Academic Written Work

ARCHITECTURE ACADEMIC ESSAYS MArch University of Kent 2021 - (Dissertation) Natural disaster and Fijian communities - An examination of potential strategies in the built environment.

2020 - Gothic religious buildings - Does Gothic religious buildings create a sense of fear and intimidation or convey a sense of calmness and tranquillity, or does it do something else, or both?

BA HONS Liverpool John Moores UNiversity 2018 -

Performance Spaces - How considerations of flexibility and adaptability contribute to

positive and successful use of performance space?

2017 -

New Brutalism - Describe the influence that impaced upon the ‘new brutalismt’

movement in Britain. Describe in detail the philosophies and works of one of its key practitoners and the legacy of their work.

2017 - How the use of libraries have changed since the 1850’s and how the usage of them have shaped their development?

2016 - Choose three buildings, one by Palladio, one Palladian and one Baroque. Analyse the differences and similarities in the designs, functions and broader social intentions of these buildings.

2015 -

Explain the development of the skyscraper as a type within the city of Chicago.

Natural disaster and Fijian communities An examination of potential strategies in the built environment.

Grace-Marie Spencer

AR602: Dissertation Architecture, Stage 5 Supervisor: Marialena Nikolopoulou Word Count: 8745 2020/2021

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

abstract

With an increasing amount and severity of cyclones in the Pacific Islands, the impact on Fijian buildings, especially in rural areas, needs to be addressed. The current problem is there are a variety of vernacular, some because of globalisation. A lack of building codes and education, poorly built and maintained buildings by communities, resulting in buildings vulnerable to destruction during cyclones.

Fijian community resilience, noted to be strong, will be studied to determine how important this is to aid cyclone resilience within building construction. With an emphasis on residential buildings that can withstand cyclones, this crucial discussion highlights the effects of globalisation in Fiji by introducing Western materials and construction techniques as well as climate change, such as how increased cyclones impact Melanesian countries.

The continued success of the community resilience in Fiji has helped them adapt in a cyclone.

The buildings developed by locals through generations have shown to be adequate in cyclone resilience; however, they are dying out. Alongside this re-analysing, the use of local materials and ongoing research to address climate change, maintenance, cyclone-resistant and timeconsuming ways of growing materials is needed.

Education is hugely important to succeed, empowering the communities’ understanding of the issues, providing them with skills to build independently and adapt. Consulting the communities is also essential to progress, allowing industries to understand their lived experience and culture whilst providing designs they will trust, accept, and utilise for the future as resilient cyclone structures.

2

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

keywords

Bures - Traditional Fijian vernacular.

CAUKIN - A design and construction organisation.

Community - A group of people living within the same vicinity.

Cyclone - A weather system creating intense storm conditions.

Melanesia - A group of Island in the Pacific with a rich cultural indigenous heritage.

Pacific Island Countries - The islands in the Pacific, consisting of Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.

Remote - An area away from densely populated centres.

Resilience - The ability to recover quickly from natural disasters.

Resistance - The ability to stop the effects of a natural disaster.

Ring of fire - Located around the Pacific Ocean, it is prone to frequent volcanic activity.

Vernacular - Domestic architectural language.

Vulnerability - The amount something is at risk of being harmed (by a cyclone), which is affected by the quality.

3

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

contents 1.0

5 6

Introduction 1.1 Methodology

9 9 13 13

2.0 Background Information 2.1 What is a Cyclone?

2.2 Vernacular 2.3 The Effects of Cyclones on Buildings External Wind Pressure Internal Wind Pressure 2.4 Designing to Resist Cyclones

15

3.0 Literature Review 3.1 Effects of Disasters 3.2 Risk Reduction and Disaster Management 3.3 Fijian Vernacular and Materiality 3.4 Building Code 3.5 Skills and Education 3.6 Construction Industries 3.7 Community Involvement

17 17 18 18 21 22 23 23

4.0 Experience of Cyclones

25

5.0 Building Code

27

6.0 How the Vernacular is Changing

28

7.0

30 30 32

Materiality 7.1 Concrete vs Timber 7.2 Research

8.0 Community

34

9.0

Discussion

36

10.0 Conclusion

43

11.0 Bibliography

45

12.0 List of Figures

46

13.0 Appendices

50

4

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

1.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Introduction

With an increasing amount and severity of cyclones in the Pacific Islands, the impact on Fijian buildings, especially in rural areas, needs to be addressed. The current problem is there are a variety of vernacular, some because of globalisation. A lack of building codes and education, poorly built and maintained buildings by communities, resulting in

buildings vulnerable to destruction during cyclones. Fijian community resilience, noted to be strong, will be studied to determine how important this is to aid cyclone resilience within building construction.

Construction methods will be investigated alongside the use of materials to discuss how globalisation has changed the traditional vernacular and whether this has

Figure 1. Pacific Island location, Authors own (2020).

5

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Melanesia, a group of countries in the Pacific Island region, located in Oceania, Figure 1. Fiji, is a part of Melanesia, located in Figure 2.

1.1 Methodology

The evidence collected is mainly qualitative; nonetheless, some quantitative information provides vital background information around cyclones, natural disasters, climate change and Fiji. During August 2020, I participated in the

Figure 2. Fiji’s location, Authors own (2020).

been successful. With an emphasis on residential buildings that can withstand cyclones, this crucial discussion highlights the effects of globalisation in Fiji by introducing Western materials and construction techniques as well as climate change, such as how increased cyclones impact Melanesian countries.

South Pacific Prototype Housing Workshop virtually. This workshop was run by CAUKIN, a design and construction organisation that believes better designed and built spaces should be accessible to everybody CAUKIN (2020). They

Figure 3. Map of Fiji, Authors own (2020).

6

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

have worked on community design and build projects in Fiji and Vanuatu which two of their buildings survived two separate cyclones in 2020.

This workshop was research-based and consisted of focus groups with various people, discussed below, highlighting cyclone-resistant design issues in the Pacific island countries.

This information helped develop a cyclone-resistant housing scheme built by the local communities, meeting sustainable development

who have worked on projects in Pacific Island Countries highlight their views on Fijian vernacular and the communities’ faces and funding. The workshop involved a discussion with an engineer, Maxime Chollet from Eckersley O’Callaghan, who highlights the effects cyclones have on the buildings and solutions around it.

goals. The proposals presented are to be further developed by CAUKIN.

and aid workers from Vanuatu and Fiji, discussing issues and critical points around culture and how cyclones affect the communities and their buildings. CAUKIN organised a virtual video call (as part of the workshop) with Adi and Frances Tuniasakea who are residents in Batiki, Fiji. Max Francis works for an American charity, who has worked with CAUKIN and has spent twelve years living in Savusavu on Vanua Levu, Fiji. Both locations are shown in Figure 3. Nak Wity is a resident in Vanuatu, and Rachel Brooks runs a charity in Vanuatu helping CAUKIN on their projects, who knows the local area. These people have direct knowledge of Melanesia, so they understand the issues surrounding this topic. Virtual video discussions with architects from CAUKIN, Joshua Peasley, Harry Thorpe, and Harry Marshall, (who ran the

Focus groups/interviews as previously referenced was held with residents

The focus groups as previously referenced was held with residents and aid workers from Vanuatu and Fiji, discussing issues and critical points around culture and how cyclones affect the communities and their buildings. Adi and Frances Tuniasakea are residents in Batiki, Fiji. Max Francis works for an American charity, who has worked with CAUKIN and has spent twelve years living in Savusavu on Vanua Levu, Fiji. Both locations are shown in Figure 3.

Nak Wity is a resident in Vanuatu, and Rachel Brooks runs a charity in Vanuatu helping CAUKIN on their projects, who knows the local area. Discussions with architects from CAUKIN, Joshua Peasley, Harry Thorpe, and Harry Marshall, 1, See Literature Review

7

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

workshop) have worked on projects in Pacific Island Countries highlight their views on Fijian vernacular and the communities’ faces and funding. The workshop involved a virtual discussion with an engineer, Maxime Chollet from Eckersley O’Callaghan, organised by CAUKIN, who highlights the effects cyclones have on the buildings and solutions around it and is knowledgeable of cyclone resilient building.

Figure 4. Geographical differences of cyclones, typhoons, and hurricanes. (Erikson, 2019).

8

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

2.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

background information

2.1 what is a Cyclone?

that sucks air into the eye, causing extreme storm-like conditions. Due to Earth’s rotation, a cyclone will always travel East to West in an anticlockwise motion in the southern hemisphere. Six elements generally contribute to a cyclone forming and

Chollet (2020) began by elaborating there is no difference between hurricanes, cyclones, and typhoons.

Apart from their geographical location, shown in Figure 4, a cyclone is a low-pressure system

Figure 5. Formation of a cyclone. (Berke, 2018).

9

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

TIN/IRON

HOMLESS

TIMBER

HEATWAVES

CONCRETE

INJURIES DEATHS

BUSHFIRE

BURE

FLOOD CYCLONE/STORM EARTHQUAKE 2%

0

5000

10000

15000

EARTHQUAKEFigure 6. Effects of natural disasters in Australia 198734%2016. from (Australian Business DROUGHT Authors own using information40% Roundtable for Disaster Resilience & Safer Communities, TIN/IRON 2017).

STORM

explained in Figure 5.

The data in Figure 6, from the emergency events database, (EMDAT) Australia, 1987 to 2016, shows how cyclones cause few deaths and injuries. Compared to other natural disasters, it costs more in other ways 20000 because cyclones destroy everything, including houses, crops, and cut off water and electricity supply.

HOMLESS

TIMBER

HEATWAVES

INJURIES

Natural disasters happen all over the DEATHS CONCRETE BUSHFIRE world; however, specific locations FLOOD BURE FLOOD Fiji, part of the Pacific suffer more.

24% Islands located on the Ring of Fire, is CYCLONE/STORM OTHER 5% 5% very vulnerable to natural disasters, EARTHQUAKE 5% 25% CARETAKER 0 5000as seen 10000 in Figure 15000 especially cyclones OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER EARTHQUAKE 7. “The regions of East and South Asia, and the Pacific Islands are PRIVATE DROUGHT among the most-hazard prone STORM GOVERNMENT HOUSING areas globally.” which has caused CYCLONE RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL the “most of the human casualties FLOOD RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD of natural-triggered’ disasters” 250 60% (Haque, 2003). Cyclone Winston 2%3% of types 14% of natural disasters in Fiji 2% Figure 7.

Frequency OTHER from 1980-2019. Authors own 200 (category five on the Australian using information from (Centre2% for Research on the scale, discussed further below) 4%2020).

CARETAKER Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 150 devastated OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER Fiji in February 2016, FIJI 100 making the 131,000 of 900,000 PRIVATE MELANESIA homeless. During this cyclone, the CYCLONE

OCEANA

0

RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

GOVERNMENT HOUSING

50

74%

METEOROLOGICAL 7%

3%

2%

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

HYDROLOGICAL

250 CLIMATOLOGICAL

200

150

FIJI Figure 8. Risk report map of countries internationally, (Day et al. 2019).

100

MELANESIA OCEANA

0

10 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

50

METEOROLOGICAL

HYDROLOGICAL

CLIMATOLOGICAL

20000

2020 / 2021 Dissertation PRIVATE

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL Figure 9. Climate related disaster frequency from 1980-2019. Authors own

using information from (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 2020).

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

250

200

150

100

LANESIA

CEANA

0

2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

ORLDWIDE

50

METEOROLOGICAL

HYDROLOGICAL

CLIMATOLOGICAL

country had to endure “10-minute sustained winds reaching 64 m/s (230 kph), and gustiness peaking at 90m/s (325 kph)” (Aquino et al. 2018). According to World Risk Report 2019, presented in Figure 8, Fiji is rated in the top 12 countries at risk, including exposure to natural disasters, and vulnerability which means susceptible of suffering harm, ability to cope, capacity for long-

part of the Pacific Island Country group, and four out of five are part of Melanesia which emphasises the areas risk (Day et al. 2019).

term adaption (Day et al. 2019).

Within the top 15, five countries are

cyclones are getting stronger and more frequent which highlights

A scale categorises cyclones and measures the intensity of them.

The scale measures winds between 74 mph to around 157 mph, with a category five storm a one in a lifetime experience; however, the

11

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

effects of climate change. The graph in Figure 9 shows the increasing frequency of climate based natural disasters worldwide over a 39-year period. The pattern suggests the frequency of the natural disasters is increasing suggesting climate change is having an impact including cyclones. The change in the pattern also suggests a category five storm could exceed the classification’s winds, suggesting the introduction of

greater categories (Chollet, 2020).

Table 1 shows the rating of cyclone damage based upon the cyclone category. It is an indirect scale that describes potential damage with each category.

Table 1. Effects of cyclone forces on structures, (Saffir-Simpson scale), (Berke, 2018).

12

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Figure 10. Different Fijian vernacular, Authors own (2020).

Traditional house, (lightweight) is the vernacular used through generations, usually with a thatched roof and mud or woven walls, structured from timber.

Permanent house, (heavy) usually constructed from concrete and tin. The word permanent has been adopted by the idea that they last longer.

2.2 Vernacular

There are three vernacular categories, pictured in Figure 10: permanent, temporary/semipermanent, and traditional housing.

Background research conducted, suggests these are split into two categories light and heavy houses.

Cami et al. (2016) explained that light houses follow traditional vernacular style, built from Adobe, clay, mud

2%

34%

40%

Temporary/semi-permanent, (heavy) named by the less durable characteristics over concrete homes. This is the most vulnerable, constructed from a range of materials, tin, timber etc.

timber etc. In contrast, heavier houses, built from concrete tin and other western materials structures are more susceptible to damage and cause severe casualties.

The traditional house, the bure is part of Fijian heritage. Recently, there has been a decline in Bures (traditional), Figure 11 emphasises how sparse the number of bures is in Fiji now (2007).

2.3 The effects of cyclones on buildings

When designing a building in a cyclone-prone environment, the HOMLESS TIMBER HEATWAVES building’s load is crucial for its INJURIES DEATHS CONCRETE stability,BUSHFIRE and all weak points, for example, FLOOD doors and windows, play a BURE part in the overall resistance.

CYCLONE/STORM TIN/IRON

24% 5%

5% of vernacular buildings from 2007 Figure 11. Quantity census in 5% Fiji. (Fiji Bureau of Statistics, 2020).

25%

EARTHQUAKE 0 EARTHQUAKE DROUGHT 13 STORM CYCLONE

5000

10000

15000

20000

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Chollet (2020) also discussed how the roof design is equally a crucial element of the building, which can cause significant damage if not designed or built correctly, with emphasis on connections between the roof and the rest of the structure. During a cyclone, some flying projectiles and debris could harm people and damage the building, affecting the resilience and cause significant damage. The forces from a cyclone is shown in Figure 12.

Most codes internationally, according to Chollet (2020), are determined by the wind as a primary concern with cyclone resilience. Wind produces pressure, external wind pressure and internal wind pressure. External wind pressure is all pressure applied on the outer face of a building envelope which could be either the roof, the façade or a raised floor, and the internal pressure is the pressure acting on the interface of those same surfaces. The management of both pressures requires different methods.

Figure 12. Effects cyclone forces have on structures, Authors own using information from (Chollet, 2020).

14

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Figure 13. Forces of external wind pressure, Authors own using information from (Chollet, 2020).

External Wind Pressure Shown in Figure 13, inward pressure (positive) effects elements facing the wind direction; the wind passes around the building, which acts as an obstacle causing pressure. Outward pressure or suction (negative) effects elements leeward such as roof, side and back walls and raised floors. A domestic dwelling roof is vulnerable as the roof is large in proportion, resulting in difficulty to resisting the negative pressure (Chollet, 2020).

Figure 14. Forces of internal wind pressure, Authors own (2020) using information from Chollet, 2020).

Internal Wind Pressure Shown in Figure 14, internal wind pressure is the degree of permeability the building has, openings in the façade allow wind to enter the home, causing internal pressures. When all windows and doors are closed, the internal space is impermeable, and depression occurs against external pressure.

If a seal, or window breaks, the internal pressure becomes positive acting simultaneously with external pressures resulting in high risk of damage. The building’s seal can be broken elements effected by the wind’s force, causing flying damaging debris to collide with the building, a

Understanding how the building will behave is complex, Chollet (2020) suggests for simple structures, the local building codes provide pressure coefficients; however, more complex structures should use wind tunnel testing.

window or door left open or failure in hinges or window latches (Chollet, 2020).

15

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Figure 15. A ‘optimal designed’ building to resist cyclones according to Chollet (2020).

2.4 Designing to resist cyclones

the ground to reduce the risk of flooding and storm surge water damage. to achieve this the building could either be placed on raised grounds or piled foundation placed lower than the permeable ground.

Another consideration is if the soil is permeable, during a storm surge or flood, the ground fills with water which causes the forces which potentially can lift the building. The concrete pile is an excellent buoyant force that loses up to 40% of uplift resistance. Installing this deeper than the permeable soil will reduce the likelihood of uplift (Chollet, 2020).

Figure 15 is the image that Chollet (2020) used to describe what he believes is a well-designed building to resist cyclone forces; however, the achievement is debatable in Pacific Island Countries’ rural areas.

Each connection’s design must deal with that tension force into the wall and displace it into the foundation. The roof must be tide down from its connection to the foundation, especially if there is light construction. However, it is not as crucial with concrete because it is dense (Chollet, 2020).

The Fijian government’s ‘Help for Homes’ documentation highlights how to achieve this, with visual guidance on how to construct and maintain structures. It notes how metal brackets help resist cyclone forces at connections, while shutters around doors and windows can prevent breakage from flying debris (Chollet, 2020).

It is vital to raise the building from

16

FLOOD

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

2%

60% 3% 2%

14% OTHER 2% 4%

CARETAKER

OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOY PRIVATE

3.0

GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL 74%

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

LITERATURE REVIEW

7%

3%

2%

250

Figure 16. The number of cyclones in Oceania, Melanesia, and Fiji in relation to the total number worldwide from 1980-2019. Authors own using information from (Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, 200 2020).

150

FIJI 100

MELANESIA OCEANA

3.1 Effects of disasters

0

1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

WORLDWIDE

50

and reconstruct due to geographical METEOROLOGICAL isolation and limited resources, while the region is vulnerable to climate change, natural hazards and disasters (Becker, Miyaji et al., 2017). Temporary housing and reconstruction become a challenge (Miyaji et al., 2017). Baker et al.

(2019) states that the Ministry of Economic’s disaster recovery framework predicted several years

Sources agree that natural disasters affect the Pacific Islands with increasing severity. Figure 16 presents the quantity of cyclones compared to the total number worldwide showing the significant frequency in Fiji and surrounding Islands. Miyaji et al. (2017) argues that rural Pacific Island communities, including Fiji, take substantially

from cyclone Winston to full

longer to recover from disasters 17

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

recovery. Cyclones and disasters have significantly impacted lowincome houses, causing massive distribution in communities.

access to materials, or even power supply (Baker et al., 2019).

3.3 Fijian Vernacular and materiality

3.2 Risk reduction and disaster management

When working on Fiji projects, Marshall et al. (2020) described how there ends up being a hybrid of local vernacular and construction in terms of engineering advice alongside the availability of materials and local vernacular style which is just as important in these

Haigh and Amaratunga (2010), Baker et al. (2019) and Aquino et al.

(2018) emphasise the importance of the built environment and its contribution to reduced disaster risk.

However Becker (2017) argues that modernity has an impact on this.

The effect of “modernity in disaster risk in remote communities” has not been researched thoroughly; Becker (2017) adds modernity is “undermining the social capital necessary for a whole range of communal risk reduction strategies”. Vrolijks (1998) believes looking towards long term recovery will be the best way towards resilience; Baker et al. (2019) described the government’s approach, Building Back Better, a “comprehensive approach to promoting community resilience” prioritising the context of structure in a booklet. However, the government seems to have not covered all remote communities and situations; The step-by-step manual does, however, gives clear construction guidelines. In other words, communities may not have

communities. There is also potential that combining ideas from different sectors can improve the vernacular style, emphasising local materials.

Finance is an essential aspect to the building; communities will design to minimal cost which could affect the build, and therefore it’s quality. According to Marshall et al. (2020), the Fijian government guidance state it costs 18,000 Fiji dollars to build a residence. The government will provide 12,000 Fiji dollars if the family raises 6,000 for post-disaster destruction rebuild.

Miyaji et al. (2017) emphasised the funding substitution for destroyed homes post-cyclone Winston never arrived in small communities, who rebuilt themselves. Consideration for transportation, the cost of materials and fixings, and the cost for the generations. Hard to access locations

18

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

STORM

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

CYCLONE FLOOD Figure 17. Ownership of Fijian houses from 2007 census in Fiji. Authors own using information from (Fiji Bureau of 60% Statistics, 2020).

2% 2%

3%

14%

OTHER 2% 4%

CARETAKER OCCUPY BY LEAVE OF EMPLOYER PRIVATE GOVERNMENT HOUSING RENT:PUBLIC RENTAL

74%

result in substantial costs resulting 2% 3% turning to the locally in communities 7% grown resources.

Materiality is an important and controversial topic. Vrolijks (1998) states that concrete houses are dangerous if improperly built, while

250

the traditional vernacular bure,

described by Vrolijks (1998) and 200 Cami et al. (2016) as safer. Cami et al. (2016) observed that the Bures 150 are rarely life-threatening; during FIJI a storm, the100woven lightweight MELANESIA components are not harmful if they fly off during50high winds. Vrolijks OCEANA (1998) and Cami et al. (2016) further 0 explain traditional methods have WORLDWIDE adapted to local climate, resisting CL METEOROLOGICAL earthquakes and cyclones. Miyaji HYDROLOGICAL et al. (2017) added the Bures give enough warning of collapse so residents can escape.

Miyaji et al. (2017) asked residents where they feel safe, and “70% of the respondents considered bures as safer than modern houses,” since modern iron sheeting injures people when blowing off. Miyaji et al. (2017) added evacuation centres could inhabit in bures; likewise,

2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000 1999 1998 1997 1996 1995 1994 1993 1992 1991 1990 1989 1988 1987 1986 1985 1984 1983 1982 1981 1980

Marshall et al. (2020) explains that it adds to the final cost when a project takes longer. If building post-disaster destruction, the community will rapidly want habitable buildings, which can compromise the quality due to the material’s availability.

Following a cyclone, communities build with a mix of shelter resources from aid agencies and other materials they can find quickly, resulting in poor structures. Figure 17 presents the quantity of privately owned houses resulting in the owners having responsibility in maintenance and rebuild.

RENT: PRIVATE LANDLORD

Cami et al. (2016) report their use

19

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

as community cyclone shelters.

Contrastingly, Miyaji et al. (2017) argued that Bures’ use has declined because of natural disasters. The leading cause of the decline in Bures is modernisation: the newer, the better. Petal et al. (2008) explains that communities identify progression in modern materials.

Miyaji et al. (2017) describe how in Fiji most islands now use these, for example, concrete and iron sheeting for constructing their homes.

(Vrolijks, 1998), while Miyaji et al.

(2017) and Cami et al. (2016) note the inadequate maintenance can lead to dangerous consequences, for example, Miyaji et al. (2017), describes how iron sheets flying around cause serious injury. Cami et al. (2016) believe buildings that are quickly and repeatably utilise local skills and materials would be the best solution technically and financially. According to Cami et al. (2016), the government uses

Miyaji et al. (2017) explain that the use of new materials quickly build houses, describing how the how the material palette changed since British colonisation in Fiji in 1870 when westernisation introduced new materials. Miyaji et al. (2017).

There is still evidence of traditional construction methods; however, some buildings imitate the traditional vernacular style Vrolijks (1998) and Becker (2017) agrees. Traditional knowledge still exists in the elders (Cami et al. 2016); however, Miyaji et al. (2017) says in 2017, bures only accounted for 1.9% of the population. Cami et al. (2016). Miyaji et al. (2017) concurs that although it takes one to two months to construct ten to fifteen, it lasts 20 even 30 to 40 years.

Another issue is the improper use of new technology and materials

permanent buildings over traditional or temporary. However, Cami et al. (2016) observe that permanent houses, although resistant to cyclones and earthquakes, can be hazardous if improperly built.

According to Baker et al. (2019), even though some communities live in extremely dangerous and poorly maintained permanent houses, they believe they are strong.

There is a considerable debate around the feasibility of using western materials. Baker et al. (2019) asked local communities about newer materials. They cited the difficulty of transportation to islands and remote villages, on small boats that cannot hold heavy materials (Baker et al., 2019). Becker (2017) adds the hiring of larger, more expensive boats is necessary to transport heavy materials to increase

20

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

logistics costs. These issues escalate if post-disaster housing recovery is required Miyaji et al. (2017); Cami et al. (2016). Becker. (2017) gathered data citing it “cost $50,000-$100,000 to build a concrete house but with more remote islands, it costs $5000 for a wooden house”.

Miyaji et al. (2017) adds that traditional houses’ construction was cheaper and more straightforward.

The materials can be sourced

there is no coverage of the traditional bure and how to build it safely. Baker et al. (2019) adds it does not represent affordable or local construction methods. Aquino et al.

(2018), Petal et al. (2008) and Baker et al. (2019) state, the enforcements not mandatory of the national building code, resulting in vulnerable structures, prone to destruction in disasters. It is evident building codes are currently unused in Fiji resulting in buildings inadequately

locally and constructed with local knowledge, while modern houses’ reconstruction needed more money for materials and skilled carpenters.

However, Baker et al. (2019) explains that younger fitter people of the communities migrating out of the villages causes difficulty bringing timber to the villages and a decline in local construction knowledge.

built to standards that are at risk of destruction in cyclones.

Aquino et al. (2018) recommend updating the building code and training staff who implement the code. At the same time, Baker et al. (2019) argues that the code’s enforcement is possible through adapted traditional designs with a star rating. In contrast, Petal et al. (2008) suggest voluntary compliance above enforcement; this method would eliminate control, which would be better for rural communities. With adequate training and education, the building code emphasising traditional building would become habitual, guaranteeing compliance.

3.4 Building code

Widely discussed is the application of the building code in the Pacific Islands. Aquino et al. (2018) states that Fijian codes have not been revised since released in 1990, although they mention updated Australian and New Zealand standards. Baker et al. (2019) claim the only use of building codes is required for commercial and industrial buildings insurance.

Aquino et al. (2018) also mentions

21

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

3.5 Skills and Education

knowing correct methods (Petal et al., 2008). They report “knowledge is hierarchical in society” and neglect of education affects rural communities. However, Vrolijks (1998) claims knowledge is already widely available, requires the focus is to improve access to it, not creating new design construction methods. Petal et al. (2008) claim that a bottom-up demand for learning is required to prevent knowledge denial and potential

An important issue is the lack of skills and education in rural communities. Generations have been taught the traditional techniques; with the youth migration and consequences of globalisation are causing this knowledge to disappear. Baker et al. (2019) state that skilled craftsmen remain in rural communities, with only a few: “20% of communities have an active craftsman, and 10% were reliant on neighbouring communities.”

Becker (2017) states communities worry older generations are ignored by younger ones. In an interview, Becker (2017) states “people go to the main towns and bring back new thinking to the village”. He adds external funding removes responsibility from the villagers; accepting favours from outsiders causes future debt, removing the need to share or learn local knowledge. “They are no longer proud of what they are as Fijians.”

danger in unsafe construction.

Achievable at minimal cost, the bottom-approach would facilitate suitable construction solutions.

However, Petal et al. (2008), evidence insufficient professionals; to achieve this successfully, there must be a combination of “external and internal knowledge through action orientated community risk assessment.” Baker et al. (2019) believes training all local carpenters with free construction support in tooling and skills is necessary, requiring it to reach all remote communities, and it is possibly unfeasible. Baker et al. (2019) argues that the formal education system should integrate the traditional construction techniques within education, while new techniques taught should be simple structural design, not complex unfeasible engineering solutions.

Fiji’s rural areas now use western materials and building techniques; without proper training, which could lead to disastrous consequences. Aquino et al.

(2018) reports insufficient builders; lacking education, resulting in the community building without

22

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

3.6 Construction Industries

have a rich knowledge based on the environment and accommodating structures. When a natural disaster occurs, they build back themselves, voluntarily and through regular meetings (Miyaji et al., 2017; Becker, 2017). Cami et al. (2016) adds these communities collect and share materials whilst organising repairs communally. Becker (2017) describes how, when rebuilding, they must understand correct techniques and materials to speed

There is some suggestion the construction industry contributes to disaster resilience. Haigh and Amaratunga (2010) believes that “improving construction industries ability to manage post-disaster in developing nations is recognised,” but more effective project management is needed. Haigh and Amaratunga (2010) states that “the engineering community is key to create balanced solutions” while Petal et al. (2008) believe engineers contribute to reduced vulnerability: “Engineers are promoting expensive and complex construction technologies both supplant to local knowledge and local labour”.

Therefore, it is commonly known that construction industries are successful in recommending resilient buildings, nonetheless they do not have the knowledge of the heritage and community lifestyle resulting in depersonalised buildings not suited to the climate.

up recovery and reconstruction, which the Fijian Red Cross facilitate.

Without this knowledge, rebuilding could be dangerous. According to Becker (2017), modernisation has consequences within communities, affecting their resilience. He believes traditional coping strategies are disappearing through outside support, providing a greater understanding of western life.

According to Becker (2017) outside support creates community tensions.

However, he has agreed that other communities analysed remain strong.

Even though small island states are the most vulnerable to recent global change, modernisation has not “yet undermined traditional communal ownership of natural resources in the two villages regardless of influential voices requesting property privatisation” (Becker, 2017).

3.7 Community involvement

There is still a substantial sense of community in Melanesian countries, including Fiji. According to Cami et al. (2016), changing this dynamic should not occur in any way. Becker.

(2017) Moreover, Cami et al. (2016) argues that rural Fiji communities

23

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

which is also crucial when educating communities (Baker et al. (2019) and Petal et al. (2008)). A building form that is trusted will encourage communities to repeat and repair in 40 years whilst engaging the younger generation.

The understanding between a cyclone-resistant design and building a community is essential.

Petal et al. (2008) believes the current focus is “on structure rather than home” without considering the local communities.

Ignoring local communities creates a communication breakdown, according to Baker et al. (2019), with community feeling undermined and dissatisfied with the buildings (Petal et al., 2008). They lose trust in building or construction methods to use building methods they already know (Petal et al., 2008).

Petal et al. (2008) suggests a bottom-up educational approach to help implement education and codes directly to the communities.

Consultation with local communities and construction workers would encourage knowledge exchange of the most successful elements of cultural, heritage, economic and climatic advantages, which the local communities have adapted through generations. Construction and technical additions from professionals will create successful buildings (Petal et al. (2008); Becker.

(2017); Baker et al. (2019.) Involving the communities in the process strengthens resilience (Cami et al.

(2016); Haigh and Amaratunga (2010)

24

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

4.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

EXPERIENCE OF CYCLONES

“There is a huge difference between a category four and a category five. Category five you remember them, and you do not know how to protect your children. The rain is so painful it is like being punched.” (Francis, 2020)

children and our lives”. Whereas Francis (2020) discusses that he has “been through so many cyclones I do not remember them. However, I remember Winston because it was different.”

The country was unprepared for cyclone Winston. According to Tuniasakea (2020); Francis (2020) the radio station gave out inaccurate information telling it would come later than it did resulting in people sourcing supplies thinking they had enough time. As Francis (2020) states putting rocks on a roof, tying down rafters, or putting ply or roofing ion over windows, as stated in the government documentation ‘Help for Homes’, will not make a difference. Even with the louvres closed, “it is like a water blaster coming in”.

Tuniasakea. (2020) has been through two big category five cyclones in 2009, including cyclone Winston.

She had just given birth when the cyclone hit. Tuniasakea (2020) describes how it “gets dark and everybody is running around, thoughts come into your mind of what you have to do next if the house is blown away.

It is scary.”

Their house survived; however, they experienced flooding, but they had “to get up and keep on going and do whatever we can to save our

25

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Francis (2020) believes it is slightly down to luck which houses survive and which do not. He witnessed two buildings side by side; one built with government funding and an expensive contractor destroyed

by Winston. In contrast, the neighbouring house, a “rickety rusted roof”, survived. He also knew of a village with three rows of houses where the first and third row, wiped out by a wave whereas the middle row was damaged but still intact.

Francis briefly highlighted the community response (2020), after Winston, the port and the roads were inaccessible before the government could get onto the island. People were out clearing roads and starting to rebuild together, sharing what was available in terms of resources. This evidence suggests the literature is accurate in terms of the strong communities that aid post-cyclone relief, which could be a vital in teaching them adequate construction skills.

26

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

5.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

BUILDING CODE

The literature highlights the issues surrounding the building code within Fiji, during the discussion with Chollet (2020), he describes how in Australia and the US, the buildings designed according to the code provide adequate protection against wind and flood damage, compared to the lack of use of codes in Pacific Island Countries like Fiji. Therefore, more damage happens to result in financial implications. Chollet (2020) also highlights buildings which have greater financial input and involvement from engineers, experience far less cyclone damage suggesting that money and knowledge from professionals result in better-built buildings.

27

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

6.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

HOW THE VERNACULAR IS CHANGING like before, we live in a new age now with modern living, the separation is now no more, and now comfortable and easy.”

Wity (2020) agreed that this transition has occurred in Vanuatu’s urban areas. Buildings have changed a lot with modernisation; however, he highlights how there is still a substantial amount of separate living.

Tuniasakea (2020) emphasised how a preferred living is an integrated and comfortable, “because of modern living and houses. We want people to live an easier life”.

Tuniasakea (2020) describes how the conflict between modernisation and traditional living was essential to consider before changes happened.

Tuniasakea (2020) illustrates the communities respect for the Fijian culture, so trying to keep tradition is essential.

“Having a toilet and kitchen inside the house is not a traditional way of living. We see the modern way of life, now we want everything to be together. We had to leave the house in the middle of the night and when it is raining.”

When asked will most people agree with this response to an integrated house, Tuniasakea. (2020) replied “100%, we do not want to live

Francis (2020) describes how access to power is uncommon in Fiji, often around 15-20km away from the town the powerline ends. In places with power, residents want modern kitchen products, resulting easier indoor cooking facilities. In contrast to this, in rural locations without power, there are still traditional ways of cooking producing substantial smoke, so separation from the living spaces is. Similarly access to running water determines separate

28

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

vs integrated living. According to Brooks (2020), Fiji’s flush toilets are a status symbol, it is not realistic to have a flush toilet under the same roof as the living spaces if there is no access to running water, therefore a strong argument towards separate living.

Tuniasakea (2020) describes the bure as a substantial house “especially when a cyclone comes.” In this discussion, it was apparent that climate change has affected the traditional bure where the grass used for the thatching is affected by the sun-drying the crop out and killing it. (Tuniasakea, 2020) Before her grandfather died “he told the villages to build either out of concrete or wood

The transition of material and vernacular was not an instant shift; it had to prove itself. Still today, any new construction method or

instead.” However, she describes the maintenance requirements as not feasible. Tuniasakea (2020) noted how her grandmother’s bure withstood many cyclones but was destroyed in category five, leaving nothing but the floor. Whilst Tuniasakea (2020) describes bures as strong, she highlights due to climate change, and the ever-increasing intensity of the cyclones, there needs to be something more robust.

material will need to prove itself, Brooks (2020) mentions moving away from the traditional is a significant change, so there needs to be proof of function, which takes time. Wity (2020) agrees with this adding after the earthquakes and cyclones.

Communities looked at buildings that survived; therefore, any new building proved itself was successful.

Tuniasakea (2020) grew up in a Fijian Bure until teenage years where the vernacular started to change towards modern with introducing new materials. Her grandfather built bures, however, she stated nobody in the village now knows the techniques. The Fijian government, according to Francis (2020), are about to fund a workshop focusing on traditional builds which could produce jobs and making the traditional building more desirable.

29

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

7.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

MATERIALITY

7.1 Concrete vs Timber

by using concrete that is likely to ‘last’ 50 years with low maintenance.

Similarly, bures which are strong, use perishable materials resulting in a shorter lifespan and significant maintenance. Francis (2020) states in Fiji, salt in the wind rusts the galvanised steel fixings which expand and pop the weatherboard and studwork, disrupting the whole structure. The use of stainless steel or copper nails adds costs, although it prevents this problem. Wity (2020) emphasises the cost implication of concrete in rural areas compared to timber which is easier to cut and source. Concrete and any other imported materials can become very expensive and a logistical problem in more remote areas where transportation is difficult, therefore suggesting the traditional house is cheaper.

There are ongoing discussions over timber vs concrete and which material is more appropriate in Pacific Island Countries. Tuniasakea (2020) describes how they witnessed concrete buildings last 50-80 years without any damage, but when cyclone Winston came, it overturned and destroyed these buildings and left the town like a war zone.

When asked why there is still the use of concrete even though it is so destructive Tuniasakea (2020) responded, “because of the modern world, we want a good house, it is cheaper than the timber house.”

Francis (2020) adds by responding it is the ease of maintenance that convinces people to choose concrete over timber. Most people in Fiji build their own house and want to leave it for their children,

30

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Figure 18. Results of lightweight reinforced clay LRC tested with different reinforcements, (Zaryoun, 2019).

Another material used throughout the Pacific Islands is bamboo.

Francis (2020) describes how it is flexible and inexpensive whilst Brooks (2020) states how it grows quickly, 2-3 years. However, during the discussion, there were some issues surrounding bamboo.

Marshall et al. (2020) highlighted that bamboo is not applied to permanent buildings, only temporary buildings. Firstly, it is vulnerable to destruction in a category five cyclone, therefore taking 2-3 years to regrow. This period is a long time to wait for a community without a home. People result in using tarpaulin shelters provided by aid agencies alongside other materials they can find (Brooks, 2020). These structures are not sufficient to withstand any natural disaster. Another reason discussed is the loss of skills used to construct traditional methods using bamboo, resulting in communities using other materials and techniques. Tuniasakea (2020) adds that bamboo requires maintenance and if becomes wet,

it starts to rot and therefore, not a long-term solution. Brooks (2020) explains how the weather changes have caused the bamboo to turn black and powdery but suggested further research for a better crop to withstand Pacific Island countries’ weather conditions.

Marshall et al. (2020) discuss material availability in Fiji; how remote Fijian communities are cut off and only have access to small boats. The transportation of the building materials is a problem, but the transportation of materials for maintenance is also crucial.

Marshall et al. (2020) describes how the materials need to be as local as possible to help the communities logistically, increasing the likelihood of maintaining the buildings vital to cyclone resistance.

31

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

7.2 Research

access to the timber in 25 years which could be used and shared further, developing their economy.

The timber needs treating to prevent rot and decay, therefore, adding durability.

There is ongoing research on local materials. Fiji Institute of Sustainable Habits, (FISH), researched ‘Hybrid Adobe’ used for landscaping and building consisting of recycled materials (newspaper and paper), alongside water, clay, plant fibres and a binder. It is flexible and dries in 2-7 days, sealed by a waterproof sealant. This material is beneficial; it is cheap, easy to source locally and quick to build.

Governments, including Fiji, have set up mobile timber treatment, giving a lifetime of 50 years, addressing maintenance issues in the rural communities (Bainimarama, 2017).

Plant fibres are easily accessible in Fiji; Zaryoun already tests coconut fibre (2019), shown in Figure 18, adding human hair and natural fibres to clay, resulting in more robust building material.

Timbers grown in Fiji have been tested for their construction load by the Fiji department offices and the University of California as potential materials for local use (Baker et al. 2019) Table 2. Francis (2020) describes how the timber is prime for exportation and they are quite rare. The time it takes to grow these hardwoods is also considerably long meaning replacing them will take years but replanting these trees and sharing the remaining availability throughout the islands until fully grown timber is ready has potential.

Each developed village will have

32

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Table 2. Fijian hardwoods strength tested, (Baker et al. 2019).

33

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

8.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

COMMuINITY

There is an extensive cultural heritage in Fiji which needs considering before designing. To help accomplish this, community involvement is crucial. Marshall et al.

(2020) emphasised the importance of a non-governmental organisation, (NGO), or local partner when working in Fiji. This source is based in Fiji and has the local community’s trust, helping them develop a brief understanding of the community.

Marshall et al. (2020) believes the end-user and local community are crucial when developing a brief, who should have input from the onset to the end of the design and build process through workshops. Not involving them from the start could lead to the building not maintained and loved. The community are the ‘experts’ in their communities’ day-to-day lives with an ingrained understanding from living through

generations in a close-knit society in these houses and remote locations. Therefore, referencing their accounts of lived experience is crucial as they have the most accurate understanding of how they live, helping influence external designers. Logistics is crucial to forming a design; the community’s network is strong and successful, according to Marshall et al. (2020), which helps the build projects run smoothly. The strong networks help with transportation of materials and access to tools, an ongoing issue in remote villages (Marshall et al.

2020).

Marshall et al. (2020) discusses the varied skill level within the communities. They often do not have the building educational background to construct; however, they have local and vernacular knowledge.

34

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Sharing knowledge between sectors can fill the gaps which is crucial to get successful buildings. From experiencing of building in remote areas in Fiji, Marshall et al. (2020) believe it is vital to future-proof the building, design for flexibility and adaptability, ensuring the community feels comfortable repeating the construction without needing to refer to professionals.

CAUKIN discusses how it is important to find local skilled workers who can teach and encourage young unskilled workers to train them, helping them try and incorporate this into their work learning the traditional methods (Marshall et al. 2020).

35

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

9.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

DISCUSSION

Although the potential effects of climate change and modernisation has caused conflict within communities as some would suggest, Melanesian countries still have a strong resilient community relationship and network. The evidence presented shows how communities are likely to use their vital networking with the community leader to aid post-cyclone destruction, building back together before external or government input, however, this can create problems.

The lack of skilled and local builders to build cyclone-resistant structures is limited, resulting in a rebuild that is at greater risk of failure in storms creating a repetitive cycle. With an emphasis on educating communities to build correctly, teaching them valuable skills can improve the communities’ resilience and build structures that have a significant

chance of survival without external aid.

During the discussion with Fiji and Vanuatu’s residents, Fiji has experienced greater modernisation and Westernisation than Vanuatu and other Pacific Island Countries.

What can be seen is a divide from wealth and status in the urban areas and poorer and traditional ways of living in rural areas. Importing materials takes longer, adding cost and issues of transportation to the site. The result of globalisation led to Western materials used in the Pacific Island countries, however, have been known to fail in disaster, due to minimal research. In some areas, communities have seen Western materials new and exciting without knowing the correct construction methods resulting in disastrous consequences. The conventional

36

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

MODULAR OPTION 1 - THE SQUARE, THE HEXAGON, THE OCTAGON

Toilet Hut

Shower Hut

2m

Living Hut

4m

Community

Cooking Hut

Hut

4m

4m

MODULAR OPTION 2 - THE SQUARE, THE RECTANGLE Toilet Shower Hut Hut

2m

Living Hut

4m

Cooking Hut

8m

Community Hut

10m

Figure 19. Individual building solutions with different options regarding the shape, Authors own (2020).

vernacular provides an additional benefit of using local resources and materials that are financially viable and accessible to obtain by communities.

Although it has become apparent during the research, local materials are no longer as feasible. During the discussions with residents and workers in Melanesian countries, it

resulting from climate change has impacted the crops used for building materials. These materials used to be accessible and proliferate, resulting in communities looking further afield for materials. Hardwoods, which grew well and was accessible is now sparse, with a vast amount exported to other countries for financial gain.

Investing now for the communities to plant these timbers could provide a

is apparent that change in weather

sustainable future solution; however,

37

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

MODULAR OPTION 1

MODULAR OPTION 2

semi-SEPERATED

semi -SEPERATED

attached

attached

SEPERATED

SEPERATED

Figure 20. A modular flexible design which is an adaptable buildable solution from Figure 19, Authors own (2020).

it is arguably too late.

Additionally, cyclones can destroy building materials whilst destroying the buildings, leaving communities to rely on costly imported materials with the logistical issues postcyclone. The local natural materials have the downside of maintenance.

However, the locals in the discussion do not mention the need to maintain concrete and tin (imported modern materials), because of

Figure 19 and 20 show a possible building solution with ongoing research of local materials, which can be applied to a whole masterplan or an individual building.

This solution has taken the issues into context and will be a flexible buildable solution which will easily transfer to communities.

poor education of these building

38

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

materials. Overall maintenance adds costs to a building, resulting in either poorly maintained buildings increasing the risk of destruction or improper use of modern materials.

The ongoing research highlights the potential of reinventing local materials to withstand climate change, therefore, more resilient to cyclones. The added benefit of the newly developed materials would make communities independent, overcoming the near-impossible

this building to rural Fiji, it has not considered the rich heritage of community living which has been a crucial element of the discussion by professionals and locals, leading them not to accept and trust the building. Transportation of materials for this building would not be feasible in rural areas would become a logistical issue and would add cost and time.

logistical issue and saving money.

Despite this, it will take time to achieve the renovation of traditional materials. To be successful, it must be integrated within the local community sensitively, providing a building they trust whilst educating them on maintaining the new structures.

Chollet (2020) suggested that Figure 15 was the ideal building for cyclone resilience. This image is an example of the construction industry applying the knowledge well; however, it does not consider the context. To replicate this building in Fiji, the likelihood of achieving this standard with a lack of available skills and no training would be minimal, resulting in a dangerous building. This building is well designed, but not feasible in remote locations in Fiji. Moreover, if the introduction occurred of

at greater frequency suggests category five cyclones will not just be a once-in-a-lifetime experience, it is more likely there will be multiple cyclones at category five and over. Designing to withstand these forces is a substantial task. Further research is needed to develop design solutions as even the bestconstructed buildings can still easily be demolished.

The increasing severity of cyclones

Another issue in Fiji is the lack of the building code. Even with a viable substantial construction method, it needs to be feasible for rural communities, for example, using local materials. Secondly, an improvement of the building code is crucial. It has not been revised since the original draft and is currently not used in residential buildings, resulting in limited local knowledge, and it does not cover affordable buildings

39

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

or traditional vernacular styles. To utilise as successful building design, addressing these issues is critical.

Education of the code is vital to remote communities. Nonetheless, before this happens, the government must improve and update the code whilst addressing viable solutions in remote communities with little access to resources needed to build on a budget. The government needs to work with construction industries alongside communities to achieve a

Altogether, the implementation of a detailed and well-written building code is necessary. However, implementing this code could be achieved by compliance, as the literature suggests, which would consequently encourage communities rather than enforcement, feeling controlled and less likely to comply. To achieve this, the importance of working with the communities whilst educating them

viable building code which is more likely to be adopted.

on skills is important. The evidence has suggested the government are retraining remote communities in traditional skills; however, this could expand with communication from construction industries on an adequate cyclone-resistant building.

Working with communities will allow them to trust building solutions presented whilst providing them with an opportunity to educate themselves about the details and importance of the building code.

One of the solutions, as highlighted, is the ‘Help for Homes’ visual guide.

However, the evidence collected does not accommodate rural communities as the tools, materiality and electricity supply required is not accessible in some situations.

This generic building method looks towards good detailing but without the resources, it just not achievable.

Additionally, this guide focuses on structure rather than community collaboration and does not consider all Fijian vernacular. Additionally, it does not consider separation if water or electric supply is not available.

This guide is a step towards providing information to communities; however, it is just a guide and is not substantial enough to successfully implement a reliable way to build.

It has become apparent how the Fijian government provides funding towards building back after cyclones and conversely, emphasised that rural communities have not seen this funding. With cyclones at such a high risk to Fiji and the predictions of greater intensity and frequency, it is arguable that the government is not doing enough to help. Changes and

40

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

improvements are vital to achieve the best resilience to cyclone damage and prevent catastrophic impacts.

locals and building sectors is the primary way of achieving a building design that utilises advantages of bures, keeping the cultural heritage, whilst addressing the issues creating a resilient design. This solution would provide communities and an opportunity to understand the building and relearn the skills to build it themselves, repeat and share the techniques throughout the rural communities using their strong networks.

It is apparent that the traditional vernacular is dying out for many reasons; being propelled, evidentially the idea of modernisation and living a comfortable life. The evidence from the locals and literature suggests it is gone past the point of reverting to bures with the lack of skilled people to build them and the consequence of living in integrated buildings. Bures have adapted over generations to withstand cyclones; however, the locals seem to have given up on them, despite admitting concrete is dangerous. The idea of a comfortable life and little maintenance draws them towards concrete and tin buildings. Despite all the advantages bures have, they are not feasible now, and they will altogether die out. Nonetheless, the evidence gathered suggested an adapted and developed traditional vernacular style could have potential.

It is evident that the community’s home prioritises integrated living (depending on water and electric supply), adaptable, less maintenance, cheap and robust in cyclones.

The continued success of the community resilience in Fiji has helped them adapt in a cyclone.

Ongoing research discusses having integrated communication with the

41

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

10.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

CONCLUSION

The buildings developed by locals through generations have shown to be adequate in cyclone resilience; however, they are dying out. With cyclones predicted to increase and intensify, the traditional ways of coping, even though they are strong, must be re-examined. There has been a significant amount of research conducted and conclusions on how to build resilient cyclone structures as discussed. However, this has also flagged logistical problems in rural communities. It has led to engineering-based structures and no education in communities on the building techniques resulting in poorly built structures.

the community adapting themselves.

The result of globalisation modernisation has brought new materials and vernacular that has less maintenance needed. Nonetheless, the lack of education surrounding the application and maintenance has led to improper use and frequently left dangerous buildings causing more harm over traditional buildings.

In remote communities, these materials are also expensive even though seen to be successful within the communities and resources, and transportation available to them is hugely difficult and nearly impossible. The remoteness has left some communities cut off from the technology, resulting in traditional techniques with limited local materials due to climate change creating vulnerable buildings. The strong community resilience has proven to be successful; however,

The lack of skills has declined over the years in remote communities due to local traditional knowledge dying out, educated youth moving away and globalisation, resulting in

42

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

the lack of skills and education surrounding building is problematic primarily when relying on one another to build back post-cyclone.

Modernisation has started to provide some remote communities greater infrastructure, from improving roads for accessibility to running water and electricity. Modernisation through integrated buildings has attracted communities wanting a better life and leaving the heritage behind.

everyone in Fiji in all situations.

Education of this code is also critical to successful use of the code.

In conclusion, Fiji’s main issue is the cyclones’ greatening and intensifying, which needs to be the primary concern for vernacular design. It highlights the built environment is crucial to achieving disaster risk reduction, which needs to be addressed in all areas of Fiji, not just in rural areas. To accomplish this, there needs to be a substantial improvement from the current situation. The government must do more to co-ordinate this, starting with re-visiting the building code with help from construction industries.

Having a building code in the US and Australia has shown that enforced buildings codes offer buildings a greater chance of survival and less damage from cycling forces. The code must consider a viable and varied range of building solutions depending on communities’ remoteness, making it available to

be successful, but local material issues and maintenance result from modernisation, the traditional bures will die out. To re-examine the successes of traditional building alongside the communities’ requests and views with an integrated collaboration between the design and construction sector can lead to a viable building vernacular that the locals will welcome. Alongside this re-analysing, the use of local materials and ongoing research to address climate change, maintenance, cyclone-resistant and time-consuming ways of growing materials is needed. This can lead to new and innovative ways of utilising, saving time and money whilst making them less resilient on external sources. Altogether, the communities must prioritise creating successful resilient designs. Education is hugely important to succeed, empowering

Overall, vernacular style is not essential, but creating cycloneresistant structures, buildable at a low-cost is the conclusion that all resources want. Reinventing traditional methods of building is not just an aesthetic or and cultural choice. These buildings have shown and proved that they can

43

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

the communities’ understanding of the issues, providing them with skills to build independently and adapt. Consulting the communities is also essential to progress, allowing industries to understand their lived experience and culture whilst providing designs they will trust, accept, and utilise for the future as resilient cyclone structures.

44

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

11.0 Bibliography Aquino, D.H., Wilkinson, S.J., Raftery, G., Potangaroa, R. and Chang-Richards, A. 2018.

Challenges to building housing resilience: the case of Fiji post-cyclone Winston. Procedia engineering, 212, pp.475-480.

Bainimarama, V. 2017. Fiji’s First Self-Contained Mobile Timber Treatment Plant In Kadavu. [online]. [ Accessed 15 August 2020]. Available from: https://fijisun.com. fj/2017/01/27/fijis-firstself-contained-mobile-timber-treatment-plant-in-kadavu Baker, T., Matalomani, M., Naidike, L., Tupou, A. and Valentine, S. 2019. A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO Supporting Resilient (Re)Construction in Remote Fijian Communities.

Habitat for Humanity. https://reliefweb.int/report/fiji/holistic-approach-supporting-resilientreconstruction-remote-fijian-communities Becker, P. 2017. Dark side of development: Modernity, disaster risk and sustainable livelihoods in two coastal communities in Fiji. Sustainability, 9(12), p.2315.

Caimi, A., Moles, O., Joffroy, T. and Serlet, M. 2016. Local Building Cultures for sustainable and resilient habits.. International Centre for Earthen Construction: Villefontaine, France. https:// craterre.hypotheses.org/1140 CAUKIN Studio Ltd. 2020. CAUKUN’s website. [Online]. [Accessed 24 October 2020].

Available from: https://www.caukinstudio.com/home Costa, M. and Sharp, R., 2011. The Pacific Island Countries Fiji, Papua New Guinea (PNG), Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Tuvalu. University of South Australia.

Day, S.J., Forster, T., Himmelsbach, J., Korte, L., Mucke, P., Radtke, K., Thielbörger, P. and Weller, D., 2019. World risk report 2019. World Risk Report; Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft: Aachen, Germany; Ruhr University Bochum—Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV): Bochum, Germany, p.71.

Govt. Fiji. 2016. Help for Homes - Tips to Build Back Safer: How to make your house more resilient to natural disaster. [Online]. [Accessed 4 August 2020]. Available from: https:// reliefweb.int/report/fiji/help-homes-tips-build-back-safer-how-make-your-house-more-resilientnatural-disaster

45

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Haigh, R. and Amaratunga, D. 2010. An integrative review of the built environment discipline’s role in the development of society’s resilience to disasters. International journal of disaster resilience in the built environment. vol. 1 Issue: 1, pp.11-24.

Haque, C.E., 2003. Perspectives of natural disasters in East and South Asia, and the Pacific Island States: Socio-economic correlates and needs assessment. Natural hazards, 29(3), pp.465-483 Miyaji, M., Fujieda, A., Waqalevu, S.V. and Kobayashi, H. 2017. Challenges for self-recovery from cyclone disasters in a traditional Fijian village: the case of Navala village after tropical cyclone Winston. WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, 173, pp.161-172.

Petal, M., Green, R., Kelman, I., Shaw, R. and Dixit, A. 2008. Community-based construction for disaster risk reduction. Hazards and the built environment: Attaining built-in resilience, pp.191-217.

Vrolijks, L., 1998. Disaster Resistant Housing in Pacific Island Countries: A compendium of safe low cost housing practices in Pacific Island Countries. South Pacific Disaster Reduction Programme (SPDRP). http://lib.riskreductionafrica.org/bitstream/handle/123456789/291/ disaster%20resistant%20housing%20in%20pacific%20island%20countries.pdf?sequence=1 World Health Organization, 2012. WHO multi-country cooperation strategy for the Pacific 20132017.

Zaryoun, M. and Hosseini, M., 2019. Lightweight fiber-reinforced clay as a sustainable material for disaster resilient architecture of future buildings. Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 15(6), pp.430-444.

46

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

12.0 list of figures Figure 1

Spencer, G. (2020) Pacific Island location [Diagram] Authors Own .

Figure 2

Spencer, G. (2020) Fiji’s location [Diagram] Authors Own.

Figure 3

Spencer, G. (2020) Map of Fiji [Diagram] Authors Own.

Figure 4

Erikson, K. (2019) How Do Hurricanes Form? [Online] NASA Space Place. Available from https://spaceplace.nasa.gov/hurricanes/en/ [Accessed 06 September 2020].

Figure 5

Berke, J. (2018) How hurricanes like Michael form. [Online] Business Insider. Available from https://www.businessinsider.nl/how-hurricanes-form-2018-9/?jwsource=cl [Accessed 09 September 2020].

Figure 6

Spencer, G. (2020) Effects of natural disasters in Australia 1987-2016 [Table] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Australian Business Roundtable for Disaster Resilience & Safer Communities, (2017) Box 1: Intangible costs of natural disasters. [Online] Building resilience to natural disasters in our states and territories. Available from https://www.preventionweb. net/files/56004_abrbuildingresilienceinourstatesand.pdf [Accessed 09 September 2020].)

Figure 7

Spencer, G. (2020) Frequency of types of natural disasters in Fiji from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020). EMDAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 8

Day, S.J., Forster, T., Himmelsbach, J., Korte, L., Mucke, P., Radtke, K., Thielbörger, P. and Weller, D., (2019). World risk report 2019. World Risk Report; Bündnis Entwicklung Hilft: Aachen, Germany; Ruhr University Bochum—Institute for International Law of Peace and Armed Conflict (IFHV): Bochum, Germany, p.71.

Figure 9

Spencer, G. (2020) Climate related disaster frequency from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020). EMDAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 10

Spencer, G. (2020) Different Fijian vernacular [Diagram] Authors Own.

47

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Figure 11

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Spencer, G. (2020) Quantity of vernacular buildings from 2007 census in Fiji. [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Fiji Bureau of Statistics. (2020) Census of Population and Housing. [Online] Available from https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/statistics/2007-census-of-population-and-housing [Accessed 12 July 2020])

Figure 12

Spencer, G. (2020) Effects cyclone forces have on structures [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 13

Spencer, G. (2020) Forces of external wind pressure [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 14

Spencer, G. (2020) Forces of internal wind pressure [Diagram] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August.

CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 15

Chollet, M. (2020) Engineer input on cyclone resilient structures. 21 August. CAUKIN virtual workshop: South Pacific Prototype Housing.)

Figure 16

Spencer, G. (2020) The number of cyclones in Oceania, Melanesia, and Fiji in relation to the total number worldwide from 1980-2019 [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Centre for Research on the Epidemiology of Disasters – CRED, (2020).

EM-DAT. [online] Available from https://www.emdat.be/ [Accessed 14 July 2020].)

Figure 17

Spencer, G. (2020) Ownership of Fijian houses from 2007 census in Fiji [Graph] Authors Own. (Adapted from, Fiji Bureau of Statistics. (2020) Census of Population and Housing. [Online] Available from https://www.statsfiji.gov.fj/statistics/2007-census-of-population-and-housing [Accessed 12 July 2020])

Figure 18

Zaryoun, M. and Hosseini, M., (2019) Lightweight fiber-reinforced clay as a sustainable material for disaster resilient architecture of future buildings. Architectural Engineering and Design Management, 15(6), pp.430- 444. [Accessed 14 July 2020]

48

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Figure 19 Spencer, G. (2020) Individual building solutions with different options regarding the shape [Diagram] Authors Own. Figure 20 Spencer, G. (2020) A modular flexible design which is an adaptable buildable solution [Diagram] Authors Own.

Table 1

Berke, J. (2018) How hurricanes like Michael form. [Online] Business Insider. Available from https://www.businessinsider.nl/how-hurricanes-form-2018-9/?jwsource=cl [Accessed 09 September 2020].

Table 2

Baker, T., Matalomani, M., Naidike, L., Tupou, A. and Valentine, S. (2019) A HOLISTIC APPROACH TO Supporting Resilient (Re)Construction in Remote Fijian Communities.

Habitat for Humanity. https://reliefweb.int/report/fiji/holistic-approach-supporting-resilientreconstruction-remote-fijiancommunities [Accessed 14 July 2020]

49

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

13.0

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

appendicies

The following information is additional content produced during the Virtual Workshop run by CAUKIN. All information is produced by the author.

50

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

The post is risen 1 meter off the ground to find the right balance between storm surge resilience and feasibility of building. The recommended height of 2-10 meters above the ground helps avoid flooding from storm surges; however, this would require a lot of material and steps which would become more expensive and add much effort for the people who live and build themselves structure, reducing the likelihood of them building these structures.

Each wall will have the opportunity to build a window, door or both within them; this gives the communities to adapt each wall to provide for their needs. The openings will have a robust timber shutter system to bolt up if there is a storm or for other reasons. Glass will not be used for the opportunities due to shattering in winds.

The hip roof at 45-degree pitch is one of the optimal pictures to survive cyclone conditions. The thatching has been problematic in cycling previously, but if constructed well, it can be resilient. The important thing is to consider two use more leaf on the roof as possible, which helps it to reinforce one another.

Overhang – A minimal overhang will prevent uplift on the roof and separation of the roof from the walls.

To prevent uplift and to anchor down structures; rocks, coconut shells or any other available material will fill into the platform. ` The openings, windows and doors, will be kept open in the kitchen cooking during cooking, allowing ventilation across the hut, as well as the thatch, being able to filter out the smoke. When a cyclone hits the village, the opening requires shutting to prevent significant damage to the hut.

51

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

01

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

tag line

The aim is to aid communities whilst creating a cyclone, resilient building typology that is research-based whilst rapidly built and inexpensive for the community. The community will, therefore, have an opportunity to build up a sustainable village improving on the sustainability goals.

The idea of this programme is to create a cultural plan that looks back on tradition whilst using modern technologies. There will be three aims to help create this plan.

Learn – Build – Share Learning is the research base where it looks at traditional building vernacular techniques of the pacific island countries and the modern technologies to create a more sustained collaborative design that is a low cost, using local materials and easy to construct. The researchers will always be striving for the better. Most of the research is carried out by looking at regulation, successes, and traditional building methods to accumulate the knowledge together along with the added aid of engineers and architects around the world designing and experimenting.

52

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

Build – This stage is a crucial stage of the process, which is not just the construction, but teaching as well. The key is to understand how the communities work to create a success that the villagers also like and want to duplicate, which is just as crucial as creating cyclone resistance. The knowledge is transferred to the local communities at this stage, whilst building substantial structures and life for them.

Share – The idea is once a few people are taught the skills and techniques and approve of the building, they will be able to share the skills and methods they have learnt throughout their community and surrounding villages.

53

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

02

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

description

The priority would be working with the community to create a sustainable core living set up programme followed by flexible buildings for the villagers that help with entrepreneurial work, education and other community events.

The style will try to mimic the traditional vernacular style in Vanuatu and Fiji, which engages the communities into the countries cultural heritage and relearning the traditional building techniques which can pass on successfully.

The modular type style allows effortless repetition. Once the wall and structure as learn and built, the process becomes simple. The idea is that the same building techniques used for every building in the village.

As the building sizes increase, so do the number of sides, for stability, whilst keeping symmetry which is vital to resist the wind.

One of the key objectives is to be able to utilise the local materials, so it is straightforward to access and therefore, more manageable and quicker to build. Importing materials takes longer as well as added cost and issues of transportation to the site. The embodied carbon will decrease additionally due to the use of local materials. Using local materials will need to be carefully looked at to be able to use them to their advantage and create resilient structures; therefore, the research team will continuously look into improving their use. Already there is existing research on materials sources local, included in this project.

The result of globalisation led to western material used in the Pacific Island countries, however, have been known to fail in community

54

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

use as well as structurally, due to little or no research leading to destruction in a disaster. In some areas, the communities have seen western materials new an exciting without knowing the correct construction methods resulting in disastrous consequences when a disaster hits. The conventional vernacular methods provide an additional benefit of using local resources and materials which is financially viable and is more accessible to obtain by the communities.

55

2020 / 2021 Dissertation

Natural disaster and Fijian communities

56

Gothic religious buildings Does Gothic religious buildings create a sense of fear and intimidation or convey a sense of calmness and tranquillity, or does it do something else, or both?

Grace-Marie Spencer Cultural Context AR538 December 2019

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

Contents

3

Introduction

3

Fear and intimidation

5

Calmness and tranquility

6

Other

7

Conclusion

9

Bibliography

2

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

Figure 1 - Amien Cathedral interior height

Introduction The interpretation of Gothic religious buildings can convey a mixed range of feelings and emotions. From its namesake ‘Gothic’ presents an automatic reaction to intimidation and horror, however the initial response to the cathedrals is calmness.

Gothic religious buildings were a significant development in medieval engineering and played a key part in history. With the development of the flying buttresses, the inclusion of light, the enlarged scale, the crossribbed vault, the pointed arch, the cathedrals and churches of this style made drastic changes from the Romanesque and Baroque style which to the medieval worshipper was ingenious but also very different.

These works of art took lifetimes to build and constructing something so different must have been exciting for not just the builder, craftsman and architect, but the city it rested on. Once constructed, all manner of senses would have provoked the worshipper into a variety of feelings. It is not just the pioneering developments creating an impact, it transcends deeper how the medieval worshipper conveys the architecture and space psychologically. A religious lifestyle

was still important to most medieval people so the buildings which incorporated religion were of great significance and evoked emotional responses when entering them.

Fear and intimidation can be related to Gothic Architecture as well as the buildings conveying a sense of calmness and tranquillity.

However, fear and intimidation alongside calmness and tranquillity are opposites of one another so it is questionable whether they are provoking both or just one, or even something else. An exploration into fear and intimidation within the religious buildings of Gothic architecture will conclude the accuracy of this emotional response alongside the discussion surrounding calmness and tranquillity. Further discussion will address other factors that Gothic religious buildings convey.

Intimidation and fear The name Gothic was originally an insult, a name that links with fear and intimidation. Historian Giorgio Vasari (1511-1574) first gave the style its label ‘Gothic’ as an insult after the word ‘Goth’, which in medieval

time was a known insult. As the style emerged, many people who were used to the Romanesque beauty and classical orders found Gothic architecture different and this was distressing to them (Cunningham et al., 2014). Vasari was “irritated that the architects of the Gothic era had not sought to revive Classical architecture.” (Cunningham et al., 2014, p.275). In a book written

by Vasari, according to Filippo Brunelleschi, an Italian architect and designer, famous for his Renaissance architecture thought that architecture was “in ruins” and that the “barbarous German” style, which was Gothic, was lacking the ancient orders. (Vasari, 1998, p.117). Visitors to the religious buildings already had a negative reaction to the architecture due to its namesake, therefore when visiting an automatic sense of fear and intimidation would always be with the visitor.

The discovery of new techniques led to the verticality of religious spaces vastly expanding; this may have induced a sense of fear and intimidation due to the vast amount of height making the worshipper feel small. Amien Cathedral is an example where technology evolves great scale in height using flying buttresses. Figure 1 shows the enormity of the interior height of 42m. It is clear from this example

Text:

Vasari, G., 1998. The lives of the artists. OUP Oxford. Cunningham, L.S., Reich, J.J. and Fichner-Rathus, L., 2014. Culture and Values: A Survey of the Western Humanities.

Cengage Learning.

Figure Figure 1. Fotolia, J. 2019.The vaulted ceiling of Amiens Cathedral, France. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/ Amiens-Cathedral#/media/1/20615/162452

3

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

Figure 2 - The Crusading Window at St Denis, representation.

that a visitor is greatly smaller compared to the interior space that has been given hierarchy versus the person. Therefore, this could effectively be intimidating from the dynamic interpretation. Much as the verticality could be interpreted by the feeling of rising and lifting towards the heavens, it could also be counteracted by feeling a downward force into the unknown that could be religiously interpreted by the morality and death with the reminder of hell inflicting the visitor when entering the building. Thomas discusses peoples response to the interior of Gothic cathedrals, that “it quickly becomes clear that while there are people moved to strong feelings”, some people could “feel oppressed and alienated, by the same (aesthetic) qualities” (Thomas, 1994, p.338). The feelings that were expressed would be ‘awe’ which would have mixed reactions. The feeling of ‘awe’ is linked with the dynamic impression of the height which could evoke feelings of fear but also pleasure which could monumentally affect the visitors experience. Altogether, the extra height could contribute an opposite effect that could add to intimidation and fear.

Dewitte looked at how height could affect a person’s response and noted “height can be perceived as threatening” and that humans “tend to display a distinct defensive response when confronted with”, so “exceptionally high architecture … can trigger a freeze, fight or flight response.” (Joye. Dewitte, 2018, p.11) In summary, height, as an independent and in architecture could provoke a human reaction of threat originating from fear, therefore psychologically, the tall verticality of the cathedral could contribute to feelings of fear and intimidation.

Psychologically, height is known to evoke a fear inducing reaction in some people. A study by Joye

Gothic religious buildings express the idea of mystery within their form using its scale and columns that

The mystery around Christianity and God challenges the worshipper’s belief and this could manifest itself into fear of the unknown and darkness. Otto’s The Idea of the Holy understood the holy as “the mysterium by way of intimidation”, and that the experience was summarised when “Mendelssohn shows.....’Serve the Lord with fear, and rejoice with trembling’” within his music (Otto, 1958, p.70-71). The Gothic cathedral is the house, where this worship occurs, where verticality is a constant reminder to the worshipper, emphasising fear and intimidation during worship.

radiate gloomily from the windows, or through the increased use of ornamentation; however, this could be interpreted negatively. Otto states “the mystical effect begins with semi-darkness. Its impression is rendered complete if the factor of the ‘sublime’ comes to unite with and supplement it.” (Otto, 1958, p.68). Describing the mystical effect of Gothic Architecture is a combination of the sublime and low lighting from the stained-glass windows. Moreover, Burke asserts that “in order to inspire the sublime, one must be confronted with terrifying ideas.” (Encyclopedia.com, 2019) and that “The human response is generated by... fear-inspiring principles” (Encyclopedia.com, 2019). The Gothic cathedrals express mystery and sublimity within its form and embrace characteristics that facilitate fear and intimidation.

The essence of propaganda is apparent in religious Gothic buildings. The use of enlarged openings for stained glass windows revealed stories and opportunities for stories to be carved within the stonework. The imagery of the religious buildings could be interpreted as intimidation.

The church wanted to convey a message of compliance or punishment through morality.

Depicted in the imagery the Crusading window which is now deystroyed, represented in Figure 2, in St Denis, the long journey pilgrims took to get to this new place were “promised heavenly rewards to the Christian fighters.” (von Simson, 1959, p.80). The pilgrims and worshippers engaged with the imagery were led to believe that everything they saw was the truth which could also become intimidating by the threats of morality, scaring them into complying. The church could decide on stories that would affect the worshipper and benefit themselves or the monarchy and could control the opinions of the worshipper. As much as it was beneficial to the church, the medieval worshipper who had

Text:

von Simson, O.G., 1959. The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order. Pantheon Books - Thomas, J.A., 1994. Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture: an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches. Doctoral dissertation, University of Sheffield. - Joye, Y. Dewitte, S. 2018, ‘Up speeds you down, Awe-Evoking monumental buildings trigger behavioural and perceived freezing’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, - Otto, R., 1958. The idea of the holy (Vol. 14). Oxford University Press. - Encyclopedia. com. 2019. “Society, Culture, and the Gothic.” Gothic Literature: A Gale Critical Companion. (Online). (Accessed 01 December 2019). Available from: https://www. encyclopedia.com/arts/culture-magazines/society-culture-and-gothic

Figure

Figure 2. Montfourcon, B. 1700s. Montfaucon, Crusading window, Basilica of St Denis. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://commons. wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Montfaucon,_Crusading_window,_Basilica_of_St_Denis.jpg

4

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

no choice but to follow religion would find the imagery greatly fear provoking and intimidating.

Calmness and tranquillity The innovation of verticality within the Cathedral allowed the opportunity to incorporate larger windows that facilitated light manifesting into the spaces contributing to a positive spiritual tranquil space. The Gothic cathedral celebrated the innovation of light penetrating the spaces, nowhere was dark, in addition the combination of the “horizontal continuity” (Panofsky, 1957, p.7) created “shadowy depth” (Panofsky, 1957, p.7), adding to the emotive response. This was a pioneering step forward form the dark Romanesque cathedral, “According to the medieval thinkers, light is the principle of order and value” (von Simson, 1959, p.52), so this would have been an ingenious shift towards a positive space. An example of this is in the Chartres Cathedral, pictured in Figure 3, where the use of over 2,500 square meters of stained-glass windows allowed light to penetrate into the interior.

Light was and is still an important aspect to religion, its numinous relation could be seen as reassuring to the worshipper. von Simson describes “Light and luminous objects, no less than musical consonance, conveyed an insight into the perfection of the cosmos, and a divination of the Creator” where “Light is the most noble of natural phenomena” and that it is the “creative principle in all things, most active in the heavenly spheres,” (von Simson, 1959, p.51).

Therefore, the introduction of light to religious spaces would have made them more numinous compared to other styles of cathedrals in that era, leading to a greater reassurance of holiness, creating calm and tranquil spaces.

There is a link between calmness and the use of light, especially natural light. Not only does light create a helpful visual aid, its power could increase a person’s attitude mentally, therefore have a positive psychological affect. In view of this, a psychological study by Negami concluded that “that calmness is predicted by the presence of light” (von Simson, 1959, p.51), therefore, the introduction of natural light into the religious buildings would achieve a calming approach to a visitor.

Figure 3 - Power of the natural lighting in Chartres Cathedral

Figure 4 - Riems Cathedral verticality

The people who worked on the Gothic religious buildings were inspired by a link with God, a vision to feel closer to heaven. This idea of a close connection to God would allow the worshipper to feel calmer and tranquil, as the greater the link to the religion is, the happier and more spiritual the worshipper is.

Gothic cathedrals in von Simson is described as “Awesome is this place.

Truly, this is the house of God and the gate of Heaven,” (von Simson, 1959, p.XV). This is an example of a visitor’s interpretation that shows the designer’s aspiration to link with God was successful. Along with the use of light as previously discussed, the building conveys a numinous effect through the height of the Cathedral which induces a feeling of being closer to heaven. Unlike any religious buildings before, the new addition of scale would represent this idea by the interpretation of heaven being up in the sky with God, therefore the increase of verticality would point towards heaven. The height would also induce a sense of awe which can be interpreted as a link with holiness conveying a stronger feeling of a connection with God (Mâle, 2018, p.397). Riems Cathedral’s height, presented in Figure X, shows the extent of the verticality that would cause a visitor to raise their heads which also contributes to the numinous experience as the view

Text:

Mâle, E., 2018. The gothic image: religious art in France of the thirteenth century. Routledge. - von Simson, O.G., 1959. The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order. Pantheon Books - Panofsky, E., 1957. Gothic and architecture and scholasticism. Archabbey Press

Figure

Figure 3. Haberlea, E. 2016. Chartres Cathedral Nave. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/haberlea/29217389501 - Figure 4. Cahier, L. 2016. Nave of Reims Cathedral. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/ File:Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Reims_%E2%80%94_Nef.jpg

5

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

Figure 5 - Riems Cathedral with its exposed structural form

would be towards heaven with a dynamic thrust in its form helps to connect with heaven. Mâle describes “Conviction and faith pervade the cathedral from end to end. Even the modern man receives a deep impression of serenity, little as he is willing to submit himself to its influence.” (Mâle, 2018, p.396). To conclude, the evidence represents the power the numinous effect of the Cathedral has even today at conveying calmness. The numinous effect can be sourced from the introduction of light in the spaces as well as the increased height drawing the worshipper closer to the heavens and God. Worshippers had more of a spiritual connection with Gothic religious buildings due to the fact the structure was exposed, displaying its truth within its form. (von Simson, 1959, p.51) Von Simson describes “To the medieval thinker beauty was not a value independent of others, but rather the radiance of truth” that the “quality of things which reflects their origin in God.” (von Simson, 1959, p.51). In the Cathedrals and Churches of the Romanesque or Byzantine style, the structure was more concealed “behind painted or stucco ornaments.” (von Simson, 1959, p.5) which became its significant ornamentation. In contrast Text:

to this, Gothic architecture was true to its form, exhibiting its structure as its ornamentation. If painting were used, it would never conceal the true form of the cathedral. An example of this can be seen in the form of Reims Cathedral, pictured in Figure 5, where the structure is obviously exposed and is celebrated.

To summarise, the medieval worshipper found a greater connection with God through truth and the Gothic religious buildings communicated this using its exposed form as ornamentation, therefore the visitor had greater trust in Gothic thus allowing a them to feel calmer.

Furthermore, geometry in the middle ages was also seen as a connection with God, and that the proportions were derived from God’s work making them sacred. The geometries that God created were pleasing, seen not just as harmonious proportions, but because of the idea that it came from God and therefore the connection between the building, the worshipper and God was stronger. that can be described as a “change from the mystical to the rational approach to truth, the dawn of Christian metaphysics.” (von Simson, 1959, p.39). The buildings created were from the origins of “sacred geometry” (Thomas, 1994, p.232), creating beauty and pleasure. Von Simson states “with the compass that God himself came to be represented in Gothic at ......... who composed the universe according to geometrical laws.” (von Simson, 1959, p.51).

According to Shafik Ramzy, the circle represented heaven and the square represented the earth. The idea was to “bring Heaven down to earth,” (von Simson, 1959, p.51) and to accomplish this, Euliclian geometries were most appropriate. The Euliclian geometries were “square within a circle (ad quadratum) and triangle within circle (ad triangulum)” (Shafik Ramzy, N., 2015. p.140) which can be seen in Figure 6 of Milan’s floor plan and elevation. The Gothic geometry was interpreted as God

himself created, producing beautiful buildings which played a role in visually impressing the worshipper.

Therefore, this did not just make the buildings visually pleasing but the link with God was facilitated through form, making the religious buildings beautiful and more holy, which has a calming effect to the visitor making the space tranquil.

Other Aesthetics played a role in the importance of Gothic buildings, communicating a visually pleasing building based on mathematical geometry. Geometry was not just facilitated to engineer taller structures that were able to stand, they created harmonious proportions that were ‘awe’ provoking creating positive responses to the visual impact of the Cathedral or Church. von Simson described how the Gothic builders were “unanimous in paying tribute to geometry as basis of their art.” (von Simson, 1959, p.13) with the “uniform division and subdivision of the whole structure” described by (Panofsky, 1957, p.45). Milan’s Cathedral relies on “geometrical canons.” (von Simson, 1959, p.19). Geometrical canons

Figure 6 - Geometrical pattern in Milan Cathedral’s floor plan and elevation

Mâle, E., 2018. The gothic image: religious art in France of the thirteenth century. Routledge. - Shafik Ramzy, N., 2015. Peregrinations: Journal of Medieval Art & Architecture: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry. 5(2) pp.139-142 - von Simson, O.G., 1959. The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order. Pantheon Books - Panofsky, E., 1957. Gothic and architecture and scholasticism. Archabbey Press - Thomas, J.A., 1994. Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture: an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches. Doctoral dissertation, University of Sheffield.

Figure

Figure 5. Bowden, T. 2011. Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://eventseeker.com/venue/352447-reimscathedral-champagne-a-brie-region - Figure 6. Valentini. 1990. Reconstruction of Stornaloco’s scheme. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/architectural-history/article/first-principles-gabriele-stornaloco-and-milan-cathedral/A3B34E788582FF50D47EC204A009E017/ core-reader - Passano, F. 1973. Survey plan of Milan Cathedral. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/ architectural-history/article/first-principles-gabriele-stornaloco-and-milan-cathedral/A3B34E788582FF50D47EC204A009E017/core-reader

6

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

were based on geometries using a common factor to relate to one another which can be seen in Milan’s floor plan pictured in Figure 6 (Shafik Ramzy, N., 2015, p.142). As a result, the Gothic cathedral could be said to be shaped for mathematical geometries that are aesthetically visually pleasing.

The discovery of ratios helped transform the geometries into visually pleasing structures. Von Simson describes how St. Augustine’s musical studies of ratios led him to conclude that ““perfect” ratios, is the source of all aesthetic perfection.” i.e “1:21 1:1 1:2 2:3 and 3:4-the intervals of the perfect consonances, octave, fifth, and fourth.” (von Simson, 1959, p.23).

The importance of this discovery led to embellished forms that mathematically were perfect which was important in Gothic geometry (von Simson, 1959). The similar impact can be seen both in architecture and music where harmonious sounding music is accomplished by the introduction of ratios, similarly the introduction of the ratios to the architectural form led to visually pleasing structures. Therefore, adding to the importance that geometry played in Gothic Architecture and this opportunity to produce visual harmony to the visitor.

Each city the Gothic cathedral was built, played a key role in its construction. This makes the Cathedral important to civilians of its city as it became a core, a place of protection and a place of ostentatious morals. Uniting the city, the Cathedral acted as its core, “Seen from afar, the church with her transepts, spires and towers seems like a mighty ship about to sail on a long voyage. The whole city might embark with confidence on her massive decks”, (Mâle, 2018, p.396) engaging its citizens before, during and after the build. This can be seen in Canterbury Cathedral, Figure 7, where the Cathedral acts as the core of the city and plays a key role of how the city is shaped.

The building of each Cathedral would have taken lifetimes, but this became stimulus for citizens to get involved wondering and imagining what would become. No matter how rich or poor the civilian, no matter what background, they saw the cathedral as a prominent node of the city where they gave everything to become a part of its process of construction. The length of acts the people went to were bold, demonstrating the opinions of the medieval worshipper to the Gothic cathedral and how important it was in their eyes.

Gothic cathedrals were seen as a place of safety of the city. Upon entering, the medieval civilian could seek refuge from the problems of the community to a place free from danger. Once built, it carried its citizens as a place of safety where “the walls of cities were ritually consecrated as a defence against the devil, sickness, and death.

Then, too, symbolic thinking finds no difficulty in assimilating the human enemy to the devil and death.”

(Eliade, 1959, p.49). Whereas the cathedral would have been the sanctuary, the safe place, the shelter of the city, far from the dangers of the walls. To conclude, the Cathedral, situated in the heart of the city acted as a space far away from the dangers of the wall, that

disease and destruction would not be seen to affect the cathedral.

The house of holiness was seen to celebrate God as well as protect the citizens of the city.

The Cathedral once built engages with the citizen once again through education. Mâle describes “Cathedral is a book”, for example Chartres which has 10,000 figures in glass or stonework and is described as “is medieval thought in visible form” (Mâle, 2018, p.390). Not only did the Cathedral protect its citizens it also gave them an opportunity to educate. Worshippers would have interpreted not just a house of God, but as how the modern person envisions a school, community centre and a library.

Conclusion Gothic was not deserved as a name, moreover it was given as a spiteful reaction by the way it rebelled against the classical order.

Through the Gothic namesake, an instant interpretation of fear and intimidation is the dominant reaction, due to its stereotype, but most importantly this would affect the medieval citizen with no knowledge of the Cathedral. Conversely

Figure 7 - Canterbury Cathedral amongst its city

Text:

Eliade, M., 1959. The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. - Mâle, E., 2018. The gothic image: religious art in France of the thirteenth century. Routledge. - Shafik Ramzy, N., 2015. Peregrinations: Journal of Medieval Art & Architecture: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry. 5(2) pp.139142 - von Simson, O.G., 1959. The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order. Pantheon Books

Figure

Figure 7. Higham, J. 2007. Canterbury Cathedral from University of Kent. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/ jimhigham/1893466775

7

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings

the Gothic religious buildings are anything but fear provoking rather a tranquil and calm space. Another aspect to consider is that the buildings convey a visually pleasing effect which was important for the designers in that era.

Figure 8 - Canterbury Cathedral

The ingenious discoveries of light and verticality are key to provoking a response, both which would have been pioneering to the religious buildings at that time. Therefore, a completely different experience and reaction would have fallen upon the medieval worshipper when entering for the first time. A person’s reaction could always differ from other peers due to many different motives, backgrounds or religious experience, however the feeling of ‘awe’ was and still is likely to be felt which can lead to contrasting reactions.

The new form of artwork displays an opportunity to gain knowledge but the threat of morality could induce a sense of intimidation by the propaganda, but the opportunity of education expresses the desire of the Cathedrals becoming the core of the city. Compared with other religious architecture styles of the time, the relationship with God is greater in the Gothic religious buildings, however there will always be a mystery around religion and what is God. Overall the evidence suggests Gothic religious buildings convey more of a sense of calmness and tranquillity but additionally they were designed to be visually pleasing to the user. The sense of fear and intimidation has been derived from their namesake along with the feeling of ‘awe’ which has been mis-interpreted into fear. Therefore, it answers the question that it conveys a feeling of both fear and intimidation as well as a slight feeling of fear intimidation as well as being a focus point of community and safety. The buildings play a key part in the community throughout their history, but now more than ever cities are becoming less reliant on the Cathedrals and are more a tourist attraction rather than a core of the community.

Figure

Figure 8. Spencer, G. 2019. Canterbury Cathedral. Personal Collection.

8

December 2019

Gothic religious buildings Bibliography

1.

Cunningham, L.S., Reich, J.J. and Fichner-Rathus, L., 2014. Culture and Values: A Survey of the Western Humanities. Cengage Learning.

2.

Eliade, M., 1959. The sacred and the profane: The nature of religion. Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

3.

Encyclopedia.com. 2019. “Society, Culture, and the Gothic.” Gothic Literature: A Gale Critical Companion.

(Online). (Accessed 01 December 2019). Available from: https://www.encyclopedia.com/arts/culture-magazines/ society-culture-and-gothic 4.

Joye, Y. Dewitte, S. 2018, ‘Up speeds you down, Awe-Evoking monumental buildings trigger behavioural and perceived freezing’, Journal of Environmental Psychology, 5.

Mâle, E., 2018. The gothic image: religious art in France of the thirteenth century. Routledge.

6.

Negami, H. 2016. Awe-Inducing Interior Space: Architectural Causes and Cognitive Effects. Master of Arts in Psychology, University of Waterloo.

7.

Otto, R., 1958. The idea of the holy (Vol. 14). Oxford University Press.

8.

Panofsky, E., 1957. Gothic and architecture and scholasticism. Archabbey Press 9.

Shafik Ramzy, N., 2015. Peregrinations: Journal of Medieval Art & Architecture: The Dual Language of Geometry in Gothic Architecture: The Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Symbolic Message of Euclidian Geometry versus the Visual Dialogue of Fractal Geometry. 5(2) pp.139-142 10.

Thomas, J.A., 1994. Theory, meaning and experience in church architecture: an investigation into the influences of buildings upon worship and spirituality and their implications for the design and ordering of churches.

Doctoral dissertation, University of Sheffield.

11.

Vasari, G., 1998. The lives of the artists. OUP Oxford.

12. von Simson, O.G., 1959. The Gothic cathedral: origins of Gothic architecture and the medieval concept of order. Pantheon Books

Figures

Front cover and Contents. Spencer, G. 2019. Milan Cathedral. Personal Collection.

Figure 1. Fotolia, J. 2019.The vaulted ceiling of Amiens Cathedral, France. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019].

Avaliable from: https://www.britannica.com/topic/Amiens-Cathedral#/media/1/20615/162452 Figure 2. Montfourcon, B. 1700s. Montfaucon, Crusading window, Basilica of St Denis. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Montfaucon,_Crusading_window,_ Basilica_of_St_Denis.jpg Figure 3. Haberlea, E. 2016. Chartres Cathedral Nave. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/haberlea/29217389501 Figure 4. Cahier, L. 2016. Nave of Reims Cathedral. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https:// commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Cath%C3%A9drale_de_Reims_%E2%80%94_Nef.jpg Figure 5. Bowden, T. 2011. Cathédrale Notre-Dame de Reims. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://eventseeker.com/venue/352447-reims-cathedral-champagne-a-brie-region Figure 6. Valentini. 1990. Reconstruction of Stornaloco’s scheme. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/architectural-history/article/first-principles-gabriele-stornaloco-andmilan-cathedral/A3B34E788582FF50D47EC204A009E017/core-reader Passano, F. 1973. Survey plan of Milan Cathedral. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019]. Avaliable from: https:// www.cambridge.org/core/journals/architectural-history/article/first-principles-gabriele-stornaloco-and-milancathedral/A3B34E788582FF50D47EC204A009E017/core-reader Figure 7. Higham, J. 2007. Canterbury Cathedral from University of Kent. [Online]. [Accessed 17 December 2019].

Avaliable from: https://www.flickr.com/photos/jimhigham/1893466775 Figure 8. Spencer, G. 2019. Canterbury Cathedral. Personal Collection.

9

Performance Spaces How considerations of flexibility and adaptability contribute to positive and successful use of performance space?

GRACE-MARIE SPENCER

CONTENTS 3

Introduction

3

What is Adaptability and Flexibility?

4

The legacy of Traditional Japanese Homes The concept of the performance of living

6

Public spaces as performance spaces

7

Internal theatre space - Black boxes

9

Internal theatre space - Theatre Auditoriums

10

Conclusion

11

Bibliography

2

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability Front cover, Contents page Own Diagram Figure 1, The room layout in the floor plan of the Everyman.

Haworth Tompkins, No date. Haworth Tomkins’ Liverpool Everyman Theatre floor plan. [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2018]. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/04/02/liverpool-everyman-theatre-haworth-tompkins-brick/ [Accessed 19 January 2018].

Ham, R. (1972). Theatre Planning. London: The Architectural Press.

Forsyth, M. (1987). Auditoria, Designing for the Performing Arts.

London: The Mitchell Publishing Company Limited.

Oxford Dictionaries.

(2018). Oxford: Oxford University. Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/ definition/flexibility [Accessed 9 January 2018].

Oxford Dictionaries.

(2018). Oxford: Oxford University. Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/ definition/adaptability [Accessed 9 January 2018].

Introduction

These spaces include the auditorium and a black box, both of which will be analysed.

Performances may take many different It is essential for a space to be flexible it is forms all of which have specific require- required to be multipurpose. Nevertheless, ments determined by the activities taking there must be a cap of the amount of adaptplace. The architecture of the space used ability otherwise; the primary building may needs to be as appropriate and accommo- end up failing or largely characterless even dating of these needs as possible. when adapted to a certain requirement (Ham, 1972).

Whether it is the daily patterns of life or the interaction of audiences with presenta- Though multi-use spaces, whether flexible tions, buildings have always come under or adaptable, have had a poor reputation, pressure to accommodate the needs of the they are often not as successful as places occupier. specially designed for one purpose. However, there have been many spaces which are The main method to meet this challenge is effective in the way flexibility has created flexible and adaptable design, which must a place which is able to suit all resolutions. be sufficiently flexible to meet changes in Enabling solutions to a range of performance technology, social activity and functional design demands (Forsyth, 1987). usage.

What is Adaptability and Flexibility?

This essay will discuss how flexibility and adaptability can be applied in differThe definitions of flexibility and adaptability ent types of performance spaces and how are often confused. Adaptability is a form of these influences have contributed to a pos- and a different way of looking at flexibility itive use of spaces. To underpin this, sev- meaning that the two interrelate to eachotheral case studies will be presented which er (Estaji, 2017). have in some way created either adaptability, flexibility or both.

According to Oxford Dictionaries (Oxford dictionaries, 2018) flexibility is The elements of flexibility and adaptability “The ability to be easily modified.” in traditional Japanese houses have been incorporated into architectural design wide- Whereas adaptability is defined as ly and up to the present day. The first case “The capacity to be modified for a new use or study is The Nine Square Grid House, 1997, purpose.” which is strongly influenced by the traditional Japanese house.

People Changing Places exhibition by DSDHA in York is the second case study demonstrating how flexibility and adaptability can be used to encourage interaction between people and public spaces. The exhibition attempted to emphasise potential performance use of redundant areas within public spaces. Inhabiting the unused space with performance encourages people to engage at the same time as completing their dayto-day tasks.

Finally, theatre buildings form the hub of experience. The third case study is the Everyman Liverpool, seen in figure 1, as an example of a successful building, which houses a range of performance types in different spaces.

Figure 1

January 2018

3

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability

Figure 2 Inside a tradiFigure 2 tional Japanese house Architectural Digest, 2009. A Residence on Arizona’s Mogollon Rim Features Classic Japanese Elements. [digital image] [viewed 23 Jan 2018].

Available from: https:// www.architecturaldigest. com/gallery/longstretch-slideshow/all Figure 3, Looking out to the gardens, via the traditional partitions, and the So, in terms of architecture design, porch. flexibility occurs when the building’s Zoe. W, 2016. HAYAMA fabric is not altered but can facilitate SHIMOYAMAGUCHI VILLA. [digital image] [viewed 21 change in multiple ways to meet usage, Jan 2018]. Available from: which is normally a temporary change http://japanpropertycen- (Work Home, no date). Adabability aristral.com/tag/tradition- es when the building fabric is modified al-japanese-house/ to meet the needs of a space without

for a story that is personalised. An important aspect of this story is the place that a person inhabits plays an important role in shaping their performance.

Housing accommodates all phases of life aiming to meet occupants’ needs through flexible and adaptable design. Each stage of life accommodates the individual’s performances such as eating, sleeping, socialising, and working. A separate structure can be designed to meet each of these activities individually but to the exclusion of the others whereas a flexible approach is more accommodating allowing more readily, the inclusion of each individual activity (Estaji 2017).

Traditional Japanese houses, shown in figure 2 have had significant influence on contemporary building design. These houses began from the Muromachi period (1333-1573). They originated as Tatami rooms using Tatami mats as flooring, and Figure 4, the Nine Square altering the building itself, which is nor- then gradually developed into a dwelling (Japan Grid House Shigeru Ban mally a long term change (Work Home, no Guide, 2007).

Architects. NINE-SQUARE date).

GRID HOUSE - Kanagawa, Japan, 1997 [digital image] Adaptability for example is the ability [viewed 23 Jan 2018]. to enable different functions within a Available from: http:// www.shigerubanarchitects. space, such as the use of the Olympic com/works/1997_nine- Stadium as both an athletics arena and square-grid-house/index. a major football ground. Flexible space html may include an element of adaptability

The houses have no specific room designation but instead use partitions called Fusumas that can divide spaces to suit different requirements. Fusumas are sliding panels, made of wood, paper or cardboard connected at the floor and ceiling on tracks, which can be moved to provide different spatial possibilities. Portable partitions are also used called Byobu and Tsuitate, which are used for quicker and easier divisions of space (Japan Guide, 2007).

such as the inclusion of movable parWork Home. (no date).

Flexibility and adaptabil- titions to alter the space according to ity (online). Work Home. personal choice such as occurs in the Available at: http://www. modern open plan office (Uk Essays theworkhome.com/flexibility-and-adaptability/(Ac- 2013).

The heart of the building is the Ima or ‘living cessed 25 Jan. 2018). space’, which is the focal centre of the house.

UK Essays. (2013). The Con-The legacy of Traditional Japanese Living space can become sleeping space through the cept Of Flexibility. [online]. Homes use of portable furniture. Depending on the activUk Essays. Available from: https://www.ukessays. Daily life may be seen as a performance; ities and the number of people involved, Fusumas com/essays/architecture/ are redeployed to alter the spaces according to the-concept-of-flexibility.a person’s everyday tasks whether re- the needs of each performance. This also applies to php?cref=1 [Accessed 30 petitive or unprompted, create the basis joining internal and external/social/public space January 2018] Estaji, H. (2014). A Review of Flexibility and Adaptability in Housing Design (online)The New Architecture. Available at: http:// the-new-arch.net/Articles/ v04n02a04.pdf (Accessed 12 Jan. 2018).

Japan Guide (2007). Japanese style rooms. [online].

Japan Guide Available from: https://www.japan-guide. com/e/e2007.html https:// www.japan-guide.com/e/ Figure 3 Figure 4 e2007.html [Acessed 27 January 2018].

January 2018

4

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability Figure 5, the Nine Square House opened up looking onto the landscape Hiroyuki. H, 1997. Inside the Shigeru Ban-Designed Nine-Square Grid House, 1997. [digital image] [viewed 25 Jan 2018]. Available from: https://www. thoughtco.com/interiors-japanese-houses-of-shigeru-ban-177319

Japan Guide (2007).

Japanese style rooms. [online]. Japan Guide Available from: https://www. japan-guide.com/e/ e2007.html https:// www.japan-guide. com/e/e2007.html [Acessed 27 January 2018].

30X40 Design Workshop. (2015). The Architecture of the Japanese Engawa or Porch. [online video] Available at: https:// www.youtube.com/ watch?v=pF0RyAGkkaI [Accessed 24 January 2018].

Work Home. (no date).

Flexibility and adaptability (online). Work Home. Available at: http://www.theworkhome.com/flexibility-and-adaptability/ (Accessed 25 Jan. 2018).

Craven, J. (2017).

Inside the Japanese Houses of Shigeru Ban. [online].

Thought co. Available from: https://www. thoughtco.com/interiors-japanese-houses-of-shigeru-ban-177319 [Accessed 23 January 2018].

Figure 5

through the opening of wide, sliding entrance doors (Japan Guide, 2007).

Integration with nature and the elements is important in Japanese culture and through the skilful use exterior partitions the internal space can be merged with the external outside space to create a unity seen in figure 3. The boundary between the interior and exterior space is connected by the Engawa or the porch, which forms an important meeting and social space (30X40 Design Workshop, 2015).

Such features have influenced modern day building such as: 1.

The use of furniture that can be transported and stored easily, 2.

Lack of specific purpose but greater adaptability to different activities.

3.

Greater use of sliding doors, curtains or partitions, which can open and close public/ private areas.

4.

Making a space specific through moveable physical divisions (work home, no date) Shigeru Ban Architects’ 9 Square Grid House built in 1997 in Japan is a flexible approach to housing influenced by traditional shown in figure 4 Japanese approaches. The building itself is set out as a three by three grid shape and has two main walls and a universal floor.

Partitions can be moved along these grids that can be seen in figure 5, which enables flexibility in design and configuration of space. This house uses the ‘Engawa’ porch concept: for social gatherings, the partitions can be used to open up a social space at the same time as closing off areas for privacy. If there are different tasks taking place by different groups such as adult entertainment and child play activity, the space can be sub-divided so that the individual tasks can be completed without interference (Craven 2017). According to Craven (2017), partitioning offers opportunities for better adaptation of space regarding the activities carried out within them.

The flexibility of the Japanese house has been compromised over time as western influences have resulted in permanent furniture and features thus reducing options for adapting space. Therefore, this suggests that to be fully flexible a space requires not only the partitioning method to be flexible but also the internal artefacts and features in order for easy transformation.

In addition to these limitations, in a modern day context, the Japanese partitioning methods would prove inadequate in multi-use circumstances, against the inevitable noise pollution. Therefore, measures to effectively soundproof divided spaces may be needed, which could affect the flexibility.

January 2018

5

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability

Figure 7

Figure 6 Le Corbusier Domino Frame Le Corbusier, 1914.

Drawing of the Maison Dom-Ino. [Drawing] [viewed 25 Jan 2018]. Available from: http:// acflowers.blogspot. co.uk/2013/04/openfloor-plan-system. html

Figure 6 Figure 7, People Changing Places with To be successful, the partitioned space the light exhibition must be insulated from external noisDSDHA, 2009. People Changing Places es, light changes and unwelcome odours

by DSDHA [digital created externally. Whilst it may not be image] [viewed 27 Jan an issue in smaller dwellings, larger open 2018]. Available from: spaces also bring about environmental https://www.dezeen. com/2009/12/21/peo- challenges with heating and temperature control. ple-changing-places-by-dsdha/#disqus_thread The English 20th century home has been Figure 8. People Changing Places shown lit up DSDHA, 2009. People Changing Places

by DSDHA [digital image] [viewed 27 Jan 2018]. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2009/12/21/people-changing-places-by-dsdha/#disqus_thread Stocklin, J. (2013). The Free Plan- Le Corbusier and Mies cand der Rohe. [online]. Blogspot. Available from: http://architecture329stocklin.blogspot. co.uk/2013/04/thefree-plan-le-corbusier-and-mies-van.html [Accessed 24 January 2018].

built around fixed ‘Rooms’; permanent walled spaces for specific activities somewhat unadaptable to other uses, which can lead to largely unused space such as dining rooms. Whilst modern day living is relatively incompatible with the tradition Japanese house design, the legacy of the flexible use of open space has influenced architects such as Mies Van De Rohe and le Corbusier. Both have designed dwellings that are free or open-planned, for example in figure 6, with a main core structure with internal flexibility allowing different activities to take place within the same space by different performers, e.g. TV viewing areas, quiet/working areas and eating areas. Recently within the UK, there has been increasing movement away from the enclosed ‘rooms’ design towards open multiuse areas (Stocklin, 2013).

Climate has inhibited a similar use of public spaces in Britain leading to a more enclosed social culture. Open spaces become places of transit, used for travelling between activity places with little social interaction.

In 2010, the People Changing Places Project, figure 7, in Exhibition Square York City was described as: The collaboration that turned a city square into a giant interactive perfor mance and forum for changing public spac es…aiming to encourage engagement with the arts, cultural space and public realm.

(Etherington 2009) This highlights the aim of improving public social Figure 8 space and encourage interaction.

Public Spaces as Performance Spaces

Etherington, R. (2009).

People Changing PlacesOutdoor performance spaces have existed

by DSDHA. [online]. De- throughout history. The amphitheatre was zeen. Available from: https://www.dezeen. a successful open-air performance space.

Greek amphitheatres were used for thecom/2009/12/21/ people-changing-plac- atrical, political and social events, such es-by-dsdha/#disas the Roman gladiatorial and sporting qus_thread [Accessed performances.

25 January 2018].

January 2018

6

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability Figure 9, Personal Drawing Figure 10, People Changing Places being built DSDHA, 2009. People Changing Places by DSDHA [digital image] [viewed 27 Jan 2018]. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2009/12/21/people-changing-places-by-dsdha/#disqus_ thread

The quality of open space at Exhibition Square, a few meters from the front of the City Gallery, had been previously described as “poor and deteriorating” (City of York Council, no date), so in an attempt to re-invigorate the location, it became a venue for an International Conference in 2010. This was seen as an opportunity to make the Square a better place for residents and visitors to use and enjoy. Figure 8 shows the space being used as a light exhbition.

Made from over 1,000 small orange cardboard boxes, seen in figure 10 The People Changing Places project took over the public square creating a large interactive performance space City of York Council. (no date). Exhibition Square & as well as a forum. The small lightTheatre Interchange. (online). weight boxes could be easily adapted York Gov. Avaliable at: www. to a specific workshop or perforyork.gov.uk/download/downloads/id/3114/background_ mance. Whether the people wanted a and_aims.pdf (Accessed 25 walled space, or one incorporating the Jan. 2018). whole square, the boxes had the flexibility to be rearranged according to Etherington, R. (2009). People the requirements of the public activity Changing Places by DSDHA. (Etherington, 2009).

Figure 9

Black boxes

Black box spaces, popular since the 1920s, are known for their flexibility. These take the form of simple box shape painted black or covered in black material. This creates a simple, minimal room that can easily be altered to suit requirements of usage, which in most cases, means configuration of the stage and seating (Thomsen, no date).

The colour black is used because it’s simplicity minimises distraction and acts as a featureless backdrop allowing users a level of aesthetic freedom in adapting the space.

The range of black box adaptions is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 10

[online]. Dezeen. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2009/12/21/people-changing-places-by-dsdha/#disqus_thread [Accessed 25 January 2018].

The project was well received however; the materials had the disadvantage of being unable withstand the British climate. Therefore, alongside this high level of flexibility there Thomsen, D. (no date). Enneeds to be consideration regarding hancing Ther Performance the effect of deterioration on perforSpace: Black Box Theatres mances and longevity of the instal[online]. Staging Concepts. lations. It does demonstrate however Available from: https:// www.stagingconcepts.com/ how flexibility and simple adaptability enhancing-the-perforcan transform a public space by enamance-space-black-box-the- bling a variety of public activities at atres/[Accessed 15 January low budgets (Etherington, 2009).

2018].

January 2018

7

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability Figure 11, Black Box studio inside the Everyman, Personal collection.

Figure 11 F

T s p R l e L i 2 h p i e

Black curtains can be used to create divisions and as with the Japanese traditional architecture, this allows for further adaptation of the space not only enabling multiple uses but changes in the aesthetic appearance according to the context of the performance. Users claim that the simple, minimalist design leads to a greater focus and helps the audience relate better to the performance.

Tompkins, H. (2014).

Everyman Theatre, Liverpool. [online]. Design Curial.

Available from: www. designcurial.com/ projects/sense-ofdrama [Accessed 25 January 2018].

Banham, M. (1995).

Cambridge guide to theatre. 2nd Edition.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bernes, J. (2009).

Black box theatres can’t inspire innovative work. [online].

The Guardian. Available from: https:// www.theguardian. com/stage/theatreblog/2009/jun/19/ black-box-theatres [Accessed 10 January 2018].

The Youth and Community Studio seen in figure 11, is a small room in the Everyman Theatre, set out as a black box. This room is mainly used for rehearsals or smallscale performances due to its limited size.

The ability to change the seating and stage layout provides the opportunity to mirror the main theatre making it ideal for rehearsals and exploring spatial organisation (Tompkins 2014).

The most successful use of flexible space has been in small theatres and studios where they have created flexible spaces such as black boxes. However, as dance and drama have changed and stage design technologies such as lighting have evolved this flexible method of special arrangement has become increasingly challenged (Banham, 1995) Black box design has been criticised for its plainness having, “too few physical

characteristics to stimulate a modern-day designer's vision for a performance (Bernes, 2009).” Additionally, designers have found it difficult to adapt the new stage design technologies and latest pioneering ways to connect to the audience (Bernes, 2009).

The quality of the audience experience is dependent on the character of the set design and staging. Given the simplicity and purity of this type of environment, poor design and adaptation can lead to a loss of character, atmosphere and theatrical quality.

Furthermore, the basic setting can affect the performers and the quality of their performance. A basic room, which is difficult to adapt, limits the ability to create unique and specific environments.

Steve Tomkins (Tompkins, 2016) states how important it is that a space can “respond to the mood of the performance…If you have a sombre black box and you’re trying to do a comedy it’s deadly.” A critical part of a successful performance is the space itself and how it creates an atmosphere and a connection with audience. Therefore, the simplicity of the box design can affect the atmosphere and interpretation of a performance. However if there is enough flexibility to adapt the space through props, this may not be a significant issue.

January 2018

8

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability

Figure 12

Figure 12, Everyman Theatre Auditorium seating over 400 people Roberts. J, 2010. First look inside the new everyman theatre, Liverpool. [digital image] [viewed 28 Jan 2018]. Available from: https://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/incoming/article6737444. ece

Bernes, J. (2009).

Black box theatres can’t inspire innovative work. [online].

The Guardian. Available from: https:// www.theguardian. com/stage/theatreblog/2009/jun/19/ black-box-theatres [Accessed 10 January 2018].

Middleton, J. (2007).

21st Century Theatres- A flexible Approach. [online].Arts Professional. Available from: https:// www.artsprofessional.co.uk/magazine/ article/21st-century-theatres-flexible-approach [Accessed 17 January 2018].

Tompkins, H. (2014).

Everyman Theatre, Liverpool. [online].

Design Curial. Available from: www. designcurial.com/ projects/sense-ofdrama [Accessed 25 January 2018].

Ham, R. (1972). Theatre Planning. London: The Architectural Press.

Theatre Auditorium

achieved by varying seating such as by using side seating. The ability to put seating on Theatres are a hub of modern day perfor- transportable blocks offers greater flexibility mance, a place where people go to socialise for seating arrangements potentially transand experience cultural events. These audi- forming the audience’s experience of size and toriums vary widely catering for a range of scale (Middleton, 2007). different events and audiences. To succeed, theatres must be able to adapt to these The auditorium in the Everyman Theatre, Livdifferences to create the best setting for erpool seats 406 people, shown in figure 12. each performance fostering a strong rela- This theatre space has an adaptable thrust tionship between performer and audience. stage and seating is placed on blocks enabling “The ideal space should have a distinct per- arrangement into different locations around sonality but be flexible enough to undergo the stage. This allows the space to become reinterpretation from one production to transverse, a thrust, ‘in the round’ or a flat another.” (Bernes 2009). using the original floor therefore extending flexibility and audience experience can be varHowever, most auditoriums, cater for much ied (Tompkins, 2014). larger audiences and due to the need for extensive seating, and the technical and This flexibility, which includes the control of practical challenges of a larger space, they seating capacity, enables designers to control are less suited to the black box design the feel of the space potentially enhancing (Bernes, 2009). These auditoriums can offer the positive audience experience. (Tompkins, more opportunity and scope for the cre2014) ation of a performance-enhancing atmosphere and setting than the black box with Stage floors have also become more adaptits core limitations of scale. Although, the able. To enable audience seating on three apparatus required to facilitate this can sides of the stage, i.e. a thrust Stage, the significantly reduce flexibility of the space. stage flooring must be flexible enough to allow for modification. Metal frame timber floors The layout of the seating is key to the au- that can be assembled and disassembled make dience experience and when successful can this goal achievable, whereas fixed concrete accentuate the performance.This can be floors do not allow such features (Ham, 1972).

January 2018

9

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability Figure 13, Everyman Theatre Auditorium layout Roberts. J, 2010.

First look inside the new everyman theatre, Liverpool. [digital image] [viewed 28 Jan 2018]. Available from: https:// www.liverpoolecho. co.uk/incoming/article6737444.ece

The development of the grid lighting framework, seen in figure 13, within theatres has greatly enhanced the control of lighting further adding to the flexibility of modern theatres. These can be arranged automatically without the need for any manual manipulation, adding to the positive ambiance created by better lighting (Forsyth, 1987) In this way, we can see a form of flexibility of space which is almost entirely dependent upon technology which is in almost complete opposition to the black box which is minimalist in principle. This, in some ways artificial flexibility comes with the risk of over-reliance on mechanisation which if not carefully applied can lead to a reduction in adaptability, this being the ability to alter a stage to suit requirements rather than displaying technology (Ham, 1972).

Excessive installation of technological infrastructure can work against adaptability by physically preventing changes within the space. The key goal is the connection between the audience and the performance, which must not be lost by over complex technologies overriding simple flexibility.

Conclusion Theatre buildings provide a space where successful performance and a positive audience experience may require a specific balance of flexibility and adaptability and other factors such as character of place and the use of technology. Analysis of three key examples highlights principles, which can underpin successful performance, or risks to failure.

In the traditional Japanese home, a variety of activities is enabled through flexible and adaptable design. Management of such a space is challenged by the adoption of more household and technology-based goods. However, it could be adaptable as appliances and devices are becoming more compact and small scale and environmental demands and changes in human activity may be more easily accommodated.

Within the public sphere, the Public Spaces as Performance Spaces shows how a public square was reinvented by the erection of a simple structure enabling theatrical and forum events to engage the public. This could highlight future regeneration strategies, and the use of weather resistant material could promote the flexibility to create similar public engagement spaces economically.

Finally, in terms of auditorium entertainment the black box minimalist approach enables maximum flexibility and economy, which if skilfully

Forsyth, M. (1987). Auditoria, Designing for the Performing Arts.

London: The Mitchell Publishing Company Limited.

Ham, R. (1972). Theatre Planning. London: The Architectural Press.

Figure 13

January 2018

10

Performance Spaces Essay- Flexibility and adaptability

designed could enhance audience experience and satisfaction. However, the often lack of ambience, limitations in scalability and the development of better stage arrangement facilities, lighting techniques and methods have led to considerable improvement to the auditorium performance space in larger contemporary theatres such as the Everyman in Liverpool.

The black box highlights the risk of making a space too adaptable, which can create problems of adaptability to the detriment of the activity performance.

Alternatively, modern auditoriums with the advantage of scale have experienced improvement in flexibility through the use of modern technologies such as lighting equipment and adaptable seating.

This has greatly improved the quality of performance within the space, but the auditorium’s flexibility is almost entirely technology-dependant, which risks reduced adaptability if the technical infrastructure becomes too cumbersome.

For future dance and drama spaces, elements of each of these design styles is beneficial. The heart of the building, used in the Japanese house, could be an important area in a performance space, with moveable partitions, changing the spaces for different purposes.

The ability to create a flexible outdoor space and interaction between this and the interior could be useful when cultural events take place. As the building could be expanded into the outdoor spaces, further engaging the public.

Bibliography

Banham, M. (1995). Cambridge guide to theatre. 2nd Edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Bernes, J. (2009). Black box theatres can’t inspire innovative work. [online]. The Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/ stage/theatreblog/2009/jun/19/black-box-theatres [Accessed 10 January 2018].

City of York Council. (no date). Exhibition Square & Theatre Interchange. (online). York Gov. Avaliable at: www.york.gov.uk/download/ downloads/id/3114/background_and_aims.pdf (Accessed 25 Jan. 2018).

Clapp, J. (2016). Steve Tomkins: ‘A theatre should behave like a good host’. [online]. The Guardian. Available from: https://www.theguardian.com/stage/2016/oct/16/steve-tompkins-architect-haworth-tompkins-q-and-a-national-theatre-liverpool-everyman [Accessed 22 January 2018].

Craven, J. (2017). Inside the Japanese Houses of Shigeru Ban. [online]. Thought co. Available from: https://www.thoughtco.com/interiors-japanese-houses-of-shigeru-ban-177319 [Accessed 23 January 2018].

Estaji, H. (2014). A Review of Flexibility and Adaptability in Housing Design (online)The New Architecture. Available at: http://the-newarch.net/Articles/v04n02a04.pdf (Accessed 12 Jan. 2018).

Etherington, R. (2009). People Changing Places by DSDHA. [online]. Dezeen. Available from: https://www.dezeen.com/2009/12/21/people-changing-places-by-dsdha/#disqus_thread [Accessed 25 January 2018].

Forsyth, M. (1987). Auditoria, Designing for the Performing Arts. London: The Mitchell Publishing Company Limited.

Frearson, A. (2014). Haworth Tomkins’ Liverpool Everyman Theatre built with old and new bricks. [online]. Dezeen. Available from: https://www.dezeen.com/2014/04/02/liverpool-everyman-theatre-haworth-tompkins-brick/ [Accessed 19 January 2018].

Ham, R. (1972). Theatre Planning. London: The Architectural Press.

Japan Guide (2007). Japanese style rooms. [online]. Japan Guide Available from: https://www.japan-guide.com/e/e2007.html https:// www.japan-guide.com/e/e2007.html [Acessed 27 January 2018].

Middleton, J. (2007). 21st Century Theatres- A flexible Approach. [online].Arts Professional. Available from: https://www.artsprofessional.co.uk/magazine/article/21st-century-theatres-flexible-approach [Accessed 17 January 2018].

Oxford Dictionaries. (2018). Oxford: Oxford University. Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/flexibility [Accessed 9 January 2018].

Oxford Dictionaries. (2018). Oxford: Oxford University. Available at: https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/adaptability [Accessed 9 January 2018].

Stocklin, J. (2013). The Free Plan- Le Corbusier and Mies cand der Rohe. [online]. Blogspot. Available from: http://architecture329stocklin.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/the-free-plan-le-corbusier-and-mies-van.html [Accessed 24 January 2018].

Thomsen, D. (no date). Enhancing Ther Performance Space: Black Box Theatres [online]. Staging Concepts. Available from: https://www. stagingconcepts.com/enhancing-the-performance-space-black-box-theatres/ [Accessed 15 January 2018].

Tompkins, H. (2014). Everyman Theatre, Liverpool. [online]. Design Curial. Available from: www.designcurial.com/projects/sense-of-drama [Accessed 25 January 2018].

UK Essays. (2013). The Concept Of Flexibility. [online]. Uk Essays. Available from: https://www.ukessays.com/essays/architecture/ the-concept-of-flexibility.php?cref=1 [Accessed 30 January 2018].

Work Home. (no date). Flexibility and adaptability (online). Work Home. Available at: http://www.theworkhome.com/flexibility-and-adaptability/(Accessed 25 Jan. 2018).

30X40 Design Workshop. (2015). The Architecture of the Japanese Engawa or Porch. [online video] Available at: https://www.youtube. com/watch?v=pF0RyAGkkaI [Accessed 24 January 2018].

January 2018

11

NEW BRUTALISM

Describe the influence that impaced upon the ‘new brutalismt’ movement in Britain.

Describe in detail the philosophies and works od one of its key practitoners and the legacy of their work.

GRACE-MARIE SPENCER

CONTENTS 2

Introduction

2

Le Corbrusier and his Unite d’Habitation

2

Establishment Post-War Construction

2

Nature and War

3

Palladian Features

3

Sculpture and Concrete

4

Team X

4

Alison and Peter Smithson

5

Hunstanton School

6

Golden Lane

6

Sheffield University

7

Economist Building

7

Robin Hood Gardens

8 9

Criticisms Conclusions

1

New Brutalism Essay Front cover, Robin Hood Gardens, Mairs, J., 2016. Robin Hood Gardens digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ Contents page 8 Water Street – Liverpool, Personal collection Figure 1, Unit d’habitation, a prototype of New Brutalism Housing, kozlowski, P., 1997. Unite d’habitation [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017) Available from: http://www.fondationlecorbusier.fr/ corbuweb/morpheus. aspx?sysId=13&IrisObj ectId=5234&sysLangu age=en-en&itemPos=5 8&itemCount=78&sysP arentId=64&sysParent Name=home

Meades, J. Bunkers brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry, (2014). (TV Programme) 4: BBC Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017).

Curtis, W. (1996). Modern Architecture Since 1990.

3rd Edition. London: Phaidon Press.

Introduction

a prototype for the New Brutalism style; “its form and aesthetic as reflective of the spirit The New Brutalism style emerged in the of the present moment and providing a way early 1950s from the Modernist moveforward for a broader regeneration of Modment and lasted around 20 years. The ern architecture.” (Hopkins 2014) After its ininame originates from the French word, tial success the design was copied and began ‘beton-brut’ meaning raw concrete. The appearing in different scales and sizes often name Brutalism is misleading in that it does loosing proportionality and differing from not refer intentionally to brutal forms in the core design principles. With the spread architecture. Modernist buildings were re- of these buildings the presentation lost its garded as being designed purely for aes- stylistic essence becoming many becoming dull thetic purposes and not to suit those living and bland (Meades 2014). in them (Meades 2014). However, it could be argued that although the New Brutalism Establishment Post-War Construction philosophy was intended to create spaces designed to be more inhabitant-friendly The New Brutalism movement was led by a and encouraging social cohesion the reyounger generation of architects including sulting styles failed to achieve this aim Team X, rebelling against the established (Hopkins 2014). post war methods. In the UK they objected to the ‘high rise’ tower block developments The style was controversial placing func- which used mass production techniques, isotion before replacing the aesthetically lating their inhabitants within alienating, anticomfortable but nonetheless a style with communal places. Team X wanted to change intentions related to socialism. General this and create habitations that enhanced the misunderstanding and discomfort with the living experience and community spirit (Curtis presentation, together with poor pub1996, p.529-530). lic upkeep has led to deep public hostility against it After the Second World War, However, the government adopted the sothe significant rebuild need was met mainly cial aspects of this approach incorporating it by creating architecture in the Modernism into the redevelopment process. This shows style. However, a group of architects who how radically the views and opinions changed called themselves Team X disagreed with within a short period and how influential the the forms and moral perspective behind ideas of Brutalism were. The New Brutalist the creation of recent builds. This essay style was therefore inspired somewhat by explores the key influences and practition- the traditional British terraces which connect ers of this style, the impact of their work to social space or pedestrian road that they and how the functional style has become so placed it into a block. unpopular. It examines the work of Team X and two of its members, Alison and Peter Nature and War Smithson (The Smithsons), and their influence on the New Brutalism movement (Hop- New Brutalism gave a radically different kins 2014). focus to architectural design, drawing heavily on the forces of nature and natural geoLe Corbusier and his Unite d’Habitation graphic form. It drew from the distinctive, sublime essence of nature which originated.

One of the key influences on this style was Le Cobrusier’s Unite d’Habitation in Marseille, shown in figure 1,which could be argued as the leading influence. Using the key concept of raised streets, Corbusier designed a block of 12 storey apartments which were intended to create a community (Hopkins 2014). This building became Figure 1

December 2017 2

New Brutalism Essay

Figure 2 Waterfall in Iceland, Personal collection

Figure 2

Figure 3, A war bunker which contributed to New Brutalism, Virilio, P., 1975. Façade for heavy artillery [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017)Available from: http://edina.ac.uk/eig/ jk8490-001.jpg Figure 4, Showing the aging of concrete, Trufelman, A., 2015.

Iman and Bowie [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017) Available from: https:// 99percentinvisible. org/episode/hard-tolove-a-brute/ Johnathan Meades Bunkers brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry, (2014). (TV Programme) 4: BBC Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017).

Chanowitz, M. (2014).

What qualities does a brutalist or modernist building have to possess to ensure it is perceived as beautiful? (online) Quora. Available at: https://www.quora. com/What-qualitiesdoes-a-brutalist-ormodernist-building-have-to-possessto-ensure-it-is-perceived-as-beautiful (Accessed 10 Dec. 2017).

Jenks, c. (1973). Modern Movements In Architecture. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.

Smithson, P. (1965) journal of society of architectural Historians, p. 46

material presentation alienating. The representation of natural power was not evident and only the sense of crude and imposing structures (Chanowitz 2014).

Palladian features Similarities have been shown between the New Brutalism style and the Palladian movement and impact on their respective eras. They share hidden elements of design mathematics, and the influence of traditional styles and the adoption of social dimensions into their design to improve the quality of life for the inhabitants (Jenks 1973, p. 255-256).

However, the similarity is limited. The Smithsons objected to the over-use of mathematical proportions which dominated the Palladian style, (Smithson 1965, p.46 cited Jenks 1973, p.256) stating at a conference “WE ARE NOT HERE TO TALK ABOUT SYMMETRY AND PROPORTION”.

from the immense power of the eleSculpture and Concrete ments, embodied in massive rock formations and powerful waterfalls like in Figure 2, and whose immense beauty Sculptural modernism was a key influence in New combined with the potential for destruc- Brutalism. However, this sculptural form was meant tion, creating a sense of awe and hum- to be beautiful in the manner of the brutalist sublime, not as artificial decoration. bling the viewer (Meades 2014) Raw concrete was highly suitable for building sculpture so became prevalent throughout New Reinforced concrete was used in war– time defenses and other buildings such Brutalist architecture, but set against this advanas missile launchers and bunkers, like in tage was the fact that concrete weathers badly figure 3, were constructed demonstrat- shown in Figure 4(Hopkins 2014). Cracking, streaks ing a clear domination of function over and apparent dirty grimy uncared-for surfaces, were enhancing the brutalist aspect for the archiform, which in many cases, created a sense of power, resolve and the impera- tects, but perceived mainly as ugly by the public. tive of war. This was the same sublimity The run-down appearance of many of these buildas evoked by nature which is reflected ings due to this degrading of the visible materials and lack of maintenance, together with the lowerin New Brutalism (Meades 2014). class status of their inhabitants, has led to a There is a misunderstanding and discom- generally negative attitude to the Brutalist style. fort with these forms which have been So New Brutalism was not emphasised by artificial largely rejected by the public who found or decorative aspects but expressed its beauty through naturally sculptured the scale of the buildings and their

Figure 3

Figure 4

December 2017 3

New Brutalism Essay Figure 5, Queen Elizabeth 2 Law Courts, Liverpool, an example of of a building inspired by Brutalism,1984, Personal collection

Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017) Powers, A. (2007).

Britain. London: Reaktion Books..

Smithson, A. (2004).

Alison and Peter Smithson: From the House of the Future to a House of Today.

London: 010

Figure 5

form without subordinating this to the living experiences. Public and private buildings function of its design. Therefore, the gen- were combined and integrated with large walkeral appearance was perceived as stark and ways presenting themselves as streets. unappealing (Hopkins 2014).

They classed themselves as being in the secTeam X ond machine age where they could exploit mass manufacture to influence the design and costs Modernism was born at an international of building, inspired further by the emergence congress in 1928, where the Athens Char- of reinforced concrete as an valid material ter was created by a team of architects (Powers 2007, p.218-219). calling themselves the CIAM, Congrès Internationaux d’Architecture Moderne, who As much as New Brutalists wanted to pull collaborated to produce the principles and away from Modernism and its ideals, they standards of the movement. After the shared a similarity in preferring a visually war, a group of young architects opposed confrontational approach employing bold and the Athens Charter disagreeing with the stark forms (Hopkins 2014).

Monumentality aspect. This group called themselves Team X and challenged the Alison and Peter Smithson CIAM in 1928 at the Italian congress. The two groups disagreed over the direction The Smithsons were associates of Team X, of modern design toward community benconcentrating their architectural style on efit, CIAM favoured Monumentality and the everyday life “the stuff of the urban scene” rationalistic symbols of community within an (Smithson 2004, p.51 cited Hopkins 2014). They urban context, whereas Team X desired an saw the importance of living in social situexpression of community within architecture ations where people could interact on their (Powers 2007, p.218-219). doorstep. This led to the streets in the sky concept (Hopkins 2014). The way that the Team X wanted the architectural design to Smithson presented their work was through start from the goal of designing successful collage visualisations, therefore enabling the social interaction and improvement of viewers to gain a feel for the buildings they

December 2017 4

New Brutalism Essay Figure 6, Hunstanton School, Henderson, N. Hunstanton School [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: http://www. tate.org.uk/contextcomment/articles/ new-brutalist-image Figure 7, The exposure of materials in the Hunstanton School, Henderson, N. Hunstanton School [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: http://www. tate.org.uk/contextcomment/articles/ new-brutalist-image

Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017)

Figure 6

would live in and a clear understanding appreciated for their raw form, represented in of the potential social interactions the figure 7. architects were aiming for and as Baham (Banham, 1999, p.14 cited in Hopkins, Like Palladianism the use of historical aspects 2014) states; “the human presence almost within the building are evident in that it takes overwhelmed the architecture”. They were on a rectan-gular formality. reacting against standard approaches to Powers, A. (2007). building which they considered too aca- This building was the first example of the Britain. London: Reakdemically simple (Powers 2007, p.98-101). changing style redefining modernism (Jenks 1973, tion Books..

The Smithsons wanted to merge the life- p.250-251) and was the project which began style of the working class with elements engaging the new, younger generation (Bullock Banham, R. (1999). A Critic Writes: Selected of modernist design. (Doordan 2001, p.158). 2002, p.98-1022).

Essays by Reyner Banham. California: Hunstanton School University of California Press

Hunstanton School 1949-1954, shown in Figure 6, located in Norfolk was the Smithson’s first project sparking the New Brutalist movement. Nevertheless, for one of the influential buildings of a concrete-related style, the predominant Bullock, N. (2002). materials were steel, glass and brick.

Building The Post-War (Hopkins 2014) Banham, who was at the World: Modern Archiforefront of New Brutalism described this tecture and Reconbuilding as; “almost unique among modern struction in Britain. buildings in being made of what it appears London: Routledge. to be made of”(Banham, 1999, p.10 cited Jenks, c. (1973). Modern in Hopkins, 2014). The aims were to make Movements In Archivisible the materials used and allow these tecture. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. to be

Figure 7

Doordan, D. (2001).

Twentieth-Century Architecture. London: Laurence King pages 164

December 2017 5

New Brutalism Essay Figure 8, Collage Image showing Golden Lane project, where it is showing celebrity figures MALAFRONTE, V., 1999. Iman and Bowie [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: http://edina. ac.uk/eig/ jk8490-001. jpg Figure 9, Movement through Sheffield University, Smithsons Work cited [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017].

Available from: https:// artchist.wordpress. com/2016/02/19/sheffield-university-insouth-yorkshire-by-alison-peter-smithson/

The Golden Lane development entry 1952 showcased the Smithson’s ‘streets in the sky’ concept with an interior street using paving slabs mimicking street below, at every third level (Curtis 1996, p.444).

Curtis, W. (1996). Modern Reynar Banham (Banham, 1999, cited in Architecture Since 1990. Hopkins, 2014) described this project as; 3rd Edition. London: “emphasizing visible circulation, and idenPhaidon Press. tifiable units of habitation,” this project was a prime example of an adapted verBanham, R. (1999). A sion of Unite d’Habitation with the comCritic Writes: Selected Essays by Reyner Ban- munications systems within its infraham. California: Univer- structure. sity of California Press

Hopkins, O. (2014). The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen. Available at: https://www. dezeen.com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017).

Bullock, N. (2002). Building The Post-War World: Modern Architecture and Reconstruction in Britain. London: Routledge.

Hill, D. (2004). Journal: The Smithsons and adaptive architecture. (online) City of Sound. Available at: http://www.cityofsound. com/blog/2004/06/ the_smithsons_a.html (Accessed 10 Dec. 2017).

Figure 8

Golden Lane just as the Smithsons had used Unite D’Habitation (Curtis 1996, p.444-445).

Sheffield University

Sheffield University 1953, shown in figure 9, was a project where the Smithsons attempted to create a new urban language, an environment with order, by analysing social interaction and incorporating this into successful projects (Curtis 1996, p.444). It was a very close representation of the ideals of New Brutalism. With a series of long blocks and street like upper walkways connecting the Within this application the collage visualibuildings with blocks of stairs and services zation, shown in figure 8, pictured celebrities of the current pop culture, this was plotted within these walkway (Bullock 2002, a vision of the development that dep.121). This building was a successful integrapicted it as providing homes for the rich tion with the old university effectively creatand famous, however, in reality, it would ing social mixing with the used of the walkbecome as social housing mainly be inhabways (Hill 2004). ited by working class people. Therefore, those living in the complex would not be responsible for the upkeep and this could be an argument as to why these housing schemes became so dilapidated in time.

Figure 9 The image of social interaction was not carefully considered as working-class inhabitants would not respond and operate within the environment in the same way (Hopkins 2014).

The Golden Lane became a blueprint for the development of positive, socially integrated developments within Britain at that time. Ivor Smith used this scheme for his controversial Park Hill development

December 2017 6

New Brutalism Essay Figure 10, showing a ‘street’ in Robin Hood Gardens, Lousada, S., 1972.

The Smithson Family Collection [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: https:// municipaldreams. wordpress.com/tag/ poplar/ Figure 11, The Economist building seen from the street showing how well it fits in, Snoek, H., 1968. The view up Ryder Street with the tower block rising behind [digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: https://www. architectsjournal.co.uk/news/ smithsons-economist-hq-up-forsale/8687839.article

Figure 10 F

G 2 G a 2 h c d b t

Economist Building

Attention is drawn to a raised, social outdoor plaza, rare in London (Powers 2007, p.122-123), which proved to be an important community success encouraging social integration from both inside and outside of the building (Curtis 1996, p.531-533). The building is integrated well with its sensitive surroundings, its elegance and structural logic becoming a major influence on other buildings of the time, so much so that it has been Grade 2 listed (Althorpe 2007).

The Economist building, shown in figure 11, 1962-1964, in St James’s, London consisted of three blocks of different heights allowing an expression of the Smithson’s own approach to Brutalist concepts, placed within a sensitive site, consisting of graded historical building. The constrictions of the 5:1 plot ratio led the Smithsons to design a slab and podium which was completed in Robin Hood Gardens 1964.

After the unsuccessful application the of Golden Lane development, the Smithsons applied their social concepts to create the Robin Hood Gardens development, 1968-1972. Their social objectives were shown in the two blocks containing maisonettes and flats which surrounded a landscaped garden, promoting social engagement. At the time of its design this building was a model of social housing planning. The ‘Streets in the sky’ concept was used for this scheme, seen in figure 10, however, by the time this development was completed in 1972, New Brutalism had lost its popularity and the designs heavily criticised. The estate declined and became associated with social deprivation, high poverty levels and crime rates and drug misuse, and as such joined many other failing New Brutalist developments. Described as a “‘concrete

Powers, A. (2007).

Britain. London: Reaktion Books Curtis, W. (1996).

Modern Architecture Since 1990. 3rd Edition. London: Phaidon Press..

Althorpe, M. (2007).

The Economist Building. (online) Post War Buildings.

Available at: http:// postwarbuildings. com/buildings/theeconomist-buildings (Accessed 10 Dec. 2017).

Figure 11

December 2017 7

New Brutalism Essay

Figure 12, Robin Hood Gardens, Mairs, J., 2016. Robin Hood Gardens digital image] [viewed 11 Dec 2017]. Available from: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-tobrutalist-architecture-owen-hopkins/

Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-tobrutalist-architecture-owen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017).

Smithson. P (1990) from Rebuilding Britain for the Baby Boomers, (2011).

(Radio Programme) 92: BBC Radio 4

monstrosity’ that ‘brutalised’ its inhabit- . world the ideas and ideas of a small group of ants” (Hopkins 2014) the resulting failure architects, including the Smithson’s. Globally, appeared a direct reversal of the intended architects study these ideas and wbegan benefits of the pioneering architects who adopting them into their own designs an exdesigned them. There has been considerable ample of this is a building in Figure 5 that was debate as to the underlying causes of the built later however is classed as Brutalist. failure of these projects, the most com- (Bullock 2002 p.123.) mon caused put forward being a combination of poorly maintained buildings and socially Critics state that the style did not achieve deprived, low income inhabitants. Because the protective friendly architecture it advoof this, Robin Hood gardens is to be demol- cated, but became intimidating. New Brutalism ished. On a BBC radio 4 interview from 1990 is criticised for failing to achieve the soand played in 2011, Peter Smithson defendedcial objectives originally strived for, leaving his architecture blaming the failures on so- people in an environment of alienation with cial problems arising within the block which a loathing toward their buildings which were often viewed as ugly. When function domiis pictured in Figure 12 (Smithson 1990). nates over form, it can attract criticism often as the form is not the main priority resultCertainly, the local council contributed greatly to the failure. The flats were built ing in unpopular aesthetics. These buildings to alleviate the housing shortage, largely dominate their surroundings through their amongst the local working classes, but fol- individuality and boldness much in contrast to lowing insufficient spending on maintenance their timid local surroundings. New Brutalism and security, this led to rapid dilapidation was an attempt to compete against the usual, of the site and the rise of anti-social be- pretty, fragmented architecture and replace it haviours. Despite this, the remaining prop- with statements of sheer scale, and attempting a kind of powerful optimism which can be erties have been taken by more wealthy inhabitants who have ensured an adequate seen in Figure 13 (Hopkins 2014). In the face level of maintenance and security. The so- of society’s chosen preference for the safe pretty ‘Georgian terraces’ New Brutalism was cial climate has improved, and this therefore reinforces the case of the regarded as an unattractive style. The sheer failure being due to the inadequate upkeep scale of the buildings emphasised the inharrather than the designs themselves (Pow- monious forms which amplified the public’s dislike for the style (Meades 2014). ers 2007, p.218).

Criticisms In 1966 Reynar Banham published his book ‘New Brutalism’ which broadcast to the

Powers, A. (2007).

Britain. London: Reaktion Books Bullock, N. (2002).

Building The PostWar World: Modern Architecture and Reconstruction in Britain. London: Routledge..

Meades, J. Bunkers brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry, (2014).

(TV Programme) 4: BBC

Figure 12

Many of the New Brutalist buildings have been or are planned to be demolished. Despite their place in post war history there is little attempt to leave any legacy by way of preservation. As Johnathan Meads (Meades, 2014) says “Worthwhile architecture is ahead of popular taste, it may take decades for the public to appreciate the buildings of architects who were condemned in their lifetime.”

Among those buildings that have survived, the Smithsons’ Economist building has now been listed and there were calls to preserve Robin Hill now due to be demolished. The only aspect which has been retained is the philosophy relating to social interaction and the desire to create space which encourages sociability among inhabitants (Meades 2014).

December 2017 8

New Brutalism Essay Figure 13, Liverpool Metropolitan Cathedral built 1962-1967, Personal collection

It is now undergoing something of a revival The New Brutalism movement has raised critiand the works of architects such as the cism. By association with earlier urban redevelopment it has been seen to be responsible for Smithsons, that transformed the whole the destruction of British social legacy and of role of architecture are being reviewed in replacing it with urban, dystopian environments. a fairer light. Under their influence, the However, the true fault appears to lie in the needs of the people that would use their political delivery of re-development and fundbuildings took precedence over the pro- ing available to maintain structures. A combinafession as an art form. Their legacy and tion of compromises forced upon the architects philosophies may outlive the criticisms of and the underfunding of maintenance, and their work and perhaps be an inspiration in security, have betrayed the social ideals of the architects and lead to social failure of their future designs (Meades 2014). designs.

Conclusions New Brutalism developed using ethical The legacy of New Brutalism may in this case as well as aesthetic influences to design be the philosophical elements such as the repbuildings which visually expressed a kind resentation of nature’s force and social inteof political protest against the govern- gration, rather than the materials used or the ment stance on domestic and social archi- starker representations.

Meades, J. Bunkers brutalism and Bloodymindedness: Concrete Poetry, (2014). (TV Programme) 4: BBC Hopkins, O. (2014).

The Dezeen guide to Brutalist architecture. (online) Dezeen.

Available at: https://www.dezeen. com/2014/09/10/ dezeen-guide-to-brutalist-architectureowen-hopkins/ (Accessed 8 Dec. 2017).

Figure 13

December 2017 9

How the use of libraries have changed since the 1850’s and how the usage of them have shaped their development?

5047AR-201617-YR-AUG Grace-Marie Spencer

Libraries play an important role in society providing an opportunity for individuals to learn and increase literacy as well a place to retreat. From the first library in Alexandria to modern day libraries, each has the potential to offer positive outcomes on social wellbeing. However, the emergence of the internet has had a significant impact on libraries. Books and resources can now be accessed simply through computers. This has led to a decrease in the use of libraries. The library’s importance can be seen in its purpose as a place of culture and a retreat from day to day issues with advice and information provided not just by books. With access from the street, public libraries provide a space for private and public interaction in a relatively open environment. In the last two centuries, the way in which a library provides its service has changed. It has developed into a social space where usage is widened to more than just accessing knowledge. According to a study by social Aabo and Audunson’s (2012 cited in Van de Pas, J. 2014 p.280) concluded; “that a majority of users (55-60 per cent) do not visit the library to borrow or return books or media.” Reductions in funding, the technology revolution and other societal factors have meant that have needed to adapt to these new circumstances. The Taking Part Report (2017 cited in Library usage falls nearly 30% since 2005, 2017) established; “that 33.8% of adults had used a public library service in between October 2014 and September 2016, down from 48.2% in 2005. This represents a decline of 29.8% since 2005” (10). This reduction of users by one third, reveals a significant problem regarding encouraging people to use the service. Altering the typology of libraries is essential to create successful modern libraries of the future. Creativity in this adjustment can enable more productive adaptations to deal with any societal and technological changes. This could lead to an increase in users (8). Libraries have endeavoured to embrace the internet age and many libraries have many computers available as well as digital books to download. In addition, the library has been combined with other public services such as leisure and health centres and more recently non-council based services such as retail outlets. However, it is still questionable whether the library can survive. Although the true value and meaning of printed material and the cultural value of the library could balance the power of the internet, it is not certain if the more mobile technology-based society will continue to engage.

Before 1850, many people could not access libraries. In 1850, the Public Library Act was established to enable free and open access to the public, aiming to encourage the lower classes to visit the libraries and educate themselves (1). In 1885-1920 there were 600 new public libraries built as a result of the act (2). People used the free libraries as an opportunity to better their social situation by educating themselves and as a place of refuge from daily life.

Figure 1 Lister Drive Library Childwall

Just as the government were seeking to improve libraries, so too was Andrew Carnegie. Carnegie believed that there should be equality in the opportunity to learn. So, in 1913 he set up the Carnegie trust, Andrew Carnegie stated his aims (1913 cited in Carnegie UK Trust (2017)) of “Improvement of the well-being of the masses of the people of Great Britain and Ireland by such means as are embraced within the meaning of the word “charitable” …” Carnegie privately invested funding which built 2,500 libraries many of which were accessible directly from the street (12). The development of this trust meant there was an increase in the

Figure 2 Lister Drive Library Floor Plan

number of libraries. This encouraged people to visit them without the fear of being judged for their appearance and status or segregation. Lister Drive Library built in 1905, in Liverpool shown in figure 1 is an example of a Carnegie library with separated reading rooms or space maximizing the use of natural light via large windows built into the ceiling shown in the floor plan in figure 2. A key feature was its ready accessibility from the street encouraging the public to utilise the service.

Figure 4 Floor plan of British Museum reading room

In the past, some libraries were combined with museums (11), such as The British Museum in London completed in 1852 shown in figure 3, which contains a traditional library. The concept was to share knowledge between the two Figure 3 Reading room of British Museum cultural points. Both a museum and a library have similar building styles, so sharing the building is more easily achieved, creating a hub of culture.

This library was one of the first after the introduction of the Public Libraries act.

The style of public libraries, constructed between 1850-1950, encompassed a circular reading room, often with a domed roof (3).

When more material was being published, rectangular rooms for specific subjects were added off the main central room this can be shown in the two floor plans in figure 4 and 5. The central reading room often became busy and ended up transforming into a foyer, the central hub of the library, where people could interact, and seek advice. Therefore, this was a place for exchange as well as an entrance point, which introduced the concept of the library as a social space (2). British Museum influenced this style Figure 4 Floor plan of and other Libraries used the Manchester Central Library British Museum reading room as a precedence for the designs. An example of one of these libraries is Manchester Central Library, constructed between 1930-1934, figure 6. This library had a central reading room with a glass roof window allowing natural light to enter the space. There are also surrounding rooms that were used as subject rooms with the central Figure 6 Manchester Central Library reading room area for reading and individual study.

The Public Library Act removed the tax rate limitations on libraries in 1919, which brought financial benefits. Before this, there were only a few county libraries but the removal of tax limitations encouraged more county libraries to be built. This benefitted the rural population who had little access to libraries (4). A countrywide service was available to the public by 1926 (4). By 1990, 100% of the UK population had access to libraries, which was largely achieved through the development of mobile libraries. The introduction of mobile libraries, serving remote villages, meant that people who could not previously get to a public library now had access. Everyone now had the opportunity to discover the library and appreciate this as a place of culture as well as a place to seek information.

During the Second World War, heavy bombing caused damage to many libraries but their rebuilding gave rise to an opportunity to transform the traditional structure to accommodate modern services (4). These regenerated libraries were perceived as a cultural loss. However, the modernised library encouraged more people to visit to experience the new services and facilities. These libraries started to introduce other social spaces like coffee shops to encourage visitors as the libraries provided a more welcoming approach to learning.

From 1950-1990 the style of the library changed. Instead of the circular reading room, it used a deep plan grid style usually constructed from concrete. This style left the large centre shared space, although some libraries retained a smaller central rectangular space. Those with a purely grid style gave every space equal importance (2). The style had its problems such as low energy efficiency due to the deep plan style with limited natural lighting available. Instead, artificial lighting and ventilation had to be installed which proved expensive to build.

In 1960, there was an increase in published material (3), which libraries needed to accommodate. This led to demands on the limited space available giving rise to major challenges in adapting the buildings. When the computer revolution occurred in 1980, libraries needed to adapt further to accommodate this. Wires needed to be installed, which for libraries with a concrete structure was problematic. Additionally, more space was needed to accommodate computer working areas. The current building style was difficult to adapt (3) as in its original Figure 5 Harlington Centre, Fleet form was incompatible with the modern although these libraries needed to be adapted to the changes. However, in some cases this was seen as reducing the aesthetic appeal of the library. Harlington Centre Fleet Hampshire built in 1972, is an example of this style illustrated in figure 7. This library had a substantial number of windows, but the deep plan means that much more artificial light has to be installed, which is less energy efficient. This example has a rectangular shape with open spaces, these are shared with equal importance and there is no central atrium. Additionally, this building shares its space with a theatre and studio spaces making this building more like a community hub.

The modern library style started around 1990 (3). This style was more energy efficient with a fluid layout. The whole concept of the library changed with the introduction of the new technology. The transition of the library here is emphasised in the use of the space, shaped more like a public space with atriums and wide corridors to encourage movement through the space (3).

The large atrium can be used as a public central space, which also generates light for the surrounding areas. Libraries as places of invention (498) describes these modern libraries as a “community heart and covered piazza. (11)” The Figure 7 The Atrium of openness allows natural Liverpool Central Library airflow, which aids ventilation and reduces the regular need of artificial ventilation therefore improving Figure 6 Liverpool Central Library efficiency.

Liverpool Central Library, figure 9, expresses this particular style in having an initial atrium space, which extends to the building’s ceiling, which comprises a glass dome providing natural light to all the floors. The use of the atrium shown in figure 8 reduces the need for heating and artificial light, which is energy efficient. The space functions as a public and social space further emphasised by the inclusion of a café in this initial entrance space. The layout is shown in figure 10.

With the frequent use of computers and books, it is crucial that the right environment is provided, with different requirements for each activity or use. Reading spaces border the perimeter of the building to enable proximity to natural light from the surrounding windows, although the passive solar strategies have to be used in south facing windows. Reflected light can cause disruption in computer Figure 8 – Floor plan of Liverpool Central Library use, whereas direct sunlight on books can cause eyestrain (2). Book storage is placed in between the perimeter reading areas and the central atrium space to alleviate acoustic issues as noise is not amplified, as it would be in the more open spaces (3). Lighting for computer users needs to be fixed to avoid glare and reflection, rather than changeable due to the time of day which natural light does. Additionally, noise levels vary meaning that the reader and the computer user’s integration needs to be controlled as the use of computers can generate noise.

Although this is less of a concern in the modern library as there is no longer the expectation of complete silence throughout the building. There are usually now specific areas allocated for silent use.

The atrium therefore has developed over time into even more of a social space with facilities like the café. Furthermore, the focus on provision and encouragement to read has increased and children’s groups are run in many libraries. Liverpool Central Library has a large round space dedicated to housing children’s books presented in easy to access, attractive displays using colour and furniture shaped for example like toys or incorporating landscape scenes. There is also a small platform where book readings and other entertainment such as interactive theatre take place. The creation of child friendly, text rich space is fundamental to encouraging new readers who will, as adults become the core service users (16). Liverpool Central Library’s structure and style echoes that of traditional styles which is lacking in most modern library structures (6).

The Jubilee Public Library in Brighton built in 2005, Figure 9- Jubilee Library, Brighton is another example of the modern style library but which moves away from preserving the more traditional architectural approach shown in figure 11. It is almost entirely glass-fronted facade, providing the interior open spaces with natural light where passive strategies have been used to control the natural light. The library is situated a social and commercial zone, with shops and cafes nearby, which is an alternative solution to attracting people rather than the building itself being integrated with this type of provision. There is also an exterior space outside the library, which can be used as a social space in the same way as an atrium of a library. It creates a link with the library interior, bringing the library outdoors (13).

More than ever before, modern libraries have also sought to incorporate other facilities relevant to contemporary society. An example of this is Fiveways Centre in Childwall. Figure 12, originally a library, it has now been transformed to include a health centre, a café and classrooms for a SixForm College, figure 13 shows the layout.

More recently, government funding for public libraries has reduced. With the emergence of the internet, the use of libraries has decreased despite the changes discussed. For that reason, many public libraries have been closed throughout the UK. Adaptation such as that of Fiveways Centre are needed to help overcome these problems. Libraries have experimented with the use of space like Fiveways (11), creating more a fashionable system which can encourage sharing of knowledge throughout (2). The inclusion of services like leisure, education, healthcare and libraries have combined to help with the funding and encouraged people to visit.

This would help combine and provide public services more successfully and would benefit the people. The library is a first point of contact if there is a problem so having a combination of services can help the person more (3).

Figure 10 Fiveways Centre, Childwall

Figure 11 Plan of Fiveways Centre

However, this type of centre does not preserve the character of the library and its symbolic nature as an import and self-sufficient place. With this type of building the whole character and meaning of the design changes as the character and the function are different. Idea Stores’, is another example of this type of library, figure 14. Based in London, Idea Stores have multiple buildings throughout the city, creating spaces that are not just primarily for more traditional library services. It is a venue that holds events, courses, leisure and information for the local community. The learning spaces are shown in figure 15. Acting as a community centre it has regenerated unsuccessful library services by drawing in the public and making the service more accessible and incorporated into everyday life. A lot of the community did not use the previous libraries however Figure 14 Idea Stores, London with the new typology and opportunity to learn it became more appealing. This example is one of many libraries that offer a variety of courses.

Figure 15 Idea Stores floor plan

Since introducing the Public Libraries Act 1850, Libraries played an important role in society. Having a place to access resources and materials openly without any judgement emphasises the library as service of great importance (5). Currently, there is a need to accommodate the needs of immigrants and other social changes meaning that the library is important as ever

before for a gateway of learning (2). It is described as a secondary place in between the work environment and the living environment becoming a therapeutic place for retreat.

Books have been important in shaping lives and have been part of human development in history.

Serendipity process is an important aspect that can lead to a breakthrough of information and knowledge. Having a range of printed material collected will make this process more likely to happen. In contrast to this, the internet now delivers contact to a wide range of information very easily. Books have become accessible via the internet and can be accessed more quickly and simply than organising a visit to a library. In addition, there are useful tools like key word search to help a user even more to get the correct information. Social scientists state that there is a link between societal benefits and technological developments (6). However, a lot of information on the internet is secondary and can become unreliable whereas a library will have unfiltered information that has not been altered. According to Gaiman, N, (2010 cited in Franks, 2015 p.96-97) “Google can bring you back 100,000 answers. A librarian can bring you back the right one.” Showing how accurate sources are in a library. Some people do not have access to the internet or a computer. Additionally, libraries also subscribe to magazines and journals that are available to the users of the library whereas is someone tried to access these resources at outside of the library they would have to pay. The closure of libraries, it is in contrast with the aims of the Public Libraries Act 1850. People may not be able to access resources or traditional methods of retrieving information which may be preferable.

Research by Myrberg, C. & Wiberg, N looked at the negative aspects of screen based reading which can include slower processing time, less efficient recall and health issues such sleep disturbances (14).

For such reasons, converting all aspects of library services to a digital format would not necessarily be beneficial and there should be a combination of printed and digital material (7). However, digital technology and social media has revolutionised the way information is distributed. Therefore, there can be benefits as it can be easier to access resources and share through social media sites even with individuals who may not meet in real life (12). This information can be accessed and shared quickly and easily.

The social and cultural reputation of the library and the transition to digital material has brought on experimentation and adaption in the typology of libraries. There have been libraries that have completely transformed into digital libraries where no books are held. An example of this is BiblioTech in Bexar Texas that opened in 2013, figure 17, and provides the community with a fully digitalised service with incorporated social space shown in figure 16. Using a space for all digital purpose shows show important libraries are for a secondary space to retreat. Libraries without books can still maintain a place in providing Figure 16 BiblioTech Library floor plan services and be successful without the risk of becoming obsolete due to the secondary purpose as a place of retreat being present.

However, as stated, a totally digital environment is not suitable or desirable for all and there is an argument that Figure 17 BiblioTech Library, Texas

Figure 18 – Birmingham Library

the serendipity process is removed. This describes the act of finding information by chance or books which enhance learning or provide the opportunity for a discovery of other information, which might not otherwise take place. Search engines can sometimes produce results that offer unexpected or additional information but the results may be more closely tailored to the search terms entered and not allow for the same level of discovery (15).

Factors such as this have led to the new typology of digital libraries, which could be seen as a cultural loss where the specific atmosphere and architectural aesthetic of a traditional library are lost. Nevertheless, an upcoming digital generation may have a bias towards technology and may see books as less easy to get information from or more problematic practically as one eReader can contain many books whereas transporting numerous books would not necessarily be easy (3). A way in which libraries could adapt is by having a place where both printed material and digital media are integrated more fully in one space. This is not such a significant change and can maintain a similar atmosphere. Birmingham Library, figure 19, which opened in 2013, is a new building with a design that has considered technology alongside print as there is access to eReaders and computer provision as well as having printed material available. Birmingham library provides a different approach to create a positive social atmosphere.

Providing gardens will let the user integrate with nature shown in figure 18. Brian Edwards of the Libraries and Learning Resource Centres (page 8) states, “If the library’s role is to remain a centre of word culture and democratic freedom in the digital age, then there needs to be a smooth interface between books, computer screens and people.” (2) This emphasises the importance of books in society and that a change to all digital media will have implications on the social use of the library.

Libraries have adapted through time to the needs of the Figure 19 Birmingham Library community by assessing what concerns are important at the time and integrating those services. The function and environment itself has altered from the silent spaces full of books to open social hubs with often multiple services within the one venue with specific provision for pre-school age children and young readers. A library is not only a place to gain and distribute knowledge, it is a meeting place where social and economic differences are minimised. Today many libraries Figure 12 Birmingham Library floor plan are a cultural place that provides other community services and needs. The library as a place of culture occupies the greatest importance, therefore library and preservation is needed to maintain its presence in modern society. A stress has been placed on how information is distributed in society. This is especially important with the new technology so new methods of incorporating this need to be explored and implemented (6). More than ever the social importance of libraries could be seen as the means to meeting the demands of computer age. Encouraging people to access information together in a social space rather than on individual phones or home computers is one of the key way in which libraries can continue to be successful.

Bibliography 1) Public Libraries (2012) (online) Available at http://www.politics.co.uk/reference/public-libraries 2) Edwards, B. Fisher, B. (2001) Libraries and Learning Resource Centres Chapter 1 History form and evolution of the library Architectural Press 3) Edwards, B. Fisher, B. (2001) Libraries and Learning Resource Centres Chapter 13 The library of the future Architectural Press 4) Harris, MH.(1970) History of the western world Scarecrow Press 5) Van de Pas, J. (2014) Ad fontes! Books on shelves!: Delivering free access to information in the public library of 2025, pp. 272-283 6) Bulletin of the Association for Information Science and Technology (2000) Digital Libraries and the Problem of Purpose (online) Available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/bult.180/full 7) Journal of Documentation (2005) Reading behavior in the digital environment: Changes in reading behavior over the past ten years (online) Available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/doi/full/10.1108/00220410510632040 8) Covenant University Repository (2015) Creativity and Innovation in Library and

Information Services Delivery in an ICT Age: The Covenant University Library Perspectives (online) Available at 9) 10) 11) 12) 13)

14)

15) 16)

17)

http://eprints.covenantuniversity.edu.ng/3284/#.WI8aHORvjcs Carnegie UK Trust (2017) Our History (online) Available at http://www.carnegieuktrust.org.uk/who-we-are/our-history/ The Bookseller (2017) Library usage falls nearly 30% since 2005 (online) Available at http://www.thebookseller.com/news/library-usage-down-298-2005-480111 Talve, A. (2011) "Libraries as places of invention", Library Management, Vol. 32 Iss: 8/9, pp.493 - 504 Dou, C. (2015) Library Public-ness: Bridging the Digital Divide, pp.1-60 Architecture.com, Jubilee Library, Brighton (online) Available at https://www.architecture.com/FindAnArchitect/ArchitectPractices/BennettsAssociatesArchitect s/Projects/JubileeLibrary,Brighton-106188.aspx Myrberg, C. & Wiberg, N., (2015). Screen vs. paper: what is the difference for reading and learning?. Insights. 28(2), pp.49–54 (online) Available at http://insights.uksg.org/articles/10.1629/uksg.236/ Lori McCay-Peet, Elaine G.Toms, (2010) The process of serendipity in knowledge work (online) Available at http://dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1840842 Proceedings of the Association for Information Science and Technology, Kara Reuter, Allison Druin (2004) Bringing together children and books: An initial descriptive study of children's book searching and selection behavior in a digital library (online) Available at http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/meet.1450410140/full Franks, T.P. (2015) Let’s race! Supporting research anytime, anywhere learning (Online) vol. 76 no. 2 96-97 Available at http://crln.acrl.org/content/76/2/96.short

Images Figure 1 - Lister Drive Library Childwall - http://projectnewshampark.org/joomla/lister.

Figure 2 – Lister Drive Library Floor Plan http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/news/nostalgia/gallery/in-pictures-lister-drive-library-8462115 Figure 3 - Reading room of British Museum - http://www.worldtraveldiary.com/museum/11-mostfabulous-museums-and-galleries-in-the-world.html.

Figure 4 - Floor plan of British Museum reading room - http://predmet.fa.unilj.si/siwinds/s2/u3/su4/s2_u3_su4_p6_3.htm Figure 5 - Floor plan of Manchester Central Library - http://slyfelinos.com/1212906/vincent-harristhe-manchester-central-library-first-floor-plan.html Figure 6 - Manchester Central Library reading room http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/travel_news/article-3513811/Worth-writing-home-Insideincredible-libraries-Britain-Oxford-s-historic-reading-rooms-futuristic-wonder-Liverpool.html.

Figure 7 - Harlington Centre, Fleet - https://www.yell.com/biz/the-foot-clinic-fleet-fleet-6386574/ Figure 8 - The Atrium of Liverpool Central Library http://www.austinsmithlord.com/projects/liverpool-central-library/.

Figure 9 - Liverpool Central Library - http://www.bdonline.co.uk/austin-smith-lords-%C2%A350mliverpool-library-completes/5049331.article Figure 10 - Floor plan of Liverpool Central Library http://www.constructionmanagermagazine.com/on-site/turn-books/ Figure 11 - Jubilee Library, Brighton http://www.mybrightonandhove.org.uk/page_id__10234.aspx.

Figure 12 - Fiveways Centre, Childwall - http://mbla.net/news/childwall-fiveways-centre-opens/.

Figure 13 - Plan of Fiveways Centre http://www.skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=218401&page=43 Figure 14 - Idea Stores, London - https://www.ideastore.co.uk/.

Figure 15 - Idea Stores floor plan - http://www.archdaily.com/436612/watney-market-idea-storebisset-adams/52560723e8e44ecb1700075e-watney-market-idea-store-bisset-adams-first-floor-plan Figure 16 - BiblioTech Library floor plan http://www.mysanantonio.com/community/southside/news/article/Bookless-library-BiblioTech-setto-open-in-South-4211767.php.

Figure 17 - BiblioTech Library, Texas - http://goodereader.com/blog/digital-library-news/bibliotechdigital-library-opens-in-texas.

Figure 18 - Birmingham Library - http://www.archdaily.com/421970/library-of-birminghammecanoo Figure 19 - Birmingham Library - http://www.birminghampost.co.uk/news/architects-journalreaders-name-library-6439053 Figure 20 - Birmingham Library floor plan - https://www.dezeen.com/2013/08/29/library-ofbirmingham-by-mecanoo/

Choose three buildings, one by Palladio, one Palladian and one Baroque. Analyse the differences and similarities in the designs, functions and broader social intentions of these buildings.

Grace-Marie Spencer 5047AR-201617-YR-AUG HISTORY AND THEORY 2 Essay 1

Through the Classical era, the architecture was formed in a strict manner communicated in an academic style by books. Artists and architects began experimenting with variations on these core forms which led to Palladio’s designs and them from this to Palladianism, and the Baroque styles to emerge.

Andrea Palladio was regarded as being one of the greatest influences of any renaissance architecture (1). He was a mathematician known for experimenting with existing forms and introducing a new sense of harmony and proportion. In the mid-1530s he built and influenced architecture throughout Europe (6) including villas outside Venice including Villa Capra show in figure 1 which is a famous and successful structure due to being exemplary of his symmetrical, harmonically proportioned Figure 1 style. Palladio came to inspire other leading architects who then developed their own work incorporating some of his new approaches but within a more traditional framework (2).

Indigo Jones, William Chambers, William Kent were influence by Palladio (7) and designed their own version of Palladio (Palladian). Although their designs had similar aspects to Palladio’s building, they were more academic in style (7).

Baroque used in Britain after influencing building in France and Italy. Baroque was at first considered grotesque and peculiar, but it sought to put the picturesque back into architecture which led to some architects reverting to more a rigid academic style to suit the social opinion of the time (7).

There are fundamental similarities between the three styles, based around aspects of function and aesthetic (7). However, although the styles have merged to some extent, the eras in which they were designed are distinct. There does need to be a degree of difference in order for the style to be considered separate or individual. Analysis can determine what aspects or characteristics the styles share and how they differ.

Figure 2

Villa Capra, Castle Howard and Holkham Hall show similar attributes in their form. From the floor plan to the elevations, these buildings reveal areas where the styles have merged. An analysis of the three architectural styles will involve referring to the function, style and aesthetic approach of each of these buildings and discussing similarities and differences found.

Andrea Palladio began to build Villa Capra (figure 1) 1567 and completed around 1570. John Vanbrugh with aid from Nicolas Hawksmoor built one of the few Baroque buildings in England called Castle Howard (figure 3). Starting in 1699 it took over 100 years to be built (7). William Kent Designed Holkham Hall (figure 2), a traditional 18th century Palladian country house. Built between 1734 and 1764. All three were built to accommodate the wealthy and therefore cater for their social, such as hosting events, and aesthetic needs.

Figure 3

Features of Palladio Andrea Palladio was known as one of the last humanist architects. A new rigour was introduced as he expresses his ideas with precision leading to a beauty from mathematical definition (5). The architecture he created was a cultivated, refined classical style which seeks to harmonise with the order of the universe and the laws of nature (1).

Palladio was influenced by Roman architecture leading to the temple like facade designs as evident in his villas (6).

Spirituality is of foremost importance to Palladio’s villas. The villa itself is raised above the basement joining by stairs which mimics a temple as well as forming a grand entrance (7) thus creating a sense of religious space for the visitor (5). Symmetry Figure 4 on the façade of the building is used to achieve harmonious proportions and create the temple like appearance (1). The facade design could be transferred to multiple villas through the readymade dimensions (6).

Proportions were derived from those of a human body and by using mathematics, a body-like architectural form was created (1). Organic architecture was used in this circumstance (2) where each individual part is built up to create the whole form (5), therefore linking through the shapes of the body and its members (2). An example of this method is shown in figure 5.

Figure 5

A sense of graduation through the use of piasters and columns creates height and an increased emphasis on symmetry toward the centre, were used to achieve this throughout Palladio’s building (2). There are exterior features conveying a sense of beauty and order which are echoed in the interior structures which (1) create a sense of consistency and order throughout. Figure 4 illustrates this and also shows the Fibonacci sequence of natural order.

Villa Capra Villa Capra, shown in figure 6) has 4 identical entrances, laid out as a perfect square (14).

The proportions are linked to those of the human body, including the pediments and stairways. figures (10).

The sense of harmony in the structure links to its purpose for the owner as a retreat from the stress of daily life, where harmony could be restored.

The floor plan of Villa Capra shows how the building extends from the inner circular hall. Figure 7 shows the circular Figure 6 hall with four symmetrically placed small rooms around this, used for stair casing and storage and not requiring natural light. Immediately adjacent are four slightly larger rooms. On the exterior of the building four symmetrical rooms which were used as main living rooms. All four sections of the exterior incorporated a centrally located stair-cased entrance (6). The interior rooms follow patterns of 1:1, 2: 3 and 3:1 scales (10) following the Fibonacci sequence.

A large hallway connecting the entrance with the back of the building is designed so the wind can travel through enabling the use of ventilation to cool the interior shown in figure 16. Palladio took a rural farmhouse and transformed it into a modern house with an Eastern Asian style with the servants and women’s living space at the top. These Villas were built for the wealthy upper class. In a hot place, the villas had needed to form a design which could maintain cooler temperatures.

On approach to the hall, loggias are placed, creating an extra threshold from the outside through into the great hall creating a sense of openness (6). This created a sense of space/non-space and light/darkness. This is achieved by the thresholds which create a change in the lighting and room sizes generating different impressions of space. This also produces a sense of movement throughout

the villa. The plan which is consistent with the villas is divided by each section of the building, it is divided twice transversely and longitudinally, shown on figure 7, these divisions are emphasised by continuation lines. Consistency was kept in the plans as the geometrical shape with mathematically proven this become final and unchangeable hence only small elements were changed throughout the time (6).

Villa plans were kept consistent in their form and patterns due to the geometrical and mathematical shapes being proven to be successful. Minor elements were changed to suit the individual purpose or buyer.

A connection is made through the interior when the spirituality is linked with ceremonial aspect that Palladio followed. This was achieved by the central feature of the great hall (4). The temple façade is a key feature creating a grand entrance for visitors (6). The ionic columns in the design had to be aesthetically pleasing so Palladio designed the frieze and cornice to a fifth of the height of the column (10) The Villa Capra was functional as well as beautiful and was innovative at the time so that contemporary modernists of the time were encouraged to build their own versions.

Figure 7

Features of Palladian Renaissance period architecture was determined by academics using tried and tested ideas, and peoples trust in this consistent design, which was the challenged by a resurrection of Palladio’s ideas and this encouraged a small number of architects to break out of the accepted form of the time and create the Palladian style (10).

The Palladian movement influenced colonial American buildings which used the same features but with distinct cladding, making the buildings a unique Palladian style (9).

Figure 8

On the exterior of the building the lines are bold and defined in form. The Palladian style emphasises proportion and key details of the exterior whereas the interior is more highly decorated in a Roman style (9).

Palladianism did not just focus on the actual building design, the focus on whole unity included gardens and ornaments which contributed to the whole structure.

Order is followed through Palladian buildings, carried transversely on the upper storeys of the building.

Supporting the balcony, the balustrade is placed on the cornice from the storey below which contributes to the sense of order on the façade (4).

Palladio’s focus on symmetry is continued into the Palladian movement where the axis of that symmetry is based around the façade of the building with an exact line down the centre and with absolute symmetry around it. The venetian window is another key retained feature in the Palladian style (12).

Spirituality continues to be important in the Palladian movement by for example retaining the temple-like façade and entrance steps raising the building off the ground.

Alongside this, the ancient Roman style pediment and columns are used which imitate those of the temple (9).

Figure 9

Palladio used artistic, harmonious attributes to create a less academic style, and the Palladian movement reverted back to more socially accepted, formal, academic approaches to design.

Holkham Hall Rather than the building being the focus of interconnected harmony, the gardens and ornaments of Holkham Hall contribute to the whole (figure 8) Holkham Hall used articulation of parts which were strongly defined creating a sense of detachment throughout the whole building. Each section of Figure 10 the design concentrates on individual elements while also relating to the whole structure through ratio and symmetry (11). It is clear there is a purpose to this detachment.

Emphasis has been placed on the main body of the building, by concentrating on the centre and making it a feature. Due to social hierarchy the wings have been separated so that the servants and worker’s areas are placed away from the main focal areas. This displays the wealth of the building and represents the power of the owner. This can be shown on figure 10.

Also to add to the sense of prosperity and grandeur, the interior contains a hall influenced by Egyptian and Roman Basilica styles, also used by Palladio (11), which makes it more decorative the exterior. Aesthetically rich textures and fine details of the interior increase the sense of wealth and grandness. The interior used architectural details like the broken pediment to frame certain features of the interior. These features include windows and fire places. By contrast, the exterior comprises a

basic approach and although has harmonious proportions which emphasis the wealth and magnificence of the building, there is no fine detail or decoration.

The floor plan of Holkham Hall, presented in figure 11, shows the central rectangle that is surrounded by four square wings joint at each corner of the main section. Split by lines in the main block of the structure, the longitudinal is divided four times whereas transversely twice. Both longitudinal and transversely, the floor plan follows absolute symmetry. There is a strong link between the front and the back of the building through the hall in the centre. However, despite the hall not stretching the whole way through, the two rooms still create a sense of openness.

The thresholds still create a sense of continuality and allow the space to appear more open.

Figure 11 The apse, shown in figure 9, contains the stairs which narrow between two columns then open out into the doorway which leads to the saloon which creates a theatrical experience of thresholds going throughout the building (11).

Features of Baroque The Baroque style first emerged at the beginning of the 17th century peaking at around 1670 (2). Early Baroque was described as emotional and like the Palladio style, organic. It is seen as fluid, but orderly and precise, with a theatrical style (3). The monarchy in 17th century France regulated architecture, leading to the new style Baroque, which the monarchy approved and began to flourish (1).

Figure 12

The Catholic church was a stronghold of Baroque architecture meaning few Baroque buildings appeared in England which was under the influence of Puritanical ideas shunning such an ornate and frivolous style associated with Catholicism (9). The term Baroque means ‘unshaped pearl’ and was used as a negative term at the time (3).

Baroque style also influenced landscapes. Whilst exploiting time and space the landscapes had a variety of orders and concepts.

The landscapes are large scale, and long, creating the impression of infinity and limitlessness which changes when moving through the space. The illusion of space was used to imply the wealth and

status of the owner (1). Fountains were commonly used in Baroque adding to the overall grandeur of the whole. The inclusion of sculpture to widen the impact of the architecture, already evident in the main building structure, contributes to unifying the site as a whole (7).

The Baroque movement in England included features of semi-pediments which lead up to a central pediment (2). This was one of many new feature motifs created alongside a greater order which characterised the whole building (9).

Figure 13

Castle Howard Castle Howard in figure 13, enclosed by buildings of various heights, is based on a long-bodied plan of the main building facing the gardens. This castle includes wings in a curved form which meet the main building creating an open enclosure (11). The connection with the courts is through curved walkways. As seen in figure 14, the sides of the entrance are built of concave and convex curves and the facade is also articulated by convex and concave surfaces which alternate and include ovals and broken pediments (9).

This creates a sense of movement and fluidity through the building (8).

Relationships in the height and width of the building are lively and articulated in each element of the Figure 14 whole composition. In the main block, the curved colonnades emphasise the importance of the grand main block whereas moving out towards the wings which appear to have their own life and be separate from the main grand castle building appearing more like building blocks. This in terms of functionality separates the servant quarters from the central areas, but also creates focus on this section.

The elevation of Castle Howard consists of a long vista, doubled backed within an elevation that is based on broken rectangle (11). The facades create unity, commonly towers are placed each side with a dome in the centre, framed by a pediment shown in figure 17 (2). The dome and the pediment also centralises the whole structure as well as providing adequate natural light for the hall where light would not otherwise reach (figure 12) (1). In this case, the dome mimics the Corinthian spacing of the gardens (10).

Staircases have been placed in the centre rather than the sides, to emphasise grandness. The staircase diminishes from the entrance inwards which is a common Baroque feature to create Figure 15

the illusion of space and movement. The facade of the building is defined boldly creating a strong frontage (7).

A grand and monumental effect was created in this style using a number of techniques (9). Columns and pilasters combine which express and unify storeys. Horizontal entablature was used creating a feeling of weight (2). Above the windows, broken pediments and exaggerated keystones were used as well as rustication on wall surfaces. Baroque as it was developed it began to include more embellishment of detail and space (9). There was also emphasis on the centre of the buildings (2).

These techniques created a sense of drama as classical motifs were adapted, such as the pediments being broken (9). All these features added to the artistic nature of the buildings.

Originally, figure 15 shows the symmetrical floor plan. The pale blue section was not built therefore the building is not symmetrical, however this was the plan and the style intended and so will be referred to as complete.

Comparison

All three buildings have individual aspects, while still referring to the core style, and so have many similarities.

Each building displays the wealth of the individual. Raised on platforms, the buildings create a sense of hierarchy and importance, towering over the visitor.

Figure 16

Holkham hall and Villa Capra were both influenced by specific architectural styles, Roman and Greek and this is reflected in the façade of the buildings, producing a temple-like impression.

Shown through the pediment and columns, the visitor entering the building experiences a sense of spirituality. Although Castle Howard does not mimic a temple in the façade, the building still uses a pediment. A pediment is used to centralise the building and create emphasis on the main section of the building. A visitor approaching the building gravitates toward the main entrance that is highlighted through the use of the pediment.

A dome is placed in the centre of Castle Howard, figure12, and Villa Capra, figure 16. Again, this centralises the building showing the importance of the main section. A dome has visual and practical benefits by allowing natural light into rooms that would otherwise be dark. Although Holkham Hall does not have a dome in its form, in the main rectangle section two towers are placed at the ends of the unit. Focus on the centre is an alternative way of producing a centralised feeling in the whole and the towers act like borders.

Castle Howard and Holkham Hall have a main rectangular block with additional wings. These wings are crucial for a grand building to house the workers and the kitchens. As Villa Capra is smaller, wings would be neither feasible nor necessary. Instead, the workers are placed on the top floor along with the women of the house. Villa Capra follows a square theme on the floor plan whereas

Holkham Hall and Castle Howard have a rectangular plan. Having a rectangular form can unite the wings and create a better sense of attachment or whole than a square form. As Villa Capra, does not have wings, the square plan would aid the correct harmonious proportions.

Each building uses the landscape which builds up the whole form. Villa Capra is built on a high plane so the wind travels through it creating adequate ventilation. The rural farmhouse form aids the building to blend with the landscape. Castle Howard has a short depth and creates a relationship with the gardens at each side. This method creates a sense that the garden is part of the building as the view of the building can be taken in more quickly and the eye can take in the whole more readily. Whether the visitor is inside or outside, they feel part of the structure as a whole. This is emphasised in the back end of the building where the form of the structure surrounds the courtyard creating a sense of enclosure. In the same way that Castle Howard links the gardens, Holkham house follows the same principles. Here the gardens have more of a sense of enclosure using walls to contain sections of the garden. The use of gardens symbolises wealth which is why attention has been placed on including them in overall design.

Symmetry is used in all three of the buildings showing it is a key feature for both the interior and exterior creating harmony. Each façade and back has symmetry around a vertical line and the centre.

This creates a gravitation toward the centre, therefore emphasising it. Additionally, Villa Capra follows a centre line of symmetry around the sides of the building as well. The Villa grand façade on every side creates an impressive view. In each of the buildings, (including the original Castle Howard plan) a line of symmetry stretches from the entrance through the hall and to the back. Each side of the line has absolute symmetry. Villa Capra also has a line of symmetry with another line at the middle of the side intersection the other line of symmetry at 90 degrees.

Villa Capra and Holkham Hall have more simplified exteriors than Castle Howard. These buildings are built up using a variety of architectural features and windows of mathematical proportions to create harmony. In contrast to this, Castle Howard uses fewer architectural features and more Figure 17 decoration through the use of materials and ornamentation to create harmony.

Creating a new form of harmony can be seen through analysis of these buildings and styles.

Experimentation occurred using mathematics along with architectural and artistic features to create proportions and forms that became aesthetically pleasing. The three styles have drawn on classical influences as well as later styles like Palladian drawing on the earlier Palladio forms. Although Palladian style was more conservative, the Baroque style was more artistic and Palladio’s style was

more mathematic, the features used to reflect the spiritual and create harmony are comparable.

This is evident in the creation of a central symmetrical space, the way in which light is introduced to the buildings and the elevation from ground level. The use of landscape to add to the whole is used in all examples to emphasise the hierarchical aspect of the buildings and therefore the status of the inhabitants. Differences relate to the different locations such as the ventilation aspects of Villa Capra which would not be useful in the other buildings. The two larger buildings have wings to house servants and servant areas whilst Villa Capra placed servants on top. The grandest part of Holkham House and Castle Howard is for the owners but as ventilation was an issue in Italy the servants were placed higher so the owners would occupy the lower cooler areas. So there is still a hierarchy in the use of space but the location of the villa meant that this was in the height rather than in additional less impressive wings. To conclude there is evidence of separation in the styles such as the decorative aspects and functionality but the symmetry and desire to create natural order and harmony is evident through all three.

References 1 Architecture for Beginners, Louis Hellman, (1988), Writers and Readers Ltd 2 Architecture in the Age of Reason, Baroque and Post Baroque in England-Italy-France, Emil Kaufmann, (1955) Dover Publications Inc 3 Understanding Modern architecture, George Barford, (1988) Unwin Hyman 4 Principles of Architectural History, Paul Frankl, (1973) MIT Press 5 Architecture Principles In the Age of Humanism, Rudolf Wittkower, (1998) John Wiley & Sons 6 Architecture in Italy, Martin Briggs, (1961) Dutton 7 30 Second Architecture, Johnathan Glancey, (2013) Ivy Press 8 How to Read Buildings: A Crash Course in Architecture, Carol Davidson Cragoe, (2008) Herbert Press Ltd 9 The Architecture of Happiness, Alain de Botton, (2007) Penguin 10 English Architecture Public and Private, Kerry Downs, (1993) Hambledon Continuum 11 Architecture in Britain 1530-1830, John Summerson, (1993) Yale University Press

12 https://www.architecture.com/Explore/ArchitecturalStyles/Palladianism.aspx 13 http://study.com/academy/lesson/palladian-architecture-classical-and-non-classicalfeatures.html

Images Figure 1- Façade of Villa Capra http://www.marvelbuilding.com/villa-capra-la-rotonda.html/villacapra-front Figure 2 – Image of Holkham hall with the walled garden https://www.tripadvisor.co.uk/LocationPhotoDirectLink-g315941-d297192-i31018198Holkham_Hall-Wells_next_the_Sea_Norfolk_East_Anglia_England.html Figure 3 – View of Castle Howard from the gardens. http://www.hellopeagreen.com/2011/05/fromcupola-to-castle.html Figure 4- Harmonious proportions of Villa Capra https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/18788523415712007/ Figure 5- An example of human form within Palladio’s architecture http://www.philophony.com/sensprop/archacoustics/2.html Figure 6- Villa Capra

Figure 7 – Floor plan of Villa Capra with analysis http://apah.lakegeneva.badger.groupfusion.net/modules/groups/group_pages.phtml?gid=87537&ni d=66023&sessionid= Figure 8- Areal view of Holkham Hall http://www.joebridge.co.uk/tourism/holkham.htm Figure 9- Interior of Holkham Hall in its great hall. http://www.holkham.co.uk/events/marble-hallconcerts Figure 10 Holkham Hall elevation Figure 11- Floor plan of Holkham hall with analysis https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Plan_of_Holkham_Hall.png Figure 12- Interior of Castle Howard in the hall with the dome http://www.mulhernmedia.com/castle-howard-wedding-york-wedding-video/ Figure 13- Areal view of Castle Howard http://janeaustenfilmclub.blogspot.co.uk/2012/02/castlehoward-yorkshire-england-filming.html Figure 14- Entrance elevation of Castle Howard Figure 15- Floor plan of Castle Howard with analysis https://uk.pinterest.com/pin/341429215475798534/ Figure 16- Interior of Villa Capra in the hall under the dome https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Villa_Capra_%22La_Rotonda%22 Figure 17- Garden elevation of castle Howard.

Explain the development of the skyscraper as a type within the city of Chicago.

4047AR Essay 1

Grace-Marie Spencer

Chicago,located on the south west of Lake Michigan in the north east of Illinois, was founded in 1830 and grew considerably from this date(1). Despite a fire in 1871 that destroyed many of the current settlements that already existed, the city was successfully rebuilt.In 1850 its population was 30,000 which increasedto 300,000 in 20 years. Growth continued to 1890 when Chicago became the biggest city in America with a population of over 1 million Figure 1Chicago Fire by John R. Chapin, originally printed in Harper's Weekly; the view faces northeast across the Randolph Street Bridge. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Chicago_Fire

(2).The population growth was greatly affected by European immigrants who moved to America and as a result of this there was a respective rise in industry and new business. Trade was a successful aspect of

the city therefore more businesses wanted to settle here. It is said the buildings were “built by businessmen and they were built for profit”Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 10. The city started to spread outwards causing individual towns to combine with the city.

Public transport started to develop which caused the development of suburban areasand meaning that those inhabited there had easy access to the city. As the inner city became more densely populated, space became limited and the way to accommodate this was to increase the number of floors in existing and new buildings.

Everyone wanted to be part of the inner city loop. The

Figure 2PHOTO – CHICAGO – CTA BUS – ELECTRIC TROLLEY ARTICULATED BUS – DIVERSEY ROUTE – 1950s | CHUCKMAN'S PHOTOS ON WORDPRESS: CHICAGO NOSTALGIA AND MEMORABILIA. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. Available from: https://chuckmanchicagonostalgia.wordpress.co

development of the electric trolleys in 1880 was an effective and low cost way of accessing the city without the use of cars. Electric trolleys travelled around the loop frequently leading to ease of travelling.

Another reason why the line was built was because of the 1883 fair. The fair was a great way to transform the city, using a governing body, into a high profile city which could attract more business.This fair hosted 27 million people and was a way to make aprofit to the city. Chicago was able to show off Figure 3Aerial view of the fair at Jackson Park in a print by F.A. Brockhaus. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. Available from: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_Columb ian_Exposition

its city.

At this time technology was advancing too. New building materials were being used and innovative technology meant complex buildings could be constructed. Chicago more than ever had a demand for office space within the city centre as the arrival of new businesses and trade was constant. With the lack of land in the central space continuing to build upwards was the only solution to the demand.Responding to these urban conditions, new forms were created by the architects of the Chicago School. (6)The Chicago School movement was developed in 1890 and its designs were thought of as ‘a style among many styles’ Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 2as there is a combination of design movements all into the Chicago school. Chicago is said to be the national and world capital for historical landmarks for modern architecture (5).Founders of the Chicago School movement were Louis Sullivan and William Le Barron Jenney followed by John Wellborn. Jenney wanted maximum efficiency and economy of the structure using as much natural light as possible. Sullivan and Root were more subjective and narrative. (6) Chicago’s characteristic buildings came from Louis Sullivan’s ambition that each building should be unique and have its own personality. He also described tall buildings as having a loftiness. He felt that a tall building should be dominant in a streetbeing as tall as possible, catching people’s eyes. “The force and power of altitude must be in it, theglory andpride of exaltation must be in it. It must be every inch proud and soaring thing, rising from bottom to top it is a single unit without a single dissenting line” Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncan Paragraph 12.This shows the concept and thoughts of what he wanted, a tall building that will make an impact and can show off to the world his thoughts and skill as well as having a meaning to it.The ‘mobile equilibrium’ as it was called by Sullivan, brought the aesthetics of Chicago School. The relationship between

Figure 4Louis Sullivan.

[Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/Louis_Sullivan

horizontal and vertical lines created the ‘mobile equilibrium’ (5). The upward direction of the steel creates a sense of lifting a person into the sky “but the eye also rests on horizontal planes whose intersection with the vertical thrust arrests the eyes long enough to make our upward flight a rhythmic progression, not a headlong rush into space. The horizontal plane acts as a musical phrase”Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School:

Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 15showing an emphasis on the horizontal planes as well(5).

Sullivan’s idea was that the interior and exterior form of buildings was linked to man and nature. (6) Sullivan thought decoration or ornamentation was not needed in commercial buildings and saw this as being out of place(5).

Sullivan states"What is the proper form for a democratic architecture and what human relationships are possible in this new architecture"Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 4,which supports his idea of ‘form following function’.

He states building was a moral aesthetic act. He wanted high buildings to express“their function, whilst retaining their essential feature, their loftiness"Louis Sullivan. His buildings started to incorporate hierarchical horizontal and vertical elevations especially vertical with a cage construction due to the development of steel.

The first skyscrapers were constructed in classical style and had an exterior clad in order to attract people in the street and show off the new technology(6). Gothic style was also used in many skyscrapers creating a distilled facade.

Skyscrapers have a base section, a middle section and a top section with a decorative entrance and decor on most of these buildings. They have a high structural frame with a non-structural skin anda free facade personal elevator. With a steel frame, skyscrapers have vertical bands to make the building look tall, although a skyscraper is more about structure then decorative aesthetic. Form follows function in this case which shows in the simplistic look but works well for human function.

Large window areas contribute to the skyscraper design. These are Figure 5The Chicago Building is a prime example of Chicago School architecture. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar chitecture_of_Chicago

used to let light into the buildings as well as saving energy used for artificial lighting. Large windows will also improve the working environment for people using the building. To be able to install large

windows there needs to be a free facade.

One of the first buildings to use an iron frame and a glass curtain wall façade hung on a steel frame was Oriel Chambers in Liverpool. Architects were inspired by this

building and went back to Chicago where architects followed the method to create similar buildings.

Figure 6Oriel Chambers building.

[Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oriel_Cha mbers

LeBaron came up with the main concept of skyscrapers with a clad metal frame, fireproofed adequately and containing a vertical elevator. This led to the prototype skyscraper 1883-1885 called Jenney’s Home Insurance Building.

Figure 7Home insurance building. [Online].

[Accessed 3 December 2015]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_Insur ance_Building

The Chicago Architecture was described as an expression of the community and it represented the struggle for the perfection of form related to social democracy.

The long lines within the building produces a strong sense of kinetic movement(6).

Chicago’s Architecture was a search for a social philosophy of democracy and a search for perfection of form. This is because of the message that the building created(5).

In 1899-1930 and 1927-1928 the first art deco skyscrape r was develope d.

Effected by Holabird and Figure 8Palmolive Building. [Online].

[Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://www.chicagoarchitecture.info/Building /1026/The-Palmolive-Building.php

Figure 9The Daily News Building. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://www.americanthinker.com/articles/2012/12/it_gets_even _worse_for_newspapers.html

Roche the style had a number of setbacks and zoning laws. Having a setback roof meant it will let a large amount of light into the street.

The first 2 art deco buildings were the Palmolive Building and the Daily News. The Palmolive Buildings main form has projecting bays in vertical groves. Daily News emphasises on horizontal but has both horizontal and vertical interplay with rectangular prism interplay to the elevation.

International style came from Art Deco with simplification and advanced influences from history.

‘Less is more is key in this situation. Many Architects who helped develop Chicago’s International style came from the Bauhaus movement. Bauhaus was a school of art and design in Germany which had large influences in design ‘less is more’. Due to Nazi Germany it caused learners and teachers to immigrate to America and continued the designing which led to the International movement. One of these people were Mies van de Rohe who moved to America in 1938. In 1949 he completed his first building of Promontory Apartments. He exposed the concrete frame, brick spandrels and windows to create constructive materialism. Developing minimalism, he turned steel in glass and steel.

Regular Art Deco skyscrapers used bays in rectangular grooves and a strong visual upward thrust creating a visual effect (6).

As the 30’s arrived creativity became more accepted. Chicago’s architecture became an expression to “a way of life. It is the expression of the community”Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 3. (5).

A 20 year break in construction happened because of the depression in the 30’s and the second world war.

The international style brought on the curtain wall, glass towers were also wanting to be achieved but there was a delay in the public becoming appreciative of this new style, also a delay in advances in metallurgical and plastic industries due to problems in waterproofing, insulation, expansion and contraction. Curtain walls for industrial buildings gave an advantage of ‘dry-construction.’ Since the first skyscrapers were constructed there became aesthetical and technical problems with metal and glass in the buildings, most of these problems are subtle though (4).

Figure 10Chicago, IL. This is the epitome of international office-tower architecture: a uniform curtain wall “draped” over a steel frame. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://architecturestyles.org/international/

A problem that occurred in the construction of skyscrapers was the wind. Skyscrapers are tall and have a large surface area, the wind isespecially strongtowards the top of the building, causing the frames to change shape because of the large force. Engineer Fazlur Khan changed this by developing the technique changing the wall frame into rigid structures stopping the bending. In 1965-1970 the new frame technique was first used in the Hancock Building (6).

Glass is placed into the skyscrapers by the curtain wall method, which involves hanging the glass onto the frame. If the frame was placed on top of each pane of glass compressionwould take place causing cracks.

Hanging the glass on top of each other causes stretching which would not affect the glass. The weight of the glass is on the top which works better as it is more stable. To stabilise it from the wind side glass is installedwhich will stop movement. The glass

Figure 11Glass face. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://images.mentalfloss.com/sites/default/files/styles/article_640x43 0/public/the_ledge_1.jpg

panels are joined to each other by a metal clamp. Silicon is used in the joints as it is the same material as glass. The glass can also enhance the effect of the skyscrapers. In the day the glass can reflect the surrounding environment but in the night it can becomestransparent. Glass can provide heating, self-cleaning and even change its transparency which is a goodfeature although expensive. In direct sunlight the glass will produce really intense heat which causes uncomfortable conditions for the office workers.Technical methods

could stop this but are expensive. Glass is also a good thermal insulator which means it can also be cold, to prevent this from occurring double glazing with argon or a vacuum could be used.

For the convenience of members of the public using the upper floors of the buildings,the lifts had to be improved. The original steam-operated liftshad safety issues such asthe cable braking causing the lift to fall to the ground. In 1853 Elisha Groves Otis developed safer lifts by stopping them falling should the cable break. The publicbecame more confident about using the liftstherefore taller buildings could be developed. The electric motor lift was then developed enhancing the practicality of transporting people up and downthe tallerstructures (3).

Since the first skyscraper was built, there have been lots of research into improving the technology to make these skyscrapers better, lighter stronger and taller. This lead to skyscrapers improving by letting more light in, more resistant to weather, stronger and more efficient (3).

When the skyscrapers were first produced architects worked under an ‘umbrella’ practice. This meant everyone from interior designers to engineers all worked in one practice. Having a practice like this meant knowledge was held in one place. A practice like this became under pressure from the increasing complexity of the building design. Khan changed the way architectural practices worked before the second world war. Practices in the adapted form highlighted the appreciation of what emerging architecture is and is capable of. These work places became much more efficient and had a stronger design ability (4).

The use of iron and steel cage is a good way of letting natural light in through hanging glass of a steel skeleton transforming it as an expressive commercial building. It makes the glass look light and as if it is floating. “The underlying structure and its fireproof cladding are enclosed entirely in brick and terra cotta”Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – he Chicago School: and Changing Forms by Carl W. Conditparagraph 4for aesthetic reasons. “By means of narrow mouldings on the sheathing of spandrels and wall columns and an intertwining repetitive ornament spread in low relief over entire surfaces at the corner bays, the pattern of huge rectangular cells lifted from a level of a purely technical solution to that of an unprecedented aesthetic form” Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – he Chicago School: and Changing Forms by Carl W. Conditparagraph 4.This shows the technical solution to having a simple aesthetic form. (6).

The new grid steel beams which was invented for the skyscrapers meant that all the forces and stresses which a tall building may have been put under would be supported by lightweight and forces which would happen in an earthquake (3).

Foundations were first needed to be developed that would be able to hold the weight of skyscrapers. So engineers took this and new types of strong foundations were created. A foundation developed was called piling, it started to be used after 1890 (5).

Additionally, they are “a humane expression of the new way of life” Chicago Famous Buildings by Ira J. Bach 1980 3rd edition – The Chicago School: Original Principle by Hugh David Duncanparagraph 20due to the link between man and nature, it incorporates nature as timid and subtle. The buildings were not built to create a dominant expression to Figure 12Chicago skyscrapers by Jan Klerks. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://www.earchitect.co.uk/chicago/evolutionskyscraper-conference

modern ways of life. (5).

As time went on there became a decline of

distinctivecharacter in the buildings. Similar buildings were being constructed rapidly which meant loss in variety. Repetition caused anarchy in the skyline. As technology advances it is concerning about mechanisation of buildings would lead to uniformity.

Predictions of factory made frame buildings are due to the technology which would mean a lack of unique and variety (4).

Skyscrapers have changed the way Chicago is perceived by other cities. Assertiveness has been shown with the development of the skyscrapers, solving the problems that faced the city and creating buildings which have revolutionised cities. Chicago certainly got the attention form the world due to this. Since then the wealth of the city has increased. People wanted to be a part of this magnificent city. This city could show off its power and wealth.

There became a race for height. Every architect and every city wanted tall and the tallest skyscraper to show off, this lead to chaos and competition. A big competition was between New York. The race caused many of the tall buildings to become the greatest city of tall skyscrapers.

The last supertall skyscraper in Chicago that was built was Trump Tower in 2009. By 2018 there should be a new skyscraper of 1,150 feet which would be one of the tallest buildings in Chicago.

These new construction methods were a break in Architecture and are

Figure 13Trump Tower from ground level. [Online].

[Accessed 3 December 2015]. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T rump_International_Hotel_and _Tower_(Chicago)

used currently (6).

Figure 14Chicago skyscrapers by Jan Klerks. [Online]. [Accessed 3 December 2015]. http://www.e-architect.co.uk/chicago/evolution-skyscraper-conference

Bibliography

1= http://www.history.com/topics/chicago 2=Constructing Chicago by Daniel Bluestone page3 paragraph1 3= www.infoplease.com/spot/skyscraperhisory.html 4= Book: Architecture USA by Ian McCallum 1959 5= Chicago Famous Buildings 3rd edition by Ira J. Bach 1980 – The Chicago School: Original Principle

by Hugh David Duncan 6= Chicago Famous Buildings 3rd edition by Ira J. Bach 1980 – he Chicago School: and Changing Forms

by Carl W. Condit