An Introduction to Chinese philosophy

Whilst officially known as an atheist country, China has seen many different belief systems throughout history, as well as the political and social turmoil and conflict that these ideals have brought to the population. Of its three main philosophies and religions - Confucianism, Taoism and Buddhism - arguably, Confucianism has been one of the greatest causes for rife in China, and this will be shown by looking at its involvement in the Chinese Cultural Revolution under Chairman Mao Zedong.

The Warring States period which lasted from 475-221 BC is a period of time in ancient China characterised by division of states, warfare, and military reforms, all in the lead up to a greater united China. During this period and earlier, many diverse philosophical systems of thought flourished in China. The Hundred Schools of Thought, which prospered from the 6th century BC to 221 BC, is used to represent this. Amongst these schools, the most prominent were Confucianism, Mohism, Legalism, the School of Names, the Yin-Yang School, and Taoism. Mohism rested on the idea of impartial care and “universal love” as Mozi believed that “everyone is equal before heaven”. Legalism maintained that human nature was immutably selfish and that the only way to keep social order was to impose discipline. The School of Names was a philosophy that developed from Mohism and focused on definition and logic. The Yin-Yang School focused on the complementary agents of yin (negative, female, dark) and yang (positive, male, light) and the Five Elements (water, fire, wood, metal, and earth). Taoism placed emphasis not on the individual within society, but within the natural realm. Taoists advocated for adaptation to the rhythm of nature, to follow the Way of the universe, and to live in harmony. But this sense of harmony in nature must be distinguished from the social harmony highlighted in Confucianism.

Confucianism developed from the Hundred Schools of Thought from the teachings of Confucius. Confucius (551-479 BCE), traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages, came from a “poor” and “lowly station”. He worked various normal jobs, including being a shepherd and a clerk, before he started to climb up the positions of government, becoming an adept advisor at the top levels of government. Confucius is known as the first teacher in China and he aimed to make education broadly available, establishing teaching as a vocation. Confucianism rests on the belief that humans are fundamentally good (much like Aquinas in this aspect) and that they are teachable and improvable especially through self-cultivation. Confucius’ other key objective was to create social and political harmony for China. This rested on three foundations, which became the key values of Confucianism for centuries to come: filial piety (xiao), humaneness (ren), and ritual (li). Filial piety is the respect for one’s parents, ancestors, and the hierarchies within society: father-son, elder-junior, and husbandwife. Humaneness is the quality of compassion for others. Ritual is the proper way a person should behave in everyday life to live in harmony with the law of Heaven.

The extent of whether Confucianism is a religion or philosophy is much debated. It is built on an ancient religious foundation with the aim to establish the social values, institutions and transcendent ideals of traditional Chinese society. Having been called a “civil religion” by the sociologist Robert Bellah, or a “diffused religion”, the founder Confucius himself did not set out to create a religion. In fact, the core of Confucianism is humanistic with its emphasis on family and harmony of human relationships, as opposed to something otherworldly or spiritual. The American philosopher Herbert Fingarette commented that Confucianism regards “the secular as sacred”, as its stress on social harmony is an expression of human moral nature, which is anchored in Heaven (Tian). Confucianism centres itself on the practical order that can be interpreted from the awareness we have of the Tian as humans living in this world. There are Confician priests or ‘sages of rites’ who worship Confucius as a spirit or as ‘God of culture’ at temples of Confucianism, where important community and civic rituals take place. For Confucians, this philosophy is a way of life and everyday life is the arena of Confucianism.

Yet, perhaps taken in effect contrary to Confucius’ intentions, for more than two thousand years, Chinese emperors have used his teachings to “support social hierarchy autocratic rule.” The Dutch writer said, “Confucianism, originally a moral as well as a political philosophy, became ideologically imposed to instil obedience to authority.” However, with the rise to power of Chairman Mao Zedong, and especially during the Cultural Revolution (1966-76), all the old ideals were overthrown, including the old Confucian order. In 1973, Mao launched a political propaganda campaign named ‘Criticise Lin (Biao), Criticise Confucius Campaign’. Mao aimed to eradicate the Four Olds: Old Ideas, Old Culture, Old Customs, and Old Habits. Although this meant cruel old traditions such as binding women’s feet were eradicated, it opened doors to other forms of cruelty and conflict. Openly assaulting Confucius’ teachings, actions of violence also took place. Red guards from Beijing came to Qufu, where Confucius was born and buried, and destroyed the monuments assigned to him. They even dug up Confucius’ grave but found that there was no body in his tomb. The virtues of filial piety and harmony were acted against to the extreme. One lawyer admitted to writing a letter to the authorities, informing them that his mother had called Mao a ‘traitor’, which led to her execution in 1970. With the values of harmonious relationships gone, citizens were encouraged to turn against each other. The youth challenged authority and respect at home, school or at work.

But with the end of Mao’s reign, so came the restoration of Confucianism in China. The current president of China, Xi Jinping, recognised that what China needs after decades of revolution and class struggle is stability, discipline, and harmony. Confucius seems like the right man for this.