corrosion in mechanical and plant engineering, mass produced items such as screws, bolts and nuts. Cannot be thermally hardened.

304

General purpose austenitic stainless steel. Frequently used where welding without subsequent heat treatment is involved. Cannot be thermally hardened.

316

Marine grade offering good corrosion resistance used in food processing, chemical, fishing, hospital and brewery equipment.

Cannot be thermally hardened.

316L

The same as 316 with improved weldability and machinability. Cannot be thermally hardened.

NOTE: Refer Workpiece Material Comparison Table on pages 30 -33 for Equivalent National Material Designation Numbers.

25

COMMON ENGINEERING PLASTICS The following is a compilation of Common Plastics used in the Engineering Industry for the manufacture/fabrication of components. It is by no means a comprehensive list and as always, it is best to seek the advice of the manufacturer for specific applications.

Thermoplastics soften to a flowable state when heated and hardened upon cooling.

Thermosetting Plastics set or harden into permanent shape and this is irreversible.

Acrylonitrile - Butadiene - Styrene ABS - Magnum ® This is a rigid, low-cost thermoplastic which can be easily machined to a fine finish. It can be electroplated and is used in the production of mouldings, pipe fittings and products needing long life.

Acrylic - Plexiglas ® Lucite ® Perspex ® Altuglas ® It is an optically clear transparent plastic having excellent weather resistance, high impact strength, good chemical resistance and is easily thermoformed and fabricated. It is extensively used for instrument covers & enclosures, safety shields, tanks, etc.

Bakelite It is a hard and stiff plastic and comes with a variety of fillers such as Canvas, Paper, Cloth, etc. Being a good insulator, it is used extensively in the manufacture of base plate, handles and knobs for the electrical industry.

Chlorinated PVC CPVC - Corzan ® This is a high heat, corrosion-resistant material with properties similar to PVC and ideally suited for components where high temperatures are necessary. CPVC pipes are preferred over PCV where mechanical strength at higher temperatures is required.

Fibreglass It has a high strength-to-weight ratio with excellent corrosion resistant and dielectric properties. Used extensively in boat building and tank manufacturing.

High Density Polyethylene HDPE - Polystone HD 300 ® It is an economical, high-impact, lightweight thermoplastic with excellent chemical resistance and high tensile strength. It exhibits excellent resilience, stress, crack and abrasion resistance. It is easily machined and requires welded or mechanical assembly.

High Molecular Weight Polyethylene HMWPE - Polystone HM 500 ® It has high rigidity and creep resistance, ideal to use in the food industry in the manufacture of cutting boards, underlays in food preparation and machine parts.

Phenolics - Tufnol ® It has minimum thermal expansion, high compressive strength and excellent abrasion resistance with a low coefficient of friction. It is used extensively for electrical insulators bushs, busbar supports and cable clamps.

Polyacetal (Acetal) POM - Delrin ® Ertacetal C ® It has high hardness, stiffness, excellent creep resistance & dimensional stability with a low coefficient of friction. Used extensively for the manufacture of precision gears and bearings, electrical insulators, and parts which operate in water between 60º and 90ºC. Polyamide (Nylon) PA - Nylatron ® Nylube ® Kevlon ® Stanyl 46 ® It has high damping properties, good dimensional stability, self-lubricating, high wear resistance with excellent bearing & sliding properties. Used extensively to manufacture gears, bearings, rollers, wear pads and guide wheels. There are many speciality grades available in this range.

26

COMMON ENGINEERING PLASTICS Polycarbonate PC - Lexan ® Makrolon ® Hyzod ® It is a virtually unbreakable transparent thermoplastic used extensively in safety and security - related applications. Common uses include safety shields, enclosures, safety spectacles, machine guards and bullet-resistant applications. It is easily glued.

Polyethylene PE It has excellent abrasion resistance, low coefficient of frction, very high surface release, chemical resistance, impact resistance and damping properties. It is used extensively in the food industry where direct contact with foodstuffs is necessary.

Polyether-Ether-Ketone PEEK - Victrex ® Ketron ® It has excellent wear, toughness and impact strength and good dimensional stability.

Addition of graphite and carbon fibres results in a bearing grade with low friction and long wear applications. Used in the manufacture of gears, bearings, valves and pumps.

Polyethylene Terephthalate PET This is a dimensionally stable thermoplastic with excellent machinig characteristics and used in place of Acetal when machining is the main criteria.

Polypropylene PP - Simona ® Gehr ® PolystonePP ® It is an economical, lightweight thermoplastic that offers high corrosion, abrasion and impact resistance. It also exhibits high tensile strength and stiffness at elevated temperatures and is superior to HDPE. It is easily machined and welded.

Polysulphone PSU - Ultrason S ® Udel ® It offers excellent radiation stability and good chemical resistance, often replacing polycarbonate whenever higher temperature (in excess of 150 ºC) is required. Used commonly in the food processing industry in milk machine pumps, valves and filtration plates and for medical components subject to sterilisation.

Polytetrafluoroethylene PTFE - Teflon ® Tetron ® It has a combination of chemical, electrical, mechanical and thermal properties and the lowest coefficient of friction unmatched in other plastics. It is the most chemically inert of any material. Being non-stick, it is used extensively in the coating of cooking utensils, seals, seats, packings, slide bearings and electrical and thermal insulators.

Polyurethane PU It has excellent impact and abrasion resistance and resists sunlight and weathering.

Polyvinyl Chloride PVC - Simona ® Gehr ® Darvic ® Cobex ® A high corrosion - resistant plastic ideally suited where chemical resistance to acids, alkalies, alcohols and halogens in necessary. It has high strength to weight ratio and is easily fabricated either by welding or gluing. Unplasticised PVC (uPVC) is used extensively for pipe & fittings because of its excellent stiffness properties.

Polyvinylidene Fluoride PVDF - Solef ® Kynar ® Hylar ® It is a high performing thermoplastic combining great mechanical strength and abrasion resistance. It is highly resistant to most environmental conditions and corrosive materials.

Ultra High Molecular Weight PE UHMWPE - Saxin New-Light ® Simona ® It is extremely high abrasion resistant when compared to other thermoplastics. It also has exceptional impact resistance even at cryogenic temperatures; it is chemical resistant and self-lubricating.

27

RISE PER DEGREE – A QUICK REFERENCE Rise (mm) per degree over 1000mm

Rise (inches) per degree over 1 foot

B = mm/1000 mm

Y = inches/ft B

Y

A°

X° 1000 mm

1 foot

A˚

B (mm)

A˚

B (mm)

X˚

Y (inch)

X˚

Y (inch)

1˚

17.46

24˚

445.23

1˚

0.210

24˚

5.343

2˚

34.92

25˚

466.31

2˚

0.419

25˚

5.596

3˚

52.41

26˚

487.73

3˚

0.629

26˚

5.853

4˚

69.93

27˚

509.53

4˚

0.839

27˚

6.114

5˚

87.49

28˚

531.71

5˚

1.050

28˚

6.381

6˚

105.10

29˚

554.31

6˚

1.261

29˚

6.652

7˚

122.78

30˚

577.35

7˚

1.473

30˚

6.928

8˚

140.54

31˚

600.86

8˚

1.686

31˚

7.210

9˚

158.38

32˚

624.87

9˚

1.901

32˚

7.498

10˚

176.33

33˚

649.41

10˚

2.116

33˚

7.793

11˚

194.38

34˚

674.51

11˚

2.333

34˚

8.094

12˚

212.56

35˚

700.21

12˚

2.551

35˚

8.403

13˚

230.87

36˚

726.54

13˚

2.770

36˚

8.718

14˚

249.33

37˚

753.55

14˚

2.992

37˚

9.043

15˚

267.95

38˚

781.29

15˚

3.215

38˚

9.375

16˚

286.75

39˚

809.78

16˚

3.441

39˚

9.717

17˚

305.73

40˚

839.10

17˚

3.669

40˚

10.069

18˚

324.92

41˚

869.29

18˚

3.899

41˚

10.431

19˚

344.33

42˚

900.40

19˚

4.132

42˚

10.805

20˚

363.97

43˚

932.52

20˚

4.368

43˚

11.190

21˚

383.86

44˚

965.69

21˚

4.606

44˚

11.588

22˚

404.03

45˚

1000.00

22˚

4.848

45˚

12.000

23˚

424.47

23˚

5.094

28

RELATIVE POSITION OF VARIOUS CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS Polycrystalline Diamond (PCD) Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (PCBN) Ceramics Cermets

+

Al2O3 Si N 3 4

HARDNESS

Coatings Coated Carbides

_

Ultra-fine Grain Carbides Coated HSS Powder HSS HSS _ TOUGHNESS + Applications and Productivity Advantages

Material

Principal Characteristics

Typical Applications

Cost/Productivity Advantages

HSS

Tougher Cutting material than carbide.

Screw-machine and other low-speed operations, interrupted cuts, lowhorsepower machining.

TiC/TiN Cermet

Excellent resistance to wear, shock and heat.

Finishing operations on irons, Up to 20 times the steels, stainless steels and tool life of conventional aluminium alloys.

Carbide grades.

High hardness

Steel mill-roll resurfacing, finishing operations on cast irons & steels.

Better finishes at higher machining rates.

Roughing and finishing operations on cast irons.

Machining speeds up to 1500 m/min and beyond.

Exceptional hardness.

Hardened work materials in 45-70 Rockwell C range

Provides many times the edge life of carbide.

Eliminates need for costly alternative grinding operations.

Polycrystalline Hardness Diamond Tipped of diamond Carbide Inserts plus carbide toughness.

Roughing to finishing operations on aluminium and other soft or abrasive non-ferrous or non-metallic materials.

Better than 30 times the tool life of carbide, even on high silicon aluminium.

Solid Hardness of Polycrystalline diamond and Diamond Inserts indexable.

Roughing & finishing operations on abrasive nonferrous or non-materials.

Many times the tool life of carbide.

Ceramics

Silicon Nitride High hardness plus high fracture toughness and thermal shock resistance.

Cubic Boron Nitride

29

Priced lower than carbide; gives longer tool life, better surface finish.

Steel

ISO

COMMON WORKPIECE MATERIAL COMPARISON TABLE USA Germany AISI/SAE Mat. No. DIN Plain - Unalloyed Steels 1006 1.0201 St 36 1010 1.1121 Ck 10 (C10E) 1015 1.0401 Ck 15 (C15) 1020 1.0402 C22 1022 1.1133 GS-20Mn 5 1025 1.1158 Ck 25 (C25E) 1035 1.1183 C 35 1039 1.1157 40Mn4 1040 1.0726 35S20 1045 1.0503 C45 1050 1.1213 Cf53 1055 1.0535 C55 1060 1.0601 C60 1095 1.1274 Ck101 1115 1.0038 Ck16 1140 1.0726 35S20 1213 1.0715 11 SMn 30 12L13 1.0718 11 SMnPb 30 12L14 1.0737 11 SMnPb 37 1330 1.1170 28Mn 6 1335 1.1167 36Mn 5 A204 GrA 1.5415 15Mo3 / 16Mo3 A570.36 1.0038 RSt.37-2 A572-60 1.8900 S380N A573-81 1.0116 St.37-3 W1 1.1545 C 105 W1 W210 1.1545 C 105 W1 Low Alloy Steels 3135 1.5710 36NiCr6 3415 1.5732 14NiCr10 4130 1.7218 25CrMo4 4137 1.7220 34CrMo4 4140 1.7225 42CrMo4 4340 1.6582 35CrNiMo6 5015 1.7015 15Cr3 5115 1.7131 16MnCr5 5120 1.0841 St52-3 5132 1.7033 34Cr4 5140 1.7035 41Cr4 5155 1.7176 55Cr3 6150 1.8159 50CrV4 8620 1.6523 21NiCrMo2-2 9255 1.0904 55Si7 9840 1.6511 36CrNiMo4 52100 1.3505 100Cr6 A182 1.7380 10CrMo9-10

U.K. BS

045 M 10 080 M 15 050820 120 M 19 050 A 20 060 A 35 150M36 212M36 080M46 060A52 070M55 080A62 060A96 030A04 212M36 230M07

150M28 1501-240 4360 40 C 4360 55 E 4360 40 B BW 1A BW 2 640A35 1717CDS 708A37 708M40 817M40 523M15 527M20 150M19 530A32 530A40 527A60 735A50 805M20 250A53 816M40 534A99 1501-622

30

France AFNOR Fd5 XC 10 CC 12 CC 20 20 M 5 XC 25 CC35 35M5 35MF4 CC45 XC48TS

Japan JIS

1160 1265 1370 1450 SMnC 420 1410 S 25 C 1450 S35C 1550 S 10 C S 15 CK

S50C

CC55 XC100 35MF4 S250 S250Pb S300Pb 20M5 40M5 15B3 E24 2 Ne NFA35-501 E24-U Y105 Y120 35NC6 14NC11 25CD4 35CD4 42CD4 35NCD6 12C3 16MC5 20MC5 32C4 42C4 55C3 50CV4 20NCD2 55S7 40NCD3 100C6 12CD9 10

Sweden SS

SUM22 SUM22L

1140 1650 1674 1655 1870 1325 1957 1912 1914 1926

SCMn1 Smn438(H) 2120 2912 STKM 12A 1311 2142 1312 SK3 1880 SUP4 2900 SNC236 SNC415 SCM420 SCM440

2225 2234 2244 2541

SCr415 2511 2172 SCr430 SCr440 SUP9 SUP10 SNCM220

SUJ2

2245 2230 2506 2085 2258 2218

Stainless Steel

Steel

ISO

COMMON WORKPIECE MATERIAL COMPARISON TABLE USA Germany AISI/SAE Mat. No. DIN A204 1.5415 15Mo3 (16Mo3) A573-81 1.0144 St44-2 L1 1.7039 41CrS4 L3 1.2067 102Cr6 L6 1.2713 55NiCrMoV6 02 1.2842 90MnCrV8 S1 1.2542 45WCrV7 High alloy Steels (Tool & Die Steels) 440C 1.4125 X105CrMo17 446 1.4749 X18CrNi28 A2 1.2363 X100CrMoV51 A353 1.5662 X8Ni9 D2 1.2379 X155CrMoV121 D3 1.2080 X210Cr12 D3 1.3343 S 6-5-2 D4 (D6) 1.2436 X210CrW12 H11 1.2343 X38CrMoV51 H12 1.2606 X37CrMoW51 H13 1.2344 X40CrMoV51 H21 1.2581 X30WCrV93 HW3 1.4718 X45GrSi93 M2 1.3343 S 6-5-2 M35 1.3243 S 6-5-2-5 M42 1.3249 S2-9-2-8 P3 1.2080 X210Cr12 T1 1.3355 3 18 01 Stainless Steels - Austenitic 301 1.4310 X8CrNiS18-9 303 1.4305 X12CrNiS18 8 304 1.4350 X5CrNi18 9 304L 1.4306 X2CrNi19-11 304LN 1.4311 X2CrNiN18-10 308 1.4406 X10CrNi18.08 309 1.4828 X15CrNiSi20-12 310S 1.4845 X12CrNi25-21 316 1.4401 X5CrNiMo17-12-2 316L 1.4435 X2CrNiMo18-14-3 316LN 1.4429 X2CrNiMoN18 13 316Ti 1.4571 X10CrNiMoTi1810 317L 1.4438 X2CrNiMo18-15-4 318 1.4583 X10CrNiMoNb1812 321 1.4541 X6CrNiTi18-10 347 1.4550 X6CrNiNb18-10 403 1.4000 X6Cr13 405 1.4724 X10CrAlSi13 410 1.4006 X12Cr13 416 1.4005 X12CrS13

U.K. BS 1501-240 4360-43C 524A14 BL3 B02 BS1

France AFNOR 15D3 E28-3 Y100C6 55NCOV7 90MV8

Z100CD17 BA2 1501.509 BD2 BD3 4959BA2 BD6 BH11 BH12 BH13 BH21 401S45 BM2 BM35 BM34 BD3 Bt1

Z100CDV5

301S21 303S21 304S31 304S12 304S62 301S21 309S24 310S24 316S16 316S13 320S17 317S12 321S12 347S17 403S17 403S17 410S21 416S21

31

Z160CDV12 Z200C12 Z40CSD10 Z200CD12 Z38CDV5 Z35CWDV5 Z40CDV5 Z30WCV9 Z45CS9 Z85WDCV 6-5-2-5

Japan JIS SMH400A

Sweden SS 2912 1412 2092

SKT4

2550

S1

2710

SUS440C SUH446 SKD12

2260 2310

SKD1 SUH3 SKD2

2715 2312

SK061 SKD5 SUH1 SKH9 SKH55

2242

Z200C12 Z08WCV

SKD1 SKH2

2710

Z12CN17.07 Z10CNF18.09 Z6CN18.09 Z2CrNi18.10 Z2CN18.10 Z1NCDU25.20 Z15CNS20.12 Z12CN25.20 Z6CND17.11 Z2CND17.12 Z2CND17.13 Z6NDT17.12 Z2CND19.15 Z6CNDNb1713B Z6CNT18.10 Z6CNNb18.10 Z6C13 Z10C13 Z10C14 Z11CF13

SUS301 SUS303 SUS304 SCS19 SUS304LN SCS17 SUH309 SUH310 SUS316 SCS16 SUS316LN

2331 2346 2332 2352 2371 2370

SUS317L SU321 SU347 SUS403 SUS405 SUS410 SUS416

2722 2723

2361 2347 2353 2375 2350 2367 2337 2338 2301 2302 2380

Stainless Steel

ISO

COMMON WORKPIECE MATERIAL COMPARISON TABLE USA Germany AISI/SAE Mat. No.DIN Stainless Steels – Ferritic / Martensitic

U.K. BS 430S15

France AFNOR

Japan JIS

430

1.4016 X6Cr17

430F

1.4104 X14CrMoS17

431

1.4057 X17CrNi16-2

434

1.4113 X6CrMo17-1

446

1.4762 X10CrAlSi25

CA6-NM

1.4313 X3CrNiMo 13-4

425C11

Z4CND13.4M SCS5

EV8

1.4871 X53CrMnNiN21.9

349S54

Z52CMN21.09 SUH35/36

HNV6

1.4747 X80CrNiSi20

443S65

Z80CSN20.02 SUH4

Sweden SS

Z8C17

SUS430

2320

Z10CF17

SUS430F

2383

431S39

Z15CNi6.02

SUS431

2321

434S17

Z8CD17.01

SUS434

2325

Z10CAS24

SUH446

2322 2385

Cast Iron

Grey Cast Iron No. 20B

0.6010 GG10

Ft10D

FC100

0110

No. 25B

0.6015 GG15

Gd. 150

Ft15D

FC150

0115

No. 30B

0.6020 GG20

Gd. 220

Ft20D

FC200

0120

No. 35B

0.6025 GG25

Gd. 260

Ft25D

FC250

0125

No. 45B

0.6030 GG30

Gd. 300

Ft30D

FC300

0130

No. 50B

0.6035 GG35

Gd. 350

Ft35D

FC350

0135

No. 55B

0.6040 GG40

Gd. 400

Ft40D

FC400

0140

A436 Type 2 0.6660 GGL-NiCr202

L-NiCuCr-202 L-NC-202

0523

Malleable Cast Iron 40010

0.8145 GTS-45

P440/7

MN450

FCMW370 0852

50005

0.8155 GTS-55

P510/4

MP50-5

FCMP490 0854

A220-70003 0.8615 GTS-65-02

P570/3

MN650-3

FCMP590 0856

A220-80002 0.8170 GTS-70-02

P690/2

MN700-2

FCMP690 0862

Nodular Cast Iron 60-40-18

0.7040 GGG 40

SNG420/12

FCS400-12

FCD400

0717.02

80-55-06

0.7050 GGG 50

SNG500/7

FGS500-7

FCD500

0727.02

A43D2

0.7660 GGG-NiCr202

Gd. S6

S-NC202

100.70.03

0.7070 GGG 70

SNG700/2

FGS700-2

0776 FCD700

0737.01

Non-Ferrous

Aluminium Alloys 1000

3.0255 Al99-5

L31/34/36

A590 50C

7050

3.4345 AlZnMgCu0.5

L86

AZ4GU/9051

A360.2

3.2383 G-AlSi10Mg(Cu) LM9

4253

A413.0

3.2582 GD-AlSi12

4247

A413.1

3.2583 G-AlSi12(Cu)

LM20

A413.2

3.2581 G-AlSi12

LM6

AZ 81

3.5812 G-MgAl8Zn1

MAG1

G-A9

AZ 91

3.5912 G-MgAl9Zn1

MAG7

G-A9Z1

EZ33

3.5103 MgSE3Zn2Zr1

MAG6

G-TR3Z2

QE22

3.5106 G-MgAg3SE2Zr1

MAG12

G-AG22.5

4260 4261

Copper Alloys C 18200

2.1293 CuCrZr

CC102

U-Cr 0.8 Zr

C 23000

2.0240 CuZn15

CZ 102

CuZn 15

C 26000

2.0265 CuZn30

CZ106

CuZn 30

C 27200

2.0321 CuZn37

CZ108

CuZn 37

C 63000

2.0966 CuAl10Ni5Fe4

CA104

U-A 10 N

32

Non-Ferrous

ISO

COMMON WORKPIECE MATERIAL COMPARISON TABLE USA Germany AISI/SAE Mat. No. DIN Copper Alloys

U.K. BS

France AFNOR

C 81500

2.1292 G-CuCrF 35

CC1-FF

C 83600

2.1096 G-CuSn5ZnPb

LG 2

U-E 5Pb5Z5

C 86200

2.0596 G-CuZn34Al2

HTB 1

U-Z 36 N 3

C 86500

2.0592 G-CuZn35Al1

HTB 1

U-Z- 36 N 3

C 90700

2.1050 G-CuSn10

CT 1

C 90800

2.1052 G-CuSn12

Pb 2

C 93200

2.1090 G-CuSn7ZnPb

C 93700

2.1176 G-CuPb10Sn

LB 2

U-E 10 Pb 10

C 93800

2.1182 G-CuPb15Sn

LB 1

U-Pb15E8

C 94100

2.1188 G-CuPb20Sn

LB 5

U-Pb 20

NA 21

NC 22 Fe DNb

Japan JIS

U-E 12 P U-E7Z5Pb4

Super Alloys (Fe / Ni / Co / TI - based) Hastelloy B

2.4685

Hastelloy C

2.4810 G-NiMo30

G-NiMo28

Hastelloy C4 2.4610 NiMo16Cr16Ti

Hardened Metals

Super Alloys

Inconel 625 2.4856 NiCr22Mo9Nb Inconel 690 2.4642 NiCr29Fe

NC 30 Fe

Inconel 718 2.4668 NiCr19FeNbMo

NC 19 Fe Nb

lnconel X-750 2.4669 NiCr15Fe7TiAl

NC 15 TNb A

Inconel751

2.4694 NiCr16Fe 7TiAI

Incoloy 825 2.4858 NiCr21 Mo

NA 16

NC 21 Fe DU

Monel400

2.4360 NiCu30Fe

NA 13

NU 30

Monel K-500

2.4375 NiCu30Al

NA 18

NU 30 AT

N 08028

1.4563

N 08800

1.4558 X2NiCrAlTi3220

N 08031

1.4562 X1NiCrMoCu32287

N 08330

1.4864 X12NiCrSi36 16

NA 17

Z12NCS35.16

Nimonic 75

2.4630 NiCr20Ti

HR 5

NC 20 T

R 50250

3.7025 Ti 1

2 TA 1

R 52250

3.7225 Ti 1 Pd

TP 1

R 54620

3.7145 TiAl6Sn2Zr4Mo2Si

R 56400

3. 7165 TiAl6V4

Z1NCDU31.27

X1NiCrMoCuN31274 NA 15

TA 10-13

T-A 6V

Hardened Metals (White / Hardened Cast Iron) A532 A25%Cr 0.9650 G-X 260 Cr 27

Grade 3D

0466-00

A532 A25%Cr 0.9655

G-X 300 CrMo 27 1 Grade 3E

Ni-Hard 1

0.9625

G-X 330 NiCr 4 2

Grade 2B

0513-00

Ni-Hard 2

0.9620

G-X 260 NiCr 4 2

Grade 2A

0512-00

33

Sweden SS

SURFACE COATINGS Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD) A low-temperature process that produces very tough coatings with high lubricity for use on gummy materials, high temperature alloys, low-carbon steels, and stainless steels at low to medium speeds.

Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) A high-temperature process that produces highly crater resistant coatings with a good balance of toughness and wear resistance for use on a broad range of carbon and stainless steels at medium to high speeds.

Medium Temperature Chemical Vapour Deposition (MTCVD) This is a medium-temperature process that produces tougher, slightly less wearresistant coatings than the traditional CVD process and is recommended for use on gummy materials, ductile irons and high temperature alloys at medium speeds.

Blackening Blackening is a finishing operation that chemically coats the surface of ferrous metals. Besides enhancing the appearance of the components, the black deposit holds a sealant, usually oil, into the pores of the black oxide coating, where it is held in close contact with the metal and prevents corrosion. There are three types of blackening: 1. Copper/Selenium Blackening - This process uses a room temperature acid bath to form a black copper selenium coating in approximately 1 ~ 3 minutes.

2. Caustic Black Oxide - A caustic soda bath operating at about 140 ยบC produces a black coating on the surface of the ferrous metal.

3. Black Dyed Oxylate Coating - It provides a high quality black corrosion resistant coating on ferrous metals without using heated chemicals. A grey ferrous oxylate coating is applied to the steel and it is then dyed black. This process operates at room temperature.

The performance of any black coating is gauged by its porosity and ability to absorb a subsequent coating of oil which acts as a rust barrier. It is extensively used to coat Tungsten Carbide tool holders, Boring bars and Milling cutters to enhance appearance of the tool.

Blue Finish Blue Finish is a thin layer of Iron Oxide produced by a carefully controlled steam tempering process. This produces a very thin oxide layer which acts as a lubricant and anti-weld surface. It also increases resistance to corrosion and enables the surface of a tool to absorb lubricant in machining operations.

Bronze Finish The Bronze Finish is a thin oxide layer formed on the tool surface and is applied on High Speed Cobalt Steels.

Chromium Carbide (CrC) A super hard coating > HRC 80 is applied to the surface using PVD coating process. The hardness of the coating is the same as TiN but with an oxidation resistance that is 20 to 30% higher. Recommended for machining Titanium and Aluminium alloys.

34

SURFACE COATINGS Chromium Nitride (CrN) This is a PVD coating and is particularly suitable in non-ferrous applications where titanium based coatings are not successful. It has a surface hardness of approximately 80 Rc and has good corrosion and oxidation resistance. It is mainly used for machining Copper, Die-casting, Brass forgings.

Diamond Coating It is an amorphous diamond coating with extremely low coefficient of friction and high hardness. This coating is specially recommended for tapping Aluminium alloys with high Silicon content.

Hard-Chromium Plating The tool is plated with Chromium to improve wear characteristics and reduce sliding resistance and cutting forces. It is especially suitable when tapping Structural grade steels, Copper, Brass, etc.

Nitriding Nitriding is a process which is used to increase the hardness and wear resistance of the surface of a tool. It is particularly suitable for taps that are used on abrasive materials such as castings, bakelite, etc.

Steam Tempering Steam tempering reduces sliding resistance, thus preventing cold welding, which occurs for example during the machining of Steels that have a low carbon content.

Steam tempered tools are mainly used for machining of ferrous materials.

Titanium Aluminium Nitride (TiAIN) This coating is applied by the PVD process and has a higher hardness than TiN and TiCN. A very thin film of AI2O3 (Aluminium Oxide) is formed on the surface of the TiAIN which greatly increases the service life of the tool which can withstand higher temperatures especially when machining Cast iron and tough steels.

Titanium Carbonitride - TiCNite (TiCN) TiCNite coated tools have a very high surface hardness of approximately 90 Rc. TiCN is harder than other coating materials, hence cutting speeds similar to carbide tools can be achieved with the toughness of high-speed-steel. This coating is recommended for use in all steels, cast iron and aluminium.

Titanium Nitride- TiNite (TiN) A gold coloured film of Titanium Nitride with a hardness of approximately 85 Rc is deposited on the tool which extends tool life by reducing friction and enables the tool to be operated at higher speeds and feeds. It is suitable for machining ironbased materials, die-casting and plastic mould tooling. Other applications include wear parts, medical and dental instruments, slitting knives, plastic die moulds, carbide tools, and high performance forming tools.

Zirconium Nitride (ZrN) It is a ceramic coating applied by the PVD process. Especially recommended for tapping Aluminium and Aluminium alloys.

35

STANDARD FOR ENGINEERING DRAWINGS Mathematical Symbols Symbol

Term

Symbol

+ ! # ' = !

Plus or Positive

.

Approximately Equal To

+ 2 1 $ #

Of the Order Of / Similar To Greater Than

Term

$ # : 3 \ / P 3 ` r

Greater Than or Equal To

Less Than

z

Parallel To

Not Greater Than

= |

Perpendicular To

Minus or Negative Plus/Minus or Pos./Neg. Multiply By Divided By Equal To Not Equal To

Not Less Than

Less Than or Equal To Square Root Of Infinity Proportional To Sum Of Product Of Difference Therefore Pi

Is To (Ratio)

Engineering Drawing Symbols Symbol

Term

Symbol

All round profile

+

Feature control frame

f

Angularity Arc length

7X

Flatness Number of times/places

At max. material condition

'

Parallelism

At least material condition

=

Perpendicularity

Basic dimensions

Position

Circular runout

Profile of a line

Circularity

Profile of a surface

Conical Taper

Projected tolerance zone

Contricity/Coaxiality

R

Counterbore/Spotface

(40)

Countersink

4 10

Term

Radius Reference dimensions Slope

Cylindricity

S4

Spherical diameter

Depth/Deep

SR

Spherical radius

Datum feature

4

Square (shape)

Datum target

Straightness

Diameter Dimension not to scale

Symmetry Target point

Dimension origin

Total runout

36

G-CODE ADDRESSES USED IN NUMERICAL CONTROL G-Code

Description

G-Code Description

G00

Denotes point to point rapid traverse operations.

G01

Linear interpolation.

G02

Circular interpolation – clockwise movement.

G70

Inch programming.

G03

Circular interpolation – counter-clockwise movement.

G71

Metric Programming.

G04

Dwell – a programmed time delay

G72

Circular interpolation – Clockwise (3 dimensional).

G05

Unassigned.

G73

Circular interpolation – Counter-clockwise (3 dimensional).

G06

Parabolic interpolation.

G74

Cancels circular interpolation.

G07

Used for programming with cylindrical diameter values.

G08

Programmed acceleration.

G80

Cancels fixed cycle.

G09

Programmed deceleration

G81

Drill cycle.

G10-G12 Unassigned.

G82

Drill & dwell cycle.

G13-G16 Axis selection.

G83

Peck drill cycle.

G63

Tapping mode.

G64-69 Unassigned.

G75-G79 Unassigned.

G17

X-Y plane selection.

G84

Tapping cycle.

G18

X-Z plane selection.

G85

Boring cyclerotating spindle retraction.

G19

Y-Z plane selection.

G86

Boring cycle – rapid traverse.

G87

Boring cycle – manual retraction.

G20-G32 Unassigned.

G33

Thread cutting, constant lead.

G88

Boring cycle – dwell and manual retraction.

G34

Thread cutting, increasing lead.

G89

Boring cycle – dwell and feed retraction.

G35

Thread cutting, decreasing lead.

G90

Absolute input programming.

G91

Incremental input programming.

G36-G39 Unassigned.

G40

Cancel compensation/offset.

G92

Preload of registers.

G41

Cutter compensation left.

G93

Inverse time feed rate.

G42

Cutter compensation right.

G94

Feed rate in inches or millimetres per minute.

G43

Cutter offset, inside corner.

G95

Feed rate given directly in inches or millimetres per revolution.

G44

Cutter offset, outside corner.

G96

Constant surface retraction speed.

G97

Spindle speed programmed in rpm.

G45-G49 Unassigned.

G50-G59 Reserved for adaptive control.

G98-99 Unassigned.

G60-G62 Unassigned.

37

LETTER ADDRESSES USED IN NUMERICAL CONTROL Letter Description Address

Refers to

A

Angular dimension about the X-axis, measured in decimal parts of a degree

Axis nomenclature

B

Angular dimension about the Y-axis, measured in decimal parts of a degree

Axis nomenclature

C

Angular dimension about the Z -axis, measured Axis nomenclature in decimal parts of a degree

D

Angular dimension about a special axis, or third feed function, or tool function for selection of Axis nomenclature tool compensation

E

Angular dimension about a special axis or second feed function

Axis nomenclature

F

Feed word (code)

Feed words

G

Preparatory word (code)

Preparatory words

H

Unassigned

I

Interpolation parameter or thread lead parallel to the X-axis

Circular interpolation and threading

J

Interpolation parameter or thread lead parallel to the Y-axis

Circular interpolation and threading

K

Interpolation parameter or thread lead parallel to the Z-axis

Circular interpolation and threading

L

Unassigned

M

Miscellaneous or auxiliary function

Miscellaneous functions

N

Sequence number

Sequence number

O

Sequence number for secondary head only

Sequence number

P

Third rapid-traverse dimension or tertiarymotion dimension parallel to X

Axis nomenclature

Q

Second rapid-traverse dimension or tertiarymotion dimension parallel to Y

Axis nomenclature

R

First rapid-traverse dimension or tertiary-motion dimension parallel to Z or radius for constant Axis nomenclature surface-speed calculation

S

Spindle-speed function

Spindle-speed

T

Tool function

Tool function

U

Secondary-motion dimension parallel to X

Axis nomenclature

V

Secondary-motion dimension parallel to Y

Axis nomenclature

W

Secondary-motion dimension parallel to Z

Axis nomenclature

X

Primary X-motion dimension

Axis nomenclature

Y

Primary Y-motion dimension

Axis nomenclature

Z

Primary Z -motion dimension

Axis nomenclature

38

MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTION WORDS USED IN NUMERICAL CONTROL Code M00 M01 M02 M03 M04 M05 M06 M07 M08 M09 M10 M11 M12 M13 M14 M15 to M16 M17 to M18 M19 M20 to M29 M30 M31 M32 to M39 M40 to M46 M47 M48 M49 M50 to M57 M58 M59 M60toM89 M90toM99

Description Automatically stops the machine. The operator must push button to continue with the remainder of the program.

An optional stop acted upon only when the operator has previously signalled for this command by pushing a button.

On sensing the M01 code, the machine stops automatically.

At the completion of the machining operation, this end-of-program code stops the machine when all commands in the block are executed. May include rewinding the tape.

Starts spindle rotation in a clockwise direction – when viewed from the spindle face.

Starts spindle rotation in a counterclockwise direction – when viewed from the spindle face.

Stops the spindle.

Commands manual or automatic change of tool but does not cover the selection of tool, as is possible with the T-words.

Turns flood coolant on.

Turns mist coolant on.

Turns coolant off.

Applies to auto-clamping of the machine slides, workpiece, fixture spindle, etc.

Unclamping code.

An inhibiting code used to synchronize multiple sets of axes, such as a four-axis lathe having two independently operated heads (turrets).

Simultaneously activates clockwise spindle motion and coolant flow in the same command.

Simultaneously activates counterclockwise spindle motion and coolant flow in the same command.

Rapid traverse of feed motion in either the + (M15) or – (M16) direction.

Unassigned.

Causes the spindle to stop at a predetermined angular position.

Permanently unassigned.

An end-of-tape code similar to M02, but M30 will also rewind the tape; also may switch automatically to a second tape reader.

A command known as interlock bypass for temporarily circumventing a normally provided interlock.

Unassigned.

Used to signal gear changes if required at the machine; otherwise, unassigned.

Continues program execution from the start of the program unless inhibited by an interlock signal.

Cancels M49.

Deactivates a manual spindle or feed override and returns the parameter to the programmed value.

Unassigned Cancels M59.

Holds the rpm constant at the value in use when M59 is initiated.

Unassigned.

Reserved for use by the machine operator.

39

Average roughness of centreline

L I (Measuring length)

Average Rmax

Maximum height

Average Recorded direction

Direction of profile magnification

Rmax (Ry)

Ra

Ra

Direction of profile magnification

SURFACE ROUGHNESS & CONVERSION TABLES

Recorded direction

L I (Measuring length)

R9 R10

R8

R7

R5 R6

R3 R4

R1

Average

R2

Average roughness at 10 points

Direction of profile magnification

Rz

Recorded direction

L I (Reference length)

Conversion Tables Roughness Number N N0 N1 N2 N3 N4 N5 N6 N7 N8 N9 N10 N11 N12

Average Roughness of centerline Ra (μm) 0.012 0.025 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.40 0.80 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25 50

Maximum height

Ra (μin) 0.50 1 2 4 8 16 32 63 125 250 500 1000 2000

Ry (μm) 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 1.6 3.2 6.3 12.5 25 50 100 200

40

Average roughness at 10 points Rz (μm) 0.063 0.125 0.250 0.50 1.00 2.00 4.0 7.1 12.5 25 50 100 200

Triangle Symbol

V

4444

444 44 4

COMMON TERMS USED IN THE HEAT TREATMENT OF STEELS HEAT TREATMENT: A process which involves a combination of heating and cooling of steel in a prescribed manner with respect to time, temperature and rate of heating and cooling so as to induce desired properties in the steel in the solid state.

HARDENING: A process which increases the hardness of steel by changing its chemical and structural makeup. This usually involves heating the steel to above its critical point and then quenching it in a prescribed medium. Steel with less than 0.3% carbon cannot be hardened in this manner but its surface can be changed to high carbon steel (by case hardening) which then can be hardened in the normal way.

CASE HARDENING: Hardening the surface layer of steel by changing its composition, followed by heat treatment in the normal manner.

The process of case hardening involves heating the low carbon steel in a rich carbon source (powder or gas) at a specific temperature for a set period of time, whereby carbon is absorbed into the surface of the steel to form a high carbon steel casing. The steel is then hardened and tempered in the normal manner.

QUENCHING: An accelerated cooling process by immersion of the heated steel in liquids or gases. Oils are often preferred to water as a quenching medium as they are less drastic and more uniform in their cooling effect. Quenching in water produces very hard steel whilst quenching in oil produces a slightly softer steel that is less likely to crack or distort.

TEMPERING: Re-heating the quenched steel to a temperature below the transformation range and, if necessary, holding at that temperature, followed by cooling at a suitable rate to achieve desired mechanical properties.

CARBURIZING (CASE CARBURIZING): A process of introducing carbon into the surface of a solid piece of steel by heating and holding above the transformation temperature in contact with a suitable carbonaceous medium.

FLAME HARDENING: Rapid heating of the surface layer of the steel by means of a flame to a temperature above the transformation range, followed by immediate quenching.

INDUCTION HARDENING: A process of heating by electrical induction to the appropriate temperature and quenching in a suitable medium.

NITRIDING: A process of surface hardening by introducing Nitrogen into the surface of a suitable steel by heating and holding it at an appropriate temperature in contact with cracked ammonia or other suitable nitrogenous medium. This process produces a hard case in the steel without further need for heat treatment.

NORMALISING: A process of heat treatment for improving mechanical properties brought about by grain refinement and uniformity in structure. The process involves heating and holding for a specified time at a suitable temperature above the transformation range, followed by cooling freely in air.

STRESS RELIEVING (STABILIZING): Heating to and if necessary, holding at a sufficiently high temperature below the transformation range, followed by slow cooling to remove internal stresses only.

41

HARDNESS COMPARISON CHART Rockwell Hardness Brinell Hardness (HB) 3,000kg

---767 757 745 733 722 712 710 698 684 682 670 656 653 647 638 630 627 601 578 555 534 514 495 477 461 444 429 415 401 388 375 363 352 341 331

HRA Scale 60 kg Brale

HRB Scale 100 kg 1 /10 in Ball

HRC Scale 150 kg Brale

HRD Scale 100 kg Brale

85.6 85.3 85.0 84.7 84.4 84.1 83.8 83.4 -83.0 82.6 82.2 82.2 81.8 81.3 81.2 81.1 80.8 80.6 80.5 79.8 79.1 78.4 77.8 76.9 76.3 75.6 74.9 74.2 73.4 72.8 72.0 71.4 70.6 70.0 69.3 68.7 68.1

-----------------------------------(110.0) (109.0) (108.5)

68.0 67.5 67.0 66.4 65.9 65.3 64.7 64.0 -63.3 62.5 61.8 61.7 61.0 60.1 60.0 59.7 59.2 58.8 58.7 57.3 56.0 54.7 53.5 52.1 51.0 49.6 48.5 47.1 45.7 44.5 43.1 41.8 40.4 39.1 37.9 36.6 35.5

76.9 76.5 76.1 75.7 75.3 74.8 74.3 73.8 -73.3 72.6 72.1 72.0 71.5 70.8 70.7 70.5 70.1 69.8 69.7 68.7 67.7 66.7 65.8 64.7 63.8 62.7 61.7 60.8 59.7 58.8 57.8 56.8 55.7 54.6 53.8 52.8 51.9

42

Vickers Shore Hardness Hardness 50kg

940 920 900 880 860 840 820 800 -780 760 740 737 720 700 697 690 680 670 667 640 615 591 569 547 528 508 491 472 455 440 425 410 396 383 372 360 350

97 96 95 93 92 91 90 88 -87 86 -84 83 -81 -80 -79 77 75 73 71 70 68 66 65 63 61 59 58 56 54 52 51 50 48

Transverse Rupture Strength (kg/mm2)

----------------------210 202 193 186 177 170 162 154 149 142 136 129 124 120 115 112

HARDNESS COMPARISON CHART Brinell Hardness (HB) 3,000kg

321 311 302 293 285 277 269 262 255 248 241 235 229 223 217 212 207 201 197 192 187 183 179 174 170 167 163 156 149 143 137 131 126 121 116 111

Rockwell Hardness HRA Scale 60 kg Brale

HRB Scale 100 kg 1 /10 in Ball

HRC Scale 150 kg Brale

HRD Scale 100 kg Brale

67.5 66.9 66.3 65.7 65.3 64.6 64.1 63.6 63.0 62.5 61.8 61.4 60.8 ------------------------

(108.0) (107.5) (107.0) (106.0) (105.5) (104.5) (104.0) (103.0) (102.0) (101.0) 100.0 99.0 98.2 97.3 96.4 95.5 94.6 93.8 92.8 91.9 90.7 90.0 89.0 87.8 86.8 86.0 85.0 82.9 80.8 78.7 76.4 74.0 72.0 69.8 67.6 65.7

34.3 33.1 32.1 30.9 29.9 28.8 27.6 26.6 25.4 24.2 22.8 21.7 20.5 (18.8) (17.5) (16.0) (15.2) (13.8) (12.7) (11.5) (10.0) (9.0) (8.0) (6.4) (5.4) (4.4) (3.3) (0.9) ---------

51.0 50.0 49.3 48.3 47.6 46.7 45.9 45.0 44.2 43.2 42.0 41.4 40.5 ------------------------

Vickers Shore Hardness Hardness 50kg

339 328 319 309 301 292 284 276 269 261 253 247 241 234 228 222 218 212 207 202 196 192 188 182 178 175 171 163 156 150 143 137 132 127 122 117

1) In above chart, figures with ( ) are not commonly used.

2) Rockwell scale A, C and D are scaled with diamond brale.

43

47 46 45 43 -41 40 39 38 37 36 35 34 -33 -32 31 30 29 -28 27 -26 -25 -23 22 21 -20 19 18 15

Transverse Rupture Strength (kg/mm2)

108 105 103 99 97 94 91 89 86 84 82 80 78 -74 72 70 69 67 65 63 63 61 60 58 57 56 53 51 50 47 46 44 42 41 39

CUTTING SPEED Symbol

Description

Metric

Formula

Vc

Cutting Speed

m/min

d

Diameter

mm

n

Revolution per min.

S

Feed per revolution

mm

Vf

Feed per min.

mm

vf = n x z x fz

fz

Feed per tooth

mm

fz

f

Feed per revolution

mm

z

No. of teeth

Q

Chip volume

cm3/min

ap

Depth of cut

mm

ae

Width of cut

mm

t

Milling time

min

lf

Milling length

mm

Vc =

n =

44

r # d # n 1000

V c # 318 d

S =

=

vf n

Vf n # z

f = fz x z

Q =

a p # ae # v f 1000

t =

lf Vf

TAPPING SIZE HOLES FOR THREAD CUTTING Std. ISO Metric Threads Size

Pitch

Tapping size hole

ø-mm M 1.0 M 1.5 M 2.0 M 2.5 M 3.0 M 4.0 M 5.0 M 6.0 M 7.0 M 8.0 M 9.0 M 10.0 M 11.0 M 12.0 M 14.0 M 16.0 M 18.0 M 20.0 M 22.0 M 24.0 M 27.0 M 30.0 M 33.0 M 36.0 M 39.0 M 42.0 M 45.0 M 48.0 M 52.0

mm 0.25 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50 0.70 0.80 1.00 1.00 1.25 1.25 1.50 1.50 1.75 2.00 2.00 2.50 2.50 2.50 3.00 3.00 3.50 3.50 4.00 4.00 4.50 4.50 5.00 5.00

ø-mm 0.75 1.25 1.60 2.05 2.50 3.30 4.20 5.00 6.00 6.80 7.80 8.50 9.50 10.20 12.00 14.00 15.50 17.50 19.50 21.00 24.00 26.50 29.50 32.00 35.00 37.50 40.50 43.00 47.00

ISO Metric Fine Threads Size mm M 2.5 M 3.0 M 4.0 M 4.5 M 5.0 M 6.0 M 8.0 M 8.0 M 8.0 M 10.0 M 10.0 M 10.0 M 12.0 M 12.0 M 12.0 M 14.0 M 14.0 M 14.0 M 16.0 M 16.0 M 16.0 M 18.0 M 18.0 M 18.0 M 20.0 M 20.0 M 20.0 M 22.0 M 22.0 M 22.0 M 24.0 M 24.0 M 24.0 M 28.0 M 28.0 M 28.0 M 30.0 M 30.0 M 30.0 M 30.0 M 32.0 M 32.0

UNC Threads

Tapping Pitch size hole

Size

mm 0.35 0.35 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.75 0.50 0.75 1.00 0.75 1.00 1.25 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.00 1.25 1.50 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 1.00 1.50 2.00 3.00 1.50 2.00

inch per inch No. 2 56 No. 3 48 No. 4 40 No. 5 40 No. 6 32 No. 8 32 No. 10 24 No. 12 24 ¼ 20 5 /16 18 3 /8 16 7 /16 14 ½ 13 9 /16 12 5 /8 11 ¾ 10 7 /8 9 1 8 11/8 7 1¼ 7 13/8 6 1½ 6 1¾ 5 2 4.5

45

ø-mm 2.15 2.65 3.50 4.00 4.50 5.20 7.50 7.20 7.00 9.20 9.00 8.80 11.00 10.80 10.50 13.00 12.80 12.50 15.00 14.75 14.50 17.00 16.50 16.00 19.00 18.50 18.00 21.00 20.50 20.00 23.00 22.50 22.00 27.00 26.50 26.00 29.00 28.35 28.00 27.00 30.50 30.00

Threads

Tapping size hole ø-mm 1.85 2.10 2.35 2.65 2.85 3.50 3.90 4.50 5.10 6.60 8.00 9.40 10.80 12.20 13.50 16.50 19.50 22.25 25.00 28.00 30.75 34.00 39.50 45.00

TAPPING SIZE HOLES FOR THREAD CUTTING UNF Threads

BSW Threads

BSP Threads

Tapping Size Threads size hole

Tapping Size Threads size hole

Tapping Size Threads size hole

inch per inch W 1/8 40 W 5/32 32 W 3/16 24 W¼ 20 W 5/16 18 3 W /8 16 7 W /16 14 W½ 12 W 5/8 11 W¾ 10 W 7/8 9 W1 8 1 W 1 /8 7 W 1¼ 7 W 13/8 6 W 1½ 6 W 15/8 5 W 1¾ 5 W2 4.5

inch per inch G 1/16 28 G 1/8 28 G¼ 19 G 3/8 19 G½ 14 5 G /8 14 G¾ 14 7 G /8 14 G1 11 G 11/8 11 G 1¼ 11 G 1½ 11 G 1¾ 11 G2 11

inch No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 No. 8 No. 10 No. 12 ¼ 5 /16 3 /8 7 /16 ½ 9 /16 5 /8 ¾ 7 /8 1 11/8 1¼ 1½

inch 64 56 48 44 40 36 32 28 28 24 24 20 20 18 18 16 14 12 12 12 12

ø-mm 1.90 2.15 2.40 2.70 2.95 3.50 4.10 4.70 5.50 6.90 8.50 9.90 11.50 12.90 14.50 17.50 20.40 23.25 26.50 29.50 36.00

ø-mm 2.50 3.20 3.60 5.10 6.50 7.90 9.20 10.50 13.50 16.25 19.25 22.00 24.50 27.75 30.50 33.50 35.50 39.00 44.50

ø-mm 6.80 8.80 11.80 15.25 19.00 21.00 24.50 28.25 30.75 35.50 39.50 45.25 51.00 57.00

NPT - American tapered pipe thread 1:16 Cutting Depth ET

Drilling Depth BT(min)

d1 6.15 8.40 11.10 14.30 17.90 23.30 29.00 37.70 43.70 55.60

D1 6.39 8.74 11.36 14.80 18.32 23.67 29.69 38.45 44.52 56.56

mm 9.29 9.32 13.52 13.83 18.07 18.55 22.29 22.80 22.80 23.20

mm 10.7 10.8 15.6 16.0 20.8 21.3 25.6 26.1 26.1 26.5

d1

D1

ET

(avoid if possible)

46

BT

per inch 27 27 18 18 14 14 11.5 11.5 11.5 11.5

Tapp. Size Hole Ø Conical

1:16

inch 1 /16 1 /8 ¼ 3 /8 ½ ¾ 1 1¼ 1½ 2

Tapp. Size Hole Ø Cylinder.

BT

Size Threads

RECOMMENDED TAPPING SIZE HOLES FOR THREAD FORMING (FLUTELESS TAPS) Std. ISO Metric Threads Tapping Size Pitch size hole ø-mm mm ø-mm M 2.5 0.45 2.30 M 3.0 0.50 2.80 M 3.5 0.60 3.25 M 4.0 0.70 3.70 M 4.5 0.75 4.20 M 5.0 0.80 4.65 M 6.0 1.00 5.55 M 8.0 1.25 7.40 M 9.0 1.25 7.80 M 10.0 1.50 8.50 M 11.0 1.50 9.50 M 12.0 1.75 11.20 M 14.0 2.00 13.10 M 16.0 2.00 15.10 M 18.0 2.50 16.90 M 20.0 2.50 18.90 M 22.0 2.50 20.90 M 24.0 3.00 22.70

ISO Metric Fine Threads Tapping Size Pitch size hole ø-mm mm ø-mm M 2.5 0.35 2.35 M 3.0 0.35 2.85 M 4.0 0.35 3.85 M 4.0 0.50 3.80 M 5.0 0.50 4.75 M 5.5 0.50 5.30 M 6.0 0.75 5.65 M 8.0 0.75 7.65 M 8.0 1.00 7.55 M 10.0 0.75 9.65 M 10.0 1.00 9.55 M 10.0 1.25 9.40 M 12.0 1.00 11.55 M 12.0 1.25 11.40 M 12.0 1.50 11.30 M 14.0 1.00 13.55 M 14.0 1.25 13.40 M 14.0 1.50 13.30

ISO Metric Fine Threads Tapping Size Pitch size hole ø-mm mm ø-mm M 15.0 1.00 14.55 M 15.0 1.50 14.30 M 16.0 1.00 15.55 M 16.0 1.50 15.30 M 18.0 1.00 17.55 M 18.0 1.50 17.30 M 20.0 1.00 19.55 M 20.0 1.50 19.30 M 22.0 1.50 21.30 M 24.0 1.00 23.55 M 24.0 1.50 23.30 M 24.0 2.00 23.10 M 27.0 1.50 26.30 M 30.0 1.50 29.30 M 33.0 1.50 32.30 M 36.0 1.50 35.30 M 39.0 1.50 38.30 M 42.0 1.50 41.30

Tapping size hole diameter tolerance zone for thread forming Due to the tensile strength it is not necessary to adhere to the tapping size hole diameter tolerance class 6H; tolerance class 7H satisfies the requirements that the flank coverage of external and internal threads should not fall below 0.32 x P.

47

RECOMMENDED TAPPING SIZE HOLES FOR THREAD FORMING (FLUTELESS TAPS) UNC Threads Tapping size hole inch per inch ø-mm No. 1 64 1.68 No. 2 56 1.98 No. 3 48 2.28 No. 4 40 2.55 No. 5 40 2.90 No. 6 32 3.15 No. 8 32 3.80 No. 10 24 4.35 No. 12 24 5.00 ¼ 20 5.75 5 /16 18 7.30 3 /8 16 8.80 7 /16 14 10.30 ½ 13 11.80 9 /16 12 13.30 5 /8 11 14.80 ¾ 10 17.90 7 /8 9 21.00 1 8 24.00 Size Threads

UNF Threads Tapping size hole inch per inch ø-mm No. 1 72 1.70 No. 2 64 2.00 No. 3 56 2.30 No. 4 48 2.60 No. 5 44 2.90 No. 6 40 3.20 No. 8 36 3.85 No. 10 32 4.45 No. 12 28 5.10 ¼ 28 5.95 5 /16 24 7.45 3 /8 24 9.05 7 /16 20 10.55 ½ 20 12.10 9 /16 18 13.65 5 /8 18 15.25 ¾ 16 18.35 7 /8 14 21.40 1 12 24.40 Size Threads

BSP Threads Tapping size hole inch per inch ø-mm G 1/16 28 7.30 G 1/8 28 9.30 G¼ 19 12.50 3 G /8 19 16.00 G½ 14 20.00 G 5/8 14 22.00 G¾ 14 25.50 G 7/8 14 29.25 G1 11 32.00 G 1¼ 11 40.75 Size Threads

Fluteless taps are tools for the forming of internal threads without chip removal. During the process the material is cold formed without interrupting the "grain flow". It offers the following advantages: • • • • •

No chip formation.

One tool for the production of threads in through and blind holes.

Application in wide range of materials.

No cutting errors.

Pitch and angle of thread errors that can occur with thread cutting are eliminated.

• Internal threads produced by thread forming process, posses a higher tensile strength particularly at the thread flanks thanks to the so-called "uninterrupted grain flow" and the cold forming process.

• The surface finish of the thread is improved.

• Fluteless taps can be applied at higher speeds because the formability of many materials increases with the forming speed. This does not have a negative effect on the tool life.

48

TROUBLESHOOTING - DRILLING Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Chipping on the chisel edge

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Decrease feed, increase coolant pressure.

Chisel runout

Check or replace the clamping adaptation.

Workpiece movement

Increase workpiece chucking force.

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Increase cutting speed, reduce feed rate.

Insufficient coolant

Check cooling lubricant. Increase coolant pressure. In the case of external coolant supply, improve jet direction and add cooling jets.

Rough application

Reduce feed rate by 30-50% during entry and exit.

Insufficient coolant

Check cooling lubricant. Increase coolant pressure.In the case of external coolant supply, improve jet direction and add coolant jets.

Large runout

Check if the runout is within 0.02 mm T.I.R. (radial & axial)

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Reduce cutting speed, increase feed.

Rough application

Reduce feed rate by 30-50% during entry and exit.

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Workpiece movement

Increase workpiece chucking force.

Insufficient coolant

Check cooling lubricant. Increase coolant pressure. In the case of external coolant supply, improve jet direction and add coolant jets.

Wrong drill

Check drill type, drilling depth, cooling system and workpiece material.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Increase feed. When spot drilling, reduce feed.

Chipping on the cutting edges / built-up edge

Excessive wear on the cutting corner

Chipping on the lands.

49

TROUBLESHOOTING - DRILLING Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Hole diameter out of tolerance

Unsuitable cutting conditions

If hole size is too large, increase cutting speed or reduce feed. If hole size is too small, reduce cutting speed or increase feed.

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Large runout

Make sure that the drill’s runout is within 0.02mm (radial & axial).

Worn out center point (chisel)

Regrind cutting edge or replace the drill.

Insufficient chip evacuation

Use pecking cycle.

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or shrink system.

Workpiece rigidity

Increase workpiece chucking force.

Worn out drill center point (chisel)

Regrind cutting edge.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Increase feed. When spot drilling, reduce feed.

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Workpiece movement

Increase workpiece chucking force.

Wrong drill

Check drill type and drilling depth, cooling system and workpiece material.

Insufficient coolant

Check cooling lubricant. Increase coolant pressure. Inthe case of external coolant supply, improve juet direction and add cooling jets.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Reduce feed.

Worn out drill center point (chisel)

Regrind cutting edge.

IInsufficient chip evacuation

Use pecking cycle.

Hole not straight

Drill breakage

50

TROUBLESHOOTING - DRILLING Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Chipping on the cutting corners

Poor clamping of the chuck

Check the clamping and adaptation. Use hydraulic clamping chuck, power chuck or a shrink system.

Workpiece movement

Increase workpiece chucking force.

Wrong drill

Check drill type and drilling depth, cooling system and workpiece material. Possibly use longer drill.

Insufficient coolant

Check cooling lubricant. Increase coolant pressure. In the case of external coolant supply, improve jet direction and add cooling jets.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Check cutting parameters, and possibly reduce feed.

Worn out or broken cutting corner

Replace drill or regrind cutting edge.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Reduce feed by 30-50% during exit.

Worn out drill

Replace drill.

Unsuitable cutting conditions

Adjust feed to improve chip flow.

Large runout

Make sure that the drill’s runout is within 0.02mm (radia & axial).

Chip jamming

• Reduce cutting speed.

• Increase coolant pressure • Apply pecking procedure.

Large runout

Make sure that the drill runout is within 0.02 mm (radial & axial).

Poor stability

Check and improve drill and workpiece clamping rigidity.

Rough application

• When drilling hard materials or sloped surfaces, reduce feed by 30-50% during entrance.

• Use a short pilot drill with 140º point angle.

Burrs on exit

Rough surface finish

Deviation of hole position

51

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING APPLICATION PROBLEMS WITH NEW TAPS Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread produced is too large

Incorrect tap, tap geometry not suitable or the application

Apply correct tap for the material to be machined.

Tapping size hole too small

Observe tapping size hole table in the technical section. Note different tapping size hole diameters for fluteless taps.

Alignment error of tapping size hole or position

• Check for correct tool clamping • Apply floating tap holder • Check core drill

Machine spindle axially restricted

• Use mechanical feed • Apply tension/compression tap chuck

Cold welding at the flank of the tap

• Apply new tap • Apply coated tap • Optimise lubrication

Lead of tap unsatisfactory due to insufficient thread depth

• Tap with forced feed • Apply tap with modified lead

Cutting speed too high

• Reduce cutting speed • Improve lubrication

Lubrication or coolant supply insufficient

Ensure sufficient and suitable coolant supply and check concentration.

Tolerance specification on tap does not correspond to specifications on drawing and/ or thread gauge

Apply correct tap for required tolerances.

Spiral-fluted taps, corresponding to our design, are applied with too much pressure for initial tapping

With spiral-fluted taps only light pressure required for initial tapping.

The tap should immediately be applied within the tension/ compression range.

Initial tapping pressure too low for taps with spiral point corresponding to a lead of 3.5 to 5.5 threads.

Taps with spiral point or left hand spiral require higher axial pressure.

Ensure tap operates within the tension/ compression range.

Tolerance specification on tap does not correspond to specifications on drawing and/ or thread gauge

Apply correct tap for required tolerance.

Incorrect tap

Apply correct tap for the material to be machined.

Tap does not cut accurately (thread plug gauge)

Avoid strong axial forces during the cutting process.

Machine spindle is axially too rigid

Apply tension/compression chuck.

Thread axially miscut

Thread produced is too small

52

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING APPLICATION PROBLEMS WITH NEW TAPS Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread surface not according to requirements

Cutting edge geometry not suitable for the application

Apply “correct” tap for the material to be machined.

Cutting speed too high

• Reduce cutting speed • Optimise lubrication

Insufficient coolant (Concentration and supply)

Ensure suitable coolant and sufficient volume.

Chip congestion

Apply suitable tap type.

Tapping size hole too small

Observe tapping size hole diameter specifications to DIN 336 or respective standards. Observe table for fluteless taps.

With tough, hard materials loading on tool too much or pitch too steep

Apply hand tap sets.

Built-up edge

Apply coated tap.

Cold welding

Improve coolant supply.

Surface hardening of tapping size hole

• Check drill (cutting edge) for wear • Heat or surface treatment following thread production

Reasons listed under: "thread surface not according to requirements"

Reasons listed under: thread surface "not according to requirements".

Chip congestion

Apply correct tap.

Tapping size hole too small

Observe tapping size hole diameter according to DIN 336 or respective standards.

Teeth of chamfer lead overloaded

• Longer chamfer lead (blind or through hole) • Increase no. of teeth of chamfer lead by increasing no. of flutes • Apply tap sets

Tap hits bottom of tapping size hole

• Check hole depth • Apply tension / compression tap chuck

Tool life insufficient

Tool breakage during advance or return

• Lack of or incorrect chamfer of • Correct chamfer angle of tapping tapping size hole size hole • Postional or angle error of • Ensure correct tool clamping tapping size hole • Apply floating tap holder • Check core drill • Tool hardness not suitable for the application • Cutting edge geometry not suitable for the application

53

Apply suitable tap for the individual application.

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING APPLICATION PROBLEMS WITH NEW FLUTELESS TAPS Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread produced is too large

Insufficient tool clamping

Apply synchro chuck.

Fluteless tap with short cutting portion

Apply fluteless tap with long cutting portion.

Thread produced is too small

Tapping size hole diameter too large

Select correct tapping size hole diameter according to table.

Thread overformed

Tapping size hole diameter too small

Select correct tapping size hole diameter according to table.

Thread surface not according to requirements

Cold welding on the tool

Increase oil content in lubricant or apply neat oil.

Lubricant with too little oil content

Increase oil content in lubricant or apply neat oil.

Lubricant with too little oil content

Increase oil content in lubricant or apply neat oil.

Tapping size hole diameter too small

Select correct tapping size hole diameter according to table.

Cutting speed too high

Adjust cutting speed.

Lubricant soiled

Check filtration.

Lubricant with too little oil content

Increase oil content in lubricant or apply neat oil.

Tapping size hole diameter too small

Select correct tapping size hole diameter according to table.

Incorrect tool clamping

Check tool clamping.

Tool life insufficient

Tool breakage during advance or return

54

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING APPLICATION PROBLEMS WITH NEW THREAD MILLING CUTTERS Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread produced is too large or too small

Incorrect radius in CNC program and therefore milling of incorrect circle

Correct milling radius until thread is dimensionally correct.

Thread not cylindrical

Feed rate too high

Reduce feed rate.

Synchronous milling path with long threads

Modify milling direction to opposite direction.

Cutting speed too high

Adjust cutting speed

Insufficient tool or workpiece clamping

Check tool and workpiece clamping.

CNC program error

Check CNC program.

Cutting rates too high

Adjust cutting rates.

Cutting rates too high

Adjust cutting rates.

Tool applied uncoated

Apply coated tool.

Insufficient lubrication and chip evacuation

Improve lubrication, coolant delivery via the spindle.

Chip problems when drilling

Apply tool with internal cooling.

Feed rates too high when drilling

Incorporate pecking cycles.

Thread surface not according to requirements, chatter marks

Tool breakage

Tool life insufficient

Tool breakage with drill/ milling cutter

55

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING APPLICATION PROBLEMS WITH NEW DIES Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread produced is too large or too small

Incorrect clamping of die in die holder

Check clamping of die.

Incorrect tolerance selected

Apply die with correct tolerance.

Chips jamming

Apply dies with spiral entry.

Thread overloaded due to excessive cutting rates

Increase chamfer lead.

Surface in die too rough

Apply lapped die.

Lubrication not optimal

Improve lubrication.

Cold welding in the flanks

Check and clean flanks of thread.

Tool life insufficient

Die not suitable for application

Apply HSS-E die.

Apply coated tool.

Thread miscut

Die jams

Apply split die.

Thread breakage

Thread surface not according to requirements

56

TROUBLESHOOTING - TAPPING ERRORS AND DIFFICULTIES WITH REGROUND TAPS Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Thread produced is too large

Burrs

Remove burrs.

Cutting edge geometry (chamfer lead, rake-, chamfer-, spiral point angle) not retained

• Observe technical specifications when regrinding.

• Observe regrinding instruction.

Worn section has not been reground correctly

• Regrind again or apply new tool.

• Observe max. Regrinding limits.

Tap too small due to no. Of regrinds

• Max. regrinding limit reached.

• Apply new tap.

Burrs

Remove burrs.

Cutting edge geometry (chamfer lead, rake-, chamfer-, spiral point angle) not retained

• Observe technical specifications when regrinding.

• Observe regrinding instruction.

Peak-to-valley height of the reground tap too large

• Regrind again or apply new tool.

• Observe max. regrinding limits.

Cold welding at the flanks

Remove cold welding marks.

Cutting edge geometry (chamfer lead, rake-, chamfer-, spiral point angle) not retained

• Regrind again or apply new tool.

• Observe max. regrinding limits.

Loss of tap hardness due to heat development during the regrinding process

• Check quality of grinding wheel.

• Check coolant supply.

Loss of coating

• Recoat.

• Check coating of the material to be machined.

Thread produced is too small

Thread surface not according to requirements

Tool life insufficient

57

TROUBLESHOOTING - MILLING All the cutting rate recommendations specified are standard values valid exclusively for new tools or tools re-ground to Guhring specifications.

Our recommended cutting rates must be reduced if the conditions deviate. The values may also be adjusted to influence surface quality, machining rate or tool life.

Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Workpiece clamping

Workpiece clamping

Improve workpiece clamping Alternative • Reduce feed • Reduce cutting width or depth

Loss of tool life or tool breakage through unstable, worn or too small / long / thin tool holder

Tool clamping

Alternative • Reduce cutting rates • Reduce clamping length • Apply tool with smaller diameter • Check clamping screws for wear

d1

Surface quality

Vibrations

Apply new or larger tool holder or holder with increased clamping force and increased concentricity

Excessive peak-to-valley height Ra / Rz at the tool surface through excessive feed and feed rates or vibrations

Improve workpiece clamping and tool clamping

High tool wear, insufficient workpiece surface quality and insufficient dimensional accuracy through vibration

Improve workpiece and tool clamping

58

Alternative • Reduce feed • Increase cutting speed

Alternative • Increase tooth feed, because the chip centre thickness is too small • Modify speed • Modify milling strategy, i.e. select alternative cutting distribution • Change tool selection, i.e. reduce no. of teeth or spiral

TROUBLESHOOTING - MILLING Problem

Possible Causes

Solution

Chip congestion / cooling

Significant reduction in tool life, crumbling on cutting lips, edge build-up or conglutination of flutes through insufficient chip evacuation

Select milling cutters with internal cooling

Significant reduction in tool life as well as crumbling of cutting lips through insufficient chip evacuation and thermal stresses

Select milling cutter with internal cooling with drilling depths > 0.5 x D pecking in stages

Through welding or torch cutting, the material characteristics at the parting line do not correspond with the specified material class

• Reduce cutting rates • Select tool for materials with a higher tensile strength

Significant loss in tool life through interrupted cutting (especially with milling angles of 90º)

• Modify cutting distribution • Reduce feed for entry and exit • Reduce approach angle

Pecking when drilling

Thermal influence on materials

Alternative • Peripheral cooling via GM 300 chuck • Increase volume flow • Adjust coolant flow • Apply compressed air cooling (according to tool and material) • Reduce feed • Modify cutting distribution

Alternative • Peripheral cooling via GM 300 chuck • Increase volume flow • Adjust coolant flow • Reduce feed

1400 N/mm2 1000 N/mm2

Loss in tool life with interrupted cutting

59

TROUBLESHOOTING - MILLING Problem

Solution

Entry in hardened materials 100%

100%

f z (mm/z) 50%

70%

100% 80%

For entering materials over 1400 N/mm2 (44HRC), reduce the feed rate vf (mm/min) in accordance with the illustration on the left.

> 1400 N/mm2

ae

ae

1xD

0,5xD

ae

0,2xD

Feed rate adjustment (width)

• when modifying the cutting width ae, the feed rate must be reduced in accordance with the illustration on the left • cutting speed or revolutions remain unchanged • double reduction applies when also modifying the cutting depth ap!

Feed rate adjustment (depth)

• when modifying the cutting depth ap, the feed rate must be reduced in accordance with the illustration on the left • cutting speed or revolutions remain unchanged up to cutting depths of 3 x D, must only be adapted over 3 x D • double reduction applies when also modifying the cutting width ae!

Plunging strategies for drilling

• reduce feed rate vf (mm/min.)

• additional pecking for drilling depths > 0.5 x D or transition to radial machining

Drilling

Oblique plunging 15º...30º ≤ 15º

Helical plunging

Attention: Danger of breakage through abrupt loadincrease!

Oblique plunging up to 15º (preferred): • reduction in feed rate vf (mm/min.) not required 90º fz -70%

≤ 15º fz = 100%

15º...30º fz -30%

fz -15%

Oblique plunging between 15º and 30º: • reduce feed rate vf (mm/min.) in accordance with the illustration on the left Helical plunging: • for helical plunging on a milling cycle, we recommend a feed of 0.1 to 0.2 per cycle • reduce feed rate vf (mm/min.) in accordance with the illustration on the left • select preferred hole diameter 1.8 x D

60

TROUBLESHOOTING - REAMING TYPICAL REAMING ERRORS Low cutting speed, high feed rates as well as the use of good cooling and lubricating agents provide the basis for good reaming practice.

A further point to be considered is that a reamer – an exception is the machine bottoming reamer – always follows the direction of the pre-drilled hole. Subsequently, reamers do not correct alignment errors of pre-drilled holes. Errors between the spindle axis and the axis of the pre-drilled hole can be adjusted with the aid of floating holders.

The following fault finding chart will be found useful in tracing the cause of some common reaming problems.

Problem

Hole too large

Possible Causes • Tool diameter too large • Cutting speed/feed rate too high • Concentricity error of machine spindle • Bevel lead of tool too short/uneven • Cutting edge build up • Lubricating agent unsuitable, holes too large due to lubrication • Axis shifting between tool and pre-drilled hole.

Application of floating holders • Reamer blunt. Does not cut, only scrapes • Cutting speed/feed rate too low • Component is thin-walled, springs back • Insufficient stock removal allowance, tool seizes in hole

Hole too small • Tool knocks in spindle • Bevel lead incorrect • Axis shifting between tool and pre-drilled hole.

Application of floating holders • Pre-machining inaccurate • Feed rate too low Conical hole malformationk

Unsatisfactory surface finish

• No/insufficient lubrication. Cutting edge build-up.

• Tool damaged, i. e. broken cutting edge • Material has a tendancy to cause build up on cutting edges.

• Surface finish of pre-drilled hole unsatisfactory • Concentricity bevel lead incorrect • Chip evacuation restricted • Cutting speed too low

61

TROUBLESHOOTING - REAMING TYPICAL REAMING ERRORS Problem

Causes • Pre-drilled hole misaligned • Concentricity bevel lead incorrect

Misalignment of hole • Workpiece clamped incorrectly • Chip congestion

Hole crowned or oval • Cutting edge build-up • Grease content in coolant too low • Stock removal allowance insufficient • Tool incorrectly clamped in tool holder • Machine spindle not concentric • Feed rate too low • Axis shifting Hole has chatter marks • Back taper incorrect • Circular lands too wide • Pre-drilled hole is too small • Bevel lead blunt/ground unevenly • Feed rate too high • Chip congestion • Axis shifting Tool seizes and breaks

62

TROUBLESHOOTING - DEEP HOLE DRILLING HT800WP INTERCHANGEABLE INSERTS Problem

Cutting edge build-up

Crumbling of outer corner

Heavy wear and tear at flank

Crumbling on cutting lips

Land wear

Scoring on tool body

Possible Causes

Solution

Cutting speed too low

Increase cutting speed

Excessive honing of cutting lip

Reduce cutting lip honing

Bright finish cutting lips

Have tool coated

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid clamping of workpiece

Deviation from concentricity too large

Check and correct concentricity if possible

Interrupted cut

Reduce feed

Cutting speed too high

Decrease cutting speed

Feed too low

Increase feed

Clearance angle too small

Increase clearance angle

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid clamping of workpiece

Interrupted cut

Reduce feed

Max. wear and tear values have been exceeded

Reduce tool change intervals

Wrong tool type

Apply suitable tool

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid clamping of workpiece

Deviation from concentricity too large

Check and correct concentricity if possible

Back taper too small

Increase back taper

Wrong coolant (oil), soluble oil too thin

Thicken soluble oil or use neat oil

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid clamping of workpiece

Deviation from concentricity too large

Check and correct concentricity if possible

Interrupted cut

Reduce feed

Abrasive materials

Thicken soluble oil or use neat oil if necessary

63

TROUBLESHOOTING - DEEP HOLE DRILLING HT800WP INTERCHANGEABLE INSERTS Problem

Heavy chisel edge wear and tear

Crumbling at intersection web thinningand cutting lip

Plastic deformation of outer corner

Misalignment, axis shifting

Heavy burring on breakthrough

Unsatisfactory surface finish

Possible Causes

Solution

Cutting speed too low

Increase cutting speed

Feed too high

Decrease feed

Excessive honing of cutting lip

Reduce cutting lip honing

Clearance angle too small

Increase clearance angle

Excessive honing of cutting lip

Reduce cutting lip honing

Wrong tool type

Apply suitable tool

Cutting speed too high

Decrease cutting speed

Insufficient coolant

Increase coolant (volume, pressure)

Incorrect or no honing at corner

Correct honing

Incorrect or no corner chamfer

Apply correct corner chamfer

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid champing of workpiece

Deviation from concentricity too large

Check and correct concentricity if possible

When spotting area transverse use milling cutter (two-fluted) for spotting

Use milling cutter (twin-fluted) for spotting

Chisel edge too large

Reduce chisel edge

Feed too high

Decrease feed

Max. wear and tear values have been exceeded

Reduce tool change intervals

Excessive honing of cutting lip

Reduce cutting lip honing

Non rigid conditions, insufficient workpiece clamping

Rigid clamping of workpiece

Deviation from concentricity too large

Check and correct concentricity if possible

Insufficient coolant

Increase volume / pressure)

64

GENERAL CALCULATIONS Spindle Speed (min -1) n =

Power Requirement (kW)

v c $ 1000

Pc =

r $D

Cutting Speed (m/min) vc =

$ k c $ sin k

Table Feed (mm/min)

r $ D $ n

vf = f x n

1000

Material Removal Rate (cm3/min) Q =

Q 60.000 $ h

vf $ r $ D

Machining Time (min/piece)

2 Tc =

4000

L + h

vf

Machining Cost ($/piece) Cc =

Symbol f

C Mh 60

$ Tc

Description Feed/rev

Kc

Material specific cutting force

h

Distance from drill point to workpiece before feeding

L

Depth of hole

CMh

Cost/machine hour

h

Machine efficiency

k

Point angle

D

Diameter

65

GENERAL CALCULATIONS Kc Values

Example

Material Kc Value Group

Material No. 4 k = 90ยบ

sin k = 1

kc = 2200 M/mm2 CMh = 50 $/h

1

2000

h

2

2100

f = 0.15 mm/rev

L = 25mm

3

2150

4

2200

h = 10mm

D = 22 mm

5

2200

6

2100

7

2100

8

2100

9

2100

10

2500

11

3250

12

2300

13

2800

14

2600

15

1100

16

1300

17

1100

18

1800

19

900

20

1000

21

500

22

800

23

800

26

700

27

700

28

1700

31

3000

32

3100

33

3300

34

3300

35

3200

36

1700

37

1700

38

4600

39

4700

40

4600

41

4500

n=

= 0.75

vc = 200 m/min

v c $ 1000 200 $ 1000 -1 r $ D = r $ 22 = 2894 min

v f = f $ n = 0.15 $ 2894 = 434 mm/min Q=

v f $ r $ D 2 434 $ 3.14 $ (22) 2 = 165 cm 3 /min 4000 = 4000

Q 165 Pc = 60.000 $ h $ k c $ sin k = 60.000 $ 0.75 $ 2200 $ 1 = 8.06 kW Tc =

L + h 25 + 10 v f = 434 = 0.08 min/piece

C Mh 50 $ 0.08 C c = 60 $ Tc = = 0.067 $/piece 60

66

GUHRING OPTIMISING APP AVAILABLE NOW ON APPLE APP STORE. The Cutting Speed Calculator ‘Optimising’ from Guhring is designed to assist Mechanical Engineers to optimise the performance of rotary cutting tools such as drills, taps, milling cutters and reamers.

We hope that the ‘Optimising app’ will assist you to achieve best performance.

Guhring Optimising app is FREE to download from iTunes.

Designed & Developed by Guhring Australia

Also Guhring Optimising app for Android phone available soon.

ENGINEERS’ GUIDE BOOK 6 Jacks Road Oakleigh South VIC 3167 03 9948 4600 03 9948 4699 sales@guhring.com.au www.guhring.com.au