Spazio 2050 n. 4 - On the Moon to stay

Magazine of the Italian Space Agency

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June 2022

In partnership with

On the Moon to stay 50 years after the last Apollo mission, humanity is ready to return

SUMMARY

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ISSUE NUMBER 4, JUNE 2022

In the cover, the concept of a lunar outpost.

Credits: ESA - P. Carril.

Going to the Moon

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How we will live on the Moon

by Fulvia Croci

The last time on the Moon The Apollo 17 mission and its protagonists

by Paolo D’Angelo

Moon mission Giorgio Saccoccia and Massimo Claudio Comparini draw the upcoming scenarios

by Mila Fiordalisi

10 Italian Moon - infographic

by Manuela Proietti

12 Artemis 3,2,1 Go!

by Giulia Bonelli

Living on the Moon

19 Lunar psychology

by Giulia Bonelli and Giuseppe Nucera

Technology

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28 Technology transfer A bridge between Earth and space

by Manuela Proietti

Lunar science

Zoom on the small and medium-sized enterprises

41 Earth-Moon: a dual planet

by Ettore Perozzi

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Qascom brings Galileo and Italy to the Moon

by Silvia Ciccarelli

Space curiosities

by Barbara Ranghelli

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History of the conquest of the Moon

Planet you go, food you find

by Giuseppe Nucera

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Cosmic exploration

by Giovanni Caprara

Spacesuits The Hi-Tech fashion in orbit

by Valeria Guarnieri

Newspaper of the Italian Space Agency Insert of Global Science Media outlet of the Globalist group

Registration at the Court of Roma 11.2017 of 02.02.2017 Printed by Peristegraf srl Via Giacomo Peroni 130, Roma Curated by ASI Multimedia Unit Head of Unit: Giuseppina Pulcrano

Technical tests for a space outpost by the ASI’s editorial staff

In vetrina

46 PhoeniX: it’s time to rise again

by Giulio Chimienti

Managing director Gianni Cipriani Editorial coordination Manuela Proietti, ASI Multimedia Unit Design Paola Gaviraghi SPAZIO 2050 | 3

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GOING TO THE MOON

Moon Mission

by Mila Fiordalisi Director of Spaceconomy360 (www.spaceconomy360.it)

The countdown has started. The Artemis program, which aims at returning humans to the Moon, has officially begun. Exactly three years after the announcements – it was March 2019 when the then administrator of the NASA, Jim Bridenstine, launched the new project -, in the middle of this past month of March, the colossal Space Launch System was placed at the Kennedy Space Center, with the Orion spacecraft atop, for the big dress rehearsal. A test which warms up the engines of the Artemis era: the first mission in lunar orbit, which will last between 25 and 42 days, will in all likelihood start by the summer.

Spacesuit engineers inside a mockup of the Orion spacecraft, at Johnson Space Center.

Credits: NASA/ Robert Markowitz

Italy plays a prominent role in the Artemis program, but it’s all still out there to play for. What are our country’s goals? What opportunities are opening for our economy? And what will be the impacts at an industrial level? The Italian Space Agency (ASI) and the companies in the industry play a key role, starting from Thales Alenia Space – whose 67% is owned

by Thales and 33% is owned by Leonardo -, which has curated for the European Space Agency (ESA) the structure and critical subsystems of the Orion spacecraft’s service module, the development of the Gateway’s European modules and works with the United States to manufacture the Halo habitation module.

In a vis-à-vis confrontation, the ASI president, Giorgio Saccoccia, and the CEO of Thales Alenia Space Italia, Massimo Claudio Comparini, draw the upcoming scenarios.

The conflict between Russia and Ukraine will have an impact on the geopolitics of Space. Starting from here is inevitable, considering the critical historic moment. May there be consequences for the Artemis mission? What air are we breathing?

Saccoccia: There is no signal of alarms as regards the Artemis program, for more than a reason. First: Russia did not adhere to the project and never expressed its willingness to do so over the years. Second: the recently approved NASA budget allows complete coverage vs the current requests of the lunar program and, not least, the NASA has clearly outlined the

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The confrontation between the ASI president Giorgio Saccoccia (picture above) and the CEO of Thales Alenia Space Italia, Massimo Claudio Comparini.

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next steps and also an acceleration of the initiatives when they summoned the potential partners. As regards Italy, in the past year and a half, we’ve been discussing a few projects with the NASA in the field of bilateral cooperation, we are on the home straight for the next finalizations.

Comparini: There’s definitely a great focus on the evolution of the conflict and, at the same time, a deep regret, considering that international cooperation has a long history of over 30 years. The Artemis project won’t be impacted, whereas there may be a few issues as regards the International Space Station, but we must also say that the domain of Space is experiencing a phase of great ferment and excitement as never before, with growing challenges which see more and more national agencies and also private stakeholders involved. We look at the future with optimism and positivity.

In perspective, to what extent can the role of Italy increase in the international scene of the Space economy, in the wake of the driving force exerted by Artemis?

Saccoccia: A wide-ranging lunar program, such as Artemis, will have an impact which will go far beyond the scientific returns and those related to the aspects of exploration. It’s not a “simple” mission, but a program with a complex architecture, which will allow to develop high-profile skills from a technological and systemic perspective. The building blocks which will form the architecture of Artemis involve technologies that affect several sectors. To make an example: beyond the areas where Italy already boasts an unquestioned leadership position, we aim at playing an important role in the sector of communications and satellite navigation.

And we might have a prominent role also in the development of innovative services, as well as in a strictly technological field. We’re writing only the first page of a complex book, which is full of opportunities, therefore it’s important to be protagonists from now on.

Comparini: The perspectives are more than interesting. The respect and high appreciation of Italy’s technological capabilities showed by the NASA are factual data. We can count on a consolidated substrate which, alone, represents a key business card in a new stage where our know-how, both technological and institutional, will obtain important results. To be the manufacturers of a first surface module is important, and represents a key element in the field of the new scientific experiments: we obtained this result thanks to a complete ecosystem.

To what extent can the Artemis program contribute to the growth of the Italian ecosystem of the Space economy, in terms of the birth of new companies and the development of innovative services?

Saccoccia: For the companies in the industry, which already have a recognized role at the international level, opportunities for further growth and positioning, also from a commercial perspective. Italy can boast a complete supply chain, from big companies to start-up companies, in all fields of space economy, therefore downstream, midstream and upstream, up to launch vehicles. A 360-degree coverage which, if you allow me to say it, is unique worldwide. We expect that also those companies which, as of today, are not really important in the space sector will have the opportunity to increase their participation and involvement. For them, the Artemis program can be an entry point. Think, for example, of the activities related with the use of lunar resources and, subsequently, to the opportunities arising for companies which operate in the sector of mining and recycling of land resources. There will be a transfer of technologies, ideas and know-how, from and towards the space sector. Furthermore, we shouldn’t forget that the program will entail an evolution also from a regulatory point of view, and ad-hoc provisions and measures will be needed. These will also be aimed at expanding market development 6 | SPAZIO 2050

There will be a transfer of technologies, ideas and know-how, from and towards the space sector.

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Artistic representation of the Lunar Gateway in lunar orbit. In the foreground, the modules manufactured in Italy. (Credits: Thales Alenia Space/Briot).

and allowing an increasingly growing number of stakeholders to enter the field: we will need also this type of expertise, as well as several others.

Comparini: We are in the best context for the growth of innovative companies, to make them develop and also to show how the critical mass, represented by the presence of large companies in the national territory, is a driving force for the entire chain. It’s a systemic challenge, by which we will be enriched, at all levels.

Lunar economy will develop temporally and seamlessly, immediately after the LEO economy, i.e. the Low-Earth Orbit Economy: in the last 20 years, we learnt how to experiment and work aboard the ISS. If we look at the next 10 years, several sectors will be involved in the game: we will need to work on the development of new materials. For example, 3D printing will play a growing role, in order to build infrastructures directly on-site, and we expect developments in the biotechnological, pharmaceutical and food sectors, not to mention telecommunications and connectivity:

just think of the Moonlight initiative. In the lunar environment, a further challenge is added: understanding how to take advantage of resources to work on the sustainability of our planet. Furthermore, it’s very important to understand the role of the Italian small and medium-sized enterprises: the pressurized modules which, as of today, are used for the ISS and will be used on the Moon and commercial stations, have a level of Italian technology of over 80%. Over the years, we built a supply chain of small and medium-sized enterprises which specialize in mechanical, structural and electronic components, thanks to which Italy is unique at a global level and has a significant impact, both economic and in terms of our country’s industrial system.

The convergence between space and digital technologies is becoming increasingly closer: how is the scenario evolving?

Saccoccia: As I said, we’re just starting, everything SPAZIO 2050 | 7

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is in the making, and the speed at which the solutions resulting from digitalization – primarily artificial intelligence and big data analysis – are making their way in the space sector is the unequivocal sign of developments which, as of today, are unprecedented and unimaginable.

Artemis is an initiative that we may define as “open-ended”: the growth will be continuous, without a time limit, and therefore we will be able to progressively bring on board the progress generated by digitalization.

Moreover, Space has always been the environment where you can test cutting-edge innovation, everything which is related to Space is linked to a huge amount of data to be managed and transferred: that’s why we have very high expectations on this front. Furthermore, in the initial part of the program, the strong robotic presence that will precede human landing and accompany it afterwards will need automated systems, which can be managed remotely or independently, and therefore a high use of data processing technologies and artificial intelligence. In short, it will be an important testing ground.

Comparini: The combination between Space and digital will be disruptive and will create new opportunities, both at an upstream level and as regards the related services. Already today, with the digital twin, we can conduct virtual simulations, and this is a turning point if we think that, until a few years ago, we needed physical prototypes. Therefore, the revolution of convergence is already in place. Everything we will do in the low orbit and on the Moon will generate huge amounts of data from which we will have to extract information: the cloud platforms for the analysis of big data will become essential also, and especially, for on-site operations, for example through the presence of data centers on the Moon. And artificial intelligence is also set to evolve: the exploration of the Moon, and more in general of planets, will entail a close man-machine cooperation, with the big topic of ethic that will have to be dealt with also from a regulatory point of view.

An artistic reproduction of Orion above the Earth.

Credits: ESA.

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Will Artemis be able to get the mechanism of employment going at a national level? Will new skills and, subsequently, new jobs related to the mission be created?

Saccoccia: We are certain that Space is a driving force for employment and economy: it’s no coincidence that we have put in place significant resources, both in the field of the PNRR (Recovery and Resilience Plan) for new space initiatives and in the already existing national programs.

Investing in the Artemis program – which will continue for a long time – will not only offer the opportunity to create new occupation, but also to make it sustainable in time. We expect a long, very long wave, through the creation of opportunities that will involve, in particular, new generations and will subsequently trigger a virtuous circle in terms of employment.

Moreover, Italy can boast an excellent training capacity, recognized at a global level, and continues to invest in order to grow it further. As a Space Agency, we are very committed on this front, so that the research carried out in the academic field, for example, can be supported with growing resources, ideas and projects which are capable of best addressing the renewed needs, with a training aimed at generating skills which can be immediately marketable.

Comparini: As a knock-on effect of space programs, we’ve already seen first-hand an important growth in terms of employment in the whole supply chain. This trend will definitely grow.

In our Thales Alenia space factory, in Turin, we’ve hired a hundred engineers and we expect to add new skills. Companies will increasingly need digital experts and it’s essential to accompany the birth of new training paths with skills on the front of structural mechanics, but also digital processing. And also persons who haven’t been directly involved until today, such as architects for the design of space houses, will jump aboard.

Artemis, we are investing The Artemis program will represent for Italy an important booster in terms of growth of the national space economy and development of the ecosystem.

And Thales Alenia Space – a joint venture between Thales (67%) and Leonardo (33%) – is pushing the accelerator on the investments in innovation. «The results that we are obtaining today are the product of the investments we’ve made over the years.

And from now on, we will put other investments in place. We want to be ready for the future technology roadmaps and get immediately on the train of the next waves of innovation» stresses Massimo Claudio Comparini, CEO of Thales Alenia Space Italia.

Artemis is a very long-term program, but according to Comparini «the acceleration triggered on the front of planning will translate into returns already in the next 4-5 years, thanks to the effect of the virtuous circle».

Thales Alenia Space is already imagining new business opportunities related to lunar exploration: «With the development of lunar economy, the game of pressurized modules begins and we want to be protagonists», announces the manager. And for Italy, the opportunities are linked also to the funds provided by the PNRR: «We aim at stimulating research activity and the synergy with the world of industry will be essential». However, the main issue will be execution.

«We need to start with operational projects as soon as possible, I hope we can start this year already». And then we will need to push on new skills: «It’s a challenge that we can’t fail. Italy has all it takes to play this game as a protagonist: we cover the whole value chain – from access to space and infrastructures to the provision of products and services. Only a few countries in the world can boast such an ecosystem. Our universities create highly-qualified skills and we need to put all of them in place». The role of small and medium-sized enterprises will be also essential: «We need to push towards the creation and development of innovative SMEs, we are slightly delayed on this front but we have in our DNA the characteristics to recover. The economic and financial community is looking with great interest at start-ups in the field of space and we need to attract investments».

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The ASI and Artemis «We expect to finalize an implementation agreement with the NASA to strengthen the commitment of Italy in the field of the Artemis program, through a direct partnership with the United States»: this is the announcement from the President of the Italian Space Agency, Giorgio Saccoccia. «I’ll meet soon with the head of the Artemis program at the NASA to discuss the roadmap. After the summer, I wish we’ll already be able to begin with the contractual obligations that will be developed in the coming years, with the purpose of having Italian projects on the Moon’s surface starting from 2026-2027» Therefore, the ASI continues to push the accelerator on the initiatives related to the mission and also aims at opening new fronts. «At the ASI ministerial conference, scheduled for November, we will discuss any other European contributions and we aim at strengthening the role of Italy» adds Saccoccia, as he points out that our country has been a pioneer in the program. The goals for the coming years are upward: «We are strong in the field of robotics and we have important chances of development in the field of advanced sensors, radar technologies and in-orbit inspection».

Saccoccia turns the spotlight on also on the importance of public funds: «We had a significant increase in the last two-three years. Space is recognized as an engine of economic growth and one of the key sectors for the post-COVID recovery. We have resources available which have more than doubled compared to a few years ago and it’s essential to use them at best». The axis between the public and the private sector will be key, but a solution must be worked out. «It’s essential to provide technical support to those who manage investment funds or private resources for a technical and substantial assessment. We must do that in order to avoid parallel and nonaligned “tracks” vs the country’s need in terms of industrial development.»

Last but not least, the growth of the competition triggered by the so-called big techs, with the owners of Amazon and SpaceX, Jeff Bezos and Elon Musk, taking the lion’s share. «We are approaching a paradigm shift and this will entail, for many, the rethinking of business models. The new stakeholders are welcome, since they provide a stimulus for growth and innovation and create new opportunities».

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ITALIAN MOON

by Manuela Proietti

THE MISSIONS Artemis I (2022)

Artemis III (2025)

First mission of the new NASA’s lunar program. It’s the test flight of the Space Launch System launcher and the Orion vehicle in the lunar environment.

Touchdown! First human mission on the lunar soil, more than 50 years after the Apollo 17. It will see the landing of the first woman and a man with SpaceX’s Starship HLS lander and a 6.5-day-stay on the Moon’s surface.

Artemis II (2024) First manned flight. The mission involves flying over the Moon and a crew made up of 4 astronauts.

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ORION’S EUROPEAN SERVICE MODULE

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Through Thales Alenia Space and other small and medium-sized enterprises, Italy has developed for the ESA some key elements of the European Service Module, the service module of the NASA’s Orion capsule, which will bring the astronauts to the Moon.

A

The following elements are manufactured in Italy: the thermal control and storage system of the consumables, the control and power distribution unit, the photovoltaic panels and the protection system against meteorites and debris.

THE NAVIGATION The ASI’s Lunar Surface Multi-Purpose Habitation (MPH) Module(s) (2026-2027) The Italian Space Agency is working with the NASA on the development of a stable pressurized module on the Moon’s surface, with the possibility to host astronauts and scientific experimentation laboratories.

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THE LUNAR GATEWAY The station in lunar orbit is a key element of the Artemis program.

It will serve as a base for the operations on the Moon’s surface.

B

Halo – Habitation and Logistics Outpost (2024) – NASA’s module It’s the module which will host the first astronauts visiting the Gateway.

Its main purpose is to provide a livable environment from which crews can explore the Moon’s surface. The design and development of the module’s primary structure, the pressure control system and the vestibule,

part of the protection system against meteorites and the interface with the NASA docking systems are manufactured in Turin, on behalf of Northrop Grumman.

C

B

D

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THE EUROPEAN MODULES C I-Hab - International Habitation Module (2026) It’s the main module manufactured by Europe. It will provide housing for the crew, but will also serve as a docking point which will offer interfaces and resources to the vehicles in transit towards the Moon. Thales Alenia Space, in Italy, has the overall responsibility of the project.

D Esprit - European System Providing Refueling, Infrastructure and Telecommunications (2024 and 2027) It will consist of two main elements: a communication module and a refueling module, combined with a pressurized corridor equipped with windows, which will be provided by Italy. The wide portholes will offer a 360-degree view on the external space, the Moon, the Earth and the Gateway.

TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND NAVIGATION Moonlight

THE ITALIAN MODULE The ASI’s Lunar Surface Multi-Purpose Habitation (MPH) Module(s) (2026-2027) The Italian Space Agency is working with the NASA on the development of a stable pressurized module on the Moon’s surface, with the possibility to host astronauts and scientific experimentation laboratories.

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A consortium of Italian companies, guided by Telespazio, takes part in the ESA’s Moonlight project. The system will be aimed at ensuring services to the different platforms, such as rovers, landers or lunar bases, in orbit or on the Moon’s surface. The infrastructure will be made up of lunar and ground stations and a network of satellites; the Fucino Space Centre will have a connection and coordination role.

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Infografica Infolab SPAZIO 2050 | 11

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«We already went to the Moon, over 50 years ago, then why is it so difficult to go back there?» It’s a question that is often heard when talking about the return to our satellite. The answer is a reflection of the complexity of a space exploration program which, actually, doesn’t have much to do with the successes of the past. Therefore, let’s have a look at all the main elements of the Artemis program, which aims at making the Moon the next outpost of humanity. And there’s a lot of Italy in this undertaking.

Artemis 3, 2, 1, Go!

by Giulia Bonelli

The main stages of Artemis, the international program to (re)conquer our satellite 12 | SPAZIO 2050

Back to the future Apollo 17 departed in 1972. It was the eleventh manned mission of the NASA lunar program. It was also the last: from then on, no man has ever set foot on our satellite again. Today, the Moon is again at the core of space exploration, but above all it’s a return to the future. The new Artemis program is profoundly different from its predecessor Apollo, for at least three reasons. First of all, it’s an international undertaking.

If the first Moon landing was the adventure of a single superpower, the return to the Moon involves a close partnership between nations.

United States remain the driving force, but the contribution from partner countries (including Italy) is essential. The second element of differentiation lies in the new role of private space companies, with SpaceX in the foreground, which will provide technology to make human presence sustainable on our satellite. This leads us to what is perhaps the most crucial aspect: the Artemis program aims at bringing the first woman and the first man to the Moon with the ambition to remain.

No more lightning strikes, but a tight schedule which, on the long term, should make our satellite inhabited throughout the year. It’s exactly the same principle which guided the International Space Station’s undertaking: with Artemis, from the low orbit we will switch to make the cislunar orbit and the Moon’s surface constantly inhabited.

Space Launch SyStem An ambitious program like Artemis needed a likewise powerful rocket. That’s why the NASA has developed Sls, an acronym for Space Launch System: a 98-metre high colossus, capable of carrying a load of 130 tons.

Not only the crew, then, but everything we will need to equip the cislunar orbit and our satellite’s surface and make them habitable. The aspect of Sls slightly reminds us of its predecessor Saturn V, the launch vehicle which ensured the success of the Apollo lunar missions. But from a technological point of view, the Space Launch System is more similar to the Space Shuttle, the likewise historical NASA launch system which was retired in 2001. Same as the Shuttle, the Sls uses two additional boosters with solid-propellant motors, as well as four RS-25 motors.

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With its unprecedented power and capabilities, the space Launch system (SLS) is the only rocket that can send Orion spacecraft, astronauts, and cargo directly to the Moon on a single mission.

Foto Esa.

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Such characteristics make the Space Launch System the most powerful launch system ever built in the world.

orion The cutting edge of the Space Launch System is the shuttle, designed to transport the crew. Its name is Orion, has the sizes of a small house and can host up to six astronauts. The NASA entrusted the company Lockheed Martin with the task of building the housing module, whereas the European Space Agency, with a significant contribution from Italy, is in charge of the service module, called Esm (from European Service Module, precisely). It’s a key component of the shuttle, which will provide to the crew all the vital elements to stay in Orion’s living module: water, air, propulsion, electricity, thermoregulation. The Esm extends for a diameter and a height of 4 meters, and is equipped with 4 solar panels which are 19 meters wide and are designed to generate an amount of energy which corresponds to that needed to feed two housings. The living module and the service module constitute the “two floors” of the spaceship that will bring the astronauts to the Moon.

StarShip The colossal launch system developed by the NASA and its international partners is powerful enough to carry the crew and the equipment to the Moon and, one day, to Mars, but it’s not suitable for the descent to our satellite, whereas SpaceX’s Starship can do that.

The Starship system is made up of the namesake shuttle, used to carry astronauts up and down from the Moon (and, one day, from Mars), and the Super Heavy rocket. The key words are reusability and speed, two elements which, in Elon Musk’s projects, will make space trips economically sustainable. In fact, SpaceX is betting on its proven launch system, which can be reused for heavy loads and allows a high number of launches in a short time, with a significant reduction of costs. According to the plans, the future crews will reach the lunar orbit with Orion, whereas they will descent to our satellite’s surface with Starship, going from the future space station in cislunar orbit.

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The Orion spacecraft has the sizes of a small house and can host up to six persons.

Picture by the ESA.

Lunar Gateway Lunar Gateway will be the first station orbiting around the Moon. It will be made up of 7 modules, as well as a robotic arm provided by Canada, for a total weight of the entire structure of nearly 40 tons.

Drawing inspiration from the ISS, the Gateway will be the “home” of the astronauts travelling towards our

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satellite. From here, the crews will be able to reach the Moon’s surface with the Starship shuttle which, on the long term, will be equipped in turn with a permanent Base Camp. But similarly to what happens today with the International Space Station, the Gateway will also be a laboratory to conduct experiments in the absence of gravity. artemiS i Artemis’s roadmap has been amended several times over the last few years. If Trump administration had bet on the return of man to the Moon by 2024 (which had already been regarded as unrealistic by several people), now the NASA is more cautious, to the point that there aren’t any official launch dates beyond the opening flight, which is currently scheduled for summer 2022.

It’s the Artemis I mission (previously called Exploration Mission-1, or EM-1), before the three main stages of the lunar program. Artemis I is an unmanned flight which will test the SLs and Orion, in a shipping which will see a flyby of our satellite.

The mission also involves the release of 10 CubeSats, including the Italian Argo Moon, the only European project among those selected by the NASA. The official confirmation of the launch of Artemis 1 by the summer depends on the success of the last test of the Space Launch System, the so-called “wet dress rehearsal”.

artemiS ii If everything will go as planned with Artemis I, it will be followed by Artemis II, Orion’s first flight with 4 astronauts aboard.

It will be first crew to leave the low terrestrial orbit since the already mentioned Apollo 17.

The lift-off will take place from the NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The mission will last about 10 days overall. After reaching the lunar orbit, Orion will make a fly-by at about 7.500 kilometers away from our satellite’s surface.

For its return, the shuttle will take advantage of the Earth-Moon gravitational orbit, which will pull it back towards our planet. The mission will end with a splashdown in the Pacific 16 | SPAZIO 2050

The mission also involves the release of 10 CubeSats, including the Italian ArgoMoon, the only European project among those selected by the NASA. ArgoMoon is prepared for the launch at the NASA’s Kennedy Space Center in Florida. The Italian CubeSat will document a few stages of the Artemis I mission.

Picture by the NASA.

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artemiS iii Artemis III will be in charge of the Moon landing. The NASA hasn’t yet unveiled the details of the mission, but as of today we know that 4 astronauts will take part in the second flight with Orion’s crew, and two of them (including the first woman) will reach the Moon’s surface.

The Moon landing will take place in the southern polar region and involves a stay on the Moon of about one week. The two astronauts will perform some spacewalks on the lunar soil and will conduct a few observations and samplings

itaLian moon There is a lot of Italy in the new lunar exploration program. At the end of 2020, our country was one of the 8 signatories of the Artemis Accords, the first international cooperation agreement for a pacific return to the Moon. And there are several scientific and technological contributions from Italy. For the NASA, the European Space Agency is the most important partner as regards the manufacturing of the Gateway, and the Italian contribution to the lunar station is the main one in Europe. Thales Alenia Space has signed a contract with the U.S. company Northrop Grumman to manufacture the primary structure of the Gateway’s Halo module in its premises in Turin. And the ESA has entrusted the same company with the task of developing the I-Hab and Esprit components. Then there is also the ambitious MoonLIGHT project by the European Space Agency, which aims at creating lunar communication and navigation services: Thales Alenia Space Italia, along with Telespazio, is working on a feasibility study to develop the future Earth – Moon communication system, which will be crucial for the whole Artemis program.

Also the development of an innovative tool comes from our country: it will help with the positioning of the future lunar probes and the Lunar Gateway itself. It’s Lugre (Lunar Gnss Receiver Experiment), the Gnss receiver developed by the Italian Space Agency in partnership with the NASA. Italy is also financing the planning of the Multi-Purpose module, a pressurized structure that may evolve into a sort of “lift” from the Gateway to the lunar Base Camp.

But even before being at the forefront in the return of man to our satellite, Italy will have a privileged eye 18 | SPAZIO 2050

The mounting of the tanks in the second European service module will provide energy, water, air and electricity to the Orion module.

Picture by the ESA.

on the opening of the new lunar program. ArgoMoon, the CubeSat developed in Turin by the company Argotec, by mandate of the Italian Space Agency, will be the first one to dive into space during the unmanned mission Artemis I and will document the detachment of Orion from the rocket. With this stage, the countdown will officially start to see the first man and the first woman on the Moon.

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LIVING ON THE MOON

Lunar psychology

by Giulia Bonelli and Giuseppe Nucera

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The future long-term missions on the Moon have intensified the studies here on Earth to better understand the consequences on the body of the prolonged stay in space. From the muscular to the nervous system, from bones to cells: the absence of gravity has an impact on the astronauts’ health at several levels, and there’s already ample evidence of it thanks to several experiments on the International Space Station.

This is why, in view of long-term settlements on our satellite, it’s important to prevent as much as possible the harmful effects of space radiations on our body.

And what about the mind? We might hear less about it, but the mental health of the future Moon colonists is as important as their physical health, and there’s someone who’s been taking care of it for a long time, in the context of what is defined as space psychology: a branch of psychology which, indeed, investigates the consequences of space journeys and the cosmic environment on the human mind.

The pandemic has given us an idea of what social isolation means, also and especially at the psychological level. Just imagine transferring this experience to an extreme place, such as the Moon, with limited possibilities to communicate with Earth and environmental factors which, in themselves, are hostile. In order to study and, above all, prevent the consequences of this “lunar isolation”, the only way at the moment is the word of simulation, through the so-called terrestrial analogue sites. Since we are not able (yet) to monitor flesh-and-blood Moon colonists, space psychologists rely on experiments conducted on our planet, which simulate the extreme conditions of our satellite and, in general, of space.

It’s the case of a recent research carried out by a team of psychologists from the University of Milano-Bicocca, the University of Messina and the University of Surrey, based on the results of the Lunark project: the first simulation of a lunar mission conducted in the Arctic. Lunark developed a hermetic capsule which is similar to a lunar habitat. The two architects of the same structure have voluntarily lived for 61 days, in full segregation, in the north of Greenland. It was an opportunity to study the psychological impact of prolonged social isolation in extreme environments.

The capsule of the Lunark project, which hosts the first simulation of a lunar mission.

Details of the interiors Picture by Saga Space Architects.

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The two architects of the lunar module have voluntarily lived for 61 days, in full segregation, in the north of Greenland.

«Our theoretical models – explains Paolo Riva, social psychologist from the University of Milano-Bicocca and study lead – predict an association between prolonged isolation experiences and a set of negative psychological states, such as depression, increase in anxiety, sense of alienation. However, this is offset by the awareness of a certain end date of the experience and the strong motivation which manifests itself in the context of a space mission».

From the Lunark experiment, explains the researcher, emerges the key role of the context of a space mission, which turns out to have a protective role, since it has a certain end date and the staff is strongly motivated. However, the strong reduction of social interactions remains as a risk factor. «Our study – says Riva – shows that the state of resignation, with which we summarize the deepest negative consequences of social isolation, manifests a carry-over effect, that is a carry-over of consequences from one day to another. At the same time, the desire for social contacts grows quite linearly in the experience of the two volunteers».

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Therefore, for the future inhabitants of the Moon it will be essential to be prepared also as regards the psychological aspects of long-term lunar stays. These missions will also have to involve a program for the safeguard of mental health.

«Physical exercise, time off dedicated to activities which are not strictly related to the mission, interaction between the crew members, including the emotional sharing and discussion on personal topics: all of these activities are associated with a better mental health», concludes Riva.

Simulations such as Lunark, or other experiments conducted in the past in extreme terrestrial environments (for example Amadee-18, which simulated a Martian mission in the desert of Oman), are particularly valuable as they collect experimental data which are complementary to those provided by literature.

And the theories of classic psychology find an inte-

Simulation projects such as LUNARK are particularly valuable as they collect experimental data, which are complementary to those provided by literature.

resting test bench in the field of space psychology, as explains Patrice Rusconi from the University of Messina, co-author of the study published on the basis of the observations from the Lunark project.

«Some dynamics which have been studied for years from social psychology, as well as some specific group interactions – says Rusconi – can emerge also during space missions. A phenomenon which has been very well investigated from this point of view is the groupthink, which happens in highly cohesive groups. This dynamic doesn’t leave space to expressions of disagreement or individual points of view, but leads to a stereotyped thinking which, however, entails a reduced group performance in moments of crisis».

But how can the future Moon colonists counteract the possible harmful effects of groupthink? Also in this case, preparation is key: you need to work on the group before flying to space, as it already happens, after all, for the crews headed to the International Space Station. And in this regard, psychologists play a key role in the long training that astronauts must undergo, both singularly and at group level. Also during the mission, space psychology can help to develop strategies to preserve the crew’s mental health.

«In our study – explains Rusconi – we suggested, for example, to use gamification, that is the possibility to add elements which are typically related to games also during a few business activities over the course of the mission. This may activate useful psychological levers of human beings, such as cooperation, but also competition, by incentivizing a most effective interaction between the crew members. Because of this, the use of games to design the machine-man interface for future lunar missions may have a good impact on mental health, by improving also group dynamics».

That’s how space psychology is increasingly entering all the stages of human exploration of space. And perhaps one day, in permanent lunar bases, we will also find mental health professionals among the future space workers.

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The future human explorations in deep space, whose primary destinations are the Moon and Mars, see big technological changes ahead of them, also as regards the aspects related to the astronauts’ daily life, which aren’t trivial at all.

First of all, the problem arises of what food will be eaten by crew members during interplanetary journeys and by members of extraterrestrial colonies. In fact, the survival of those astronauts who will go much further than the low terrestrial orbit will depend on the ability to produce and recycle, directly on-site, primary resources such as water and food, disengaging as much as possible from supplies from Earth, which are complicated for the next lunar settlements and practically impossible for the future Martian colonies. The future space cooking can, therefore, be summarized in two concepts: circularity and self-sufficiency.

Planet you go, food you find

by Giuseppe Nucera

The future explorers will be space farmers, before being astronauts, and will definitely be vegetarian.

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With this approach, the primary need will be offering some fresh food to those astronauts who participate in remote missions: in fact, this would provide a better food and protein intake, since it contains more mineral salts and vitamins than freeze-dried foods, which have been more commonly used so far. In the case of fresh vegetables, we’re also aware of their ability to reduce the risk of diseases associated with the hostile conditions of the space environment.

Therefore, scientific research aims at developing systems to support the future ability to produce fresh food on-site, given the problems related to the transport and storage of huge amounts of terrestrial food.

«The challenge is producing food in short times, reduced space and through cultivation techniques which allow the growth of plants in microgravity», says Stefania De Pascale from the Department of Agricultural Sciences at the University of Naples Federico II. From this point, the projects aimed at the development of the so-called biogenerative systems for life support: closed and fully self-healing systems, where the available resources recycle continuously without running out, producing the primary goods for human survival in space.

These complex artificial ecosystems, which are essentially based on biological elements such as plants, algae, fungi and microorganisms, are able to generate oxygen, drinking water and edible biomass, such as salads and microgreens.

These systems are at the center of the ESA’s Melissa program, a consortium which includes universities, research centers and small and medium-sized enterprises.

Within this European project, in the Portici laboratories in Naples, the Plant Characterization Unit (PCU) has been developed. It’s a modern growth chamber which consists of a hydroponic cultivation plant, that is in the absence of a culture medium, within a sealed environment. Such plant has been built thanks to the PaCMan research project, coordinated

by Enginsof and funded by the European Space Agency.

«Thanks to an artificial light system and the ability to recover the water transpired by plants, which in fact is drinkable, we’re able to verify the attitude of higher plants to generate resources in response to environmental changes and, subsequently, detect the most suitable cultivations for the future biogenerative systems for space», says Stefania De Pascale, head of the Laboratory for research on plants for Space where the PCU growth chamber is located.

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Therefore, the scientific research on future space food is diversified based on the different environmental conditions and available resources of the place where the space dish will be served.

In the case of astronauts travelling from Earth, which will be able to bring with them a certain amount of terrestrial food, the fresh food produced by the systems aboard orbiting spacecrafts or stations will mainly consist of micro-vegetables, in line with the experiments conducted so far on the International Space Station, such as the hydroponic greenhouse Veggie, which has been operating in the terrestrial orbit since 2014. The MicroX2 (Microgreens for Microgravity), where De Pascale’s team collaborates with the Italian Space Agency, is moving on the same line of research.

«We are studying small vegetables with very short cycles of growth, no longer than two weeks, whose main function is providing a supplement of fresh food which can be integrated with the food which can be transported from Earth», continues De Pascale.

L’aggancio tra la navicella Nasa Apollo e la sovietica Soyuz.

Nasa

Instead, the food needs of the next extraterrestrial colonies, where plants will have to regenerate the resources needed for the mission and produce basic food for colonies, are very different. It’s a type of cooking which will necessarily have to use only resources available on-site.

These are the conditions required to the technologies developed within the ReBUS project, coordinated and funded by the ASI and in which several Italian bodies and university participate. Stefania De Pascale is the principal investigator of the project, which aims at producing plants by taking advantage of the lunar and Martian soils, that is regolith: the group of sand silts on the surface of rocky planets.

«Starting from the basis of human nutrition on our planet, we are focusing on cultivations which are capable of producing energy-rich food: cereals, wheat, soft and hard wheat, but also rice and potatoes, as well as legumes, obviously, which can integrate our diet with several proteins».

Italian dish for the astronaut Paolo Nespoli aboard the International Space Station.

Growing plants in space is possible.

Picture by the ESA.

All the terrestrial projects share a unique certainty: the future menu to be eaten in deep space will necessarily be vegetarian, and will be the result of the astronauts’ work during the mission.

«The future explorers will be space farmers, before being astronauts, and will definitely be vegetarian, because plants will arrive way sooner than animals for the nutrition of the next space colonies» concludes De Pascale.

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SpaceSuitS The hi-Tech fashion in orbit

by Valeria Guarnieri

Safety and innovative solutions in the astronauts’ wardrobe

Colored or white, equipped with helmets and tools which are specifically designed for the activities for which they are intended, and with the common main purpose of protecting those who wear them from a hostile environment: these are the spacesuits, a key ingredient for missions which see human beings in the foreground.

The renewed interest in the exploration of the Moon with the NASA’s Artemis program, to which the Italian Space Agency adhered in 2019, and the subsequent goal of bringing man to Mars have again turned the spotlight on spacesuits. By the way, the context in which these particular garments are developed and manufactured has become especially diverse and competitive: the design of the astronauts’ wardrobe used to be the prerogative of the two nations which were the protagonists of the space race, United States and Russia, but now other stakeholders have made their debut in the field of human flight, such as China – which is building its own orbiting station – and the private companies Blue Origin and SpaceX. These garments with a sci-fi look, which continue to exert an undoubted fascination on young people and the general public (just think of the wide variety of costumes, for kids and not only, which draw inspiration from spacesuits and can be easily found online), have experienced a deep technological progress since the first human flights of the Russian Yuri Gagarin and the American Alan Shepard (which took place, respectively, on April 12th and May 5th, 1961). However, they’ve never ceased to show their core characteristic: being a protective coating – almost a sort of small 24 | SPAZIO 2050

Ocss spacesuit: the prototype of the Ocss spacesuit worn

by Dustin Gohmer, Project Manager at the NASA’s Johnson Space Center.

The picture was taken at the NASA headquarters in Washington, during the presentation event of the spacesuits for the Artemis program, on October 15th, 2019. Picture: NASA/Joel Kowsky.

spaceship – in the most delicate stages of the missions, such as journeys from and to the International Space Stations and, in particular, the extravehicular activities where astronauts find themselves working in space also for several hours in a row.

Safety is an aspect which has a primary importance and, despite the efforts to ensure the maximum protection to cosmic explorers, unexpected events can

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L’aggancio tra la navicella Nasa Apollo e la sovietica Soyuz.

Nasa

occur anyway. It’s exactly what happened on July 16th, 2013, to the ESA astronaut Luca Parmitano who, while he was engaged in an activity outside the International Space Station, had to face dramatic moments when the helmet of his outdoor spacesuit started to fill with water due to a faulty valve. This story, which had a happy ending thanks to Parmitano’s professionalism and inspired the documentary Eva 23, was the

xEmu spacesuit: the prototype of the xEmu spacesuit on display at the NASA headquarters in Washington during the presentation event of the spacesuits for the Artemis program, on October 15th 2019. Picture: NASA/Joel Kowsky.

object of an in-depth investigation by the NASA and subsequently represented a moment of growth and reflection to prevent such a dangerous unexpected event from happening again.

But at this stage, and in light of the innovations in technologies and materials and the lessons learned, how will the astronauts’ wardrobe evolve? For example, what will the protagonists of the future Moon landing (currently scheduled for 2025) wear? In fact, the “collection” of spacesuits developed from the firsts flights on was enriched by two completely new units, which are ready to start with the missions of the Artemis program: the white xEmu (Exploration Extravehicular Mobility Unit) and the orange Ocss (Orion Crew Survival System). Designed for different purposes, the new outfits will have to ensure safety and more ease of movement to the next generations of lunar explorers, since they’ll have more challenging tasks than the pioneers who preceded them.

The xEmu, whose look reminds us of the spacesuits worn by the astronauts of the Apollo missions, has been designed for outings on the lunar soil: therefore, it will have to resist extreme temperatures which characterize the environment of our natural satellite, but can be used profitably also for the extravehicular activities of the Lunar Gateway, the cislunar outpost which supports the Artemis mission.

The flamboyant Orion, instead, has been designed mainly as a “travel outfit”: its task will be to protect astronauts during the delicate stages of launch and return to Earth, but can also be used inside space habitats and in any other emergency situation.

Therefore, to respond in an increasingly compliant manner to the dynamics of life in zero gravity, the future “astronaut” fashion will have to combine style, technology and ease of use, as well as meeting the essential safety requirements.

These characteristics aren’t very far from the “universal outfit, which clothes the whole body, provides a complete ease of movement and a feeling of energy saving”, that is the suit which was invented in 1919 by the brothers Ernesto and Ruggero Michahelles, eclectic exponents of the Futurist artistic movement known as Thayaht and Ram. The two creatives would definitely be proud to see that, from the first flights on, increasingly advanced versions of their outfit – which was regarded as a breaking point at the time – had such an important role in accompanying human beings towards the discovery of space.

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How we wIll lIve on tHe Moon

by Fulvia Croci @asi_spazio

Telerobotics, artificial intelligence, life support and In-Situ Resource Utilization are the necessary tools for the future Moon colonization

The return to the Moon is one of the main goals of space agencies all around the world. This time, unlike what happened in the ‘60s, the reconquest of our satellite will no longer be the individual project of one or more superpowers, but will have to be a more complex operation that will involve public and private stakeholders. Following the return to the Moon’s surface, we will need a few technologies – some of them are under development – which will help human beings to build outposts.

Specifically, the tools and technologies in the luggage of the future colonists will necessarily include the rovers designed for the exploration of the surface and the collection of materials; the artificial intelligence, which will help to conduct the most complex operation remotely and the In-Situ Resource Utilization (Isru), a practice which consists in the use of materials found or manufactured on the Moon, which will replace those that should be brought from Earth.

In particular, the interest in the Moon, as a place from which you can extract valuable resources to build outposts, is not new. Already at the time of the Apollo missions, a few studies were started on the research of elements such as helium, iron and water whereas, more recently, the interest has shifted towards detecting ice deposits and the presence of volatile substances. In order to detect the best sites to potentially 26 | SPAZIO 2050

Concept of a lunar outpost, made with 3D printing.

Picture taken from the ESA website, credits RegoLight, Liquifer Systems Group, 2018.

extract resources, colonists can rely on artificial intelligence, which will be able to scan quickly, and in a more effective manner, the lunar morphological characteristics from the already available images collected by satellites. It’s an approach which may significantly improve efficiency, in terms of selecting the sites for the exploration of our satellite.

«The Moon has returned to be the main target in the field of space exploration, not only as a step towards Mars, but also as more complex project, which will involve a lunar orbiting station and most likely, in the future, also a permanent settling – says Barbara Negri, head of the Human Flight and Scientific Experimentation Unit of the Italian Space Agency -; the robotic and human exploration of the Moon will be able to test the science and technologies required for a better knowledge of the lunar environment and the long-term operations needed for the missions headed to Mars and the deep space».

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L’aggancio tra la navicella Nasa Apollo e la sovietica Soyuz.

Nasa

The Moon is particularly suitable to become an experimental laboratory where you will be able to live and prepare missions for the colonization of Mars and the exploration of the most remote areas of the solar system. From this perspective, the Italian Space Agency will start in the next few months several activities aimed at using, enhancing and increasing the scientific and technological skills acquired by Italy in this field.

In detail, some of the selected areas of interest involve the study of the lunar environment; the observation of the universe from the Moon; the sustainability of settlements; the required technologies and tools; the radioprotection for astronauts and materials and the human physiology laboratories and studies in extraterrestrial environments.

Also the European Space Agency is conducting several studies on the planning of robots and rovers which will plow the Moon’s soil. One of the most recent studies is a project regarding the control of rovers by

astronauts in orbit, so that the latter can conduct operations on the planetary surfaces.

the Moon is suitable to become an experimental laboratory where you will be able to live and prepare missions for the colonization of Mars.

This innovative technique was tested by the ESA astronaut Luca Parmitano in 2019, during the Beyond mission. Parmitano controlled from the ISS the movements of the Earth-based Analog-1 rover, which was located at a hangar in Valkenburg, Netherlands.

The test confirmed that this technology can allow high-precision operations, such as the sampling of rocks in absence of gravity. In fact, the performance of such delicate tasks requires a careful supervision by astronauts during the whole operation.

We’ll just have to wait the next few months for the first test bench of this new space adventure: the opening flight of the Space Launch System, which will bring the Orion capsule, with the Artemis 1 mission, to the lunar orbit. It will be the first step which will allow man to return to our satellite.

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TECHNOLOGY

Technology Transfer A bridge between eArth And SpAce

by Manuela Proietti

We are in the ‘60s. We are in the middle of the space race and in the rooms of the NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory, in Pasadena, an engineer named Eugene Lally describes for the first time the use of mosaic sensors to convert light into electric pulse and produce digital images. Lally thought that such technology 28 | SPAZIO 2050

could be extremely useful for astronauts on a space mission and for the miniaturization of the imaging tools of space probes. But the time wasn’t ripe yet to transform such extraordinary intuition into reality.

Thirty years later, Eric Fossum, again from the JPL, was the right man at the right time. The NASA needed to reduce as much as possible the sizes aboard interplanetary missions. Therefore, Fossum developed an image sensor based on metal-oxide-semiconductor devices, the Cmos-Aps active-pixel sensor, capable of combining reduced sizes and a very high quality of shooting. It’s the compact and inexpensive alternative to the Ccd, which, in the meanwhile, had marked the beginning of the digital market. Fossum couldn’t imagine that the Cmos would become the most widespread invention ever by the NASA, which would not only revolutionize the world of space imaging but also become an element of global consumption, initially in the sector of reflex cameras and high-resolution digital cameras, then dominating, without rivals, the market of smartphones.

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Sport in the absence of gravity becomes possible thanks to the “Use and gesture design”, a study which will allow astronauts to perform acrobatic movements in the absence of weight.

L’aggancio tra la navicella Nasa Apollo e la sovietica Soyuz.

Nasa

Today, we all have such space technology in our pockets. It allows us to shoot videos which, a few seconds later, we post on Instagram or TikTok or to film ourselves in 8k with an action camera, while we perform extreme sports. Although we are now used to consider space as something which is closer and closer to us – we know our position in real time and we are constantly updated on the weather forecasts thanks to satellites – the technologies transferred from space to Earth permeate our houses and cities, and often we don’t realize it.

If we’re able to browse anywhere with our tablet or use a cordless vacuum cleaner, we owe it also to the Apollo missions. The NASA needed battery drills to collect lunar samples and turned to Black & Decker.

Such partnership led to the development of several lines of cordless objects which are used on a daily basis today.

Sunglasses are also a direct consequence of a Space need. The scratch-proof glass lenses, with UV filters, were intended to protect to eyes of the NASA workers

technologies transferred from Space to earth permeate our houses and cities.

while they worked on the welding of rockets. Or, again, joysticks, which today are very small and can be maneuvered with a finger on the next-generation gamepads, are a terrestrial transposition of the Space Shuttle’s manual controller, developed by ThrustMaster Inc. Therefore, it’s no coincidence that they are so accurate and highly sensitive to our movements.

And then, air and water purification systems, cloud platforms, technical shoes and fabrics, memory foams, lyophilized food, isothermal blankets…the list is nearly endless, not to mention the impact on the medical-diagnostic sector or agriculture.

The NASA calls them “spin-offs” and has gathered them in a place where you can get lost: over 2.000 inventions which, from Space, have been applied on Earth since 1976.

But technology transfer isn’t a one-way road. Quite the opposite, we may define it as a four-lane, twoway motorway, with a very tight net of access ramps.

Space calls on the most-innovative and high-performing terrestrial technologies, products and processes, to develop a version designed for its own needs.

The best of the best, carefully selected to go into orbit and even beyond. It’s also the case of a few Italian companies, such as Dainese.

The company based in Molvena, engaged in the creation of technical equipment for dynamic sports, can count on as many as two Space spin-offs: one of them has been developed for the ESA. It’s the spacesuit Skinsuit, which has already flown twice to the International Space Station and is worn by the astronauts Andreas Mogensen and Thomas Pesquet. The innovative characteristic of the Skinsuit is the ability to simulate a gravity load on the astronaut’s body, counteracting the stretching of the spine phenomenon, a side effect of microgravity which, upon returning from space missions, can lead to herniated disc.

The other spin-off is a partnership with the NASA and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in Boston, designed with a view to the human landing on Mars. The challenge launched to Dainese was to manufacture a Space counterpart of its iconic suits, where the wearability of its models can be transferred. In fact, the rigidity of the current spacesuits is a sour note for those astronauts who carry out extravehicular activities.

The result is the BioSuit, a spacesuit prototype which, by taking advantage of the so-called non-extension lines, uses a mechanical, rather than pneumatic, pressurization, offering a wide freedom of movement to those who wear it and ensuring high standards of movement at the same time.

Remaining in the world of high speed on track, we find two other Italian excellences which have crossed the Kármán line: Sabelt and Dallara Automobili.

Specializing in the manufacturing of high-performing seat belts for the world of automotive and Formula One, the company Sabelt, based in Turin, has SPAZIO 2050 | 29

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transferred its technological know-how in the production of resistant, but very light, materials to the aerospace world, by supplying the restraint nets for the Cygnus space refuelling vehicle, whose primary structure has been designed at the Thales Alenia Space laboratories in Turin.

Dallara, a brand from the Emilia-Romagna region which is a symbol of racing supercars and frontier innovation in the field of aerodynamics and alloys, has partnered with Musk’s SpaceX by providing a component – which has been kept secret – of the Falcon 9, the carrier rocket which brought the first astronauts to the ISS aboard a private capsule, the Crew Dragon.

The company from Varano de’ Melegari has entered the space sector through Amalia Ercoli Finzi, by accepting the complex challenge of developing the drill of the ESA’s Rosetta mission, which was to successfully drill – for the first time in the history of space exploration – the surface of a comet and extract samples for the on-site analysis.

And now it looks like the company is about to embark on a new adventure, that is building the first private space station, alongside Axiom Space and SpaceX. It’s project in which Italy is already participating through Thales Alenia Space, to which the first two elements out of the four which will compose the structure have already been commissioned.

SpaceX has also drawn from Fagioli’s engineering expertise. The company specializes in special transport and handling in the renewable energies, oil & gas, civil and shipbuilding sectors. The U.S. company turned to the Houston headquarters of the company from Sant’Ilario d’Enza for the engineered lifting and special handling of the Falcon 9’s engines. Fagioli has made available to SpaceX its next-generation modular trolleys, with a nearly unlimited transport capacity, whereas one of the crawler cranes with the highest lifting capacity in the world, configured up to a height of 1.600 tons, has been used to mount the rocket parts.

Same as Dallara, Fagioli has an important past in the field of space, ranging from its contribution to the Rosetta mission – for which it worked on the logistic coordination for the Philae lander – to the delicate transportation of the housing modules manufactured in Italy by the International Space Station, including the Cupola, the outpost’s window which offers to astronauts the unique view of Earth from Space.

And speaking of space habitats, a new chapter of opportunities and challenges starts with the Artemis I mission on the launching pad – the first step to bring man back to the Moon, and this time to stay -.

We’re at the dawn of a new, extraordinary undertaking of humanity in Space, and there’s a new world, a 30 | SPAZIO 2050

The first space station module designed for entertainment, which introduces the concept of sensory environments. The wise use of light, colour and materials, the soundproofing and flexible division of spaces contribute to the astronauts’ wellbeing.

Images and pictures of the services

by Annalisa Dominoni, Benedetto Quaquaro, Department of Design, Polytechnic University of Milan.

sort of parallel universe to ours, which should be imagined, designed and created.

Not only rockets, spaceships, landers and rovers, but also food, habitable environments and a few optional contents, which perhaps are not so optional.

Because we shouldn’t forget that space is a hostile environment, where the pioneers of the new conquest will find themselves facing several hardships. Today we know that, in order to carry out the project of an extra-terrestrial colony, the physical and mental wellbeing of astronauts should be taken into account as much as their safety. And this is when design comes into play. It’s a subject characterized by a strong inclination to vision, which can act as a bridge between Earth and Space, crossing, by its own nature, several areas of knowledge and fields of application.

Annalisa Dominoni and Benedetto Quaquaro, both of them PhDs, regarded as the maximum experts in the field of architecture and design for space and extreme environments and founders of the (a+b) studio, are certain of that.

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The Wellness Space Hotel Virgin Galactic is the project of an inflatable module for a hotel among the stars, where you can live an experience of wellbeing in the total absence of weight.

Space objects and structural forms of 3D pasta, developed in partnership with Barilla BluRhapsody for a food and wine tasting in microgravity.

In 2019, Dominoni and Quaquaro developed a concept, commissioned by Thales Alenia Space, for a cislunar space station which, for the first time, introduces a whole habitable module for the astronauts’ entertainment. An ad-hoc designed space to promote leisure and relaxation, with elements of Made in Italy design and style which contribute to increase the wellbeing and quality of life onboard. «For me, the challenge – says Dominoni – is turning extreme environmental conditions from a limit into an opportunity and therefore, for example, trying to plan environments and objects which can take advantage from microgravity, without suffering from it».

An example of this are the ideas emerging from Space4InspirAction, the first and only Space design course in the world, hosted by the Polytechnic University of Milan, recognized and supported by the European Space Agency, created and directed by Dominoni and Quaquaro.

A project which, over the years, has marked the beginning of excellent spin-ins, coming from sectors

the Artemis 1 mission, on the launching pad, marks the beginning of a new chapter of opportunities and challenges

which are traditionally distant from the Space sector, such as microgravity-proof pasta, printed in 3D and containing its own sauce, which has been developed in partnership with Barilla BluRhapshody, or the forms of zero-gravity fitness investigated by TechnoGym. And again, the innovative atmospheres of light created with Foscarini and the new forms of water experimented by Jacuzzi and Virgin Galactic, for a wellness space hotel.

From the Moon to smartphone, from Formula One to rockets, via Space design: this is the Space economy, an integrated system of knowledge which brings together the most diverse excellences, pushing the accelerator of innovation transversally, strengthening the supply chain and, at the same time, crossing its borders by continuously attracting new players.

A virtuous system, which returns in multiples the assets entrusted to it, by translating them into research, innovation, service, employment and hi-tech wonders.

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A showcase for small and medium-sized enterprises and national start-up companies, whose goal is highlighting unique growth paths, evolving business models and adaptation and anticipation strategies of the most advanced New Space trends, so that the whole sector can draw inspiration from them.

ZOOM ON SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZED ENTERPRISES

Qascom brings galileo and italy to the moon

by Silvia Ciccarelli

Born in 2004 from the intuition of three engineers, Qascom has contributed to design the signal of the Galileo European satellite navigation system and today is developing technologies which will soon be landing on the Moon.

The company has always been working in the markets of satellite navigation systems and signal intelligence, which are now key components of the global Space economy. The passion and deep knowledge of technologies are two elements which have always characterized Qascom’s team and have allowed it to grow and build a network of international relationships in the aerospace sector.

Over the years, Qascom has become a European point of reference for the authentication of the Galileo signal and is one of the inventors of the Osnma (Open Service Navigation Message Authentication) protocol, currently in testing phase in the system, which allows Galileo receivers to authenticate the signal received from space. Over time, it has strengthened and increased the partnerships with the European Commission, the European Space Agency, the ASI and the major European companies in the field of aerospace and defence, and has recently contributed with its know-how to the development of the Space and Earth segments of second-generation Galileo satellites. The company has also established itself in the field of defence.

The first 10 years of activity were focused on the research of algorithms which were capable of incre32 | SPAZIO 2050

Qascom is located in Bassano del Grappa (Vi)

asing the safety of the GPS receivers. The activities have subsequently evolved by increasing the maturity of algorithms and complexity of supplies, as well as by developing products related to browsing. Among these, Qascom is producing a specific multifrequency and multiconstellation GPS and Galileo receiver for terrestrial and Space applications. The Space version has been successfully used in several missions supported by the ESA, ASI and NASA. In the first mission, named Gariss, Qascom’s receiver allowed to test the reception of the European and American satellite navigation signal from the International Space Station (ISS). The subsequent missions allowed to test the skills of the Gnss receiver on sounding rockets launched by the NASA (SL-14 mission and the future SL-15 mission) and aboard the Bobcat-1 satellite, a CubeSat launched from the ISS which allowed to test the Qascom technology for 6 months in space. From the success of these missions, the opportunity has arisen to play a key role in one of the next NASA’s commercial lunar missions, in the context of the Commercial Lunar Payload Services (Clps), thanks to an agreement between the ASI and the NASA. The Lunar Gnss Receiver Experiment (LuGre) will test for the first time the reception of GPS and Galileo signals during the stage of lunar transfer orbit and on the lunar soil. In 2023, with LuGre, not only Qascom but also Italy will land for the first time on the Moon’s surface, after United States, Russia and China. Today, Qascom is expanding its international footprint outside Europe. By establishing Qascom Australia Pty Ltd, it aims at enhancing the products of the parent company in the Australian and Asian emerging market, and also at creating opportunities for further growth and evolution by offering research services related with the use of the Gnss in safety critical applications.

Furthermore, it is entering new business lines in Italy, including test equipment for satellites which is used to validate specific safety and cryptography aspects.

The new operational headquarters are in an advanced building stage and boast spaces for electronics laboratories, a data centre, an integration site and a mission control room. It’s a further evolution of the business, which aims at strengthening the knowhow and increasing the complexity and maturity of the services offered to institutional clients. The new headquarters will also allow to attract new talents who will join the current team, which is made up of nearly 50 persons and represents the key to Qascom’s success.

Follow Qascom page in the Italian Space Industry Online Catalogue, with updated contents and links to the company’s official channels: https://italianspaceindustry.it/ listing/qascom/

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HISTORY OF THE CONQUEST OF THE MOON

Cosmic exploration

by Giovanni Caprara

From the Cold War politics to the conquest of the Moon, the birth of the Italian Space and the future on the Moon and Mars

It’s hard to imagine the conquest of the Moon, and the landing of the first American astronauts in 1969 with the incredible speed at which those facts happened, without thinking of the framework of Cold War which marked those years. The history of the first human exploration of another celestial body is rooted in the immediate post-war period, when the confrontation between Moscow and Washington was unbalanced in favor of the United States, which had the option of a military strike on the potential opponent, if needed. The logic on which the policy of the two opposing blocs was based was that of “mutual destruction”, by using nuclear weapons. But if the United States had bases in Europe to host bombers who were capable of flying over Moscow, the Soviets weren’t able to do the same if they departed from the USSR. The only option for Josif Stalin was relying on the development of rockets, starting from the German technicians who had been captured and who had a prominent role in the manufacturing of the V2//A4, the first guided missile in history, with which Hitler would target London. They were joined by the group guided

by Sergei Korolev, the pioneer of the Russian space who, with the approval of Nikita Krushev who was the successor at the Kremlin, manufactured the first R-7 intercontinental ballistic missile. With this powerful carrier SPAZIO 2050 | 33

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rocket, Moscow reestablished the balance as it was now able to threaten the American skies. Washington realized that only when, on October 4th 1957, Korolev managed to launch the first satellite in history, the Sputnik, whose task was making a beep-beep sound, coming from Space and full of meaning, heard by the entire world. Such meaning wasn’t scientific, but political. The satellite was manufactured in a rush, in order to beat the Americans who in 1955, through the announcement by the president Dwight Eisenhower, had decided to build an artificial satellite for scientific purposes. In those years, the International Geophysical Year had been organized: it started in 1957 to know Earth’s conditions better, and also Italian scientists took part in it. During World War II, it was exactly the birth of rocket science and other technologies, such as radar, which made it possible to imagine the manufacturing of a satellite, whose position in space would allow for the first time a global vision of our planet.

Four days after the U.S. president, Leonid Sedov, a famous Soviet physicist who, later on, was in charge of the Space program, let it be known that the USSR would pursue the same goal. However the project, which had already secretly started, was too complex, and in order to beat the American antagonist in the final sprint it was set aside and replaced by the Prosteyshiy Sputnik, whose name meant “Elementary Satellite” (Sputnik meant “traveling companion”). In 1957, when it opened the Space era by entering into orbit, it showed the USSR’s, or rather the communist political system’s, technological superiority. And the United States, which were certain of being the undisputed superpower because they had been the first to build the atomic bomb and the hydrogen bomb, were dethroned by the small cosmic sphere, but above all by the display of power of the carrier rocket that had launched it. In fact, it could carry a nuclear bomb in the ogive and suddenly hit the undefended United States.

In 1961, Jurij Gagarin’s flight strengthened the Soviet space domination and, at that point, the Cold War took on louder tones by resorting to missiles and in-orbit competition. John Kennedy based his electoral campaign on the American weakness, and blamed Eisenhower for wrongly underestimating such perspective, conquering the White House in the wake of fear. It was a substantiated allegation, because Eisenhower thought that Americans should build TVs, rather than satellites. However, in the meanwhile he had to promptly respond to Moscow, and that’s why he approved the launch of the first American satellite, Explorer-1, based on the schedule Wernher von Braun had been working on for a while, using the first military carrier rocket, Redstone, which he had built at Huntsville Arsenal. The Explorer itself showed the importance of Space research, with the discovery of Van Allen radiation belts around the Earth. Created by the magnetic field after trapping cosmic particles and radiations, they had made possible the birth of 34 | SPAZIO 2050

One year after the Sputnik, the NASA designed a strategy which also included human flight to the Moon.

The Apollo-15 mission. The astronaut James Irwin on the Moon.

life on Earth. Therefore, the first task for Kennedy, once he walked into the White House, was to restore the nation’s lost supremacy. The challenge was becoming hard, because it had to be played in Space.

After its foundation, one year after the Sputnik, the NASA designed a strategy which also included human flight to the Moon. It was in this context of Cold War that the American and Soviet Space activities found fertile ground to develop. The investments in armed forces, both in the United States and in USSR, to build increasingly sophisticated missiles allowed to have in place, with some adaptations, the carrier rockets required to launch satellites, interplanetary probes and inhabited Space shuttles. The ARPA, the Pentagon’s research agency, was established in the United States, and one of its first commitments was the manufacturing of a “super” booster rocket, capable of 450 tons thrust (which, later on, was further increased) for a future powerful launcher. And when von Braun would design the Saturn V carrier rocket at the NASA’s Marshall Center, it would be the engine which would allow him to bring the Apollo capsules, with the astronauts, to the Moon in 1969. The Soviets would try to do the same, by manufacturing new and powerful carrier rockets such as the N1, but the rivalries between the two pretenders to the conquest of the Moon, Sergei Korolev and Vladimir Chelomey, and the subsequent waste of economic and human resources jeopardized the effort, and Moscow never achieved this goal. From then on, the competition in Space during the Cold War would become less strong, in favor of the United States, where the huge investments in the military and civil sector produced

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a technological progress on several fronts, which was promptly absorbed by the Defense and civil-industrial sector. An example of this is represented by the development of chips and computers, which became the soul of each innovation.

This innovation gave birth to the skills required for the manufacturing of probes to explore the Solar System and rewrite its history and characteristics, by having close encounters with all planets, and several moons, to the boundaries of Neptune and Pluto. If the Soviets were focusing their exploration on Venus, the Americans would intensify their research on Mars, and the search for life in the aridity of the Red Planet became a fascinating adventure which would drive the creation of increasingly sophisticated tools. Also Europe would look up at the Red Planet, sharing this destination through the ESA and the ESA’s and the Italian ASI’s programs.

By looking down at the Earth, technology from Space allowed to decipher the complex mechanisms of atmosphere, its interaction with oceans or the movements of continental plates from which earthquakes or volcanic manifestations were born. But, above all, it allowed to control the health of the “blue globe”, its alterations caused by man in land, water and air, and it made it possible to face and understand climate warming, a perennial threat for the future of life on Earth.

The Italian Space was born at this border of knowledge related to our planet. In fact, we were still under the winds of the Cold War when the American Department of State opened up to the European countries.

The purpose was to promote Space initiatives from which the Old Continent’s science and technology

The Italian San Marco satellite.

The Russian astronaut Jurij Gagarin, the first man in space.

could benefit in the fields of science and economics, as well as to stem the influence that the Communist system was trying to exert in several ways. That’s how the first European expression of interests by Edoardo Arnaldi, which would later on lead to the birth of the ESA, were born.

In Italy, Luigi Broglio, heir of Gaetano Arturo Crocco at the Sapienza University of Rome and senior Naval Engineering officer, worked with the U.S. Air Force on aerodynamic research and took advantage of the U.S. government’s availability to support national projects. With this in mind, he proposed the San Marco project, with a dual purpose: manufacturing satellites to detect the density of atmosphere and other related data, through the use of a tool designed by Broglio himself and became known as “Broglio scale”; preparing a launch pad at the Equator, in front of the coast of Kenya. The NASA and the U.S. Department of State approved the plan, and guaranteed the provision of the Scout carrier rocket to launch satellites.

Furthermore, they trained all the specialists from the Air Force which would then take care of carrying out missions. And after the first launch of the San Marco-1 satellite, from the U.S. base of Wallops Island, on the East coast, four more San Marco satellites departed from the equatorial platforms. And not only that: the San Marco project was also entrusted with the launch of five astronomical satellites by the NASA. It was the only case in which the U.S. Space body agreed to have its satellites being launched in orbit by others.

Broglio built around him a group of experts, and gave birth to a school whose protagonists would then feed the growth of the Italian space activities. Among them, there was Professor Carlo Buongiorno, who would also become the first general director of the ASI. In Europe, the continuous readiness to work on the American plans, favored again by the Cold War, would offer, among other things, the opportunity to participate in the shuttle program, by building the Spacelab laboratory for scientific and technological research. It was an important step, from which will derive the sharing process at the International Space Station (ISS). Through this experience, Italy would develop a niche of expertise in the manufacturing of inhabited modules, so much that half of the modules installed on the International Space Station were born in the national industry, and the same goes for the logistics modules for the supply of the cosmic house, which would later on become a private business. Therefore, Space was born and has grown in the framework of the Cold War, raising awareness on a reality which increasingly combines technologies for defense with those for civil life. Today, in the context of the new Cold War (which has also an economic value), extended between continents in an increasingly intense contrast between the East and the West, we’re building the new future in Space, projected towards the colonies on the Moon and the human landing on Mars.

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The lasT Time on The moon The Apollo 17 mission And iTs proTAgonisTs

by Paolo D’Angelo

The astronaut Harrison Schmitt, pilot of the Apollo 17 mission, during the third moonwalk of the mission at the Taurus-Littrow landing site.

Picture by the NASA.

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Next December it will be exactly 50 years since the last time two human beings walked on the surface of our natural satellite. It was the Apollo 17 mission, the sixth and last NASA mission, because in those years the funds for the Apollo program, which included three more lunar explorations, had been cut. The Moon had been conquered in summer 1969, and the promise made by the late lamented U.S. president, John Kennedy, in 1961 had been kept: the Soviets had been defeated and the Stars and Stripes flag had been planted on the Moon’s soil. In those years, as mentioned, the Government would give a small amount of money to the NASA, and the American public opinion had got bored with those expensive exploratory walks outside our world.

Therefore, in 1972, the NASA decided to divert funds to a new program which involved the launch, within a few years, of a reusable shuttle to provide an easy and cheap access to the low terrestrial orbit. The Moon, which had already been conquered, was no longer interesting. This had been understood also by the astronauts themselves from the Apollo 17 mission, the commander Eugene Cernan and the geologist Harrison Schmitt, the only scientist to travel to the Moon. Just before reentering the lunar module, they had pronounced their farewell speeches, even if they had deluded themselves it wouldn’t be for too long. In particular, Cernan said: ««I’m on the surface; and, as I take man’s last step from the surface, back home for some time to come – but we believe not too long into the future – I’d like to just say what I believe history will record. That America’s challenge of today has forged man’s destiny of tomorrow. And, as we leave the Moon at Taurus-Littrow, we leave as we came and, God willing, as we shall return: with peace and hope for all mankind. Godspeed the crew of Apollo 17».».

The exploration of the Moon, carried out between 1969 and 1972 by six different crews, for a total of only 12 men who walked on its surface, allowed to bring back to Earth about 382 kilograms of dust, called regolith, and rocks of several sizes. It’s news from a few weeks ago, that scientists from the NASA have opened one of the last containers of Moon rocks which had been brought back to Earth by the astronauts from the Apollo 17 mission.

At the time, the NASA had been forward-looking in considering that the progress during all these years would lead to more accurate methods to test lunar samples. The study of these rocks confirmed the hypothesis that our satellite was born nearly 4.5 billion years ago, when a planetoid named Theia, of the same size as Mars, that is about one third of our planet, collided with the Earth, which back then was a protoplanet, that is a glowing orb. The debris burst out from the impact over billions of years compacted, originating what we call today as the Moon. Exploring it has given us the option to travel back in time, until we get to the Solar System formation.

Today the NASA, in partnership with other space agencies including the ASI, aims at returning to the Moon within a few years. If the first missions at the turn of the ‘60s and ‘70s were the result of a competition, or better, of a war which had started in 1957, with the launch of the Sputnik, the first artificial satellite in history, by the Soviet Union, today going back to the Moon means much more from a scientific perspective, and in terms of projection towards the future.

That’s what the protagonists often say: going back to stay. Initially with missions lasting a few days (the longest one, the Apollo 17, remained on the Moon for nearly three days), to then make “stops” on the surface, or better below the surface, lasting a few months. To take this step, however, we need a technology that we have learnt to use recently, and here the comparison with the Apollo program is clear. At the time of the promise made by the president Kennedy, eight years before the Moon lan-

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plex lunar exploration program, whereas today, with a way more advanced technology, times are clearly dilated. We definitely lack a political push, as there used to be back then, and it won’t be possible to use much of the technology of the Apollo program, since it’s obsolete and, therefore, needs to be redesigned.

So, all systems have been redesigned, from the carrier rocket to the capsule, from the lunar module to the spacesuits to be used.

The current carrier rocket, which is still called with the acronym SLS (Space Launch System) in its six different versions, is very different, except from the height which is almost similar, from the Saturn V, which, back then, was made up of nearly 5 million parts. The SLS is simpler today, and partly uses the technology of the proven shuttle system, for the two solid propellant side boosters. Also the look of the Orion capsule resembles that of the Apollo capsule, but has a bigger size, and is capable of carrying up to seven persons as needed. By resorting to digitalization as it used to be for the shuttle, obviously also the internal systems are therefore more simple and less heavy.

ding, the required technology had to be invented and the work by the American engineers was huge, but it made it possible to win the challenge. Today, with the Artemis program, the challenge won’t only be technological, but also economic and in terms of partnerships. For example, for the Gateway, the project of cislunar space station, following the agreements we have now reached the stage of building the first modules, on which several space agencies, with different sizes and skills, are starting to work. A global partnership, same as it happened with the making of the International Space Station (ISS), which has been in the terrestrial orbit since 1998, would represent a huge success for international agreements. Also the Italian Space Agency has been capable of carving out its own niche, based on the direct agreements with the NASA, to build several ISS pressurized modules.

Our capacity as an Agency, and industrial capacity, has not only brought jobs to our country, but also a great prestige, which has been recognized worldwide. And the tricolor flag will be drawn also on the Gateway, around the Moon, on a few modules and on the systems which are currently under construction.

Several people ask themselves why in the ‘60s, after less than two decades, we were able to create a com-

The astronaut from the Apollo 17 mission, Eugene Cernan, gets ready to collect samples on the Moon in 1972.

only 12 men have walked on the moon. 382 kilograms of dust, called regolith, have been brought back to earth.

The lunar descent module is still under construction.

The NASA has commissioned the project to Elon Musk’s private company SpaceX, but has recently issued a tender for an alternative lunar module. And then, lastly, there are the next-generation spacesuits that will be used by astronauts during their extravehicular activities which are yet to be “invented”, and this may require some time. Obviously, in a near future, the housing systems for a permanent Moonbase will have to be developed, even if our country represents a specialized industrial excellence in this sector and is already at work. But these housing systems will have, at least partly, to be covered with lunar regolith to alleviate as much as possible the damages coming from solar and cosmic radiations. Therefore, to bury them, we will need automated or driven “earth moving” machines, as they are defined, which have never been manufactured and, obviously, have never been tried in reduced gravity environments. For the transportation of astronauts, we will also need to redesign more evolved, spacious and autonomous lunar rovers than those used between 1971 and 1972, in the last three Apollo missions. This is just to make a few trivial examples.

Anyway, all of this will have to be ready around 2025, in order to conduct a few tests and, then, launch in the following year or years the mission that will bring back human beings to the Moon’s surface.

These will be followed by increasingly complex missions, which at the moment exist only on paper. The conquer and colonization of Space and other worlds is still in the initial stage, despite the fact that several decades have passed since the launch of the first artificial satellite. There’s still a long way to go, but the evolution of man’s technological capacity, required for this adventure, has never made any stops.

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Technical TesTs for a space ouTposT by the ASI’s editorial staff

After the end of the race to the Moon, the United States and Soviet Union took two very different paths as regards the human conquest of space. If the NASA, in fact, focused on the Shuttle model, if we exclude the single Skylab program, to carry out experimental activities in microgravity, the Soviet Union significantly focused on the manufacturing of orbiting space stations with the Saljut program. Actually, the two paths were destined to meet, and not only that: they were meant to make a long journey together. Such reunion seemed to have been prophesied on July 17th, 1975, when the NASA’s Apollo shuttle docked with the Soviet Soyuz shuttle, and the meeting in orbit between the respective crews put an end to the Cold War, ate least in Space. In fact, the experience gained by the Russian space agency in the Saljut and Mir missions was essential for the development of the required technology for a long-term stay in Space, which was later on available in the ISS’s international project.

The Saljut 1, launched on April 19th, 1971, was the world’s first space station. The Saljut program, which included both civil and military activities, lasted 15 years, with the put into orbit of seven Saljut stations, the last one being a multi-module station.

The Saljut 7 was launched on April 19th, 1982. As many as ten different crews served aboard this space station in the years from 1982 to 1986. The longest stay-time for a crew was 237 days. After the launch of the first module for the new Mir space station, which took place on February 19th, 1986, no other launches of cosmonauts were performed towards the Saljut 7.

This was the last Saljut-type space station, which went back into atmosphere on February 5th, 1991, after a slow decay of the orbit.

The Skylab was the only space station program managed by the United States, before the International 38 | SPAZIO 2050

Space Station. The orbiting laboratory was launched on May 14th, 1973. Even if it reached the planned orbital altitude, it didn’t work due to a few problems which happened immediately after the launch. Hadn’t it been possible to repair in a few days the damages which happened after the launch, the space station would have been useless. Luckily, the crews of the Skylab 2 and Skylab 3 missions were able to repair such damages.

But as we said, this wasn’t the primary target of the United States, which focused on the fully recoverable

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The docking between the NASA’s Apollo shuttle and the Soviet Soyuz shuttle.

Credits: NASA.

space shuttle vehicle as an orbiter to live and conduct experiments in Space, thanks to the Spacelab and SpaceHab modules, which were placed in the shuttle’s cargo bay. The program, whose first mission started on December 12th, 1981, hypothesized a higher technological and economic efficiency and was so ambitious that also the Russians tried to imitate it with the Buran shuttle. Actually, the shuttle was an incredibly evolved machine, and was also extremely delicate.

Each launch costed 500 million dollars and the maintenance of shuttles, after each flight, was long and complex. Such factors, along with the accidents of the Challenger and the Columbia shuttles, drove the U.S.

president Obama to radical change of course several years later.

More or less in the same years, the Soviet Union, thanks to the experience of the Saljut and the unfading Soyuz, gave birth to the Mir Space Station. And if Saljut meant salutation in Russian, Mir could mean both world and peace.

The Mir was a space station, operated by the Soviet Union and later by Russia, made up of different modules, which were launched separately and later on were assembled in Space. In fact, the assembly, which started on February 20th, 1986, was completed over a decade later, when the Soviet Union had already dissolved. The internal problems, particularly from an economic point of view, in the USSR and then in Russia, helped the Russian space program to break other records, such as the longest stay in Space by the astronaut Valery Poliakov, who remained aboard the Mir for as many as 437 days and 18 hours. A famous commercial drew inspiration from this event: a cosmonaut who was returning to Earth found himself in Bratislava, which was no longer in Czechoslovakia but was the capital of the independent Slovakia.

In its 14 years of life, the Mir hosted as many as 96 guests: not all of them were Russian or from the East, but several of them were European, such as the French Michel Tognini, the German Thomas Reiter and the Austrian Franz Viechboch, just to mention a few.

It also hosted several Americans, such as John Blaha, who remained in orbit for as many as 118 days. The U.S. record for the longest stay in Space during a single mission has recently been broken by Vande Hey, with 355 days on the International Space Station. Also the British Helen Sharman, the first European female astronaut in Space, stayed on the Mir. Also the U.S. Space Shuttles were able to reach the SPAZIO 2050 | 39

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Mir starting from 1995, through the assembly of a specific docking tool, although the latter had been originally designed for the Buran, the Soviet shuttle, which was never operational. Those were the years of the international cooperation for the making of the International Space Station. The idea was launched to the European allies by Ronald Reagan: the station was to be called Freedom, and excluded the participation of the Soviet bloc, which was still existing at the time. That project remained in a drawer, or better, was commuted into the making of the International Space Station which, starting from 1998, saw the involvement of Russia and 10 more countries, including Europe. The ISS should have been completed in 2003; actually, its assembly was concluded in 2011, also due to the different issues of the Shuttle program, which was dismantled that year.

Today, it has been declared operational until 2030, far beyond its original commitment, which was set for 2024. It’s been permanently inhabited since 2000.

Through its space agency and companies, Italy played a key role in the making of the ISS. The experience acquired by taking part in the manufacturing of the Spacelab, for which the NASA had asked for the collaboration of Europe and had obtained it thanks to a strong contribution from Italy and Germany, led the Italian industry to be involved in the manufacturing of the ESA’s Columbus module, the Nodes 2 and 3, the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) to supply the station following the closure of the Shuttle program and, in direct agreement with the NASA through the ASI, the Mplm, Leonardo, Raffaello and Donatello logistics module. Initially planned for the shuttle’s cargo bay, one of them, the Leonardo module, was transferred to remain in a fixed orbit and today is the Pmm (Permanent Multipurpose Module), the only permanent element, from a single European country, on the International Space Station. The symbol of such technological and industrial capacity is the Cupola, a window on the world, in the truest sense of its meaning, which has been gladdening astronauts since 2008. As you read in the first pages of this magazine, all of this lead Italy to play a prominent role also in Artemis, the future project which aims at sending human beings to the lunar orbit.

In 2011, also China started a program for an orbiting space station, the forth in the history of Space. The Tiangong 1 was followed, in 2016, by the Tiangong 2.

In both cases, they were orbiting laboratories, made up of a single module. The program of the Tiangong 3 started in 2021 with the launch of the first module, Tianhe, which will be followed by Wentian and Men40 | SPAZIO 2050

samantha cristoforetti The second mission of the astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti started on April 27th, aboard SpaceX’s Crew Dragon. Minerva is dedicated to wisdom and is a tribute to those men and women who make Space flights possible.

The mission involves several experiments that Samantha will carry out during her 5-month stay aboard the International Space Station, covering several sectors of medicine and nutrition and preparing the ground for the future Space exploration. Samantha will also be in charge of other tests which were already started by her colleague Luca Parmitano during the ESA Beyond mission in 2019.

A photo of Skylab taken by the Skylab-2 astronauts as they left the space station to return to Earth, on June 22nd 1973.

gtian. The station should be completed in 2023.

Going back to the International Space Station, its management at international government level has an end date: 2030. But, in all likelihood, it won’t be the end of the ISS. In February 2020, the NASA signed a contract with the company Axiom Space for the installation of three new modules on the ISS, with the first one scheduled for 2024. These modules will constitute the commercial “port” for the station. Each country is moving its research and human exploration to the Moon, whereas the Space economy will have a new Space stronghold in low orbit.

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LUNAR SCIENCE

Earth-Moon: a dual planet

by Ettore Perozzi

The Moon turns around the Earth, but what turns around the Moon? Countless beliefs, myths, songs, novels, poems, movies, images, but above all science, a lot of science. Because such a bulky object couldn’t be ignored and lunar phenomenology, from the game of phases to the mystery of eclipses, has irresistibly attracted the best minds of all times. Let’s take as an example its cratered surface, which our galloping pareidolia has immediately identified with the face of a goodness, in perennial contemplating of our planet.

Following the shocking revelation by Galileo, which

had observed through the telescope that such illusion was due to a sequence of mountains and highlands, we asked ourselves how they formed. A question that had to wait over three centuries to find an adequate answer: it was formulated by Alfred Wegener himself, to whom we owe the theory of continental drift, one of the fundamental discoveries of modern geophysics.

It was him who understood that lunar craters didn’t have a volcanic origin (we would refer to the bursting of “bubbles”, which had worked their way up from an underlying incandescent magma), but they had for-

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med following the impact between other celestial bodies. Wegener advanced his theory in 1921, in the article Die Entstehung der Mondkrater (The origin of lunar craters), whose English translation was published only in 1975, and this is why it struggled to make its way through school books until quite recent times.

Since then, the collisional explanation has only been finding confirmations; actually, the study of lunar craters has become a very powerful tool to investigate the past of our Solar System: an open window on the five billion years of its history. From the age, form and size of lunar craters, we can trace back the flow of celestial bodies which would transit nearby the Earth and hit it constantly. By now, such traces have been cancelled by the erosive action of wind, rain, earthquakes, volcanos, floods and the invasive presence of ecosystems. By bringing back to Earth samples of Moon rock, astronauts allowed to establish their exact date thanks to the radioactive isotopes method, making order for good in the lunar chronology and, subsequently, in the Earth’s chronology. The last chapter of this saga may be written by the finding of big ice deposits, with a cometary origin, within craters which are permanently in shadow, a discovery which would completely change the future scenario of Moon exploration.

Therefore, we owe to the Moon much of what we know about the Earth, but its origin is still uncertain: a captured and wandering celestial body, a natural satellite which has formed together with our planet or the result of a huge cosmic impact? The difference isn’t banal, because it has implications even on the age-old question of life in the universe because, if we observe it as it shines so peacefully in the sky, we wouldn’t tell 42 | SPAZIO 2050

“We owe to the Moon much of what we know about the Earth, but its origin is still uncertain”.

that, from an astronomical perspective, the Moon is a big anomaly. In fact, its sizes and mass are out of all proportion in relation to the planet-satellite pairs that we can find in the Solar System. Even if Ganymede, with its 5.270 km of diameter, largely exceeds the Moon, which hardly reaches 3500 km, the situation is the opposite if we look at the mass: only 81 times smaller than the Earth’s mass in the case of the Moon, whereas for Ganymede it’s far beyond one ten-thousandth if comparted to Jupiter’s mass.

It means that Earth and the Moon are so linked with each other from a gravitational perspective that they can be regarded as a sort of dual planet. The alternation of tides on Earth is the most evident proof, so much that we can believe that the subsequent coming and going of low and warm water has favored the birth of life. A significant climatic stability is then needed to start the evolution on the main road, a condition which only the Moon, with its continuous orbit, has been able to ensure by “blocking” the inclination of Earth’s axis, responsible for the alternation of seasons. In contrast, Mars and Venus, which are the most similar planets to ours, do not have any satellites (Phobos and Deimos are most likely small captured astronauts) and their rotation axes, in the past, fluctuated wildly and chaotically. This may have caused Mars to lose the water which used to flow abundantly on the surface, and a complete overturning for Venus, which would explain why it’s the only planet of the Solar System which turns around itself clockwise. That’s why we must thank the Moon twice, even if, as regards the search for faraway lands, this means that we have to admit that it’s not enough to find a rocky planet in the so-called “habitable area” around another star: it also needs to have a Moon as big as ours, which perhaps was born from a cosmic incident. And this makes it more complicated from a probabilistic perspective…

Let’s go back to the Moon, our Moon: living on a dual planet has undoubted advantages for a technologically advanced species, first of all for science. Understanding not only the nature, but also the motion of our satellite has been a challenge for scientists since ancient times. Among the most famous discoveries, the so-called lunar “cycles”: the saros ensures that a given sequence of eclipses is repeated after a range of 18 years and 11 days (the credit goes to the Chaldeans, who lived in Mesopotamia ne-

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arly 3000 years ago), whereas the Greek Meton observed that 19 days are needed for the Moon to return to the same stage on the same day of the year. Numerology rules, but they satisfied one of the main purpose of science: predicting natural phenomena. After Copernicus, Kepler and Newton had laid the foundations of the modern vision of our planetary system, it was the marquis Pierre Simon del Laplace who, at the beginning of the XIX° century, inaugurated a new science, the Celestial Mechanics, of which the Moon immediately became the undisputed queen. Disputed, from a gravitational perspective, between Earth and the Sun, which continuously change its trajectory, the accurate calculation of the Moon’s orbit was an actual brainteaser. Among its main experts was Charles Delaunay (1816-1872), whose portrait, that can be admired in the Salle du Conseil of the Paris Observatory, immortalizes him with his right hand resting on the two volumes of his “Theory of the motion of the Moon”, the result of 20 years of work. Today, the Moon’s ephemerides are easily available, also online, whereas thanks to the Lunar Laser Ranging technique (which consists in bouncing a laser beam on the reflectors installed on our satellite’s surface), to which the ASI contributes from the Centre for Space Geodesy in Matera, we’re aware of its distance with astonishing accuracy.

And yet, when it looked like we had finally managed to reveal its mysteries, the Moon surprises us again.

Everything has (re)started when human beings have gotten in their heads not only to observe the Moon, but also to walk on its surface. It’s been a paramount

The studies commissioned by the NASA had led to the discovery of new trajectories which were able to connect Earth and the Moon in a more effective manner.

torways”, which work the other way around compared to their terrestrial counterparts because, by extending the journey, they allow to save fuel.

They were seen in action for the first time in 1991, when they allowed the Japanese probe Hiten to enter into orbit around the Moon, even though it hadn’t been designed for this purpose and, therefore, it didn’t have enough fuel for a traditional transfer. Today we know whole families of this type of orbits, which play a key role in the new scenario of Moon exploration, starting from the orbiting outpost, the Lunar Gateway, which will be positioned in one of their pivot points, in order to facilitate arrivals and departures.

All explorations have their own heroes: to conclude this article, we celebrate the American mathematician Charles Conway (1933-1984) who, in the 1968 article in which he outlines the new way of travelling to space that we have just described, uses prophetic words: “Though one can't predict whether specific knowledge will find application, it is safe to assume that it happens often”.

intellectual and technological effort, about which reams and reams have been written, but there’s a specific aspect of that Space undertaking on which it’s worth focusing. Even if the good old elliptic orbits have been used to bring astronauts to the Moon, the countless studies commissioned by the NASA had led to the discovery of new trajectories which, by means of strange twirls, were able to connect Earth and the Moon in a more effective manner. A sort of “Space moSPAZIO 2050 | 43

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The Apollo missions One of the most important goals reached by the human species is having managed, after exploring the Earth for thousands of years, to leave the planet and walk on another celestial body.

This was the Apollo program: seven missions and twelve men departed from Earth to travel to Space until reaching the Moon, landing and returning home safe and sound. In this short description, there is everything: centuries of science, technology, challenge, effort, cooperation, passion, sacrifices and a great courage. Over 400.000 people worked in various ways on the program, which culminated with the first landing in July 1969, Apollo 11, and ended with Apollo 17, in December 1972. Over there, the astronauts carried out experiments and measurements, collected samples and conducted explorations, and provided a huge amount of data which we are still analyzing. Not everything went well, there were unexpected events, malfunctions and errors, with deep moments of tension culminated with Apollo 13, when astronauts, the only ones from the program who didn’t touch the lunar soil, were one step away from death. After Apollo, the NASA used robotic probes to study the Moon, but we’re almost ready for a return in style. This time, we will build a station in lunar orbit and a base camp on the satellite. And from there, we will look at the next target: Mars.

Rocco Petrone Rocco Petrone was not only a pioneer of the U.S. Space program, but also a symbol of the “American dream”, where anyone can achieve success starting from nothing. In fact, he’s the son of two Italian emigrants. He was orphaned very soon, and was forced to work to support his family, but he didn’t abandon his studies because he had a dream: joining the U.S. army.

He managed to do that, and he became an expert of ballistic missiles, so much that Wernher Von Braun noticed him and, in 1960, hired him at the NASA to run the development of the Saturn V, the most powerful rocket ever built. The work was exhausting, but Petrone strictly complied with the schedule and got promoted to Director of Launch Operations. The voice of the countdown that we hear in the video of the Apollo 11’s departure, is his voice.

He was then appointed Director of the entire Apollo program and, in 1975, also of the rendez-vous between the U.S. Apollo shuttle and the Soviet Soyuz capsule.

Petrone was a protagonist of the biggest conquest of human exploration: the Moon. Without his contribution, this story wouldn’t have been the same.

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Space curiosities

by Barbara Ranghelli

SLS vs Saturn V: a comparison between launchers A space shuttle with astronauts aboard weighs several tons, particularly if it needs to host also fuel, water, systems and equipment to carry out a lunar mission. A very powerful rocket is needed to defy Earth’s gravity with such a heavy object. At the times of the Apollo program, Wernher Von Braun designed the Saturn V, which has served very well, but today the NASA is more ambitious. For the Artemis program, an even more powerful launcher has been developed: the Space Launch System (SLS), designed for the Moon, but also for Mars and beyond. The SLS is more versatile than its predecessor, and presents itself in three variations with different load capacities. One of these versions is even equipped with a compartment, which can host a small base to be mounted on the Moon. The new rocket has more thrust and is designed to carry up to 46 tons of load towards the Moon. In addition to the solid propellant boosters, the SLS is equipped with four RS-25 engines, which were also used for the Space Shuttle and have been reworked to adapt to the new configuration. Same as the mythical Saturn V, the new launcher is a source of pride for human engineering, and is ready to write the history of Space exploration.

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Space tourists In 2001, the executive Dennis Tito bought a return flight, inclusive of stay, to the International Space Station, becoming the first Space tourist in history.

Today, several private companies offer suborbital flights to wealthy tourists: among them are those who are no longer satisfied and want to go further.

It’s the case of Yusako Maezawa, founder of the largest bespoke clothing website, who, after visiting the orbiting station, now aims at reaching the Moon.

The Japanese executive has already chosen his travelling companions and next year, after a long on-ground preparation, they will depart to the Moon aboard a SpaceX’s Starship spacecraft. If an experience in Space is also part of your dreams (and your budget), you may consider the packages offered by Space Adventures, a Space tourist agency. You just have to e-mail them and reach an agreement on the type of journey: admiring the terrestrial dawn from the Moon, being the first private citizen to conduct a spacewalk or visiting the International Space Station. At this point we’re missing only a hotel.

The project by the U.S. company Orbital Assembly Corporation is ready: a big wheel in low orbit, resembling the space station from the movie 2001: A Space Odyssey. The hotel, scheduled for 2027 and powered by solar panels, will host up to 280 tourists and 122 staff members; its name is Voyager and will be equipped with a restaurant, bar, concert hall, gym and cinema. 5 million dollar-packages are already on sale for a 3-day vacation!

Lunar gravity

Elon Musk’s Space shuttle Una rivoluzione importante nel sistema di lancio Undoubtedly, an important revolution in the rocket launch systems has been, in recent years, the recovery of SpaceX’s boosters. Already used routinely for the Falcon fleet, they will express themselves to their fullest potential for Starship, the prototype shuttle which is capable of carrying a load of as many as 100 tons to the Moon. Its Super Heavy booster, a 70-meter tall steel cylinder weighing 120 tons, will fall back on Earth once unloaded, but instead of landing by itself will be caught in midair, a few meters away from the soil, by a mechanical arm! Until a few years ago, it sounded like science fiction, like many other ambitious and futuristic projects on which Elon Musk is working. Its SpaceX is the first private company which sets similar goals to those of space agencies such as the NASA, the ESA, the CNSA and Roscosmos. For example, its city on Mars surpasses each project designed so far.

Starship is the tool with which the company plans to reach these goals. As well as recovering the booster, which reduces costs up to 60%, it will be able to carry 100 passengers for each trip, offering a versatility which has driven the NASA to start a fruitful partnership.

Thank God, we have the Moon, who knows whether we’d exist without it! We are lucky, because Earth is the only planet among those in the Solar System to have such a big satellite, an essential matter for our existence. For example, its strong gravity stabilizes our rotational axis and prevents obliquity, that is the inclination of the Earth’s axis compared to the orbit, from starting to fluctuate so wildly that the poles may reach the equator! Climate changes would be so swift that they would even prevent the development of life. Instead, the Moon and the stability of seasons favor the existence of several animal and vegetal species. Furthermore, lunar gravity, with its effect which is similar to a magnet, generates majestic tides, which are capable of making sea levels rise by up to 20 meters, and the hard Earth’s crust by over 30 centimeters!

Tidal frictions have slowed our planet’s rotation until today’s 24 hours, allowing the evolution of biological cycles – such as photosynthesis – and a less frenetic lifestyle! But things will change in the future, even if slowly. At the moment, the Moon moves away from Earth at a speed of 3.8 centimeters per year. In a few billion years, will the Moon be so distant that its gravity will no longer have effects? According to a few scientists, its behavior shouldn’t be taken for granted…We’ll see!

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ON DISPLAY

the book PhoeniX: it’s time to rise again

by Giulio Chimienti

in a world which struggles to rise again from its ruins, auberon Young doesn’t give up love and his own ambitions.

In people’s collective imagination and folkloric tradition, phoenix is the universal symbol of rebirth after death. It’s a mythological creature surrounded by flames which, at the end of its lifecycle, burns one last time to rise again from its ashes. It’s an allegory for the resurrection of body and soul, or simply a warning to resist the adversities that await us over the course of life. The novel by Dario Vergari tells the incredible and rough story of Auberon Young, a researcher from New York who doesn’t give up his dream, the Moon, not even from a second.

The narration develops along a timeline where past, present and future are intertwined. The use of the first person helps to transform the readers into spectators and, at the same time, protagonists of a dystopian and theocratic society arisen from the horror of a global war.

Each chapter of this fascinating and romantic novel combines wisely diametrically opposite feelings and emotions: love and hate, fears and hope, freedom and oppression.

The author starts with the disastrous September, 11th, 2001 – an event which, at the start of the new millennium, deeply shook the certainties of a nation and of the whole of the West – and builds an awful evolution of our world.

It’s no coincidence if such date corresponds with the birth of Auberon Young. Death is contrasted by birth.

From the ashes of New York, we witness the resurrection of a Man who doesn’t surrender to pain and doesn’t give up the dream of a better future.

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title: Phoenix author: Dario Vergari Publisher: Bré edizioni Year of edition: 2019 Pages: 345

manity which is continuously poised between Eros and Thanatos, life and death, until the unavoidable occurs.

PhoeniX is not only a permanent station on the Moon; metaphorically speaking, it’s a triumph of ingenuity over superstition; the triumph of man over God: «We had found God, it was us».

PhoeniX is the accomplishment of immortality, but it has a price.

Can you be considered a man when you give up mortality? Can the eternal contemplation of a memory, or moving towards a journey without destination, be considered life?

Dario Vergari does not only offer us a science-fiction novel, but rather a reflection on the existence and how we can fully enjoy it, without obeying to the constraints of those who manipulate our actions and thoughts and, above all, without fearing our mortal nature.

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