Biosocial Interactions in Modernisation examines a range of major societal problems resulting from the clash between humanity’s evolutionary heritage and the biosocial challenges of modern life. the book is organised with reference to the foremost sources of biosocial variation: individual variation, age variation, sexual variation, family variation, reproductive variation, social variation, racial variation, and intergenerational variation. the analysis of each source of variation begins with a discussion of its biological evolutionary background, followed by an investigation of its variability-specific biosocial interrelations, and concludes with consideration of lessons to be learned about the confrontation between humanity's evolutionary heritage and the challenges and adaptive pressures of the novel modern living environment. Special attention is given to the links between these sources of variation and maladaptive modern social practices such as individualism, ageism, sexism, familism, pro/anti-natalism, classism, racism, and dysgenism. Biosocial Interactions in Modernisation contributes fresh, original insights to the humanities and social sciences, and also provides a new, vital perspective to anyone with an interest in biology.
RobeRt Cliquet
RobeRt Cliquet
BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN MODERNISATION
BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN MODERNISATION
Robert Cliquet is emeritus professor of biological anthropology and social biology in the Department of Population Studies at the university of Ghent, where he has taught courses in the social and behavioural sciences. He has also served as honorary general director of the multi-disciplinary Population and Family Study Centre (CbGS) in brussels, a Flemish governmental scientific institute, where he participated in research on reproductive behaviour and various issues related to population policy. Since 1999 he has served as senior advisor to Population and Social Policy Consultants (PSPC) in brussels. in 2002 he began collaboration with the Faculty of Social Studies at Masaryk university on a comparative study of population policy, followed by a project researching the integration of female immigrants. Since 2008 he has taught courses about the social biology of modernisation as a visiting professor. Professor Cliquet is the author of nearly 200 scientific papers and several books about population and family issues, as well as global and regional population policy.
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ROBERT CLIQUET BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN MODERNISATION
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ROBERT CLIQUET
BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS IN MODERNISATION
M A S A R Y K
U N I V E R S I T Y
P R E S S
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Review Board: Dr Dragana Avramov (Population and Social Policy Consultants, Brussels, Belgium), Prof. em. Dr Pierre Van den Berghe (University of Washington, Seattle, United States) Prof. Dr David Coleman (Oxford University, UK) Prof. em. Dr Frans Kerstholt (Tilburg University, The Netherlands) Prof. Dr Kathleen Kiernan (University of York, UK) Prof. Dr Petra De Sutter (Ghent University, Belgium) Prof. Dr Marleen Temmerman (Ghent University, Belgium) Dr Kristiaan Thienpont (Department of Social Work at the University College Arteveldehogeschool, Ghent, Belgium) Dr Lieve Vanderleyden (Research Centre of the Flemish Government, Brussels, Belgium) Prof. em. Dr Robert Vlietinck (Centre for Human Genetics at the Catholic University Leuven, Belgium) Copyright © 2010 Robert Cliquet ISBN 978-80-210-5809-5 (online : pdf) ISBN 978-80-210-4986-4 (Paperback) DOI: 10.5817/CZ.MUNI.M210-5809-2012
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher.
Production Editor Alena Mizerová Language Editor Benjamin Vail Cover design Eva Lufferová Published by Masaryk University Press, 2010 Printed by Tiskárny Havlíčkův Brod, a.s.
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For Wim, Kate, An, and Dušan
Brief Table of Contents
PREFACE
xxix
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
xxxi
Chapter 1
EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND OF BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS
1
Chapter 2
INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND INDIVIDUALISM
53
Chapter 3
AGE VARIATION AND AGEISM
123
Chapter 4
SEXUAL VARIATION AND SEXISM
183
Chapter 5
FAMILY VARIATION AND FAMILISM
253
Chapter 6
REPRODUCTIVE VARIATION AND PRO/ANTI-NATALISM
313
Chapter 7
SOCIAL CLASS VARIATION AND CLASSISM
375
Chapter 8
RACIAL VARIATION AND RACISM
437
Chapter 9
INTERGENERATIONAL VARIATION AND DYSGENISM
503
Chapter 10
ETHICAL AND POLICY CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE BIOSOCIAL FUTURE OF HUMANKIND
557
NAME INDEX
621
SUBJECT INDEX
661
Detailed Table of Contents
List of Tables List of Figures Preface Acknowledgements
xxi xxiii xxix xxxi
CHAPTER 1: EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND OF BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS INTRODUCTION THE BIOLOGICAL AND CULTURAL EVOLUTION OF HUMANKIND A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE STUDY OF BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGICAL EVOLUTION OF SOCIALITY The evolution of social behaviour The recent controversy about sociobiology SIGNIFICANCE FOR THE SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCES FACTS AND VALUES IN BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS The evolutionary origin and function of ethics The ‘Is/ought’ controversy THE SOCIAL BIOLOGY OF MODERNISATION The major types of biosocial variation The major biosocial challenges in modern culture Individual variation and ‘individualism’ Age variation and ‘ageism’ Sexual variation and ‘sexism’ Family variation and ‘familism’ Reproductive variation and ‘pro/anti-natalism’ Social class variation and ‘classisim’ Racial variation and ‘racism’ Intergenerational variation and ‘dysgenism’ Policy implications REFERENCES
3 4 7 10 14 19 26 27 28 32 33 36 38 40 40 41 41 41 42 42 43 43 43
x
CHAPTER 2: INDIVIDUAL VARIATION AND INDIVIDUALISM INTRODUCTION EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND Some basic genetic concepts The genetic unique identity of the individual Evolutionary mechanisms and individual variation The Hardy-Weinberg law Mutation Selection Genetic drift Genetic migration Partner choice The level of selection: individual or group selection? GENETIC AND ENVIRONMENTAL CAUSES OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATION The obsolete nature-nurture discussion Measuring the relative impact of genetic and environmental factors The polygenic inheritance system Dissecting the variance of quantitative traits Two sensitive matters: IQ and criminality… The fractioning of IQ Defining and measuring dimensions of cognitive abilities Heritability of intelligence The role of environmental factors in the development of intelligence Criminal behaviour Genetics and criminality The neurosciences and delinquency Evolutionary biology and antisocial behaviour Concluding considerations concerning biology and crime BIOLOGICAL SOURCES OF INDIVIDUAL VARIATION General variation Normality versus abnormality General variation within the ‘normality’ range Age variation Sexual variation Racial variation INDIVIDUAL-SOCIETAL INTERDEPENDENCY The ontogenetic interdependency between individuals The genetic interrelationship between individual and population Individual competition versus social cooperation INDIVIDUALISM IN MODERN SOCIETY REFERENCES
55 55 55 57 59 59 61 61 62 62 63 64 66 67 68 69 72 76 76 77 78 82 85 86 88 90 94 95 95 96 97 97 98 99 99 100 101 103 106 109
xi
CHAPTER 3: AGE VARIATION AND AGEISM INTRODUCTION
125
GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT Evolutionary background Secular growth acceleration The increasing gap between biological maturation and social maturity AGEING AND SENESCENCE Evolutionary background The evolutionary theory of senescence Population genetic mechanisms of the evolution of senescence Brain development and the evolution of the lifespan Longevity and ageing/senescence From a concave to a convex survival curve From curve squaring to life extension? Demographic implications of ageing Population greying Population dejuvenation Societal implications of individual and population ageing Attitudinal ambiguities The expected increasing elderly dependency burden The expected growing need for health and welfare care Labour shortage Intergenerational relations Social differentials in longevity DEATH The biological meaning of death The prolongation of the dying process Death control Palliative care Euthanasia Definition Legislation Attitudes Palliative sedation versus euthanasia AGEISM Ageist attitudes and behaviour towards seniors Social exclusion of seniors Increasing gap between social and biological ageing in modern culture AGEING AND AGEISM IN EVOLUTIONARY PERSPECTIVE REFERENCES
126 127 129 130 131 134 134 135 137 139 139 143 146 147 148 149 150 152 153 154 154 156 156 157 157 158 160 161 161 162 162 164 164 165 165 166 167 170
xii
CHAPTER 4: SEXUAL VARIATION AND SEXISM INTRODUCTION
185
EVOLUTIONARY ORIGINS OF SEXUAL VARIATION Sexual selection Feminisation of the human male Sexual evolution of the human female Evolution of sexual steering Explanation of human sexual dimorphism ONTOGENETIC DETERMINANTS OF SEXUAL VARIATION Sex and gender identity/role Socially important aspects of sexual determination and differentiation MAJOR SOCIALLY RELEVANT CHARACTERISTICS OF HUMAN SEXUAL DIMORPHISM Mind Body build Genital sexuality Reproduction Health OTHER SEXUALLY DIFFERENTIAL BEHAVIOURAL FEATURES Crime Homosexuality Proximate causes of homosexuality Endocrinological findings Neurological findings Genetic findings Evolutionary explanations Homophobia The future of homosexuality Sex-related social differences Sexism Sexist ideologies Sexism, sexual emancipation, and science Female social inferiority versus biological superiority: a paradox? Feminism and masculism MALADAPTATION OF SEXUAL DIMORPHISM IN MODERN CULTURE REFERENCES
186 186 188 190 191 192 193 193 196 199 200 204 205 207 208 210 210 211 212 213 214 214 215 218 219 220 223 224 225 229 230 235 239
xiii
CHAPTER 5: FAMILY VARIATION AND FAMILISM INTRODUCTION
255
BIOLOGICAL ORIGINS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FAMILY Parental investment in slowly-maturing offspring The origin and evolution of love FAMILIES IN MODERN CULTURE Recent trends in family (related) behaviour Background of the modern family transition Determinants of recent family changes PARTNERSHIP IN MODERN CULTURE Partner choice Preferred and selected partner features Good genes theory Parental investment theory Reproductive value theory Paternity confidence theory Combined partner features Mate selection Sex assortment Kin assortment Assortative mating in general Types of partnership Single partnership Multiple partnerships Dynamics of partnership Causes and consequences THE FUTURE OF THE FAMILY Disappearance of the family Back to the traditional family? Modern family variation What about the more distant future? REFERENCES
256 257 258 261 261 264 266 267 267 268 268 269 269 273 274 274 276 276 280 282 283 284 286 287 290 291 293 294 299 301
xiv
CHAPTER 6: REPRODUCTIVE VARIATION AND PRO/ANTI-NATALISM INTRODUCTION
315
THE EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND OF HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE BEHAVIOUR General evolutionary trends with respect to reproduction Maximisation of inclusive fitness The paradox between maximisation of inclusive fitness and the demographic transition Explanations for the paradox Changed relations between phenotypic and genotypic fitness in modernisation THE IMPACT OF MODERNISATION ON HUMAN REPRODUCTION Sexual maturation Pair bonding Desired fertility / Childbearing motivation Coital behaviour Fecundity Proceptive behaviour Contraceptive behaviour The contraceptive transitions in modern culture Effects of the second contraceptive transition Pregnancy Effects of medical interventions Spontaneous and induced abortion Delivery and birth Birth interval Menopause Sterility Fertility Fertility at the family level Fertility at the population level Below-replacement fertility Population dejuvenation Population decline Qualitative effects of the new fertility regime Parenting Evolutionary background: increased parental investment Parenthood in modern culture PRO- AND ANTI-NATALISM
321 324 324 326 326 328 329 330 331 331 334 336 337 338 339 340 341 343 344 345 347 347 351 352 354 357 357 358 359
REFERENCES
361
315 315 316 317 319
xv
CHAPTER 7: SOCIAL CLASS VARIATION AND CLASSISM INTRODUCTION
377
THE EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND OF WITHIN-POPULATION GROUP VARIATION
379
HISTORICAL THEORIES ABOUT BIOSOCIAL INEQUALITIES The anthropo-sociological school of thought Social Darwinism Marxist biological doctrine THE SOCIAL-BIOLOGICAL APPROACH OF BIOSOCIAL INTERACTIONS Social assortment and social selection Environmental influences Genetic-environmental covariance SOCIAL STRATIFICATION AND BIOLOGICAL VARIATION Body size and body build Growth and maturation Health and longevity Measured intelligence CAUSES OF INTERRELATIONS BETWEEN BIOLOGICAL VARIATION AND SOCIAL STRATIFICATION Environmental influences linked to social status differences Social assortment: social mobility and biological variation Empirical findings about the relationship between social mobility and biological variation Explanations of the relationship between social mobility and biological variation GENETICS AND SOCIAL MOBILITY The assortment of phenotypes and genotypes Implications of segregation and recombination of genes for social mobility The role of mate choice in the social assortment of biological characteristics The controversy over ‘The Bell Curve’ EGALITARIANISM VERSUS MERITOCRACY? REFERENCES
380 381 382 383 385 385 390 391 392 392 393 393 394 395 395 397 397 403 406 407 408 416 416 419 421
xvi
CHAPTER 8: RACIAL VARIATION AND RACISM INTRODUCTION THE EVOLUTIONARY BACKGROUND OF BETWEEN-POPULATION VARIATION Splitting of populations Fusion Adaptation BIOLOGICAL BETWEEN-POPULATION DIFFERENCES Behavioural-genetic between-population differences Jensen’s ‘default hypothesis’ of between-population differences4 in cognitive ability The ‘culture-only’ hypothesis of between-population differences in cognitive ability Drawing conclusions about the genetic-environmental controversy over between-population differences in cognitive ability Evolutionary explanations for the origin of between-population differences in cognitive ability IN-GROUP/OUT-GROUP BEHAVIOUR Typology The cultural history of racism, ethnocentrism, and xenophobia Behavioural patterns related to in-group/out-group relations Explanations for sociological dominant/subordinate relations Inferior and superior populations? EVOLUTIONARY EXPLANATIONS FOR THE IN-GROUP/OUT-GROUP SYNDROME Kin selection theory Reciprocity theory Similarity theory Selfish gene theory as basis for in-group/out-group antagonisms Balance of power theory In-group/out-group syndrome: maladapted to the novel environment of modern culture. CULTURAL AUTONOMISM, INTEGRATIONALISM, OR MULTICULTURALISM? Cultural autonomism/independence for historical ethnic components Integration of recent immigrant groups Multiculturalism: fact or fiction? THE FUTURE OF BETWEEN-POPULATION DIFFERENCES AND RELATIONS REFERENCES
439 443 444 445 448 451 453 456 460 463 465 466 466 468 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 484 487 488
xvii
CHAPTER 9: INTERGENERATIONAL VARIATION AND DYSGENISM INTRODUCTION TIME DIMENSION HERITAGE OF THE PAST Biological heritage Cultural heritage Conflicting and competing value and norm systems Emergence of modern science Effects of modern culture on intergenerational variation Phenotypic effects Genetic effects Contra-selective effects of modern culture Contraselective effects of replacement therapies Contra-selective effects of differential reproduction with respect to intelligence CRUCIAL CULTURAL DETERMINANTS FOR THE FUTURE Future scientific and technological developments Ethical goals for the future Euphenic goals Eugenic goals The ultimate aim of eugenics: carrying forward the hominisation process Rationale for the preservation and the advancement of human-specific characteristics General societal conditions for implementing a eugenic programme Scientific and social dimensions of eugenics Broad and narrow eugenics Eugenic target levels Eugenic benefits and costs Eugenic fallacies of the past ETHICAL CONCERNS Ethical concerns about eugenics in general Ethical issues in eugenic practice Attitudes towards eugenics REFERENCES
505 505 506 507 507 508 509 509 509 510 513 514 515 520 520 520 523 523 524 527 529 530 531 531 532 534 538 538 541 544 545
xviii
CHAPTER 10: ETHICAL AND POLICY CONSIDERATIONS REGARDING THE BIOSOCIAL FUTURE OF HUMANKIND INTRODUCTION BASIC ETHICAL OPTIONS RELEVANT FOR THE BIOLOGICAL FUTURE OF THE HUMAN SPECIES Intervention versus non-intervention Quality versus quantity Equality versus inequality Cooperation versus competition Out-group versus in-group Intergenerational versus intragenerational care COMMON FEATURES AND CHALLENGES OF BIOSOCIAL SOURCES OF VARIATION IN MODERN SOCIETY ADAPTIVE REQUIREMENTS FOR SUSTAINED AND SUSTAINABLE FURTHER PROGRESS Individual variation Difference ≠ inequality Adjusting individual aspirations to societal demands Age variation Active ageing – sense of reality or lip service? Combatting ageism – adapting to ageing Increasing age at retirement Varying age at retirement Death control Sexual variation Reconciliation of productive and reproductive functions Empowerment of women Mastering male competitive behaviour Family variation Reproductive variation Policy implications regarding fertility control Policies regarding contraception Policy implications regarding abortion Policy implications regarding fertility Policy goals regarding fertility Feasibility of policy measures regarding fertility Policy measures for redressing fertility at or around replacement level Rebalancing individual and societal values with respect to intergenerational continuity Rethinking the entire life course perspective regarding education, employment and retirement Within-population group variation Inter-population variation Reducing between-group inequalities
559 559 560 562 563 564 565 566 567 569 569 569 572 572 573 574 575 576 577 577 578 579 581 582 583 584 584 585 586 586 587 588 589 589 592 593 593
xix
Combating the in-group/out-group syndrome Exposing the false notion of multiculturalism Intergenerational variation Euphenic engineering Eugenic engineering Biotechnology Genetically differential demographic behaviour Individual/family oriented eugenics Population oriented eugenics How to achieve differential reproduction? THE FAR FUTURE Evolutionary extinction Evolutionary regression Evolutionary stabilisation Evolutionary progression REFERENCES
595 596 597 597 598 599 600 600 601 605 606 608 609 609 609 611
NAME INDEX
621
SUBJECT INDEX
661