TECHNICAL CREATIVITY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: the teacher’s concept, significance and contribution
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ČÁSTKOVÁ Pavlína MRÁZEK Michal DOSTÁL Jiří PROVÁZKOVÁ STOLINSKÁ Dominika KAVKOVÁ Veronika
TECHNICAL CREATIVITY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: the teacher’s concept, significance and contribution
Palacký University, Olomouc Faculty of Education
TECHNICAL CREATIVITY IN PRIMARY EDUCATION: THE TEACHER’S CONCEPT, SIGNIFICANCE AND CONTRIBUTION
Pavlína Částková Michal Mrázek Jiří Dostál Dominika Provázková Stolinská Veronika Kavková
Olomouc 2026
Acknowledgements The authors would like to thank the teachers for participating in the research study and for sharing their experiences, which contributed significantly to the completion of this monograph. We would also like to thank our colleagues who participated in the project that led to the creation of this monograph, as well as the reviewers for their expert comments and recommendations. This monograph was created with the support of the scientific research grant project GFD_PdF_2024_01 Subjective Theory of Primary School Teachers’ Technical Creativity, funded by Palacký University in Olomouc. Reviewers: prof. PaedDr. Alena Hašková, CSc. doc. PaedDr. Ján Stebila, PhD. Neoprávněné užití tohoto díla je porušením autorských práv a může zakládat občanskoprávní, správněprávní, popř. trestněprávní odpovědnost. 1. vydání © Pavlína Částková, Michal Mrázek, Jiří Dostál, Dominika Provázková Stolinská, Veronika Kavková, 2026 © Palacký University, Olomouc, 2026 https://doi.org/10.5507/pdf.26.24467450 ISBN 978-80-244-6745-0 (print) ISBN 978-80-244-6746-7 (online: iPDF)
OBSAH Introduction
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1. Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills 1.1 Cognitive mechanisms of creativity 1.1.1 Generating solutions 1.1.2 Evaluation and selection of solutions 1.1.3 Integration of solutions 1.1.4 Conditions for cognitive performance 1.2 Personality dispositions for creativity 1.3 Social and psychological conditions for creativity 1.4 Technical creativity in primary school environment 1.4.1 The creative process in technical activities
10 11 12 14 15 16 17 19 21 24
2 Professional training of primary school teachers for technical education 2.1 Students’ subject-specific self-efficacy during their studies 2.1.1 Requirements on the professional competences of primary school teachers 2.2 Subjective theory of technical creativity 2.2.1 Teachers’ implicit pedagogical knowledge in a pedagogical-psychological context 2.3 Types of teachers according to their approach to technical creativity 3 Learning tasks contributing to the development of technical creativity in primary school 3.1 Problems and barriers to the development of technical creativity from the perspective of teachers 3.2 Methods for developing pupils’ technical creativity 3.3 Types of tasks developing pupils’ creativity
32 34 35 40 42 44
51 56 61 66
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4 Research into teachers’ approaches to technical creativity in primary school practice 4.1 Research problem 4.1.1 Definition of categories and aspects 4.1.2 Research questions and research objectives 4.1.3 Hypotheses 4.2 Research design 4.2.1 Research tool 4.3 Research sample 4.3.1 Ethical aspects of research 4.4 Results of data analysis 4.4.1 Characteristics of the respondent profile 4.4.2 Descriptive data analysis 4.4.3 Comparative data analysis 4.4.4 Cluster analysis of data 4.5 Research findings in the context of current knowledge 4.5.1 Determinants influencing the implementation of technically oriented creative tasks 4.5.2 Categories influencing teachers’ approach to technical creativity 4.5.3 Typology of teachers in terms of their approach to technical creativity
72 72 73 76 78 79 79 83 85 85 86 91 108 127 144 146 149 153
5 Recommendations for supporting the development of technical creativity in primary schools 5.1 Personality dispositions for technical creativity 5.2 Didactic conditions for technical creativity 5.3 Material resources 5.4 Cultural and social conditions
156 158 163 168 172
Conclusion Bibliography List of tables List of graphs List of charts Appendices Abstract Annotation
176 178 197 200 203 204 230 232
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Obsah
INTRODUCTION The development of creativity is one of the key topics in the current educational discourse, closely linked to the shift in education towards a competence-based approach and the preparation of pupils for life and work in a rapidly changing society. In strategic documents and specialist literature, creativity is understood in different ways depending on the context in which it is reflected, whether at the level of educational policy, pedagogical theory or psychological research. From an education policy perspective, creativity is often characterised as one of the so-called future skills, which is to say transferable competences which can be applied across disciplinary contexts and diverse life situations. This framework emphasises its importance for the adaptability of individuals in a dynamically changing society and knowledge economy (OECD, 2018; Trilling & Fadel, 2009; UNESCO, 2021). Psychological approaches to creativity also go beyond the concept of individual disposition and emphasise its culturally and socially embedded nature, arising from the interaction of the individual with the environment, social norms and value systems (Amabile, 1996; Csikszentmihalyi, 1997). At the individual level, creativity is understood as a complex cognitive capacity comprising the ability to generate original and functional solutions, reflect on one’s own thinking, and work flexibly with available resources. (Sternberg & Lubart, 1999) At the same time, however, it transcends the purely performance dimension and represents an important level of self-realisation and personal identity formation, especially in educational and professional contexts. (Beghetto & Karwowski, 2017; Craft, 2003; Glăveanu, 2020) In the field of professional application, creativity is interpreted as a strategic skill with significant innovative potential which supports the competitiveness of individuals and organisations and contributes to the long-term sustainable development of society. While the broader socio-cultural environment creates general conditions for the development of creativity, its deliberate and systematic support is implemented primarily within schools as institutionally structured educational spaces. Schools have tools at their disposal which enable them to develop pupils’ creative thinking and behaviour in a targeted manner through the curriculum, teaching strategies and the creation of a psychosocial climate Introduction
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in the classroom and school. In the context of current curricular changes in the Czech Republic, the development of creativity, including its technical dimension, is understood as a fundamental prerequisite for fulfilling the competencies for the 21st century. Technical creativity is understood as an integrated set of knowledge, skills, attitudes and values which enable pupils to actively solve technical problems, design and test solutions, experiment with materials and technologies, and apply technical knowledge in authentic situations. (OECD, 2023; UNESCO, 2023) This definition reflects current didactic approaches in technical education and links the cognitive, psychomotor and affective levels of learning. (Dostál, 2019; Koldová et al., 2024) Technical creativity is of particular importance in primary schools, as early school age is a crucial developmental stage for forming relationships with learning, work, technical activities and problem solving. Supporting pupils’ creativity is largely dependent on the teacher, their professional competences, experience and pedagogical approach to teaching. The development of technical creativity can therefore be understood as the result of the dynamic interaction of the teacher’s beliefs, approaches and educational strategies, which together form a coherent framework for pedagogical practice. Previous research has repeatedly shown that the application of creative approaches in teaching cannot be reduced to the declared support of creativity, but is the result of a complex interplay of the teacher’s professional knowledge, professional experience, value orientations and school environment conditions. The text is conceived as a theoretical-analytical study the aim of which is to anchor the concept of technical creativity in the context of primary education, to elaborate its key theoretical foundations with regard to the teacher as a key actor in its development, and at the same time to present the results of empirical research focused on teachers’ concepts and strategies for supporting pupils’ technical creativity. The theoretical chapters provide an analytical framework for the empirical part of the publication, which focuses on examining the implicit pedagogical beliefs and decisionmaking processes of teachers which significantly shape the ways in which pupils’ technical creativity is recognised, supported and evaluated in a real educational context. The structure of the publication is subordinate to this intention and is designed to gradually develop the conceptual framework. The first chapter focuses on the personal conditions for the development of technical creativity and elaborates on the key pedagogical and psychological aspects 8
Introduction
s haping pupils’ relationship to technical activities and creative problem solving. The second chapter places the issue of technical creativity in the context of professional training and the competences of primary school teachers. The content of the third chapter then focuses on the implementation of technical creativity in teaching through specific teaching methods and types of learning tasks suitable for its development. The theoretical foundations presented in chapters 1–3 form the analytical basis for the subsequent empirical chapter, which presents the results of research focused on the concept of technical creativity among primary school teachers and their strategies for supporting creative technical activities, thus enabling the theoretical concepts to be applied to the specific educational reality. The fifth chapter expands the theoretical framework and research findings to include implications for educational practice at the level of teachers, parents and school management. In this text, the term “creativeness” is used as a synonym for creativity. In accordance with the tradition of Czech pedagogical and psychological terminology, we further use the term “creative” to refer to a process which is characterised by the active involvement of the individual and includes their own, subjectively significant contribution. Both terms refer to an individual’s ability to generate new and valuable ideas, approaches or products in various areas of human activity. The terms primary school and lower primary school are used synonymously in the text, in line with international educational terminology and in an effort to ensure terminological continuity in professional discourse. Both terms are used with the same meaning and refer to the stage of education corresponding to primary education, which in the international context corresponds to ISCED level 1 according to the UNESCO classification. Furthermore, the terms “teacher” and “pupil” are used in the text as generic, gender-inclusive terms, covering both women and men, or all persons acting in that role. This method of expression has been chosen in order to maintain linguistic clarity and with full respect for the principles of equality and diversity.
Introduction
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1
PEDAGOGICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF DEVELOPING CREATIVE SKILLS
The development of creativity is a complex process in which cognitive, personality and socio-psychological factors intertwine. Creative behaviour is the result of a dynamic interaction between thought processes, individual predispositions and the educational environment, the quality of which fundamentally influences pupils’ opportunities to experiment, perceive problematic situations, take risks and seek new solutions. (Guilford, 1950; Amabile, 1996). In the context of education, it is essential to understand what conditions enable the aforementioned processes to be activated and, by contrast, what barriers can weaken them. This chapter presents the basic psychological and pedagogical aspects of creativity which form the starting point for defining technical creativity. Following an introductory synthesis of the cognitive processes of creative thinking, the chapter focuses on the personality prerequisites of students, and, subsequently, on the socio-psychological conditions which determine whether the potential for creativity can actually be developed in the school environment. Creativity is perceived in psychology as the ability to produce new and useful ideas, a process involving cognitive, personality and social factors (Runco & Jaeger, 2012). It is therefore not only a psychological construct, but also a set of abilities facilitating artistic, scientific or other creative activities. (Plháková, 2023) The essential criterion of creativity is not originality itself, but the relevance and functional contribution of the result to the individual or community, as emphasised by Csikszentmihalyi’s (1997) systemic approach. The systematic study of creativity developed in the mid-20th century, when Guilford (1950) drew attention to the importance of studying divergent thinking, that is to say the ability to generate a variety of diverse and unusual solutions. However, divergent thinking cannot be understood in isolation; creative performance is the result of interaction with convergent
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Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
processes which enable critical assessment of the quality of proposed solutions in the context of a given problem. (Runco & Jaeger, 2012) Later theoretical models expanded the original cognitive concept to include the importance of motivational and social factors. The component model of creativity (Amabile, 1983) shows that creative performance is conditioned not only by knowledge and skills relevant to a given field, but also by internal motivation and the nature of the social environment. Creative activity is most effective when being performed out of intrinsic interest and not being constrained by pressure to perform or external sanctions (Amabile, 1996). Current approaches thus understand creativity as a dynamic and multilayered phenomenon which develops over time depending on personality, cognitive, motivational, and contextual conditions (Sawyer, 2012). This view makes it possible to distinguish between mere originality and genuine creative performance, which has practical and cultural significance for the individual or community.
1.1 Cognitive mechanisms of creativity One of the crucial theoretical frameworks for the study of creativity can be found in cognitive psychology. Here, creativity is understood as the result of specific mental operations through which individuals manipulate information and create new, meaningful and functional ideas or solutions to problems. (Ward, Smith, & Finke, 1999) Cognitive models explain how existing knowledge is activated and combined in creative thinking, how mental structures are reorganised, and how specific innovative outputs are created. (Finke et al., 1992) Research shows that creative performance is conditioned by effective information processing in both working and long-term memory systems, interaction between implicit and explicit knowledge, and the ability to use analogies and associations to create new content. (Gabora, 2010) Divergent thinking, enabling the generation of diverse solutions (Guilford, 1950; Runco & Acar, 2012), associative thinking, facilitating unusual connections between pieces of information to be made (Mednick, 1962), and mental rearrangement of representations, leading to the reconstruction and reorganisation of concepts.
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
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In summary, the key cognitive factors influencing creativity include divergent, analytical and associative processes, cognitive flexibility, working memory, executive functions, metacognition, manipulation of mental representations and, in some situations, intuition (Beaty et al., 2016; Benedek et al., 2014; De Dreu et al., 2008; Kaufman & Beghetto, 2009; Sio & Ormerod, 2009; Scott et al., 2004). These cognitive mechanisms also form an important basis for the design of educational interventions and diagnostic procedures which themselves support the development of creative thinking. For analytical and didactic purposes, the creative process can be divided into several interrelated phases capturing the gradual transition from the emergence of new ideas to their evaluation, conversion into a feasible form, and the cognitive prerequisites for their realisation. The phases of generation, evaluation, integration, and cognitive performance conditions represent functionally distinct but dynamically interconnected components of the creative process, whose structured understanding allows for a better understanding of the mechanisms of creative thinking in educational settings.
1.1.1 Generating solutions The generative phase of the creative process is based primarily on divergent thinking, which enables the production of a wide range of potential solutions to open-ended problems. (Guilford, 1950; Runco & Acar, 2012) Divergent performance is usually assessed according to indicators of fluency, flexibility, originality and elaboration, which capture both the quantity and quality of variations in ideas. Divergent thinking is a fundamental but not sufficient condition for creativity, because the quantity of ideas alone does not guarantee their usefulness or relevance. (Runco & Jaeger, 2012) An essential source of variability and originality at this stage is associative thinking, which activates and connects mental representations based on similarity, contrast, or distant relationships. This process allows for the creation of unconventional combinations of information and the generation of solutions transcending the usual cognitive schema. (Mednick, 1962; Kenett, 2019) According to associative network theory, the difference between highly creative and less creative individuals lies in the breadth and extent to which the latter can switch between different concepts and generate distant associations. (Mednick, 1962) Current neurocognitive studies show 12
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
that knowledge structures of more creative individuals are less rigidly organised and less tightly interconnected. It is virtually this “looser” organisation of knowledge which makes it easier to combine even distant pieces of information and create unusual, original connections. (Kenett & Faust, 2019) Divergent and associative processes thus together form the cognitive basis for generating new, multifaceted and potentially innovative solutions, which can afterwards be evaluated and selected in further stages of the creative process. Mental representations include internal images, concepts and memories stored in memory. Creativity in this context lies in the ability to rearrange existing mental representations in new and original ways, giving rise to novel ideas or innovative solutions to problems. This process is at the core of what is known as knowledge recombination, where elements from different areas of knowledge which are not normally connected are actually linked together. Rearranging mental representations allows us to discover new relationships between familiar terms and concepts, which is a key mechanism of creative thinking (Finke et al., 1992; Ward et al., 1997). The importance of rearranging mental representations is further confirmed by the Geneplore model of creative cognition (generative and exploratory phases), which assumes that the creative process takes place in two stages: first, so-called pre-inventive structures are generated, which then undergo exploratory examination and transformation. (Finke et al., 1992) This model illustrates the key role played by internal mental images and their flexible transformation in creative activity. Research also shows that the ability to effectively reorganise mental representations is conditioned not only by cognitive abilities, but also by the level of experience and expertise in a given field. (Ward, 2007) Mental representations and their rearrangement thus form an important cognitive basis for the development of creative thinking. Specific aspects of creative thinking are intuition and the so-called “AHA moment” (insight), as they differ from logical problem solving. While intuition is understood as an unconscious process of information processing, AHA moments are usually characterised as manifestations of sudden insight (Kounios, Beeman, 2015), awareness and understanding, where the solution arises unexpectedly, without conscious effort. At the same time, these phenomena are often accompanied by a strong feeling of inner conviction about the correctness of the solution. (Öllinger et al., 2014)
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Moreover, intuition and insights are particularly important in situations where systematic strategies are based on logic fail. However, both phenomena are difficult to predict by their very nature and difficult to grasp in practice. In the pursuit of targeted and systematic development of individual creativity, they cannot therefore be viewed as a reliable tool for intervention, but rather as a natural accompanying effect which can occur spontaneously within the creative process.
1.1.2 Evaluation and selection of solutions The evaluation phase is a key moment in the creative process, which implies a transition from a wide range of generated possibilities to the selection of those variants which are considered functional, feasible and semantically relevant. Convergent thinking plays a central role here, enabling critical evaluation of ideas, their comparison with the requirements of the task and the subsequent selection of the most suitable solutions. (Cropley, 2006) Convergent processes involve analysis, decision-making and the application of knowledge to a specific problem. In technical education, they are particularly important in verifying the technical feasibility, safety and functionality of a design. (Sternberg, 2006) The cognitive basis of the convergent phase consists primarily of analytical and synthetic thinking, which complement each other in the evaluation process. Analytical thinking allows us to break down a problem or design into its constituent parts, identify their key characteristics and define the limits of possible solutions. Analysis is also a necessary prerequisite for the objective evaluation of individual proposals, the verification of hypotheses and the assessment of alternative approaches. (Sternberg, 2006) Synthetic thinking, on the other hand, allows information and elements to be combined into new, coherent wholes and structured solutions to be created which go beyond conventional schematic explanations. (Guilford, 1967; Cropley, 2006) Evaluation and selection thus represent a dynamic counterbalance to the previous generative phase. An effective creative process is characterised by the continuous alternation of divergent and convergent operations which means the generation of ideas, their critical assessment, subsequent modification and reapplication of newly created solutions. This cycle allows 14
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
for the creation of outputs which are not only original but also feasible in a specific technical and educational context. However, evaluation is also influenced by personality factors which support a flexible approach to assessing options and the ability to reflect on less common solutions. (Dacey & Lennon, 2000; Kaufman et al., 2016) The interaction of cognitive and personality factors thus underlines the complex nature of creative performance and the difficulty of decision-making processes associated with selecting the optimal solution.
1.1.3 Integration of solutions The integration phase is an essential moment in the creative process, in which selected ideas are transformed into a coherent, functional and feasible solution. This stage follows immediately after evaluation and selection and requires the synergy of synthetic thinking, executive functions and working with mental representations. Solution integration is characterised by the gradual refinement of the design, the transition from an abstract idea to its concrete form, and iterative adjustments reflecting the technical and contextual requirements of the task1 . Synthetic thinking is the basic cognitive mechanism of this phase. It allows isolated elements, findings and partial ideas to be combined into new, structured wholes and to create functional configurations which go beyond conventional solutions (Guilford, 1967; Cropley, 2006). While analytical operations allow us to assess the individual components of a problem, synthesis is necessary to reconnect them into a feasible design. In technical education, this process manifests itself in the design of structures, work process planning, and the selection of materials, where students learn to translate conceptual ideas into concrete form. Executive functions play an important role in this phase as well, especially those related to planning, organising and sequencing activities. Executive functions enable pupils to formulate specific steps leading to the 1
In technical education, this process is similar to the stages of design and construction thinking as described by the models of design-based learning (Razzouk & Shute, 2012) and engineering design process (Moore et al., 2014), which emphasise the iterative conversion of abstract ideas into material form, working with prototypes, and linking synthetic and analytical operations. Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
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implementation of solutions, coordinate individual phases of work and adapt the procedure to current findings or limitations (Diamond, 2013; Beaty et al., 2016). In the creative process, they thus fulfil a regulatory and organisational function being necessary for the transition from idea to implementation. Moreover, integration requires the effective use of mental representations, which serve to convert abstract thought structures into concrete and implementable forms. The rearrangement of mental representations is a process during which an individual operates with internal images, formulates preliminary structures, and subsequently tests and modifies the latter based on feedback. (Finke, Ward & Smith, 1992; Ward, 2007) In technically oriented tasks, this ability manifests itself in the imagination of construction steps, the manipulation of spatial relationships, or the visualisation of a prototype. The integration phase also includes cognitive flexibility, which allows for adapting the proposed solution, modifying the prototype, or finding alternative approaches in situations where the original idea is not feasible or does not correspond to the identified parameters. (De Dreu et al., 2008; Scott et al., 2004) Flexibility ensures the ability to respond to new information, changing conditions, or identified errors and is thus a key element of the iterative nature of creation. The integration phase thus forms a bridge between the conceptual design and its practical implementation. Its successful completion depends on the interconnection of synthetic operations, executive control and work with mental representations, complemented by flexible adaptation. Only the synergy of the aforementioned makes it possible to transform the original idea into a form which is not only original but also technically feasible, functional and relevant to the objectives of the task at hand.
1.1.4 Conditions for cognitive performance The conditions for cognitive performance are overarching mechanisms enabling the coordination and regulation of the entire creative process. These include, in particular, cognitive flexibility, working memory, executive functions and metacognition. These processes do not appear as separate stages of creativity, but as continuously acting resources which support the generation, evaluation and integration of solutions. 16
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
Working memory, executive functions, and metacognition form an interconnected system of abilities facilitating controlled manipulation of information, regulation of thought processes, and strategic planning. Working memory ensures the temporary storage and simultaneous manipulation of information, which is necessary for the recombination of mental representations and the search for new connections. (Benedek et al., 2014) Executive functions, including inhibition, planning, and flexible strategy switching, maintain the direction of thinking and allow for the suppression of inappropriate or stereotypical responses, which plays a crucial role in the creative process in maintaining logical coherence and focus. (Beaty et al., 2016; Diamond, 2013) Metacognition is the systemic ability to monitor and regulate one’s own thought processes. In creativity, it ensures reflection on emerging ideas, deciding which ones to develop, and assessing whether the chosen approach actually leads to a new, relevant, and useful solution. (Veenman et al., 2006). The interaction of the aforementioned processes is essential for maintaining a balance between spontaneous generative activity and controlled evaluation of emerging solutions. It is precisely this dynamic which is a key prerequisite for the development of authentic creative performance. (Beaty & Silvia, 2012)
1.2 Personality dispositions for creativity Creativity as a psychological construct cannot be separated from an individual’s personality characteristics. In addition to cognitive processes, personality traits play a fundamental role in whether creativity manifests itself and in what form (Feist, 1998; Silvia et al., 2009). However, there has long been ambiguity in psychology as to whether personality dispositions condition creativity or whether, by contrast, creativity becomes a source of specific traits over the course of a lifetime. The theoretical framework was regarded as decisive: some authors emphasised personality traits as a causal factor in creative performance, while others understood them more as predispositions, facilitating the development and application of creative potential in appropriate conditions. (Dacey & Lennon, 2000) However, there is agreement across theoretical approaches that tolerance for ambiguity is one of the key traits of creative individuals. The ability to tolerate uncertainty, contradictions and ambiguities without the need Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
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for immediate resolution is crucial for finding novel solutions. (Barron & Harrington, 1981). Creative individuals often perceive complex or ambiguous situations not as threatening, but as a challenge and an opportunity for innovation. Dacey and Lennon (2000) identified several other personality characteristics typical of creative individuals. These include stimulatory freedom, that is to say the ability to accept a wide range of stimuli without sticking to conventional ways of thinking, and functional freedom, which allows for the unusual use of common objects or ideas. Flexibility of thinking, willingness to take risks, preference for working in a less structured environment, and the ability to suppress immediate gratification in favour of a longer-term goal also play an important role. Furthermore, creative personalities tend to be open to unconventional ways of thinking, as they are unburdened by stereotypical gender roles, persistent, and unafraid to assert original approaches even in situations of social pressure (Žák, 2004). The dimension of openness to experience from the five-factor model of personality is one of the significant personality predictors of creativity, too. It includes aesthetic sensitivity, imagination, preference for novelty, and intellectual curiosity. Empirical studies have repeatedly confirmed that this dimension is one of the strongest predictors of creative behaviour in various areas. (McCrae, 1987; Silvia et al., 2009; Kaufman et al., 2016) Humanistic psychology offers a different perspective. Maslow (1963) emphasised that creativity is closely linked to the process of fulfilling one’s potential. Individuals who develop this potential thus create not for external recognition, but as a natural expression of authenticity and spontaneity. Similarly, Rogers (1959) emphasised the importance of an environment which allows freedom, authenticity and openness to new experiences. According to him, a supportive social climate, characterised by unconditional acceptance, empathy and congruence, greatly facilitates creativity. Attitudes towards creative activities are also an important personality dimension. Internal motivation, interest and willingness to experiment significantly increase the likelihood of an individual being creative in situations which require the search for new approaches. (Deci & Ryan, 2000; Hennessey & Amabile, 2010) In technical education, these attitudes are strongly influenced by previous experience, self-assessment and the school climate. Attitudes towards technical activities and perceptions of one’s own abilities also significantly shape gender stereotypes. Regrettably, these can weaken interest in technical activities, especially among girls, and limit 18
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
opportunities for positive experiences. (Lepistö & Lindfors, 2015; Diekman et al., 2010) Creative identity theory (Karwowski & Barbot, 2016) explains that individuals engage in creative activities when they perceive themselves as “someone who can be creative”. This perception is shaped by support, successful experiences and feedback. Creative self-confidence (Karwowski, 2010, 2017; Bandura, 1986) has been shown to be a strong predictor of actual creative behaviour (Karwowski et al., 2013). From a cultural-psychological perspective, creativity is understood as a phenomenon arising at the interface between the individual and the environment (Vygotsky, 1978; Glăveanu, 2011). Cultural values determine which expressions of creativity are valued and supported, thereby indirectly framing the process of school learning. For example, Niu and Sternberg (2006) showed that collectivist cultures favour creativity which contributes to group harmony, while individualistic cultures value originality and selfexpression more. Furthermore, Baer and Kaufman (2008) demonstrated that gender differences in creativity stem primarily from socialisation rather than biological predispositions. In summary, the personality prerequisites for creativity can be understood as a dynamic configuration of traits, attitudes, and motivations enabling individuals to transcend conventional patterns of thinking and pursue original solutions despite obstacles. Nonetheless, these traits are not immutable – they can be developed through experience, education, and a supportive social environment.
1.3 Social and psychological conditions for creativity The development of creative skills is a multidimensional process shaped by socio-psychological determinants such as self-concept, social identity, cultural context, social facilitation and inhibition. In the school environment, creativity does not arise solely “in the mind” of the individual, but is born in the interaction between the student and their surroundings; it is therefore shaped by relationships with peers, the quality of teacher support, social norms and the classroom climate. (Beghetto & Kaufman, 2014; Glăveanu, 2011) One of the key mechanisms by which the social environment influences creative performance is the effect of the presence of other people. Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills
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According to Zajonc’s theory of social facilitation, the presence of an audience can improve performance in routine tasks, but, by contrast, in new or complicated tasks, the presence of observers tends to disrupt performance. (Zajonc, 1965) In the context of tasks focused on originality, the awareness of evaluation can cause so-called evaluation apprehension, which reduces cognitive flexibility and limits the ability to seek unconventional solutions; external pressure, competitiveness and evaluative authority therefore systematically weaken creative performance. (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010) It follows that teaching practices aimed at supporting creative skills favour low-stakes environments, where the emphasis is on the process of learning, experimenting and discovering rather than on immediate results. Such environments thus reduce fear of evaluation and increase willingness to take risks and experiment. (Hennessey & Amabile, 2010) At school age, peer relationships have a fundamental influence on the development of creativity, providing a social reference framework which shapes pupils’ self-assessment and their willingness to engage in creative activities. (Festinger, 1954) However, the relationship between group dynamics and creative expression is complex; on the one hand, groups can support creative potential (for example through mutual inspiration or role rotation), but on the other hand, they can also suppress it (for instance through social exclusion), with the resulting effect depending on the composition of the group, status relationships and the school climate. (Sawyer, 2012; Janis, 1972; Han et al., 2013) Collaborative or group creative activity is most effective in conditions of equal opportunities, open communication and support for divergent thinking. In such conditions, interactions exceed the sum of individual contributions and synergies of creative solutions arise. (Sawyer, 2012; Pierroux et al., 2022) At the same time, students who are exposed to positive role models and supportive feedback increase their creative self-confidence, which further raises their tendency to use creative strategies when solving tasks. (Karwowski & Barbot, 2016; Bandura, 1986) A school and classroom climate characterised by trust, open communication and respect for differences significantly intensifies the sharing of original ideas and strengthens pupils’ creative self-concept. Conversely, rigid, authoritarian approaches with low tolerance for error suppress exploration and affect an individual’s willingness to take risks. (Yu, 2023; Andiliou & Murphy, 2010) From the perspective of self-determination theory, the fulfilment of the needs for autonomy, competence and relatedness is essential for the 20
Pedagogical and psychological aspects of developing creative skills