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Contnoewnledtgse in the course Basic k
Skills Common: Taking notes; Preparing for an evaluation. Historical: Commenting on historical texts; Historical maps; Historical sources; Historical research; History assignments; Causes and consequences; Working with historical images; Comparing artistic styles
LEARNING SITUATION CHALLENGES THAT LEAVE AN IMPRINT
Mapping the 20th century .................................................................26
1 The First World War
............................................................................................... 28
1. The causes of the war 2. Characteristics of the war and warring countries 3. The development of the war 4. The Treaty of Versailles 5. The consequences of the war 6. Women in the Great War Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Nellie Bly and We Are Not Princesses
2 The interwar years and World War II
............................. 44
1. The Russian Revolution of 1917. The creation of the USSR 2. The economy (I). From prosperity to crisis 3. The economy (II). The Great Depression 4. The rise of totalitarianism 5. Fascism and Nazism 6. The Second World War (I). Causes 7. The Second World War (II). Events and consequences Graphic report. Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust 8. Establishing peace. The U.N. 9. Culture and art from 1919 to 1945 Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Margaret Grace Bondfield and The female vote in Saudi Arabia
3 Spain. Restoration and Civil War
........................................................................... 68
1. The Bourbon Restoration. Political system 2. Political problems during the Restoration 3. Alfonso XIII and the dictatorship of Primo de Rivera 4. The Second Republic (I). From 1931 to 1933 5. The Second Republic (II). From 1933 to 1936 6. Civil War (1936–1939) 7. Population, economy and society from 1875 to 1939 8. Culture and art (I). Architecture and sculpture 9. Culture and art (II). Pictorial evolution 10. Madrid between 1875 and 1931 11. The Second Republic and the Civil War in Madrid Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Juana Francisca Rubio and Colectivo Autoras de Cómic
4 Decolonisation. New global geopolitics (1945–1991)
............................. 94
1. Decolonisation (I). Causes and stages 2. Decolonisation (II). The process and its consequences 3. New World geopolitics. The world divided into blocs Graphic report. Cold War conflicts and disarmament agreements 4. The capitalist bloc (I). 1945–1973. Politics and the economy 5. The capitalist bloc (II). 1945–1973. Social changes 6. The capitalist bloc (III). 1973–1991 7. The communist bloc (I). 1945–1982 8. The Communist Bloc (II).1982-1991. The collapse of the USSR and the communist bloc Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Gisèle Rabesahala and the International African Women’s Day
5 Spain. Franco’s dictatorship
.................................................................. 116
1. The foundations of Franco’s dictatorship 2. Domestic policy of the Franco regime 3. Opposition to the dictatorship and its repression 4. Foreign policy of the Franco regime 5. Economic evolution 6. Population and society Graphic report. Daily life during autarky 7. Art and culture 8. Madrid in Franco’s time Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Carmen Alcalde Garriga and Susana Koska
Learning situation. Portfolio .......................................................... 138 LEARNING SITUATION CHALLENGES THAT LEAVE AN IMPRINT
Yesterday to today ..............................................................................140
6 The new world order: states and new powers
.................................................................................. 142
1. Recent world overview 2. World political organisation. The state 3. Political regions (I). The United States and Japan 4. Political regions (II). The European Union 5. Political regions (III). Emerging Asia 6. Political regions (IV). Russia 7. Political regions (V). The ArabIslamic world and Israel 8. Geopolitical regions (VI). Latin America and Sub-Saharan Africa Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Sirimavo Ratwatte Dias Bandaranaike y Women in Asia: the case of Iran and gender inequalities
7 Modern world. Relations and conflicts
.......................................................................................162
1. Present world conflicts 2. Conflicts in the Americas 3. Conflicts in Europe and Russia 4. Conflicts in Asia, the Middle East and the Arab-Islamic world 5. The Arab-Israeli conflict 6. Conflicts in Sub-Saharan Africa and other global conflicts 7. New formulas for conflict resolution 8. New formulas for international cooperation Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Ursula Hirschmann and Danica Jurisic
8 Globalisation and diversity
...................................................................... 184
1. Globalisation and its causes 2. Spheres and consequences of globalisation 3. Political diversity in today’s world. 4. Political systems 5. Economic diversity in today’s world. Economic systems 6. Social diversity in today’s world. The different types of society 7. Socio-economic inequalities 8. Socio-economic inequality in today’s world. Solutions Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux and Chimamanda Ngozi
9 Cultural and artistic diversity in today’s world
........................................................................200
1. Cultural diversity in today’s worldl 2. Scientific and technological advances 3. Contemporary art (I). Architecture 4. Contemporary art (II). sculpture 5. Art today (III). Painting 1945-1975 6. Art today (IV). Postmodern painting and new art forms Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Jude Milhon and #NoMoreMatildas
10 Spain. Political transition and democracy
................................................................................................................216
1. The Transition (I). The beginnings of democracy 2. The Transition (II). The consolidation of democracy 3. The democratic governments (I). From 1979 to 1996 4. The democratic governments (II).From 1996 to 2011 5. The democratic governments (III). From 2011 to 2018 6. The democratic governments (IV). 7. The political and territorial organisation of Spain. Regional inequalities 8. Population, economy and society since 1975 9. La sociedad y sus desigualdades 10. Spain in the EU and the world 11. Culture and current trends in art 12. La Comunidad de Madrid: Transición y autonomía Apply, reflect and test your skills Protagonists: Lolo Rico y Ana Peynas
Learning situation. Portfolio .........................................................244
Anexxes Glossary Apply the competencies
2
S R A E Y R A W R E T N I THE I I R A W D L R O W D AN
READING AND LISTENING
1 Read the text and answer the questions: a) What was Dorothea’s main area of interest? b) What did she do in San Francisco?
2 After 1929, what kind of photos did Dorothea
DOROTHEA LANGE
Photographer
My name is Dorothea Lange. I was born in 1895 in Hoboken, New Jersey, and I am a photographer. From a young age, I developed an interest in documenting changes in society. With the passing of time, my vocation became a profession, exposing my own vision of the world through a photo lens. After learning different techniques and photographic processes in New York, I moved to San Francisco, where I lived with my husband and children for a few years. There, I opened my first photo studio. The outbreak of an economic crisis after the crash of New York’s stock market in 1929 changed our live. I decided to travel around America to keep a record of the different situations caused by this event. My photographic production became very relevant when, in 1936, I took some photos of Florence Owens Thomson and her family. The photograph called 46
take? Why has ‘Migrant Mother’ become an iconic image of this period? Find the image and reflect upon it.
‘Migrant Mother’ is considered one of the most iconic images of the Great Depression. During this period, the economic crisis spread around the USA but also affected the rest of the world, where different measures were taken to address it. For a better understanding of the interwar period and the Second World War, you are going to learn about:
• The Russian revolution of 1917 and the creation of the USSR.
• The economy in the interwar period: from prosperity to crisis.
• The Great Depression. • The rise of totalitarianisms: Fascism and Nazism. • The Second World War: causes, events and consequences.
• Establishing peace: the UN. • Culture and art from 1919 to 1945.
RN LEA
UATION ING SIT
GES THAT
CHALLEN
LANGUAGE BANK
LEARNING SEQUENCE
SPEAKING
3 In the interwar period, society experienced many changes as there were ups and downs in politics, international relations and the economy. Read about what life used to be like in each of the different periods and regions, so you can understand how things changed.
4 Talk to some classmates about life in those periods and start drawing connections.
In the early twenties, people used to feel very optimistic because of economic prosperity. Businessmen were used to having plenty of investors for their ideas.
IM LEAVE AN
But after the crash in 1929 they had to get used to a lack of credit, so many went bankrupt.
THE INTER-WAR PERIOD 3.1 The importance of the Russian Revolution and its causes linked to international relations. We look for the most important places of the Revolution, such as the Winter Palace. 3.2 The causes and developments of the 1929 Crisis. 3.3 The rise of Fascism and Nazism. The Places take us to Italy and Germany, where it is particularly important to cross-reference the characteristics of totalitarianism with the places of the 1930s. THE SECOND WORLD WAR 4.1 The Second World War, its characteristics, causes and most important events. This period's enormous diversity of settings provides a broad range of places to work on the Learning Situation. Battlefields, capitals, extermination camps. 4.2 We reflect on what we have learnt and decide which places we are going to highlight and bring back to the present. Each group makes its decisions and writes them down in the group's portfolio.
WRITING
5 During the war, the Nazis developed a system of concentration camps for their enemies, but as time passed, they became extermination camps. Choose one of those extermination camps and read about the facilities, the conditions of life of the prisoners and what was going on in it. Then, put yourself in the shoes of either a soldier or a prisoner, and write a description of what you see on a normal day.
+ for guidelines, go to anayaeducacion.es 47
1
1 THE RUSSIAN REVOLUTION OF 1917. THE CREATION OF THE USSR
The revolutionary process The Revolution of 1905
1.1 Causes of the revolution. The crisis of the Tsarist Empire At the beginning of the 20th century, Russia’s empire extended from the Baltic to the Black Sea and from Poland to the Pacific Ocean. It was ruled by the Tsars of the Romanov dynasty and was in a state of turmoil*. Dissatisfaction at the political level was due to the autocratic government of the tsars and led to political opposition made up of liberal bourgeois parties and Marxist revolutionary parties, such as the Bolsheviks.Dissatisfaction at the economic and social levels was due to the contrast between the rich minority, who owned land and factories, and the extremely poor peasants and industrial proletariat.
9 January 1905 on Vasilyevsky Island, Vladimir Yegorovich Makovsky, State Central Museum of Contemporary History of Russia, Moscow (Russia).
The Revolution of 1917
1.2 The revolutions of 1905 and 1917 • In 1905, general discontent combined with the fact that Russia had been defeated by Japan in the Russo-Japanese war set off a revolution. The Tsar created a parliament (Duma), and implemented certain reforms. But, the autocracy remained. • In 1917, the Russian army’s losses in the First World War and the mass suffering sparked: – The bourgeois February Revolution of 1917, deposing Tsar Nicholas II and establishing a republic. The liberal and bourgeois provisional government promised reforms, but their sluggishness and decision to remain in the World War led to their downfall. – The Bolshevik October Revolution of 1917, organised by radical Marxists, or Bolsheviks. They overthrew the provisional government and placed their leader Lenin in power, who was supported by the soviets, or councils of workers, peasants and soldiers. In 1918, the Bolsheviks began to call themselves the Communist Party and took Russia out of the war by signing the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk with Germany (1918). They then drafted a Constitution, which transferred large estates to the peasants, gave workers control
48
The Bolshevik, Boris Kustodiev, 1920, Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow (Russia).
Focus on English Turmoil: disorder, confusion.
Skills progress Working with chronology 1 Name the events that happened on the following dates: 1905, 1917, 1918, 1921, 1922, 1927.
Assessing historical developments 2 Compare the two revolutions of 1917: the main figures involved and the measures taken.
UNIT 2 Creation and evolution of a new state LATVIA
Riga
LITHUANIA
ARCTIC OCEAN
ESTONIA
Tallinn
Vilnius
Minsk
MOLDOVA Kiev Chisinau
Moscow UKRAINE Black
BELARUS
Sea RUSSIAN FEDERATION
ARMENIA GEORGIA Tbilisi
pia
Baku
n S
ea
Yerevan
Cas
Aral Sea
Astana KAZAKHSTAN
AZERBAIJAN Ashgabat
Tashkent
Creation of the USSR (1922-1940)
TURKMENISTAN Bishkek UZBEKISTAN
KYRGYZSTAN Dushanbe
TAJIKISTAN
In 1922 In 1925 In 1929
In 1936 In 1940 0
400
800
1200 km
In 1922, in a conference of delegations from Russia, Belarus, Ukraine and Transcaucasia (currently Georgia, Armenia, and Azerbaijan), the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics was created. It then began to expand by incorporating other republics. The USSR was organised as a federal state governed by the Communist Party.
of factories and nationalised banks and transport. In 1919 they founded the Third International. Lenin’s actions were met with the opposition of armed counterrevolutionary groups. These groups formed what was known as the White Army –supported by the United Kingdom, France and Japan– which battled the Bolshevik Red Army, led by Leon Trotsky. The result was a bloody civil war (1918 to 1921) in which around eight million people lost their lives. The Red Army’s victory consolidated the revolution.
1.3 The consequences of the revolution. The USSR • Lenin’s government (1921-1924). Lenin held all the political power. In 1922 he created a political organisation called the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), made up of Russia and other Asian republics. It was organised as a federal state and adopted a New Economic Policy (NEP), which combined communist and capitalist policies. Thanks to this policy, the Soviet economy made a recovery. • Stalin’s government (1927-1953). Lenin’s successor began a new era, called ‘Stalinism’. A totalitarian political system was established which used state violence to purge society of his opponents. The economy became controlled by the state. Land was collectively owned and farmed by agricultural cooperatives or kolkhozy or by salaried peasants on state-owned estates or sovjoses. Large industrial estates were built for metallurgical, chemical and arms production and the banking system and other services remained nationalised. Moreover, the state planned each area of production through five-year plans, which established objectives to be fulfilled in that time frame. Through all of these measures the USSR became a major economic and military power.
Working with maps 3 Name the republics that formed part of the USSR in 1922. What does it mean to say that the USSR was organised as a federal state?
Searching for relevant information
Línea del tiempo
4 Search for information on Lenin and write a short biography on him. With the information you have found, make a timeline of his life, including the most important events in connection to the history of the USSR.
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2
THE ECONOMY (I). FROM PROSPERITY TO CRISIS 2.1 The Roaring Twenties In the years from 1924-1929 the economy went through a period of prosperity known as the Roaring Twenties. Although Europe benefited from this period, it was the United States which experienced the greatest prosperity, having become the world’s top economic power, based on three pillars: • Industrial development. It was made possible thanks to a new system of production on assembly lines, by which goods such as automobiles and other products could be mass-produced. • An increase in consumption. Due to advertising and new and easy purchase methods, such as instalment payment plans and bank loans. • Stock market investments. These became a quick way to get money for private individuals, companies and banks that invested by purchasing shares, causing share prices to continuously go up. The prosperity of this period led people to trust the capitalist system, which had allowed them to enjoy a high standard of living with readily available goods and services. It also led people to live carefree lives, characterised by extravagant fashion, a fancy for popular music, wild dances (jazz, the Charleston) and entertainment (theatre, cabaret, cinema).
Skills progress Working with information sources 1 Explain the connection between, on the one hand, industry and consumption, and on the other the economic prosperity of the Twenties. Use this table of statistics in your explanation. Annual industrial production index from 1920-1929 (1913 = 100) 1920 World
93,2
153,5
United States
122,2
180,8
Germany
59,0
117,3
United Kingdom
92,6
100,3
France
70,4
142,7
USSR
12,8
181,4
Italy
95,2
181,0
Japan
176,0
324,0
Working with images 2 Using the pictures, explain the characteristics of the economy and lifestyle of the Roaring Twenties.
Participating in learning 3 Find out what the Dow Jones Index is, when it was created and if it is still used nowadays. Go to working with historical images
Signs of economic prosperity Stock market investment
Optimism in society
Dow Jones index from January 1921 to September 1929 400 350 300 250 200 150 100 0 1922
50
1924
1926
1928
Years 1930
1929
The Charleston became one of the most fashionable dances during the "Roaring Twenties".
SKILL
UNIT 2 The 1929 crisis. Causal chains Evolution of prices on the New York Stock Exchange Index numbers (June 1925 = 100)
220 210 200 190 180 170 160 150 140 130 120 110 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30
Stock of bags of tapioca in a warehouse.
When the war was over, agricultural surpluses had accumulated and many farmers went bankrupt.
Years 1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
‘One special day, the market began wavering. A few of the more nervous customers got the jitters and began to unload. (...) At first the selling was orderly, but soon fright kicked judgement out of the way and everyone began tossing their securities into the bullring (...) and the brokers began dumping securities for whatever they would bring (...) Then, one spectacular Tuesday, Wall Street threw in the towel and collapsed. The towel was an appropriate gesture, for by this time the whole country was crying.’
The increase in industrial production, which was greater than demand, created an accumulation of unsold stocks.
2.2 The 1929 crisis. The crash of the New York Stock Exchange Economic prosperity came to an end in 1929. This was the year in which the United States experienced a severe economic crisis caused by excess production in relation to consumption. During the First World War, the U.S. agricultural industry, along with other major industries, had dramatically increased its production in order to supply their allies in the war. However, by the end of the war, demand in these countries decreased, creating an accumulation of stock in agricultural products and industrial goods that had not been sold. This caused prices to fall, and companies suffered major losses. The real situation of many companies therefore did not correspond to the high value their stock had on the market. In 1929, this situation created an atmosphere of distrust and the rise of share prices slowed. On 24 October 1929, a date known as Black Thursday, fear of an even further drop in prices caused many investors to sell stocks at an extremely fast pace, some stocks actually having no buyers. As a result, prices plummeted and Wall Street crashed, driving many companies out of business and causing great fortunes to vanish.
Groucho Marx, Groucho and me, 1959.
Handling graphs 4 Use the chart above and the text below to answer the following questions: How did share prices evolve in the twenties? What were the reasons for the constant increase? ‘Up and up the market soared. The most astonishing thing about the ’29 market was that no one ever sold a stock. The public just kept buying (...) I was loath to relinquish any stock that was sure to double in a few months (...) The plumber, the iceman, the butcher, the baker, all of them panting to get rich, were tossing their puny salaries–and in many cases their life’s savings–into Wall Street’. Groucho Marx, Groucho and me. New York, B. Geis Associates, 1959.
Identifying historical processes 5 Explain the causes of the 1929 crisis. Use the texts and graphs on this page to help. 51
3
THE ECONOMY (II). THE GREAT DEPRESSION 3.1 The widespread impact of the crisis In the United States, the stock market crash sparked a widespread depression. Millions of people lost their money and their savings. Countless banks went bankrupt, since they had invested their funds in buying stock or granting credit to acquire shares. Many factories and farmers also went bankrupt, due to the drop in sales and the lack of credit. Foreign trade was paralysed due to protective measures. From 1930 to 1931, the crisis spread from the U.S. to the rest of the world, affecting Europe and countries in Asia and Latin America. It thus became a global crisis, known as the Great Depression, and one of the biggest economic crises in history.
3.2 The consequences of the crisis • Economically, agricultural and industrial production dropped as demand fell, and foreign trade slowed as protectionism became more general. In turn, the capitalist system was strongly rejected by the middle class and workers. • Population growth slowed considerably, as did transoceanic migration, since recipient countries limited entries in order to reduce unemployment. • Unemployment and inequality increased in society. The optimism of the Roaring Twenties had been replaced by pessimism and a lack of trust in progress. • In politics, democracy was discredited by the depression, since it had proven unable to prevent it, and new ideologies appeared as answers to the problem, such as totalitarianism among the middle class and communism among the working class.
Skills progress Developing your own content 1 Write a brief answer to the following question: How did the stock market crisis affect the real economy of the United States?
2 Explain the consequences of the Great Depression as mentioned in the texts.
3 Based on the diagram, write a text that describes Keynes’s ideas.
Organise information 4 Make
a mind map of the repercussions of the crisis and the Great Depression.
Searching for relevant information
1-2-4
5 In groups, search for information to answer the following question: Can you find similarities between the causes and repercussions of the 1929 crisis and the 2008 economic crisis?
3.3 Proposals for a solution • Some countries promoted autarchy, or economic self-sufficiency, emphasising the use of domestic resources and limiting imports as much as possible. • However, the majority of countries adopted the ideas of the British economist John Maynard Keynes, who argued for state intervention in the economy to stimulate investments, employment and consumption. This was the case in the United States, where in 1933 the new president Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted a series of economic and social programmes known as the New Deal. It included regulations for banks, forcing them to grant loans at low interest rates, subsidies for landowners and businesses to limit production, a reduction in the maximum number of weekly working hours, minimum wages, unemployment insurance, public works, etc.
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You'll find the test in the "Apply your skills" section called: Ellis Island.
UNIT 2 Signs of the crisis Evolution of industrial production
Rise in unemployment
Evolution of manufacturing production
Evolution of the number of unemployed Millions of people
Index numbers (1913 = 100)
1000
14
World United States Germany United Kingdom France USSR Italy Japan
900 800 700 600
The spread of extreme poverty
France 12
Germany United Kingdom
10
United States
8
500 6
400 300
4
200 2
100 0
Years
1929 1930
1932
1934
1936
1938
0
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
Years
The photographer took six photographs of this mother with her children. They are some of the most iconic images of the Great Depression.
The solutions to the crisis Proposals by Keynes 1 State investments:
2
Public works Aid for the most dynamic companies Unemployment insurance, at the expense of an increasing federal budget deficit (more expenses than income)
Job creation and unemployment absorption/reduction
8
3
4
Balanced budget: a reduction in federal budget deficit
An increase in household incomes
Rise in consumption (increase in demand)
7 Increase in state revenue
6
5
Increase in indirect taxes levied on goods and services
Increase in goods and services production
The New Deal Our greatest primary task is to put people to work. This is no unsolvable problem if we face it wisely and courageously. It can be accomplished in part by direct recruiting by the Government itself, treating the task as we would treat the emergency of a war, but at the same time, through this employment, accomplishing greatly needed projects to stimulate and reorganize the use of our natural resources. (...) The task can be helped by definite efforts to raise the values of agricultural products and with this the power to purchase the output of our cities. It can be helped by preventing realistically the tragedy of the growing loss through foreclosure of our small homes and our farms. It can be helped by national planning for and supervision of all forms of transportation and of communications and other utilities which have a definitely public character (...). F. D. Roosevelt, ‘Inaugural Address’, 4 March 1933.
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4
THE RISE OF TOTALITARIANISM 4.1 The crisis of democracy and the rise of totalitarianism During the interwar period, the catastrophe of the First World War and the post-war difficulties bred a new current of thought against the democratic system. Parliamentarianism had failed. • Democracy and the parliamentary system were maintained in the United States and in European countries with more liberal traditions, such as the United Kingdom and France. • Other states in central and southern Europe adopted authoritarian regimes with one ruler, or totalitarian regimes with one party that had total control over society. Totalitarian regimes had the social support of the middle class, who were unhappy about the decrease in their standard of living caused by the crisis; big businesses that were eager to halt the rise of communism; many former soldiers and frustrated jobless citizens; and the most conservative sectors of society. Two examples of totalitarianism were Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany.
4.2 Characteristics of totalitarianism Totalitarian parties held full political power and control over people’s lives. In countries where they rose to power, they implemented: • An authoritarian political system. In this system, power was concentrated in the hands of the state, led by a charismatic leader who demanded blind obedience: Il Duce Mussolini in Italy, or the Führer Hitler in Germany. There was neither personal freedom nor political pluralism. There was only one party, which subdued any opposition violently. • Economic and social control. The state directed the economy and declared itself anti-capitalist and anti-communist, and controlled society through propaganda, censorship of the media and education. • Rejection of equality. They considered members of the single party to be superior to others, men superior to women, and certain races superior to others. • Irrational thinking. They defended fanaticism and blind obedience, and used symbols, emblems, songs and uniforms to unify their followers. • Ultra-nationalism. They exalted the greatness of the nation, and demanded new territories in the name of reuniting the nation or of creating a Lebensraum (‘living space’ in German) to allow the nation to survive. • Militarism. They defended strength and war as instruments of power, prestige and progress for their people.
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Skills progress Building knowledge 1 Briefly answer these questions: a) How did authoritarian systems differ from totalitarian systems? b) What social groups supported totalitarianism and why?
Working with maps 2 Name the countries that maintained democratic systems and those that adopted totalitarian systems.
Creating original products 3 Name the countries that maintained democratic systems and those that adopted totalitarian systems. Go to historical research
SKILL
UNIT 2 Democracy versus totalitarianism Geographical distribution Europe from 1922 to 1939 Totalitarian regime Authoritarian regime Totalitarian communist regime Liberal democracies Popular Front Government (1936-1939) 1922 Dictator or authoritarian regime Franco Dictator
FINLAND SWEDEN
NORWAY
ESTONIA Päts 1934 LATVIA Ulmanis 1934 LITHUANIA Voldemaras 1926 EAST 8 PRUSSIA
DENMARK IRELAND UNITED KINGDOM
A T L A N T I C O C E A N
PORTUGAL Carmona 1926 Salazar 1928
NETHERLANDS GERMANY POLAND Hitler 1933 Pilsudski 1926 BELGIUM 2 3 CZECHOSLOVAK IA AUSTRIA FRANCE 4 Dolfus 1934 HUNGARY Horthy 1920 ROMANIA SWITZERLAND Carol II 1938 ITALY YUGOSLAVIA Mussolini Alexander I 1929 1922 7 BULGARIA 5 Boris III 1934 1
SPAIN Primo de Rivera 1923-1930 Civil War 1936-1939 Franco 1939
Mediterranean Gibraltar (U.K.) MOROCCO (España)
6
ALBANIA Zogu 1925
SOVIET UNION 1927
Black Sea
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
TURKEY
GREECE Metaxas 1936
ANDORRA LUXEMBOURG SARRE LIECHTENSTEIN MONACO VATICAN CITY SAN MARINO DANZIG
Sea Malta (U.K.)
Cyprus (U.K.)
0
250
500
750 km
Some characteristics of totalitarianism
1
2
A business marked with the word "Jew" and the Star of David.
Organise information Totalitarianism violently repressed any opposition through the political police, such as the Gestapo and the German SS (1); they put education at the service of the party’s interests; they demanded worship and blind obedience to the leader; maintained the superiority of some races over others (2); and they defended patriotism and war as an instrument of the nation’s prestige and power.
4 Make
a basic diagram of the characteristics of totalitarianism. Say which of these characteristics appear in the pictures
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5
FASCISM AND NAZISM 5.1 Fascism in Italy The causes of the birth of Fascism in Italy were largely due to dissatisfaction with the peace agreements established after the First World War, as well as the post-war situation, plagued by an economic crisis, unemployment, inflation and social unrest, expressed through revolutionary movements that frightened the most conservative sectors of society. Fascism was the creation of journalist Benito Mussolini, who founded the National Fascist Party in 1921, using paramilitary groups –Italian Combat Squad, or Blackshirts –to quash the workers’ movement. He gained support from large landowners, small bourgeoisie, the Church and King Victor Emmanuel III. In 1922, the successful intervention of the Italian Combat Squad against the trade unions and workers’ strikes allowed Mussolini to claim power. To pressure the government, he organised a March on Rome with the Blackshirts and was subsequently named prime minister by the king. Once in power, Mussolini established a Fascist dictatorship. In doing so, he took complete control over the country, restricted freedoms, prohibited political parties, repressed trade unions and any other opposition using secret police (OVRA), directed the economy and controlled every aspect of social life through propaganda and censorship.
5.2 Nazism in Germany The causes that led to Nazism in Germany can be traced to discontent during the Weimar Republic (1918-1933) with the humiliation of the Treaty of Versailles, as well as the post-war situation: economic crisis, unemployment and social unrest expressed through revolutionary movements. Nazism arose around the ex-soldier Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers’ Party, founded in 1920, and had a paramilitary group (Storm Troopers, or SA), who fought the communists. Hitler won the support of a large part of the middle class, who had been devastated by the 1929 economic crisis, and of the capitalists who despised the communists. In the elections of 1932, the Nazi Party received 13.8 million votes, and Hitler was named Chancellor of Germany. Once in power, he ended the Weimar Republic and founded the Third Reich, through which he established a fierce dictatorship, dissolved the other parties, prohibited trade unions and eliminated fundamental freedoms and rights. He also took control of the economy, directed education, culture and art through propaganda and censorship, sought social cohesion through the idea of the superiority of the Aryan race and persecution of the Jews, adopted a military policy based on rearmament and rejected the Treaty of Versailles and the territorial terms. All of these actions would eventually lead to the Second World War.
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Skills progress Building knowledge 1 Which social groups were the main supporters of Fascism and Nazism? Who were the main enemies to these systems?
Working with written texts 2 Read the text by Mussolini and make a list of the main ideas mentioned.
Creating diagrams El espejo 3 Make an outline of Italian Fascism based on the outline on Nazism. Point out the differences between the two.
Creating original products 4 The process of eliminating enemies of Nazism was done on three historical nights: the Reichstag fire, the ‘Night of the Long Knives’ and the ‘Night of Broken Glass’. In groups, do a project on one of these nights and present it in class as an educational poster.
Go to commenting on historical texts
SKILL
UNIT 2 Fascist and Nazi ideologies Mussolini and Fascism
‘ ... the Fascist conception of life stresses the importance of the State and accepts the individual only in so far as his interests coincide with those of the State… Fascism reasserts the rights of the State as expressing the real essence of the individual. The Fascist conception of the State is all embracing; outside of it no human or spiritual values can exist, much less have value. Thus understood, Fascism is totalitarian, and the Fascist State… interprets, develops, and potentates the whole life of a people (...). To achieve this purpose it enforces discipline and uses authority (...)’. Benito Mussolini, The Doctrine of Fascism, 1932.
Adolf Hitler and Nazism Parliamentary elections (number of votes for the Nazi Party)
Nazi Programme (1920) 1. We demand the union of all Germans in a Great Germany…
Votes
%
May 1924
1 918 000
6,6
December 1924
903 000
3,0
4. Only those who have German blood… can be our countrymen. Hence no Jew can be a countryman.
May 1928
810 000
2,6
25. In order to carry out this program we demand: the creation of a strong central authority in the State.
November 1930
6 406 000
18,3
July 1932
13 800 000
37,3
November 1932
11 700 000
33,1
2. We demand… that the Peace Treaties of Versailles and SaintGermain shall be abrogated. 3. We demand land and territory (colonies) for the maintenance of our people and the settlement of our surplus population.
NAZISM
Date
Dissatisfaction with the Treaty of Versailles Weak democracy of the Weimar Republic
Post-war crisis in Germany
Economic problems (unemployment, inflation, debt) Social unrest (attempts at revolutions and coups d’état against the government of the republic)
Led to the emergence of
The National Socialist German Workers’ (Nazi) Party
Hitler
Storm Troopers (SA)
Organisation of the Nazi State
Won elections in 1932 and was appointed Chancellor in 1933
One-party dictatorship (Nazi Party) Glorification of a charismatic leader (Führer: Hitler) Suppression of individual freedoms Prohibition of other parties and trade unions, repression of opposition (Gestapo)
Economic and social dirigisme Superiority of the Aryan race and anti-Semitism Militarism and expansionism to gain Lebensraum
57
6
THE SECOND WORLD WAR (I). CAUSES
The road to war. The pacts
6.1 Participants On 1 September 1939 the Second World War began. The conflict lasted almost six years, until 5 August 1945, and is considered to be the most important war in the history of humanity. The warring countries formed two large groups: on one side, the western powers, called the Allies, led by the United Kingdom and France, and on the other the Axis powers, led by Germany and Italy. During the war (1941) both sides gained allies, such as the Soviet Union, Japan and the United States, giving the war a global character.
6.2 Causes of the conflict
The Pact of Steel. On 22 May 1939, Hitler and Mussolini signed what was known as the Pact of Steel, which linked the countries politically and militarily, in the case of war. They established the so-called Rome-Berlin Axis, which came to include Japan as well once the war had started.
General causes There were many general causes of the war: Germany’s quest for revenge, since it considered it had been humiliated by the Treaty of Versailles by having to pay an indemnity to the Allies and reduce its army and naval fleet; the increase in totalitarian ideologies and the rise of militarism; nationalism, which was the source of territorial claims; and an economic depression and general impoverishment caused by the 1929 crisis.
Immediate causes and the spark The immediate causes of the war boil down to the aggressive military policy by the totalitarian powers in the years leading up to the war. Japan invaded Manchuria in 1932, Italy annexed Ethiopia and Albania in 1935 and 1939, respectively, and under the pretext of incorporating territories with German populations into its empire, Germany annexed
The German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact. On 23 August 1939, Stalin and Hitler signed a pact in which ‘Both High Contracting Parties obligate themselves to desist from any act of violence, any aggressive action, and any attack on each other’. The secret clauses of the pact established the division of Poland between the USSR and Germany.
The Allies and the Axis GERMANY UNITED KINGDOM
Axis powers USSR
FRANCE UNITED STATES
JAPAN
ITALY AT L
PA C I F I C
ANT
IC
PA C I F I C
OC
OCEAN
OCEAN
EAN
The Allies and the Axis
0 1500 3000 4500 6 000 km
58
Main powers: – Germany – Italy – Japan
Main powers: – United Kingdom – URSS – France – U.S.
Other countries: – Romania – Hungary – Bulgaria – Finland – Austria
Other countries: – Poland – Belgium – Holland – China – Norway – Yugoslavia – Brazil
OCEAN INDIAN
Allies Allies after the attack on Pearl Harbour Axis powers Neutral countries
Allied powers
UNIT 2 Causal links German expansion
Italian expansion
DENMARK
Memel Danzig EAST PRUSSIA
NETHERLANDS
Japanese expansion
ALBANIA ITALY
Occupied by Italy in April 1939. Becomes autonomous Italian territory from 1939 to 1943.
MANCHUKUO
Warsaw
DODECANESE
Cologne
Sudetes
Rhineland FRANCE
Bohemia-Moravia
VA K I
A
ERITREA
SLOVAKIA
AUSTRIA
Tokyo
Seoul
Colony from 1912
Colony from the end of the 19th century
Vienna
SWITZERLAND
NORTH KOREA
Beijing
LIBYA
Prague CZEC HOSL O
Saarland
Mukden
Occupied by Italy from 1912 to 1947
POLAND
GERMANY
JAPAN
Harbin
MONGOLIA Berlin
Kuril Islands
Karafuto Prefecture (South Sakhalin)
USSR
Nanking
C H I N A Hankou
HUNGARY
ITALY Saarland (plebiscite, March 1935) Remilitarisation of the Rhineland (March 1936) Germany in 1935 Anschluss, incorporation of Austria (March 1938) After the Munich Agreement (October 1938) March 1939 Germany's borders in March 1939
Invaded by Italian troops in March 1935. Is renamed ABYSSINIA
The German invasion of Poland
Ryukyu Islands
Shantou Guangzhou (Canton) Nanning
ETHIOPIA
ITALIAN SOMALILAND
French Indo-China
Shanghai
Amoy
OCEAN
Macau (Portugal)
PHILIPPINES (U.S.A.)
Hainan
Colony from end of XIX century
PA C I F I C
Taiwan Hong Kong (U.K.)
Japanese territory in 1932 Manchukuo, 1932, Japanese protectorate in Manchuria Japanese occupation of China from 1937 to 1939
France declares war on Germany The Government of the French Republic considers it their duty to point out for the last time the heavy responsibility assumed by the Government of the Reich in opening hostilities against Poland without a declaration of war and in not taking up the suggestions made by the Governments of the French Republic and His Britannic Majesty to suspend all aggressive action against Poland and to declare themselves ready promptly to withdraw their forces from Polish territory. In consequence, the Government of the French Republic have the honour to inform the Government of the Reich that they find themselves obliged to fulfil, as from today, 3rd September at 5pm, the obligations which France has entered towards Poland and which are known to the German Government. 3 September 1939, Coulondre. French Ambassador in Berlin
Skills progress Organise information 1 Make a mind map of the causes of the war. Austria and the Czech region of Sudetenland in 1938, and practically all of Czechoslovakia in 1939. Neither the League of Nations nor the Western democracies stepped in to contain these military aggressions; rather they granted concessions to the Axis powers in order to avoid conflict. The spark that set off the war was Germany’s invasion of Poland without a previous declaration of war after signing a non-aggression pact with the USSR. This act, in turn, caused the United Kingdom and France to declare war against Germany.
Working with information sources 2 Answer the questions using the information given in the text and maps. a) Name the areas annexed by Germany from March 1935 to March 1939. Which European countries were annexed? How did Germany justify the annexation of these territories? b) Which territories were annexed by Japan in the period from 1932 to 1939? To which countries did the territories belong? Go to causes and consequences
SKILL
59
7
THE SECOND WORLD WAR (II). EVENTS AND CONSEQUENCES
New weapons Fighter planes
7.1 The development of the conflict (1939-1945) Characteristics of the war The war had an enormous reach, given that its operations took place in the Pacific, Europe and Africa and involved sixty countries, affecting up to 90 % of the human population. It was a long-lasting war –six years–, two more than the previous war. This was primarily because of the numerous German victories at the start of the war, which required the long and extensive recovery of lost territory. It was also noteworthy for being the quintessential total war, forcing the economies of warring countries to be organised on the basis of the war, mobilising over 100 million soldiers and using powerful weapons. It was an extremely merciless war. It is estimated that approximately 800 million civilians were occupied by enemies and suffered bombing and other hardships; the war involved deportations, torture, murder and genocide.
Messerschmitt Bf 110G night fighter in the Battle of France (1940).
Atomic bomb
Stages and events • The victories of the Axis powers (1939-1941). German tactics included the blitzkrieg, or lightning war, based on the use of tanks and planes together. These tactics, along with Russia’s neutrality, enabled Germany to occupy practically all of Western Europe until 1940. Later, with the support of Italy, Germany forced France to sign an armistice, occupied part of French territory and forced the formation of the Vichy government, essentially a puppet state of Germany. It also sought to defeat the United Kingdom by heavy bombing it, conquered territories in North Africa and the Balkans (1940) and invaded the USSR in 1941, in need of energy resources and food. This opened up a second front in Eastern Europe. At the same time, Japan sought to extend its influence in the Pacific and in 1941 it destroyed the U.S. Pacific Fleet at Pearl Harbour (Hawaii). This attack brought the United States into the war.
Bombing of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.
• The war evens out (1941-1943). Germany was slowed by Britain in North Africa and by Russia in Stalingrad; Italy was invaded by the Allies and Japan was halted by the U.S in the Pacific. • The Allies turn the tide (1943-1945). The allies gained the advantage in the war after a double offensive in Europe. In the west, after the Normandy landings (1944), the Allies freed Paris and entered Germany. In the east, the Red Army of the Soviets occupied several eastern European countries (1944), while partisan paramilitary units freed Yugoslavia and Albania from the Nazis. In April of 1945, Mussolini was captured and executed and two days later Hitler committed suicide in Berlin after the Russian army entered the city. In the Pacific, Japan pulled out of Burma, the Philippines and China after the battles of Iwo Jima and Guadalcanal. They finally surrendered after two atomic bombs were dropped on the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945. This put a definitive end to the war.
60
Skills progress Discussing issues 1 Explain why the war was total, long, extensive and merciless.
UNIT 2
Sea
GREECE
Syria (Vichy France)
Algeria (Vichy France)
FINLAND
SWEDEN
DENMARK UNITED KINGDOM NETHERLANDS Berlin London
AT L A N T I C
USSR Moscow
LATVIA
Sea
U
SWITZERLAND FRANCE
N
.
AL RTU G PO
Mediterranean Sea
Casablanca MOROCCO (FRANCE)
Algiers Oran Algeria (France)
Rome Anzio
C
ROMANIA
Sebastopol
ALBANIA Salerno
ITALY Tunisia (FRANCE) Malta (U.K.) Tripoli
LIBYA
USSR
1 350 1660
915
200 600 800
245 350 595
450 465
7
315 322
413 6
407
403 92 495
380 153 533
Poland
Germany
Loss of human lives. The largest loss of life corresponds to USSR, Poland and Germany. The destruction of cities. Dresden (Germany) in February 1945.
as
pi
an
USSR
Se
a
Black Sea
TURKEY
IRAN SYRIA (FRANCE)
GREECE Dodecanese Crete
Mediterranean Sea El Agheila
Military Civilians Total
Stalingrad
Belgrade YUGOSLAVIA BULGARIA
Cannes
Belgium
Kharkov
Bucharest
SPAIN
In 1944
Minsk
H
0
Territory occupied by the Reich at the end of January 1945 Neutral countries
Kiev
Greece
750 km
In 1943
Smolensk
LITHUANIA
Warsaw POLAND
Netherlands
At the end of 1942
Vienna SLOV.
Paris
OCEAN
5000
Territory controlled by the Allies:
Leningrad
ESTONIA
Baltic
IRELAND
IRAN Occupied by the Allies in 1941
Malta (U.K.)
Oslo NORWAY
North Sea
0
10000
Dodecanese Cyprus Líbano (Vichy France) (Italy) (U.K.) Crete IRAQ SAUDI Mediterranean Sea Palestine ARABIA (U.K.) Transjordan (U.K.) El Alamein Libya 0 250 500 (Italy) EGYPT
Tunisia (Vichy France)
1000
76 23 99
TURKEY
Spanish Morocco Morocco (Vichy France)
Front in September 1942
2000
19 140 159
BULGARIA
YUGOSLAVIA Rome ALBANIA
15000
Czechoslovakia
5 690
Black Sea
USA
13 236 249
ROMANIA
United Kingdom
3 250 2 440
Austria HUNGARY
0
Italy Thousands of people
6 270
PO RTU GA L
Mediterranean
France
1000
20000
Front in December 1941 C as pi an Se a USSR
V.
ITALY
SPAIN
Hungary
0
2000
SLO
SWITZERLAND
Yugoslavia Romania Thousands of people
1000 25000
Neutral countries
POLAND
LUXEMBOURG
VICHY FRANCE
Gibraltar (United Kingdom)
Territory controlled by the Allies
Stalingrad
GERMANY
Paris
Moscow
597
OCCUPIED FRANCE
Territory occupied by the Axis
5 860
BÉLGICA
Islas del Canal
30000
Allied powers
USSR
Thousands of people
2000
17000
North DENMARK Sea IRELAND UNITED KINGDOM NETHERLANDS Berlin London
Leningrad
12 000
OCEAN
ESTONIA Baltic LATVIA Sea LITHUANIA Danzig GER.
Axis powers
29000
FINLAND
AT L A N T I C
Thousands of people
Axis offensive (1939-1942)
Finnish territory ceded to the USSR in the Moscow Peace Treaty of March 1940
SWEDEN
NORWAY
A bleak situation
305
Offensives and counteroffensives
LEBANON (Fr.)
Cyprus (U.K.) PALESTINE (U.K.)
El Alamein EGYPT
IRAQ
SAUDI ARABIA TRANSJORDAN (U.K.) 0
250
500
750 km
7.2 The consequences of the war • Lives lost and material destroyed. As a consequence of the battles, the bombing of villages and cities, and the retaliation that occurred, roughly 50 to 60 million people lost their lives, the majority of whom were civilians, and 70 million people were wounded. After the war, there were more than 40 million people forcibly displaced due to border modifications. The war destroyed natural areas, cities, factories, and infrastructure, such as bridges, ports, railways, etc. • Political repercussions. European monarchies disappeared. Totalitarian regimes were defeated and democracies were once again established. A new world order was imposed, led by the two superpowers: the United States and the USSR. • Territorial changes. After the peace treaties, a new map of Europe had been drawn, and many countries either gained or lost territory.
Working with chronology 2 Make a timeline of the main events of the war. Differentiate the events based on their geographical location, either in Europe or the rest of the world.
Working with maps 3 Using the maps above, briefly explain the different stages of the war.
Handling images 4 What consequences of the war are shown in the illustrations? What information do they provide? Go to historical maps
SKILL 61
T R O P E R C I H P A R G ust
a c lo o H e th d n a m is it m e -S Anti
The Nazi Party adopted a racist anti-Semitic ideology from its founding in 1919. The result of this was the relentless persecution that they carried out against the Jews and their properties from coming into power in Germany.
Anti-Semitism and its cause The Nazi Party blamed the Jews for Germany’s defeat in World War I; for getting rich during the war and after it with the black market; and for conspiring with the Bolsheviks to destroy Germany. Furthermore, the Nazis considered the Jews an inferior race.
But it was during World War II when the horror reached its peak with the creation of concentration camps and extermination camps such as Treblinka or Auschwitz. The latter was made to facilitate the holocaust, or ‘final solution’ of the Jewish question; that is, the genocide of more than six million Jews.
Skills progress Comprehension, expression and ICT 1 In what historical context did antiSemitism and the Holocaust take place?
2 What was the goal of anti-Semitic measures in the pre-world war period? How were they different from the holocaust? Why was this last measure adopted?
3 Using the text and images, describe the process that Jewish prisoners went through in an extermination camp.
4
Assess whether actions that remember the holocaust are necessary. Explain your answer.
5
In pairs, using the Internet, access the website of a Holocaust museum. Puzzle
Explore it, and write in your notebook those aspects that most caught your attention 62
The deportations of Jews to Poland that the Nazis were carrying out at the end of 1938, led the Jew, Herschel Grynszpan, to assassinate the German diplomat Ernst von Rath in Paris. This event spurred the Nazis to provoke a night of terror and deportations of Jews, and the destruction of their businesses and synagogues during the so-called ‘night of broken glass’, from November 8 to 9, 1938.
First anti-Jewish measures Before the start of World War II, the Nazis passed more than 1 400 anti-Semitic laws and measures. They prevented Jews from exercising numerous professions; they boycotted their businesses and attacked synagogues, and confiscated their property. Finally, they were forced to identify themselves with a Star of David sewn into their clothing and forced to live together in ghettos in large cities.
UNIT 2
The holocaust or ‘final solution’ USSR
Norway Rumbula
N o r th S ea
SWEDEN Denmark
Se a
Kaunas Vilnius Ponary Maly Trostenets Territory under Bialystok military Lachva Treblinka administration
NETHERLANDS
Belgium and North of France
Chelmno Lodz Warsaw Majdanek
Berlin
Theresienstadt
Occupied Paris France
Sobibor
Belzec Vinnytsia Lemberg
Auschwitz Kraków
1
GERMANY
2
ESL.
Mohilev-Podolski Transnistria
Czernowitz Chisinau
Cluj
Budapest
SWITZERLAND
Odessa
HUNGARY
FRANCE OF VICHY
Jasenovac
Ad
ri
at
SPAIN
Extermination camp Concentration camp City with a ghetto Transit city Great massacre Main routes of deportation Borders in late 1942
Babi Yar
Reich Commissariat for Ukraine
Viena
The Holocaust
Front on September out of 1942
Reich Commissariat Baltic for the Eastern Lands
IRELAND UNITED KINGDOM
With the start of World War II, the Nazis decided to definitively solve what they called the Jewish problem.
ic
ROMANIA
Se
BULGARIA
a
Corsica
Rome
Montenegro (Italy) ITALY
Sardinia
Ty r r h e ni an Sea Italian military occupation
Sicily
B l a c k S ea
CROATIA Serbia
Albania (Italy)
Bitola
TURKEY
Salonika
Greece
I oni an Sea
Mediterranean Sea
1 BOHEMIA-MORAVIA 2 GENERAL GOVERNMENT OF POLAND
Aegean Sea
0
250
After the invasion of Poland, they created ghettos on Polish territory to temporarily house the Jews who had been deported from Germany and the rest of Europe. In 1942, overcrowding of these ghettos led them to adopt the ‘final solution’; that is to say, the mass murder of Jews quickly and secretly in extermination camps. The strongest were chosen to work temporarily in German factories and taken to forced labour camps. Meanwhile, women, the elderly, children and the sick were murdered in gas chambers and their bodies cremated in crematoriums or buried in mass graves.
500 km
The condemnation and remembrance of the holocaust In remembrance of the Holocaust, Israel and the international community celebrate International Holocaust Remembrance Day in Memory of the Victims of the Holocaust (January 27) every year, and dedicate museums to keeping the memory of the victims alive. Thanks to a law put into place in 2007, the European Union, penalises the denial of the holocaust. In 2010, it created a database to collect all the existing documentation on the genocide to facilitate its research.
The memorial monument to the murdered Jews in Europe is located in Berlin and was designed by the architect Peter Eisenman. Completed in 2005, it is a labyrinthine esplanade with 2 711 concrete cubes of different heights dotted with some trees, symbolizing death and life.
63
8
ESTABLISHING PEACE. THE U.N. 8.1 Wartime conferences prior to the creation of the U.N. Before the war ended in 1945, the Allies held a series of conferences to decide how to address the post-war situation of Germany and Eastern Europe. • In the Tehran Conference (November 1943), it was agreed that the USSR would annex the Baltic States and eastern Poland. • In the Yalta Conference (February 1945), the Big Three –Churchill, Franklin D. Roosevelt and Stalin– agreed that Europe would be politically rebuilt with democratic governments. They also redrew the boundaries of Poland, as well as those of Germany and divided the city of Berlin into four military zones, under U.S., British, French and Soviet occupation. • At the Potsdam Conference (July-August of 1945), the Heads of Government agreed that all German annexations in Europe would be reverted, Germany would be demilitarised and divided as established at Yalta, war reparations would be paid and Nazi war criminals would be punished. The trials for war crimes committed by the Nazis were held in the German city of Nuremberg.
8.2 Peace treaties After the war, in 1946, numerous peace treaties were signed and Europe’s borders were redrawn. Through the agreements, the USSR expanded its territory in the Baltic region and along the east coast of Poland, which was compensated at the expense of Germany by an extension of its western border to the Oder River. Germany and Berlin were divided into occupation zones, established at Potsdam. Italy was occupied by an Anglo-American army and lost its colonies, Japan was occupied by the United States, lost its colonies and returned Manchuria to China, and Eastern Europe was occupied by millions of Russian soldiers.
8.3 The creation of the U.N. The allies also decided to create the United Nations (U.N.), a new international organisation that replaced the inefficient League of Nations. It was founded on 26 June 1945 at the San Francisco Conference and its charter was signed by 50 States. Its headquarters was set up in New York, and it established a General Assembly comprising of all members, a Security Council made up of eleven members–five permanent–as well as other bodies. Its objectives were to maintain world peace and security through peaceful solutions to conflicts, international cooperation, and respect for human rights and peoples’ right to self-determination.
64
Skills progress Working with maps 1 On a map, locate the countries and cities where the conferences prior to the creation of the U.N. were held.
Establishing links 2 Connect each phrase to one or more conferences held prior to the peace treaties. a) German reparations. b) Territorial distribution. c) USSR annexation of the Baltic States. d) Division of Berlin.
Handling maps 3 What European territories and non-European territories were occupied by the Allied armies? Which countries lost their colonies?
Searching for relevant information 4 Go to the website of the U.N. and find the section titled ‘What We Do’. Find information on the tasks that the U.N. carries out in the areas of: – International peace and security – Development – Human rights – International law
5 Search for information on one aspect of the Second World War that interests you. Summarise it in an organised way and prepare to do a five-minute presentation on it in class.
UNIT 2 The conferences
Meeting in Yalta of the Prime Minister of Great Britain, Winston Churchill, the President of the United States, Franklin Delano Roosevelt, and the Prime Minister of the Soviet Union, Josif Stalin.
The outcome of the conferences and the peace treaties The new map of Europe Europe after the Second World War Borders in 1947
ICELAND
1 BELGIUM 2 LUXEMBOURG 3 LIECHTENSTEIN 4 SWITZERLAND 5 ANDORRA 6 MONACO 7 SAN MARINO 8 VATICAN CITY 0
250
SWEDEN
North Sea
500 km
USSR
NETHERLANDS UNITED KINGDOM FRG GDR 1
ATLANTIC OCEAN
2
CZECHO
L TUG A POR
6
IA
HUNGARY
ITALY
ROMANIA
YUGOSLAVIA
7
SPAIN
Se
Black Sea
BULGARIA
ALBANIA
8
Mediterranean
The Nuremberg Trials
SLOVAK
AUSTRIA
4 5
POLAND
3
FRANCE
In the Yalta and Potsdam conferences held in 1945, new boundaries were defined in Europe.
Baltic Sea
DENMARK
IRELAND
1
FINLAND
NORWAY
GREECE
a
In the Main Nuremberg Trial (1), held from 20 November 1945 to 1 October 1946, an International Military Tribunal (IMT) tried 24 of the most important political and military leaders of the Nazi government and its main organisations for war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. The creation of the U.N. (2) was based on the principles established in the Atlantic Charter, which was a declaration signed by Roosevelt and Churchill in 1941. Shaped over a series of conferences, it was legally established at the San Francisco Conference in 1945.
The creation of the U.N.
2
65
9
CULTURE AND ART FROM 1919 TO 1945 9.1 Science and culture Literature from this extensive historical period is marked by two contrasting movements: one is pessimistic, of which the most famous work is The Decline of the West, by Oswald Spengler, while the other is pacifist, with works such as A Farewell to Arms, by Ernest Hemingway. Music experienced substantial development and cinema evolved from silent films in black and white to talkies in colour.
1. Bauhaus Master’s House, Walter Gropius, 1925, Dessau (Germany).
2. Fallingwater House, Frank Lloyd Wright, 939, Pennsylvania (United States).
In science, Albert Einstein introduced his theory of relativity and Max Planck originated quantum theory.
9.2 Artistic evolution Rationalist architecture In architecture, at the beginning of the century and as modernism was in decline, a movement called the Modern Movement, or Rationalism, arose. It was characterised by a lack of excessive decoration, the tendency to simplify forms and a high value placed on the function of the building. Rationalism produced two movements: functionalism and organic architecture. • Functionalism was characteristic of Europe and sought to create a new architecture based on reason and the principle that ‘form follows function’. Buildings were constructed with geometric volumes, without decoration and with floors perfectly adapted to their function. • The main architects of this genre were Walter Gropius, founder of the Bauhaus School in Germany, who integrated architecture with interior design and furniture, and Le Corbusier, who sought to recover the human dimension in architecture with works such as the Villa Savoye. • Organic architecture was mainly developed in the United States and sought to integrate buildings in nature, using more expressive materials and more curved forms. One of the main architects in this movement was Frank Lloyd Wright, with his house known as Fallingwater.
Sculpture Sculpture used new industrial materials, such as iron, and incorporated real movement into works. The main figure was Alexander Calder, who created ‘mobiles’, or sculptures with movement.
Painting. Dadaism, surrealism and abstract art • Dadaism was a provocative artistic movement that asserted the destruction of art, randomness and absurdity. In this movement, Marcel Duchamp, creator of the ‘readymade’, created works using everyday objects. He sought to demonstrate that a mere exhibition in an art gallery gave artistic value to an object that really had none, and therefore art was based only on the mind of the viewer and their attitude.
66
Skills progress Establishing links 1 Connect each person to a field of science or culture: Hemmingway, Planck, Einstein, Spengler.
Understanding artistic diversity 2 Using the information from the text and the pictures, explain the similarities and differences that exist between functional and organic rationalism.
Analysing styles 3 Explain
what ‘mobiles’ ‘readymades’ were.
and
4 Describe the characteristics of the avant-garde artwork in the illustrations.
Searching for relevant information 5 Search online for information about the characteristics of the following people and their works, and write about them in your notebook. a) Other works by Le Corbusier and Frank Lloyd Wright. b) Works by Magritte, Klee and Mondrian. Go to comparing artistic styles
SKILL
UNIT 2 Functionalism and organic architecture 1
2
Sculpture and painting Little Spider, Alexander Calder, 1940, Montreal Museum of Fine Arts (Canada).
Bicycle wheel, Marcel Duchamp, c. 1913, Israel Museum (Israel). This work follows the dada principle of categorising everyday objects as works of art.
The lovers, René Magritte, 1928, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York (United States).
• Surrealism was inspired by the unconscious world and dreams as the sources for works, which were characterised by the absurd or irrational relationship between elements in the work. In this period, the main artists were René Magritte and Marc Chagall. • Abstract art removed any reference to the real world from the works, and colour and shapes became the focus of the painting. Popular painters in this movement were Wassily Kandinsky, Paul Klee and Piet Mondrian.
Broadway Boogie Woogie, Piet Mondrian, 1942-43, Museum of Modern Art (MoMA), New York (United States).
67
ES THAT
CHALLENG
T
MPRIN I N A E V A LE
APPLY 1 Connect each picture below to a significant historical event you have studied in this unit. Then briefly explain them one by one.
2 Explain the relationship that exists between the following pairs: a) USSR and NEP b) March on Rome and Mussolini c) Final solution’ and the Holocaust
A
3 Put the following concepts into a logical time B
sequence, from the oldest to the most recent: Massive amount of stocks sold quickly, widespread depression, increase in unemployment and inequality, trust in the capitalist system, accumulation of stock in agricultural products and industrial goods that had not been sold, a decrease in transoceanic migration, New Deal.
4 Organise the causes and consequences of these events in a table: a) The Russian Revolution of 1917 b) The Great Depression c) Nazism in Germany
C
d) World War II You can use this table as a model: Causes
Consequences
5 The graph below shows the different stages of the Second World War.
6 Analyse it and write the information it provides on the development of the war. El Alamein Stalingrad
Japan invades Asia
REFLECT AND ASSESS We will continue our work by studying the inter-war period and the Second World War. Reflect individually and share in a group the assessment of the activities involved. To do this, download the corresponding rubric at anayaeducacion.es
TEST YOUR SKILLS Carry out the competence self-assessment included at anayaeducacion.es 68
Pearl Harbor Lend-Lease: Loan Law Invasion of and Lease the USSR Italy in war
Fall of Italy Operation Overlord
Battle of England
Surrender of Germany Fall of Japan
Invasion of Poland 1940
1941 Axis successes
1942 Axis Peak
1943
1944
1945
Defeat of the Axis
7 Which architectural movement does Le Corbusier’s Notre Dame du Haut chapel belong to? Why?
S T S I N O G A T PRO
Basic information Name: Margaret Grace Bondfield Period: 1873-1953 Place of birth: UK Occupation: politician and activist for women’s rights
It’s 1929 and I have just been appointed Minister of Labour. I am very proud of this as I am the first woman in history to achieve this position in the United Kingdom. I went to school until I was thirteen years old, and when I was fourteen, I learned the trade of embroidery. As a shop assistant, I was aware of the need to fight to improve our working conditions, since the hours were long, the demands were
NOW The female vote in Saudi Arabia Basic information Name: The female vote in Saudi Arabia Country: Saudi Arabia Year of approval of the female vote: 2011
It has been almost a century since Margaret Grace Bondfield became a Member of the British Parliament and since adult women were able to vote in the UK. However, there are places in the world where women’s rights are very limited and they still suffer many legal discriminations. One of those
enormous, and we suffered from a lack of food and freedom.
While working I met Louisa Martindale, who helped me delve deeper into labour and social rights issues. In addition, my brother Frank, a printer and trade unionist, helped me to improve my political training by introducing me to people involved in socialism.
had to wait another ten years until universal suffrage was actually passed. In 1923, I came to Parliament as a deputy of the Labour Party, a year later I became secretary of the Ministry of Labour, and now, in 1929, I have managed to become a minister.
In the union, I joined various socialist women’s groups, and in 1906 we founded the Women’s Labour League, whose goal was to extend the right to vote to everyone. However, after a great deal of fighting during the first two decades of the 20th century to achieve this, I was very disappointed in 1918, when a law was passed that only granted the right to vote to women over 30 who were both college graduates and property owners or the wives of property owners. This new rule excluded almost all working-class women, and we
territories is Saudi Arabia, where women have only been able to vote since 2011; however, it is a very limited right, since potential voters do not have the necessary documentation to register in the electoral roll, they must be supervised by a man to be able to do so, and they cannot speak directly with male candidates
QUESTIONS
IN THE PAST Margaret Grace Bondfield
1 Research and find out who was the first woman in the world to become president of her country.
2 Look for information about the situation of women in Saudi Arabia and point out any other rule or situation, apart from the right to vote, that is discriminatory for them.
or voters. These regulations limit the right to vote and to be voted for. In addition, compared to the 5 938 male candidates who stood in the last municipal elections, there were only 979 female candidates and, as voters, only 130 600 women were registered compared to 1 300 000 men.
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C I T S I T R A D N A L A CULTUR D L R O W S ' Y A D O T N I DIVERSITY
READING AND LISTENING
1 Read the text and answer the following questions: a) Which scientific field was Frances first interested in? b) What work did she do for the National Security Agency?
2 The award Frances received is named after somebody, who? How is Frances Allen’s work connected to the work of this person?
FRANCES ALLEN
computer technician
My name is Frances Allen and I am a computer technician. I was born in the state of New York in 1932 and I became interested in mathematics, which led me to studying a degree in science at the State University of New York, completing my studies at Michigan University in 1957. Later, I worked for the National Security Agency deciphering codes and doing research on computer programming languages. My work has contributed to the evolution of technological devices, which have become so widespread nowadays. In 2006 I received the Turing Award, which acknowledged the scientific success of my work and my contribution 202
to advances in computer science, being the first woman to receive this prestigious award. The advances made since the middle of the 20th century in the field of science and technology have been essential for communications, thus contributing to the process of globalisation. For a better understanding of the recent world, its relations and conflicts, you are going to learn about:
• Globalisation: its causes, spheres and consequences. • Diversity in the world today: political and economic systems.
• Society and culture. • Scientific and technological advances. • Contemporary art. Architecture, sculpture and painting.
RN LEA
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SPEAKING
3 Globalisation has given us the impression that the world is smaller. In small groups, discuss the reasons and consequences of globalisation. You can also talk about the positive and negative aspects it presents, as well as the things that are now possible thanks to globalisation.
Thanks to globalisation, we are able to access products from all over the world, like coconut oil and peanut butter, and get to know other ways of life.
However, minorities will be able to preserve their culture and traditions by letting the world know about them.
CULTURAL DIVERSITY. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY 7.1 Main cultural groups and trends. We will see how the Western model of society has spread throughout the world because of US influence. 7.2 Scientific and technological advances. What are the risks? We will analyse the advantages as well as the possible disadvantages. ARTISTIC TRENDS 8.1 Art today. Architecture, sculpture and painting. We will learn about the different artistic trends from the end of the Second World War to the present day.
But it may be the reason why some cultures lose their identity.
WRITING
4 Using the information and ideas you have gathered in the speaking section, make a list that contains the pros and cons of a globalised world.
5 Write an opinion article for the school magazine including those points of view together with your vision of the matter.
+ for guidelines, go to anayaeducacion.es 203
1
CULTURAL DIVERSITY IN TODAY'S WORLD 1.1 The main cultural groups The Earth is home to a wide variety of cultures, distinguished by their language, beliefs, values, customs and lifestyles. The main ones are Western culture - located in Europe, America, Australia, Israel and South Africa; Islamic culture - in North Africa, many Asian countries and parts of Europe; African cultures - especially in sub-Saharan Africa; and Eastern cultures in Central and East Asia, China and India.
Mass culture consumption objects.
is defined by the mass of standardised cultural
1.2 Current cultural trends Cultural diversity is currently threatened by the spread of the Western cultural model; at the same time, multicultural societies are consolidating in Western countries. a) The spread of the Western cultural model, especially the American model, throughout the world has been made possible by new information and communication technologies. This is what is known as mass culture, as opposed to traditional written culture, because knowledge is largely acquired through audiovisual media (television, video games, Internet), is highly vulgarised and simplified, and includes numerous stereotypes. Mass consumption of standardised cultural objects produced by large cultural and entertainment companies, such as publications, music, films, art, fashion, etc., is also characteristic. This has provoked cultural conflicts, such as the reaction of certain social sectors, which generate countercultures or alternative cultures to the official one; and the opposition of certain peoples and minorities, who feel their cultural identity threatened and insist on recovering their cultural identity or their cultural values. b) In the Western world, the consolidation of multicultural societies, where different cultures coexist, is the result of immigration. This has given rise to problems such as xenophobia, racism and the failure to adapt or the segregation of some immigrant groups.
The reaction of certain sectors against the dominant official culture in capitalist societies has resulted in the appearance of alternative countercultures to the official one.
Western societies multicultural as a movements.
tend result
to become of migratory
1.3 Defending cultural diversity
Skills progress
UNESCO defends the planet's cultural diversity, which it believes is necessary for humankind as biological diversity is for living organisms. It considers cultural rights to be an integral part of human rights.
Working with concepts
Therefore, it promotes respect for cultural diversity, especially of minorities and indigenous peoples; the preservation of the cultural heritage of all peoples; and cooperation to enable poor countries to create cultural industries.
1 It
defines multiculturalism, counterculture, cultural identity, stereotyping and xenophobia.
Write a summary 2 Write an outline of the contents of this section.
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UNIT 9 Linguistic diversity Linguistic diversity Dutch Burmese Norwegian Swedish Bengali Mongolian Inuit Ukrainian Turkic
6
Kazakh Persian Korean English
2
French
1
Spanish Portuguese German
3
Russian
5
4
Chinese Shinhala Japanese Arabic Urdu Multi lingual Others
1 French and Sango 2 French and English 3 Setswana 4 English and others 5 Malagasy and French 6 Pashto and Dari
Religious diversity
Religious diversity Catholicism
Islam
Judaism
Other religions
Protestantism
Hinduism
Orthodoxy and Oriental churches
Buddhism
Chinese religions, including Daoism
No reliable information
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2 Technological advances
SCIENTIFIC AND TECHNOLOGICAL ADVANCES Since the second half of the 20th century there have been major technological and scientific advances, which have spread rapidly due to globalisation and the progress made by information and communications technology.
2.1 Scientific advances Scientific research and advances are found in: • Biotechnology. At the beginning of the 21st century, the human genome, (all of our DNA) was deciphered. These studies have made it possible to better understand the origin of certain hereditary diseases, as well as cancer, and look for the best possible ways to treat them. Advances in biotechnology have also made it possible to produce transgenic food and crops, and to clone living beings.
Biotechnology has decoded the human genome. This means that we now know more about the origins of certain diseases.
• Medicine. Improvements have been made in diagnostic techniques, medicines, surgery and artificial insemination, and organ transplants have been made possible. • Physics. Improvements in physics have led to advances in energy production, in our understanding of the universe, in space exploration and in the development of microprocessors.
2.2 Technological advances and their risks Microelectronics - the production of microchips and microprocessors formed the basis for the development of three important technologies. • Computing: automated storage, information in digital form.
processing
and
transfer
of
Medicine has improved diagnostic techniques, with the use of CT scans.
• Telecommunications: transmission of information at a distance between a sender and a receiver, using radio, telephone, television, video and audio devices, and the personal computer via the internet, a global communications network, which allows immediate access to all kinds of information and the use of certain services: electronic mail, electronic commerce or administration. • Automation: the use of computers to control machines that operate by themselves, such as robots. There are many technological risks. These include the concentration of science and technology in the most advanced countries; control of information by large communications companies; knowledge of sensitive personal data by other people or companies; security; cyber-attacks; cyber-espionage, cyber-terrorism; manipulation of information; information selection in the face of an excess of existing information and "junk" information; technological addiction; the replacement of real personal relationships with virtual ones; competition between robots and human labour; etc.
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Physics has made great advances in our knowledge of the universe, such as demonstrating the existence of black holes. Image of the black hole in the Milky Way, taken in 2022.
UNIT 9 Technological advances
Computer science allows the automated storage, processing and transmission of information in digital form.
Artificial intelligence and automation enable the creation of machines capable of performing tasks.
Location of groups of cutting-edge biotechnology companies
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Seattle San Francisco Los Ángeles San Diego Minneapolis / St. Paul / Rochester Austin Saskatoon Toronto Montreal Boston New York / New Jersey Philadelphia Baltimore / Washington DC Research Triangle DC Biotech West Havana
16 Belo Horizonte / Río de Janeiro 17 São Paulo 18 Glasgow / Edinburgh 19 Manchester / Liverpool 20 Dublin 21 London 22 Cambridge / SE England 23 Paris 24 Bicalps 25 Brussels 26 Biotech Sophia Antipolis 27 Helsinki 28 Stockholm / Uppsala 29 Medicon Valley 30 Biocon Valley 31 Biorhine
Source: The Heritage Foundation.
32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 0
Biotech Munich Biovalley Israel Cape Town Hyderabad Bangalore New Delhi Dengkil Singapore Beijing Shanghai Hong Kong Hokkaido Tokyo Kansai Taipei Hsinchu Brisbane Sidney Melbourne Dunedin 3000
6000 km
This map shows where the main biotechnology companies are located. Imbalances in access to science and technology are a reality in today's world, reflected in the concentration of innovations in the most advanced countries.
Skills progress Understanding activities 1 Name five aspects of your everyday life in which you use new technologies.
Producing texts 2 Create a table comparing the advantages and risks of scientific and technological advances.
3 Study the map and answer the following questions: a) Which areas in the world are the most technologically advanced?
b) What consequences could this have in the regions of the world that are not technologically advanced?
4 Search for information on some of the most significant scientific or technological breakthroughs that have occurred since the middle of the twentieth century. Explain what they were and why they are important.
5 Identify measures to prevent problems caused using information and communication technologies. 207
3
CONTEMPORARY ART (I). ARCHITECTURE
Rationalist architecture
3.1 The International Style or rationalist architecture The International Style spread throughout the world at the end of the Second World War and led to the generalisation of rationalist architecture using pure geometric forms, hardly any decoration and curtain walls. The most prominent figure of this style was Mies van der Rohe.
3.2 Postmodern architecture Postmodern architecture was developed in the 1970s as a reaction to the modern architecture movement. It is characterised by complexity, a diversity in style and, above all, neo-eclecticism, or the use of forms and styles of the past with new improvements and additions. It also seeks to recover decoration and colour and integrate the design into its environment. The most prominent architects in this field are Michael Graves and Robert Venturi.
3.3 Late Modern architecture and its trends • High-tech buildings include technological and industrial components as the ‘decoration’ of the building. They also use reflective glass as building enclosures to let the high technology shine. Some of the most prominent architects of this style are Richard Rogers and Renzo Piano, who designed the Centre Pompidou in Paris and the Lloyd’s Building in London.
Seagram Building, by Mies van der Rohe (New York). He created a rationalist type of skyscraper that has spread throughout the world: a geometric prism of maximum simplicity, flat roof, absence of decoration and a continuous façade of windows that seeks continuity between the interior and the exterior.
Postmodern architecture
• Deconstructivism is characterised by metallic materials and irregular and fragmented forms that seem to blend together. The best example of this style is the Dancing House, designed by Frank Gehry and Vlado Milunic. • Organic architecture uses forms inspired by nature and the human body. Its most prominent architects include Oscar Niemeyer and Toyoo Itō.
3.4 Digital Architecture This applies information technologies to the design and construction of buildings. Its use makes it possible for: a) computer-aided architectural design and the creation of highly varied, irregular and complex architectural forms, without increasing costs. Technologies such as 3D printing, solid block carving and robots are used for this purpose. b) The creation of intelligent and sustainable buildings. Smart buildings adapt to their environment. Therefore, they have the capacity to respond to environmental circumstances, based on digital information obtained from the environment. The aim is to reduce resource consumption, by using biodegradable or non-polluting materials and maximising energy efficiency. c) Open source architecture. Architects share plans and designs of houses and buildings free of charge.
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Castalia Building by Michael Graves (The Hague). This building follows the model of the postmodern skyscraper. It uses brick instead of a glass curtain wall and is topped by a pediment, which shows the recovery of historicist forms.
Skills progress Analysing styles and works 1 Compare
international postmodern architecture.
and
2 Identify the main feature that defines the architectures shown in the images.
UNIT 9 Late Modern architecture High-Tech
1
Deconstructivism
2
Organic architecture
3
1. Lloyd's Building (London, 1979), by Richard Roges. It aims to exhibit the technological components and give the building an industrial feel. 2 Lou Ruvo Brain Institute (Las Vegas) by Frank Gehry. This research clinic for brain diseases consists of two buildings: a four-storey block for laboratories and medical consultations; and a multipurpose corrugated steel-roofed building, reflecting the structure of the brain, which is structured and orderly on the one hand, and imaginative and chaotic on the other. 3 Sendai Media Library (Japan), by Toyo Ito. This multimedia library was inspired by an aquarium. The tubular, glass-covered steel beams and twisted shapes of the building are similar to those of the algae in an aquarium.
Digital architecture 1
2
1. The Tower at PNC Plaza in Pittsburgh is a green skyscraper: it has a double façade to circulate air in the cavity in between; a solar chimney to ventilate excess heat; a pitched roof that acts as a solar collector; a wastewater reuse system; local building materials; and fittings made from recycled materials. 2 De Stripmaker. Almere, The Netherlands. WikiHouse is a digital platform that hosts open source projects. The house designs are free to download and their execution only requires access to a computer-controlled sawmill, which cuts the wooden slats according to the design to be assembled, an easy task that can be done by the user himself.
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CONTEMPORARY ART (II). SCULPTURE
The representation of objects
Sculpture has moved between abstract and figuration. Artists chose to focus on objects or the human figure and on the perfection of form or expression; and recently, on the use of new technologies.
4.1 The representation of objects • A number of sculptors have used plastic to simulate objects from everyday life and consumer society. These include Claes Oldenburg, George Segal and Duane Hanson.
Spoonbridge and Cherry, Claes Oldenburg, Minneapolis (USA). Oldenburg represented objects of everyday life and consumer society on a large scale and "soft" versions of usually hard objects.
• Other sculptors used inferior materials such as wood, leaves, glass, cloth, sacks, rope, or worthless waste materials such as rags, old furniture or rubbish, as a way of escaping from the commercialisation of art (Arte Povera). The most prominent example of this trend is Mario Merz.
4.2 The human figure This was the favourite subject of artists who created their own style. • Constantin Brancusi evolved from figuration to quasiabstraction, using simple, ovoid, highly polished forms (Sleeping Muse). • Alberto Giacometti produced stylised, fragile and melancholic figures (Man Walking, Woman Standing).
Sculpture of the Igloo Fountain, Mario Merz. Turin (Italy). Mario Merz, a leading representative of Arte Povera, is famous for his igloos or hemispherical structures made of various materials.
• Henri Moore attached great importance to the female figure, the protagonist of his main themes: reclining figures and motherhood (Mother and Child, Reclining Figure).
4.3 Digital sculpture
Skills progress
Today, the use of new technologies allows the creation of digital sculptures, designed using 3D modelling software, and executed by machines, in different materials: plastics, plastic resins, metals, etc.
Working with concepts
Adam Martinakis has designed remarkable digital sculptures that fragment the unity of the human form and present the body as a structure that is at once fragile, rigid and flexible.
2 Link these features to a sculptor or a sculptural
210
1 Define the concepts of abstraction, figuration and digital sculpture.
Establishing links trend: simple, ovoid forms, waste materials, the female figure, objects from everyday life, stylised, fragile and melancholic figures.
UNIT 9 The human figure
Sleeping Muse. Constantin Brancusi. The artist explored the essence of the human body, resulting in increasingly schematic and polished forms. Ovoid forms predominate, as the egg was for him a primordial form that referred to the origin of everything.
Man Walking. Alberto Giacometti. This is a work in unpolished bronze, six feet tall, with narrow, elongated proportions. His legs convey movement.
Reclining Figure. Henry Moore. Carved in stone, it is inspired by primitive sculptures of Venus and Mayan sculptures. It has rounded, schematic and simple forms; and hollows that allow the void to configure volumes. It enables the sculpture to blend into the landscape, given that most of Moore's reclining figures were conceived to be displayed in the open air and to identify with the surrounding landscape.
Digital sculpture
Love for Light, by Adam Martinakis. His digital sculptures show the body as a structure that is both fragile, rigid and flexible at the same time. "In this image I wanted to express the human lust for "light" (of any kind of light) and its meaning for life. A dark red ground of a strange liquid surrounds the human figures, who are lost, far from the light". www.martinakis.com
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ART TODAY (III). PAINTING 1945-1975
Abstract painting trends Action painting
5.1 Abstract painting trends Abstract expressionism is the work of artists who were disenchanted with post-war reality. They produced abstract paintings, focusing on automatism, or the textures of the painting. • In New York, "action painting" developed, represented by Jackson Pollock. He painted by letting paint drip or spill onto the canvas from a container with a perforated bottom. The aim was to make the act of painting an automatic, spontaneous gesture that reflected the artist's physical and psychological state. • In Europe, two trends developed. Matter Painting tried to simulate the texture of materials by mixing colours with different materials. Jean Fautrier, Jean Dubuffet and Alberto Burri were leading figures in this movement. Tachism used a spontaneous brushstroke of drips and stains applied directly from the tube, and intended the work to be the result of chance and the artist's emotional state. Georges Mathieu is one of its most important representatives.
Reflection of Big Dipper, Jackson Pollock (1947). Action painting views the act of painting as an automatic and spontaneous gesture that reflects the physical and psychological state of the artist.
Matter Painting
• Op art, short for optical art, produced geometric compositions in simple colours, almost always in black and white, which aim to produce optical effects: movement, deformation, hidden images. Victor Vasarely, Bridget Riley, and Josef Albers represent the movement. • Minimalism aimed to reduce painting to its essential features. The result is large-format, unframed paintings, with simple, abstract compositions, few colours and a predominance of white. Jules Olitski was one of the most important painters of this movement.
5.2 Figurative painting trends • They came as a reaction against abstract expressionism. a) Pop art or popular art is a figurative and realistic art. It depicts everyday objects in consumer society: canned food, refrigerators, comic books, film stars and pop music stars. Andy Warhol was prominent in this trend. b) Neo-figuration recovered figure, although using some of the technical procedures of abstract expressionism. The best known painter was Francis Bacon, who produced monstrous, deformed and distressed figures, with intense colours. c) Hyperrealism is a distant and cold art that tries to capture reality as accurately as a camera. The subjects come from the consumer society: automobiles, shop windows, chrome, shop signs, scrapyards, petrol stations, etc. Painters representative of this trend are Don Eddy and Chuck Close. 212
Sacco, by Alberto Burri (1953). He made paintings with torn old sacks, rags and pieces of mouldy fabric covered with paint. The works show cuts, perforations and tears, and the compositions differentiate between areas with and without matter.
UNIT 9 Abstract painting trends Tachism
Op art
Minimalism
Pacte de Saint Jean d'Angeli, Georges Mathieu. Tachism uses a brushstroke of drips and smudges applied directly from the tube, and intends the work to be the result of chance and the emotional state of the artist.
Zebras. Victor Vasarely. Op art uses geometric compositions that aim to produce optical effects. These pieces require the participation of the viewer, who must move or shift in order to fully capture the optical effect.
David, Agnes Martin. Minimalism uses simple, abstract compositions, predominantly white.
Pop Art
Neo-figuration
Hyperrealism
Campbell's soup cans. Andy Warhol. Pop art represents mass-consumer society objects from American culture.
Self-portrait. Francis Bacon: He painted in intense colours, with monstrous, deformed and distressed figures, reflecting the fragility of the human being.
Susan, Don Eddy. He was a hyperrealist painter, whose main subject of his paintings was automobiles, with bright, metallic tones and a great deal of realism.
Figurative pictorial trends
Skills progress Participating in dialogues and debates
Understanding art
1 Put together five questions on the contents of this
2 Compare the features of the main pictorial trends
section with their answers. Swap the questions with those of your classmate; check your correct answers and correct your mistakes.
that emerged between 1945 and 1975 in a table. It should include the names of their representatives and the significant works.
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ART TODAY (IV). POSTMODERN PAINTING AND NEW ART FORMS
Postmodern painting
6.1 Postmodern painting Painting since the 1970s has freely combined historical artistic styles and the various avant-garde movements. The result is a diverse painting, in which three trends take centre stage: a) German Neo-Expressionism. This is generally figurative painting, although it does not exclude abstraction. It is known for its large pieces, with bright, contrasting colours, applied with an aggressive technique: dripping or gestural brushstrokes. The themes are drawn from popular culture, politics or the society of the time. George Baselitz was one of its main representatives.
The Crown of Thorns, George Baselitz.
b) Italian transavant-garde. It makes free use of stylistic and thematic references from any style of the past, especially from the Greek world, Mannerism, Renaissance and Baroque; and also elements of the historical avant-garde. The result is an indiscriminate mixture of styles. Sandro Chia and Enzo Cuchi are important in this trend. c) French free figuration. This is painting in a simple style, with intense, flat colour and variegated compositions inspired by comics, cartoons, rock and other mass culture influences, such as advertising and graffiti. Robert Combas produced some of the most important works in this style.
6.2 New art forms a) Land artmodifies the rural or urban landscape in an artistic sense to produce feelings for the viewer. The works interact with and modify the landscape: they create furrows or ramps, pack buildings or rocks, colour beaches, trees or stones, etc., and use materials taken from the environment such as water, earth and light.
The crocodile's wisdom, Sandro Chia.
b) Street art includes artistic expressions made in public spaces. It is an anonymous, ephemeral and free art, seen by a large number of people, which displays innovative, daring, striking or vindicative messages of social protest, almost always done with spray paint, on building walls. One of the most prominent street artists is the unknown Banksy. c) Net art encompasses work created on the Internet and for the Internet. Net art uses the resources of the Internet to produce works that can combine various resources, such as images, sounds, texts, etc., and uses the Internet as a space in which to exhibit them. It is an emerging art form, but already includes some renowned artists, such as Olia Lialina, Alexei Shulgin, Heath Bunting, Natalie Bookchin. d) Interactive art includes artistic creations where the viewer interacts with the work; is part of it at a certain moment; and even participates directly in its realisation. The most prominent example includes installations, which have been on the rise since the 1990s. 214
Paris Jazz Festival poster, Robert Combas.
UNIT 9 Land art
Spiral Jetty, Robert Smithson, Great Salt Lake in the Utah desert, USA.
Interactive art
The House with the Ocean view, Marina Abramović.
Street art
Street art in Malaga. Mural by Boa Mistura in the foreground. Behind, the works of artists D*Face and Obey.
Banksy's graffiti in Bethlehem, Palestinian territory.
Skills progress Building knowledge
Searching for relevant information
1 Answer the following questions about art today:
2 Look on the internet for:
a) How have new technologies influenced art? b) How is interactive art made? c) How is net art different from traditional art?
a) An example of a famous installation. Find an image and explain what it consists of. b) A work by Christo. Explain what his work consisted of and what he was aiming to achieve. c) Images representative of net art or digital sculptures. Express a personal opinion about them.
215
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Marilyn M onroe is Gold, Andy Wa rhol, 1962 , MoMA, N ew York (USA).
4 Are the following statements true or false?
Seated Figure, 0. Francis Bacon, 196 a. nn Vie , Albertina
a) Frank Gehry is one of the leading figures in organic architecture. b) Intelligent buildings have the ability to respond to environmental circumstances. c) "Action painting" represents everyday objects of the consumer society.
Forêt (Les Marr onniers), Jean Fau trier, 1943. Mu sée d'Art Moderne de Paris. stang Inside of a 1964 Mu Don Eddy. coupe owned by goda The exterior is pa n Eddy. green. Paint by Do
216
REFLECT AND ASSESS Work on your own and share your assessment of the activities involved with the group. Download the corresponding rubric from anayaeducacion.es.
TEST YOUR SKILLS Check your competences by taking the competence self-assessment. You can find it on anayaeducacion.es
S T S I N O G A T PRO
IN THE PAST Jude Milhon Basic information Name: Jude Milhon Pseudonym: St. Jude Period: 1939-2003
Place of birth: Washington, United States Occupation: writer.
activist,
hacker
and
the spirit of freedom that ran through many cities in the country, computing was a masculine world. Even so, I actively participated in the creation of a public communication system in 1973 known as The Memory Community, which allowed the sending and receiving of messages.
In the 1970s, hippie culture spread throughout California and I decided to settle in Berkeley. Despite
I am credited with creating the term cypherpunk, because not only did it seem important to me to fight for
NOW #NoMoreMatildas Basic information Name: #NoMoreMatildas Year of appearance: 2021 Promoters: Asociación de Mujeres Investigadoras y Tecnólogas (AMIT) Purpose: to make the female contribution to science and technology visible.
If you take a tour through the history of science and technology, it would seem that great achievements have always been a man’s thing.
a free computer exchange space, but also to defend digital privacy, something that, with the passage of time and the development of the Internet, computers, smartphones, social networks, etc., has become one of the biggest problems in our society. There are those who call me the patron saint of hackers; For me, hacking is exploring limits, both in computing and in life in general.
1 What other current scien-
In 1993 the historian Margaret W. Rossiter used the term ‘Matilda Effect” (in homage to the 19th century activist, Matilda Joslyn Gage) to denounce the lesser recognition that women’s scientific work receives and to criticise that many of the women’s achievements in science and technology have been attributed to the men with whom they worked.
QUESTIONS
Looking back on my youth I remember my commitment to the civil rights movements. I was selftaught and at the end of the 60s after reading a programming book I entered the world of computing. Immediately I was aware of the importance of virtual networks and my fight was directed to defending public communication networks, since, in the early days, the Internet was a closed network used exclusively by the US government and military.
#NoMoreMatildas is an initiative promoted by the Asociación de Mujeres Investigadoras y Tecnólogas (AMIT) which tries to make us reflect on the scarce presence of women in the field of
science and technology. Another of its objectives is to achieve a greater presence of women scientists in textbooks, in order to become references for future women scientists and technologists.
tific and technological advances seem important to you? Justify your answer.
2 Do you think privacy on the Internet is an important issue? Why?
3 What does the ‘Matilda effect’ mean?
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