Call for freedom. Understanding aid coordination in Haiti

Understanding dynamics of Aid Coordination in Haiti: a new perspective for a new response Master of Architecture ExploreLab Federica Garofalo

A Simeone e Marina, i miei amati genitori, che hanno reso possibile il raggiugimento di questo traguardo, sostenendomi sempre al massimo in questa esperienza ed incoraggiandomi nonostante le difficoltĂ .

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To Simeone and Marina, my beloved parents, who made it possible for me to follow my dreams, supporting this experience to the fullest with their encouragement and love, despite all the difficulties.

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Ad Alberto e Simone, i miei super fratelli, che mi fanno sempre divertire! Hanno creduto in me senza indulgiare e sono sempre li per ricordarmi quanto ci vogliamo bene e quanto siamo fortunati ad essere fratelli ed amici.

Ad Angela, la nonna che chiamo ‘la roccia’ perchè esempio costante di immensa forza d’animo e di come affrontare le difficoltà nella vita, senza mai smettere di sorridere o fare ironia, nonostante le difficoltà. A lei un ringraziamento speciale per essere qui pesente oggi.

A mio nonno Carletto, perchè è il faro che illumina ed ispira la mia vita. L’immagine del suo sorriso ed del suo humor, la sua determinazione e gentilezza mi hanno accompagnato per tutta la vita, e così sempre sarà.

A Morena, e Catia le mie zie, a zio Mauro. Ai miei cuginetti Andrea, Cristina and Alessandra, perchè parte di questa famiglia unita che per me è fonte di gioia.

Alla mia tata Cesarina, perchè posso solo immaginare quanto sarebbe orgogliosa di me e devo ammettere che vorrei tanto che ci fosse anche lei qui oggi.

A Sara, perchè mi conosce meglio di quanto io conosca me stessa ed è sempre presente per dirmi di credere in me stessa e non mollare mai.

A Veronica, Marco, Michel, Veronichina e Chiara, per essere sempre li a ricordarmi di godermi la vita, e divertirci assieme.

A Magda, perchè è una delle persone più interessanti che io abbia incontrato incontrato durante questa esperienza olandese.

Sono veramente contenta di come siamo diventate incredibilmente amiche.

A Virgi, Arslane, Laura che con me hanno condiviso questa esperienza provandola anche loro sulla propria pelle.

A Zsuzsa and Marta. perchè sono davvero felice di averle incontrate! Hanno arricchito questa esperienza con la loro amicizia ed illuminato la mia vita con il loro buon umore.

A Geoffrey, Ifi e George per aver condiviso con me la parte più difficile di tutte, il P4.

Questo momento ci ha dato la possibilità di diventare amici e sono felice che ci siamo trovati a condividere anche momenti di divertimento durante l’intenso lavoro.

Ad Erik and Lieke, perchè sono stati i primi compagni di corso a TU e sono felice di come siamo rimasti buoni amici.

A Patrick, perchè nonostante la tremenda distanza che ci ha separato in questi anni, questa esperienza ha reso il nostro amore più forte che mai, ed io non potevo chiedere nulla di più bello.

A tutti quelli che hanno creduto in me, grazie dal profondo del mio cuore.

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To Alberto and Simone, my super brothers, who always make me laugh! They believed in me without any doubt and were always there to remember me how much we love each other and how lucky we are to be brothers and friends.

To Angela, my grandma, who I call “the rock�, she is a daily example of immense strength about how to cope with difficulties in life, but most of all how to despite unpleasant moments, to continue smiling and be ironic about life. Special thanks for being here today.

To Carletto, my grandpa, because he is my lighthouse of life. The image of his smile and humour, his determination and kindness accompanied me for the entire life, and so it will always be.

To Morena, Mauro, Catia my aunties and uncle and to Andrea, Cristina and Alessandra, my little cousins, because they always makes me smile and remember how nice is to have such a united family.

To my nanny Cesarina, because I can only imagine how proud and happy she would be for me and I admit I would love her to be here with me today.

To Sara, because she knows me more than I know myself and she is always there to tell me to believe in myself and never give up.

To Veronica, Marco, Michel, Veronichina and Chiara, to always remember me to enjoy life, relax, talk and have fun together.

To Magda, because she is one of the most inspiring people I happened to meet during this Dutch experience. I am glad we became incredible friends.

To Virgi, Arslane, Laura because we shared the same experience.

To Zsuzsa and Marta. because I am so happy I met you! You incredibly enriched this experience with friendship and light up my life with your smiles.

To Geoffrey, Ifi and George to have shared with me the most tough part of all, the P4.

This experience gave us the possibility to become friends and I am glad we did it together, sharing also moments of good fun during hard work time.

To Erik and Lieke, because you are the first mates that I had at TU and I am glad we became such good friends.

To Patrick, because despite the tremendous distance during this years, this experience made our love stronger than ever, and I couldn’t ask for anything better.

To everyone who believed in me, thanks from the bottom of my heart.

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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T

he realization of this master thesis

project was possible thanks to the great contribution of three fabulous people I had the chance to meet during this journey who not only helped me in achieving honest results in my academic work but also accompanied my personal and professional development.

Robert Nottrot, Architecture mentor Arjan van Timmeren, BT mentor Alexander Vollebregt, Research mentor Thank you also to the contribution of James Kennedy who lead my way through the discovery of the complex experience of the cluster system.

Thank you for all the great talks and knowledge exchange we had. Thank you for your support and for making this adventure enjoyable and constructive.

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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Abstract | A worried reflection The original fascination at the base of this

Along with my philosophical intrigue, the

whole idea for this project, took place long time before it actually started.

Working on a graduation project is not just about the mere realization of a technical design. It’s a journey, one of those paths in life where we learn a lot about the subject of studies but most importantly we learn about ourselves, who we are in the process and who do we want to be.

The interest in developing such a subject came to life after a deep exploration and combination of multiple factors.

The very first seed was planted in my personal conscience long time ago, when I started wondering about the existence of the world in the most general meaning one could think of; there I was posing myself those philosophical questions like “to be or not to be”, “where are we from” and “where are we going” who most of the people I was discussing with regarded either strange or too vague, but that to me where extremely important. Afterwards I focused my attention on exploring the deepest connection about the planet we leave on, the beings we live with and the relationship between human actions and the world, related to causes and effects.

possibility I had to undertake amazing travels in uncontaminated places but also mega cities like Buenos Aires, triggered a subconscious and natural worried reflection in my mind about what is going on in this world.

From the enthusiasm about the power of human beings, the progress made in the last century and the so glorified evolution, I suddenly became to see disorder, mis-balance and unfairness of roles in economy and of use of resources.

The main big question that arose at that point, still very broad was “Why do we lose ourselves in the sublime beauty of Nature and we end up creating awful places for ourselves to live in, by depleting that immense beauty with massive monster constructions, pollution and obsessive ideas about progressing and becoming richer?”

What truly opened my eyes of young student approaching the master education in 2010, was a true lack of respect and a deep disappointment. Respect for the planet, respect for the resources we have, respect for the value of money and all in all respect for others. A deep disappointment towards the choice I had made back in time about my future profession of Architect which turned

Abstract |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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Chapter X | title

out to be in fact one of the most active in

ger in a country in need of a change. A vein

contributing to the construction of those terrible buildings, cities, and awful places.

Just another big money making industry, with complete disregard to the planet, the nature, other people. Another vicious circle I was not ready to be part of. Luckily.

Lack of respect and lack of care were the two values that hit the most my soul at that time.

At that turning point of my life, since I had to decide what to do with myself, I thought that if I were ever to study hard for something and put all my effort in building up my future, that something would have to be profoundly beneficial and valuable for a bigger change. Since I have gone so far in my studies, I decided that I wanted to complete that path I had undertaken time before, even if it was so hard now because I completely lost my visions and my perspective.

Thanks to this willpower to persevere in this career, I could find out that, even if it’s still a minority, there is a big vein of the architectural world promoting sustainable project, taking care of that kind of architecture that needs more humanity, and needs as practical as theoretical thinking about a correct use of the available resources, not only focused on buildings per se, but on a bigger effect that the construction of a certain building in a certain manner could trig-

of architecture which doesn’t walk blind, but wants to see the multi factorial issues and wants to intervene.

I understand this may sound romantic and visionary. I have encountered a lot of doubtful minds in my life when talking about those visions, and I’m fully aware I will meet even more. But I am a dreamer. I want to make of this dreams a reality and I want to believe that even if it is hard and even if many people are discouraged for the high complexity of those big problems, I want to believe that little by little, step by step, with good intentions and heart unfold, a change sooner or later will happen, even if I won’t see it, I believe it will.

Architecture is a powerful mean. With or without architects, architecture will always be part of our lives and places and spaces we live in and it will always affect the way we live, the economy and the way we relate to each other. Architecture can help and can be as powerful as useful to activate a change and to improve lives. Architecture also has to be modest in understanding that is only a small part and is part of a bigger system, often too problematic. Still even in the most problematic situations we have to begin somewhere, and architecture and planning can be a practical matter to hold on to.

Abstract |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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Abbreviations

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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Table of contents Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination | Introduction • • • • • •

Disasters. A brief introduction.

Before and after disasters. Some facts.

• Effects of natural disasters • What happens after a disaster?

An introduction about Haiti • Before the earthquake • Understanding a complex reality Facts about the Haiti earthquake, January 12, 2010 The aftermath of the earthquake and introduction to local coordination issues connected to the definition of ‘Complex emergency’ Scope of the research and research question

Episode 1 | Definition of global terms; scope of the research; delineation of a methodology •

• •

Description of the problem in global terms: aid coordination and the humanitarian aid machine • The place to be as an NGO: Haiti • What is intended for ‘coordination of aid’ Definition of key terms: what is aid Delineation of a methodology of research: a general approach applicable to different specific cases. Interviews, literature

Episode 2 | Delineation of the current situation of Haiti and the aid sector •

• • •

The current aid system: the Cluster Approach • What is the cluster approach?

• Why do we need clusters?

• Who does what?

The ongoing aid organization structure in Haiti: • The official organization • The cluster system and the aid organization structure from a local perspective Pros and cons: notes from official evaluation papers on cluster system • Main achievements and progress made • Main problems and area for improvement Reflection

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Episode 3 | The development of an idea of ‘permanent coordination clusters’ in a network of aid coordination hubs in the Haitian capital, Port au Prince. Research proposal.

• • • •

The importance of a permanent aid organization in a complex emergency Pattern of obstinacy in the Haitian persistence to “no recovery” after a disasters Precursors to permanent aid coordination integrated system: the case study of Central Asia • Disaster Response Coordination Unit in Kyrgyzstan - DRCU Implementation of a permanent cluster system in Haiti: a continuous coordination mechanism • Implementing a system to strengthen the country from the inside • Clustering the clusters

Episode 4 | From permanent clusters to the design of Aid Coordination Headquarters in Haiti: background thoughts • • • •

Existing coordination structure: the UN base camp from the eyes of experience Interview to James Kennedy (CARE’s Shelter Cluster Coordinator) Urban permeation: the contribution of an urban network of coordination hubs in strengthening resilience of Port au Prince The development of aid coordination headquarters: present and future evolutions • Scenario 1: 5 y • Scenario 2 : 10 y • Scenario 3: 20 y

Episode 5 | Fundamental design thinking and design philosophy: premises for the design intervention • The cornerstones of the architectural design proposal: use of natural and local resources as a main deliverable • The choice of a sustainable design thinking in Haiti: the bigger picture • A drop in the ocean: from a drop to the ocean. A single small intervention as the beginning of a long term and persistent evolution

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Table of contents

Episode 6 | A design example for Aid Coordination Hubs in Port au Prince • • • • • •

Rationale for the choice of the headquarters location: the existing amphitheatre, the IDP camp, connections to the city Physical constraints: occurrence of natural hazards in Haiti such as hurricanes, floods and earthquakes.

Program flexibility: cluster coordination offices and public adaptable space The importance of the use of locally produced materials for sustainable design coherence: bamboo, earth.

Design Reflection on adaptability of the space and connection of the space: neuronal connections between different hubs at a macro level, connections within a single hub and within different actors at a micro level.

Open conclusions •

Reflections on urban resilience and vulnerability connected to implementation of a coordination tissue in the existing urban fabric

•

Recalling research questions: need of a proactive and positive thinking to activate a change in the reality.

References Annex: terminology About the author

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EPISODE 0 | DISASTERS and AID COORDINATION | INTRODUCTION • •

•

• •

•

Disasters: a brief introduction Before and after disasters. Some facts.

• Effects of Natural Disasters • What happens after a disaster?

An introduction about Haiti • Before the earthquake • Understanding a complex reality Facts about the Haiti earthquake, January 12, 2010 The aftermath of the Haiti earthquake and introduction to local coordination issues connected to the definition of “Complex Emergency”.

Scope of the research and research question

“A disaster is made inevitable by the historically produced pattern of vulnerability, evidenced in the location, infrastructure, socio-political structure, production patterns, and ideology, that characterize a society. The society’s pattern of vulnerability is an essential element of a disaster”.

O.S. Anthony, 1998

“Disaster is “a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which ex\ceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”.

UNDHA 2001

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination introduction

F

Disasters. A brief introduction.

rom Greek, prefi x δυσ-, (dus-) “bad”[4]

ability, resulting in a perceived disruption of

+ ἀστήρ (aster), “star” literally meaning “destruction of a star”, a disaster is a natural or man-made (or technological) hazard resulting in an event of substantial extent causing significant physical damage or destruction, loss of life, or drastic change to the environment.

A disaster can be extensively defined as any tragic event stemming from events such as earthquakes, floods, catastrophic accidents, fires, or explosions. It is a phenomenon that can cause damage to life and property and destroy the economic, social and cultural life of people.1

the customary relative satisfactions of individual and social needs for physical survival, social order and meaning.”2

“. . .a disaster is at some basic level a social construction, its essence to be found in the organization of communities, rather than in an environmental phenomenon with destructive or disruptive effects for a society.” “. . .a process involving the combination of a potentially destructive agent(s) from the natural, modified and/or constructed environment and a population in a socially and economically produced condition of vulner1 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster

The United Nations has defined a disaster as “a serious disruption of the functioning of a society, causing widespread human, material, or environmental losses which exceed the ability of the affected society to cope using its own resources”3. By this definition, not every fire, earthquake, drought, epidemic, or industrial accident constitutes a disaster, only those where the losses exceed a society’s ability to cope and external aid is required. As defined by W. Courtland Robinson in Risk and Rights: the Causes, Consequences and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement, the As defined by W. Courtland Robinson in Risk and Rights: the Causes, Consequences and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement, most classifications of disaster identify two main types: natural and hu2 Oliver-Smith, Anthony (1998) “Global Changes and the Definition of Disaster.” Chapter 15 (pp.

177-194), in What Is A Disaster? E.L. Quarantelli (ed.).

London and NY: Routledge.

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UNDHA 2001

Introduction |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Disaster-induced Displacement Worldwide in 2012 Source: http://idmcnrc.files.wordpress.com/2013/05/world-map-global-estimates-2012.jpg

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| Disasters 2012

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

man-made. Natural disasters may be broken

4. Industrial/technological disasters result

down into three subcategories— sudden impact, slow-onset, and epidemic diseases— while human-made disasters include two sub-categories— industrial/technological disasters and complex emergencies: 1. Sudden impact disasters include floods, earthquakes, tidal waves, tropical storms, volcanic eruptions, and landslides. Floods are the type of natural disaster most frequently associated with sudden migration of large populations and food shortages. Earthquakes cause the greatest number of deaths and overwhelming infrastructural damage.

2. Slow-onset disasters include droughts, famine, environmental degradation, deforestation, pest infestation, and desertification (conversion of arable lands to deserts).

These disasters are usually the result of adverse weather conditions combined with poor land use.

3. Epidemic diseases such as cholera, measles, dysentery, respiratory infections, malaria, and, increasingly, HIV, generally do not trigger large-scale displacement even during a severe outbreak although they often threaten displaced populations, especially those clustered in overcrowded and unsanitary conditions following a major disaster.

from a society’s industrial and technological activities that lead to pollution, spillage of hazardous materials, explosions, and fires.

They may occur from poor planning and construction of facilities or from neglect of safety procedures. Sudden-onset disasters such as earthquakes and floods as well as human factors such as armed conflict or a terrorist attack may trigger secondary disasters such as fires, industrial explosions and pollution/ contamination.

5. Complex emergencies are usually human-made with multiple contributing factors (these may include war, internal conflict and natural disaster) and are marked by large-scale displacement, food insecurity, human rights violations and elevated mortality.

As listed above, there are different kinds of disasters that impact the people and the assets of sodcieties. As it will be explained in the nect paragraph, differend disasters bring along diffetent effects and different scale of impact on the specific situation.

Introduction |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Before and after disasters. Resilience, risk

sessed”.4

and vulnerability. Some facts.

The figures alone compel attention. But is the human costs of forced migration – destroyed livelihoods, increased vulnerability especially of women and children, lost homelands and histories, fractures households and dis-empowered communities, and the destruction of common bonds and shared values of humanity which require urgent solution and decisive action.

More than ever, the complex nature of dis asters and conflicts is accompanied by the enormous potential to uproot large numbers of people. In Haiti, Japan and Pakistan, in Iraq, Libya, the Horn of Africa, Mali and now Syria, the number of displaced populations within and across the borders in just impressive. Other factors such as population growth, rapid urbanization, increasing poverty and inequality, hazardous and environmentally contaminated sites, global climate change, new technological hazards, all combine to accentuate vulnerability and increase the propensity for forced displacement to occur.

Those who are uproots and relocated must

The risk of natural disasters is something we all face. For some of us that risk is higher than others. Where we live, what we live in, and what we do determines our risk. How important the risk of natural disasters is compared with other risks in our lives will determine whether we do anything about it and how much we do. Awareness of the risk by the public in general and perception of how it compares to other risks will determine society’s attitudes about reducing it.

Understanding risks and their causes is important in dealing with disasters. Our knowledge of what makes a person or a community more vulnerable than another determines the steps we can take to reduce their risk.

“Over 70 million people are forced migrants – more than one in every 100 of the world’s citizens – displaced by conflict, political upheaval, violence and disasters but also climate change and development projects.

This figure rises relentlessly each year and most migrants are either in protracted displacement situation or permanently dispos-

4 Vulnerability and Risk Assessment 2nd Edition. Module prepared by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S. Sspence, A. Pomonis, Cambridge Architectural Research Limited

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| Risk, resilience, vulnerability

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

cope with adapting to new or radically trans-

natural disaster as indicated in the World

formed environments, the fear of social exclusion, discrimination and the loss of dignity. Mobilizing social and cultural resources to restore adequate levels of material and communal life largely depends of the humanity and resilience of the forced migrants themselves. They have important capacities that those supporting them, must better understanding in order to provide assistance and protection when displacement occurs. 5

Natural Disasters Report 2012, in order to better understand why is so important to address the problem from the root.

Effects of Natural Disasters Volcanoes, mudslides, tsunamis, earthquakes and floods are just a few of the ways nature strikes on a daily basis, leaving behind destruction and heartache. Humans have learned to prepare for the possibility of tornadoes, earthquakes, hurricanes and wildfires, but no amount of preparation can lessen the impact that natural disasters have on every aspect of society.

Following is an overview of the major effects 5 World disaster report 2012 by IFRC (International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies)

• Physical Destruction: The first biggest visible effect of natural disasters is the physical ruin they leave behind. Homes, vehicles and personal possessions are often destroyed within a short period of time, leaving families homeless and shutting some businesses down permanently. Tornadoes destroy structures at whim, earthquakes can cause structural damage that might not be apparent at first glance, and tsunamis and floods sweep homes off their foundations. • Emotional Toll: Possessions are hard to replace however not nearly as brutal as emotional toll of natural disasters which is much more devastating. The death of a loved one may be the worst-case scenario but it’s not the only lasting emotional effect victims experience. Whole communities may be displaced, separating friends and neighbours; victims face anxiety and depression as they wonder if it could happen again. In extreme cases, they may experience post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Effects |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Disasters have MULTIPLE CAUSES

DESTRUCTION places

countries cities neighbourhoods

houses

SAME RESULTS

people DISPLACEMENT

Disaster causes-effects diagram Source: author

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| Causes and effects

sense of place loss of identity

culture

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

• Economic Concerns: According to the Na-

how natural disasters affect an area. In rural

tional Hurricane Center, Hurricane Katrina cost the U.S. $75 billion when it slammed into New Orleans in August 2005. That doesn’t include the damage caused in the Florida counties of Miami-Dade and Broward by the same storm. While destruction of this magnitude is not commonplace, even a minor storm can cause considerable damage.

At the very least, the local economy must be able to absorb the cost of cleanup and repairs.

or isolated communities, natural disasters can thrust families into a situation where they must do without modern conveniences like electric and running water. They may not be able to get to town to buy necessities and have to rely on what they have stocked up. Densely populated areas face their own unique problems from natural disasters. Hygiene becomes a concern, as people crowd into temporary relief centers and competes for limited resources.

• Indirect Effects: While the visible effects of natural disasters are immediate and strongly felt, communities that surround ground zero can be indirectly affected by them as well. Natural disasters almost always lead to a disruption in utility services around the area impacted. This can mean life or death for those who rely on dialysis or oxygen to live. Medical assistance is also often slowed, as emergency crews must focus on the victims of the disaster. Banks and other businesses might be closed, affecting a family’s ability to withdraw money to pay bills and buy groceries.

• Environment: Humans aren’t the only living things affected by natural disasters. As is the case with humans, animals can be displaced from their homes. Sometimes they have no alternative but to leave the area and try to fit into a new habitat. Volcanoes, earthquakes, floods, wildfires and mudslides often permanently alter an area’s landscape, leading in some cases to the destruction of a local species.

• Geography: Geography plays a large role in

• Disruption of Utilities: Communities that surround areas affected by natural disasters are seriously affected by the disruption caused to utility services. Generally, power is the first thing to go when there’s a natural

Effects |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

disaster. This can literally mean life or death

lot of money. Health care infrastructure is af-

to the people who are on life support systems such as oxygen and dialysis. Medical assistance becomes hard to get since the crews are busy helping the victims of the disaster. Banks can be shut down, causing a shortage of cash circulation that prevents people from accessing funds for much needed provisions for babies and small children.

fected; the impacts are worse in developing countries that already have poor facilities to begin with. Disease starts spreading and, without proper medical attention, makes a bad situation worse. Education is a big loser when a natural disaster happens, schools are often closed, teachers are unable to come in to work and children are displaced and unable to attend school. Transportation capacity is reduced hindering relief efforts and disrupting normal life.

• Emotional Damage: When a natural disaster strikes, the emotional toll on the people affected is quite devastating. While possessions can be replaced eventually through insurance, the emotional damage can take a long while to heal. People lose loved ones in natural disasters; deaths of people and precious pets, serious injury and people missing all add up to severe emotional trauma.

Communities get displaced meaning separation from family and friends. Victims face stress, trauma, anxiety and depression as a result of natural disasters. • Social Consequences: The social consequences of natural disasters in the short and long term are wide ranging. The disasters affect housing; people are left homeless and rebuilding a home takes a long time and a

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| Effects

Clearly causes of disasters can be very different from one another and so the impact that resound in the given situation. Notwithstanding this, disasters have a common denominator within all of them: destruction of the built environment and displacement of the people. In this common denominator there is also a lot of confusion and misunderstanding of what goes on after the disaster has struck meaning how it is handled, and also what is the real awareness and preparation of the populations in order to prevent harm. In the next chapter will be outlined what happens after a disaster in terms of reaction and times of recovery to have an insight on the situation.

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

What happens after a disaster?

As it was seen in the previous paragraph, causes and effects of disasters can impact societies and environment for a long time.

In the following section it will be investigated how societies react to hazards in terms of what happens after the disaster strikes and what are the phases of the aftermath.

The difference of impact and effect that hazards have on different societies highly depend on the capacity of that society to cope with it in terms of quality of the built environment, government stability and organization, efficiency of the state services like police and firemen, health organization and so on. In substance the key is in the interconnection within these actors. How well they establish connection and communication within each other in sight of one common aim, work for the country, joint with the consensus and participation of the population, establish how resilient is a society to cope with disasters. The vulnerability of the country determines the impact of the disaster. As it will be explained , in country like Haiti, with many underlying problems at different level of the overall system, coping with disasters and organization of aid becomes a

very difficult issue and the only immediate visible consequence of this inefficient system can be read in the death toll and in the eternal recovery phase that these countries have to face.

Based on a report from Ian Davis, architect and veteran of over thirty disaster recoveries who visited Haiti in November 2011 to examine progress with reconstruction, is here presented an introduction of a theory of what happened after the 2010 disaster in Haiti. This theoretical approach towards the post disaster context is an essential moment of reflection to truly become aware of actions and reactions when planning strategies and aid in the short and in the long term.

The history of disaster reconstruction is known mostly for frequent failures and rare success stories. Very few are the cases of effective recovery to refer to in order to apply a successful model. This happens because the main problem with disasters is that they don’t undermine single and practical aspects of a city but they threaten and obstruct delicate network of deeply interconnected relations in the society they hit.

After disaster |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Progress with recovery scheme Source: “What is the Vision for Sheltering and Housing in Haiti? Summary Observations of Reconstruction Progress following the Haiti Earthquake of January 12th 2010� by Ian Davis

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| Recovery scenarios

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

Observing the after-disaster situation, it im-

panded in scope to break the process down

mediately refer us to the term “recovery” which starts the instant after the calamity has ended.

According to Davis’ findings, recovery fits into four broad categories: Scenario 1 being the worst solution, while Scenario 4 is clearly the target to aim for. (Fig. 1)

into five sectors: • psycho-social recovery, • environmental recovery, • institutional and governmental recovery, • physical recovery • economic/ livelihood recovery.

• in Scenario 1, there are numerous examples of no recovery, where years after the disaster, there is still abundant evidence of ruined buildings, half finished projects and the failure to deliver the early promises; • in Scenario 2, there are examples of insufficient or erratic recovery, where buildings may have been rebuilt, but there are not enough jobs, society remains fragmented and trees have not been replanted; • in Scenario 3, – the ‘status-quo’ option, there are examples of attempts to recover the pre-disaster situation, but alas, that ‘normality’ was also the ‘vulnerability’ that gave rise to the disaster…; • but in Scenario 4, there are rare examples of recovery where positive development has taken place to produce a better and safer environment.

This model of Disaster Recovery can be ex-

As it was introduced at the beginning of the chapter, societies can be divided into different sectors, however all of them are deeply interconnected. Since each of these sectors is dependent on the others - needing close integration, the aim for a fair recovery must be to move each sector, in a balanced manner, towards Scenario 4 ‘Development Recovery’.

Close multi-sectoral integration must be the only way forward for Haiti’s Recovery Plans to avoid the risk of neglecting one sector at the expense of another.

One problem is that many countries hit by disasters are in a very vulnerable condition as they are fragile states. This countries are bound to be in the “insufficient recovery” phase or even “ no recovery” for a very long time, much more than the time planned from aid agencies. In fact this happens also due to the way aid is delivered by foreign

After disaster |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Haiti phases Cartoon Source: http://www.haitian-truth.org/haiti-needs-a-bailout-and-effective-foreign-aid-by-stanley-lucas

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| Recovery sectors

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

aid agencies which take the control in critical situations trying to help but often altering already delicate contexts. Most of the times foreign agencies direct their aid in a specific way without focusing on the overall picture of the country in need of more than goods and money for the immediate relief.

To reach a minimum state of recovery, aid should be delivered in all sectors of the society but moreover these sectors need to be interconnected within each other and so has to be the aid flowing in to help them.

The different sectors should move on towards overall recovery at the same pace or at least communicating with each other and understand what is going on with the rest, for rehabilitation to take place effectively.

What aid organization tend to do instead is to help by quite strict sectors and just try to replicate the situation present before the disaster came. By proceeding forward this way, there is immediate recovery at very specific level of action, which is extremely important, to save life in the immediate.

However this phase is also extremely important in terms of planning of what to do also in the future. The action taken at the beginning are highly important and so influential on the process of long term development

to the point that a bad initial planning can compromise the whole growth and moving on of the country, as in fact is happening in many cases.

One conclusion brought up by Davis is that “full ‘development recovery is needed in Haiti that moves beyond replicating the dangerous pre-disaster status-quo and that this recovery integrates all the key sectors in a balanced approach through an agreed policy framework”.6 This outcome and the reasoning behind it is shared in this research and it is a key underlying assumption for the understanding of this project.

6 “What is the Vision for Sheltering and Housing in Haiti? Summary Observations of Reconstruction Progress following the Haiti Earthquake of January 12th 2010” by Ian Davis

Haiti context |

33

THE STORY

34

| Haiti

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

An introduction about Haiti In creole : Ayiti, land of high mountains Motto: L’Union Fait La Force Before the earthquake As reported by the Disasters Emergency Committee, Haiti was 145th of 169 countries in the UN Human Development Index, which is the lowest in the Western Hemisphere.

More than 70% of people in Haiti were living on less than $US2 per day, 86% of people in Port au Prince were living in slum conditions - mostly tightly-packed, poorly-built, concrete buildings. The 80% of education in Haiti was provided in often poor-quality private schools, the state system generally provided better education but provided far too few places.

Moreover, half of people in Port-au-Prince had no access to latrines and only one-third has access to tap water.

However Haiti was not only that. True that the situation is desperate seen from the eyes of who can judge from an better-off position, but the complexity and the richness of the country were and still are a potential that unfortunately is not highlighted by the

media.

As a matter of fact Haiti as a nation has faced many political, economic, and environmental storms over the centuries and these storms have altogether affected the lives of the people residing in Haiti. Furthermore to these storms, Haitians have been confronted with the occurrence of many natural disasters and they are in desperate need of support. While support from outside Haiti is surely beneficial and helps to lessen the urgency of their circumstances, it is also important for the people of Haiti to be able to access their own resources and rely onto their own strengths when dealing with their many challenges. When talking about Haiti since the earthquake there is the tendency of only highlighting what is bad and the terrible situation there. Truth is Haitians keep going and surviving the storms. They are a strong population with an extremely vibrant and reach culture. For this reasons, along with the story of the drama the earthquake caused, it is definitely worthwhile and of primarily importance too talk positively about Haiti and to see what do they still have to offer after all. So what are the strengths of the country and its people in coping with these disasters? What role do history and social

Image on the left: Haiti Artwork Source: http://i2.cdn.turner.com/cnn/2010/images/01/28/haiti.artwork.cover.jpg Context |

35

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Port au Prince

Dotted world map Source: http://asanorthwestern.wix.com/1999 36

| A complex reality

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

support systems such as family, religion and

Haitians have considerable cultural pride

community play in facing these challenges?

and are resilient when faced with distressing situations (Carrol 2007). An understanding and appreciation of these strengths may be useful to researchers working in Haiti.

Many Haitians have taken pride in believing that they are capable of overcoming many obstacles and that they have the inner strength to cope with most challenges. This belief system is largely rooted in their history. Haitians will always extend kindness and hospitality to strangers. It is not unusual for them to extend their only means and resources to complete strangers who are guest in their home. Haitians tendency to use food to connect with, educate, and soothe themselves as well as others. They often utilize food as an opportunity to connect with and provide comfort to those in need. Haitians tale the law very seriously. The crime rate in Haiti is much lower than in other countries.

They have a strong work ethic and are often acknowledged for their dependability. Education I highly valued by Haitians.

Haiti as a country has a strong African root influencing culture, music, language and religion. (i.e. Konpa music style). Haiti is a country that is rich in culture and cultural traditions. There are numerous strengths

Understanding a complex reality Before taking any position about Haiti and the post earthquake situation, one must first attempt to understand the complex context there and get knowledge on the Haitian history and culture present there ever since.

As analysed by Groupe u.r.d. the pre-earthquake context was characterized by a number of salient points.

1. Cultural complexity Though there are no descendants of the original inhabitants of the island, Haitian culture is extremely rich. Haitian singers, painters and poets are amongst the most famous in the Caribbean. Traditional cultural life is deeply rooted in traditional Voodoo, and has been enriched by numerous other religious and cultural practices. The memory of slavery is still present. Recent history has seen growing tension between traditional culture and evangelical churches which have gained in influence in the last decades and are clearly trying to limit the influence of traditional practices.

A complex reality |

37

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

that have been found to be associated

3. Haiti, the development aid abyss

with Haitians and increasing awareness of these strengths is instrumental in providing culturally competent services to Haitian clients who have been exposed to a natural disaster. In addition to cultural values, traditions, and elements, other factors such as family, religion, and community connection are important cultural strengths of Haitians that allow them to cope with the impact of natural disasters.1

As it has been allocated considerable amounts of development aid, Haiti is one of these places which makes people question whether aid “really has any effect”.

The “c” word (c for coordination) is often accused of being the source of all evil. Already, before the earthquake, complex coordination and governance mechanisms had been put in place. These involved different families of stakeholders (donors, international and national stakeholders, UN agencies, multilateral actors, the Haitian government, etc.) with different mandates (development, humanitarian, etc.).

Dialogue between Haitian civil society groups and the different international coordination forums has often been difficult.

The image of the humanitarian sector and the confidence that people have in it determine the quality of aid, the security of humanitarian staff and the possibility of having a positive impact in the long term. These are vital issues which need to be taken into account in a difficult context like Haiti which has experienced periods of violence and which is confronted today with enormous challenges following a large-scale disaster.

Understanding of the context, coordination

2. A strategic position Due to its geographical position, Haiti falls within the sphere of influence of the United States and regional powers like Brazil, Venezuela and Chile. As Haiti is a French speaking country and is relatively close to the French territories of Guadeloupe and Martinique, it is also within France’s sphere of influence. As a result, political decisions to assist Haiti are not always disinterested.

1 About Haitian cultural complexity: in Nicolas, G., Schwartz, B., & Pierre, E. (2009). Weathering the storm like Bamboo: the Strengths of Haitians in Coping with Natural Disasters. In A. Kalayjian, D. Eugene, & G. Reyes (Ed.), International handbook of emotional healing: Ritual and practices for resilience after mass trauma.

Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

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| A complex reality

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

mechanisms and perceptions of the rela-

partly in the colonial period (overexploita-

tions between humanitarians, the government and the army are key factors which need to be analysed to understand the image of aid.

tion of natural resources, monoculture for the colonial market and payment of a decolonisation tax) and also in the post-colonial economic system (market deregulation with Haitian agricultural products unable to compete with subsidised imports). These have contributed to making Haiti the poorest country in the Caribbean. 72% of the population lives on less than two US dollars per day. Alongside this poverty there is a high degree of social inequality, with a number of families in possession of a large part of the national wealth. The lives of many Haitians in rural and urban areas are often a case of day to day survival, with a great deal of dependence on aid and money transferred by the Haitian diaspora.

4. A troubled recent history but a gradual consolidation of the State Haiti has had a troubled recent history with politically motivated violence with roots in the Duvalier period. This political violence regularly led to the intervention of international armies. The hopes raised by Aristide’s Presidency were dashed amid mismanagement and corruption. The period of turbulence which followed, from 2000 to 2004, led to the application of Chapter VII of the United Nations Charter and the creation of the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH). Its stated objectives were to maintain the security of the country and reinforce the rule of law. Though significant progress was made nationally and regionally via a policy of decentralization, the continued presence of the MINUSTAH is now questioned by many Haitians and some observers.

5. Poverty and inequality Today’s social fragmentation has its roots

A complex reality |

39

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

THE EARTHQUAKE

40

| key word

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

Facts about the Haiti earthquake,

•

January 12, 2010

area in Port-au-Prince and mostly stayed with host families • At its peak, one and a half million people were living in camps including over 100,000 at critical risk from storms and flooding • Unrelated to the earthquake but causing aid response challenges was the outbreak of cholera in October 2010. By July 2011 5,899 had died as a result of the outbreak, and 216,000 were infected (Data source: Disaster Emergencies Committee)

Impact in figures • • • • •

•

• • •

7.0 Magnitude Quake struck near Port au Prince 3,500,000 people were affected by the quake 220,000 people estimated to have died 300,000+ people were injured Over 188,383 houses were badly damaged and 105,000 were destroyed by the earthquake (293,383 in total), 1.5m people became homeless After the quake there were 19 million cubic metres of rubble and debris in Port au Prince – enough to fill a line of shipping containers stretching end to end from London to Beirut.

4,000 schools were damaged or destroyed 25% of civil servants in Port au Prince died 60% of Government and administrative buildings, 80% of schools in Port-auPrince and 60% of schools in the South and West Departments were destroyed or damaged

Over 600,000 people left their home

The January 12th earthquake in Haiti is the most lethal natural disaster of the past 20 years. On February 12th, the Associated Press reported that official Haitian government estimates of the dead had been revised upwards, now reaching 230,000 dead.

This tragedy rendered more than 1.5 million Haitians homeless. Hundreds of thousands of these people became “internally displaced persons” (IDPs), people forced to abandon their homes, and left homeless in their own land.

Furthermore, the number could be much

Image on the left: Art aid http://www.projectartaid.org/blog/wp-content/uploads/2010/02/IMG_2953.jpg Facts and figures

41

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Graphics about disaster magnitude and proportion of killed population Source: http://international.cgdev.org/blog/death-toll-haiti%E2%80%99s-earthquake-perspective 42

| Facts and figures

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

higher, since the government admits they

surpasses any of these natural disasters

have not yet been able to count all the bodies and they have excluded those buried by families or in private cemeteries. As the figure below shows, this new total surpasses the 225,000 dead in the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, and dwarfs the death tolls from recent earthquakes in Pakistan-controlled Kashmir and Sichuan, China.

A catastrophe’s death toll can also be measured in relation to the total population. The bars in the next chart show the deaths as percentages of the total populations of each relevant area. For the 2004 Tsunami in the Indian Ocean, the largest death toll was in the Indonesian province of Aceh on the island of Sumatra, where three percent of the population died. The 80,000 deaths in the Pakistan earthquake represented .4 percent of the population Pakistan’s Northwest Frontier Province. The Chinese and Burmese catastrophes killed fewer than one percent of the populations of the surrounding areas. In contrast, the Haitian earthquake killed 11.5 percent of the approximately two million people living in the immediate area of Port-au-Prince, which comes to 2.5% of the entire national population.

So in relative terms also, Haiti’s earthquake

which have occurred in other countries.

Finally one can compare the mortality from the earthquake to the mortality from other causes of death which afflict Haiti or have swept the world. The largest cause of mortality in Haiti for the last decade has been the HIV/AIDS epidemic. In 2007, the last year for which UNAIDS has published data, an estimated 7,500 people died of AIDS in Haiti.

The earthquake killed 30 times that many Haitians in a few days.

Facts and figures |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

A poor neighbourhood shows the damage after an earthquake measuring 7 plus on the Richter scale rocked Port au Prince Haiti just before 5 pm, January 12, 2010 UN Photo/Logan Abassi United Nations Development Programme under Creative Commons licence 44

Chapter X | title

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

The aftermath of the Haiti earthquake and

If help given is intended to be true and de-

introduction to local coordination issues connected to the definition of “Complex Emergency�1.

voted to the real wellness of the considered country, it is inevitable and essential to really consider the same country in the relief, and instead of using a crane to lift the nation up again after the collapse, is more useful to provide hands to help it to stand, but on its own legs.

As already mentioned, Haiti is one of the poorest nations in the Western Hemisphere.

As described from IASC, it suffers from a complex situation characterized by high levels of rural and urban poverty, weak governance structures, organized crime and sporadic outbreaks of violence as well as an extraordinary level of environmental degradation. The magnitude 7.0 of the earthquake that shattered the country on January 12, 2010 sadly highlighted Haiti’s vulnerability to natural disasters. Due this reasons and due to the continuous circle in which Haiti find itself caused by recurrent natural disasters combined with the man made disaster, it is appropriate to understand that this specific situations deserve special attention when foreign countries want to deliver help.

In fact those circumstances extremely alter the status of the country, already out of balance and external intervention for relief can

In the previous paragraphs it was described briefly the identity of Haiti and how the earthquake in 2010 put a light in the already desperate situation of the country.

The main question after describing the facts about the earthquake is now about what happened in Haiti in the aftermath of this dominant disaster. How was the situation handled? And overall being Haiti already considered a precarious situation, how and by whom is the coordination of the aid organized into the country?

Before going in depth with this argument in the next chapter, it is essential to understand the overall situation even before this specific analysed havoc. When talking about a country affected by a disaster, is essential to look deeply into the context and the internal dynamics, before to really plan interventions for a long lasting recovery.

1 Definition of Complex Emergency as given by the Overseas Development Institute in Evaluating Humanitarian Assistance Programmes in Complex Emergencies, ODI, September 1998

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| The aftermath

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

be very delicate to comprehend and help.

The Overseas Development Institute classified Haiti and countries with alike issues into the definition of a “Complex Emergency”.

As described by ODI, a ‘typical’ complex emergency is characterised by: • a collapse of state functions • intra-state rather than inter-state conflict • difficulty in differentiating between combatants and civilians • violence directed towards civilians and civil structures • fluidity of the situation on the ground • a lack or absence of normal accountability mechanisms • the potential and actual development of war economies • the potential for humanitarian assistance to prolong the conflict • a multiplicity of actors It is of particular importance to understand that the definition it is given to truly show the complexity of certain emergencies and to have a common international understanding, in order to prevent sporadic and superficial interventions.

The aftermath |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Scope of the research and research ques-

ters, and especially about the Haiti earth-

tion

quake in the ‘complex situation’, brought me to extend my reflection and find roots of the Haitian problems far beyond any superficial level. My intention is to conduct a research project with the goal of really understand those complex dynamics and relations, taking the current situation as it is, spotting the good points of improvements, without simply judging why and how come the situation is as drastic as it is. Therefore I intentionally trespass details about the disaster situation itself, for I believe there is enough information provided by the media for that. The ultimate aim is to get to the real core of the problem of why those disasters in Haiti have such an impact, and why despite the pattern of repetition of the events the country cannot get into a preparedness and effective aid coordination dynamic.

The aim of this thesis, starts from the general conviction that effective humanitarian coordination, even in drastic complex emergencies, is possible. We can change systems if the causes are noble but only if there is general consensus and equal cooperation and effort coming from all actors involved and above all if there is a common intention and established values of respect and care for others beside the only profit. Furthermore we can change things if there is commitment to it and will to invest time and money for a just cause.

The system have to change and it needs to address new priorities in a world where in 2013, almost half the world — over three billion people — live on less than $2.50 a day. (World Bank Development Indicators 2008).

We can’t continue promoting an economic entity that enriches some people excessively while others are starving to death. Overall we can’t continue ignoring the fact that this is really happening even if we don’t see it below our eyes.

This brief introduction about natural disas-

48

| Research questions

Research Question: Will the implementation of permanent organs in the current temporary aid system in Haiti, reflected in the design of an actual coordination headquarters in Port-au-Prince, trigger a local response to natural disasters

Episode 0 | Disasters and aid coordination. Introduction

leading the country to approach a long devel-

tion headquarters will respond to the

opment phase?

implemented aid coordination system needs in the short and long term?

Will the design of an aid coordination complex raise disaster awareness in the city and therefore increase internal response?

Will an architectural design based on sustainable principles like use of local and natural resources, respond and adapt to natural changes of the environment?

Sub-questions about the permanent aid system: •

•

•

How the permanent aid system (top down action) will permeate the local tissue stimulating a process of integration of local organizations, companies and government in the aid coordination structure?

Will this permeation will trigger a vital and proactive synergy between the different actors, aiming in building up a strong local self-reliant coordination mechanism?

Will this permeation trigger a bottom-up response for the long term period, stimulating the inner strength and potential of the country with the ultimate goal to receive foreign aid during crisis but to be able to cope internally with it?

•

•

All the argumentations, assumptions and proposal in this thesis are supported by my distinct belief that the use of architecture can be a powerful mean to act intervene on local situations to implement the action taken at a system level.

Theories don’t explicitly need places to take form and become effective. However places do give form to theories and can help complex situations to become more tangible and accessible to everyone.

Sub-questions about the aid coordination headquarters: •

How the introduction of aid coordina-

Research questions |

49

EPISODE 1 | UNDERSTANDING HUMANITARIAN AID

Definition of global terms; scope of the research; delineation of a methodology •

• •

Description of the problem in global terms: aid coordination and the humanitarian aid machine • The place to be as an NGO: Haiti • What is intended for ‘coordination of aid’ Definition of key terms: what is aid Delineation of a methodology of research: a general approach applicable to different specific cases.

Interviews, literature

Image: © mørland, the times

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

The image sums up the future reconstruction of Haiti- The writing on the man’s knapsack says, International Aid. Author: Ricardo, El Mundo Source: http://seaton-newslinks.blogspot.nl/2010/01/haiti.html 52

| Definition of aid

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

Description of the problem in global terms: aid coordination and the humanitarian aid machine

hu·man·i·tar·i·an

1

/(h)yo͞oˌmaniˈte(ə)rēən/ Adjective Concerned with or seeking to promote human welfare a·i·d 2 /eɪd/ 1. noun • help, typically of a practical nature • financial or material help given to a country or area in need • [count noun] a source of help or assistance 2. verb • help or support (someone or something) in the achievement of something • promote or encourage (something)

With reference to the findings of the OECDDAC Working Party on Statistics, “humanitarian aid” or “humanitarian assistance” in ADC is understood as follows: “The aim of humanitarian aid is to protect 1 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/humanitarian 2 http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/aid

life, reduce suffering and safeguard the human dignity of the persons affected during and after a humanitarian crisis. Humanitarian aid is guided by the principles of humanity, impartiality, neutrality and independence. During the first six months following an acute crisis it usually involves the basic provision of drinking water and food, shelter and health care facilities, medical assistance and the protection and care of refugees and the homeless. Apart from these core areas, humanitarian aid also entails the provision of other services to help restore normal living conditions. In the multiphase continuum from short-term disaster relief to long-term development cooperation, humanitarian aid therefore also includes rehabilitation, reconstruction and disaster prevention measures.”3 The global aid community has grown tremendously since the days of humanitarian and development assistance. The understand of how aid works during this period has also grown more sophisticated and complicated and if we look at the work fields, 3 Source: International Humanitarian Aid, policy document

The humanitarian aid money machine |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Evaluating Humanitarian Assistance Programmes in Complex Emergencies Author: Alistair Hallam Source: Overseas Development Institute, London, 1998 54

| Evaluating aid

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

many lessons need to be learnt but one

needs. This is a huge unpredictable factor

above all: aid must change as needs change.

When a natural disaster strikes or a conflict erupt, people need immediate lifesaving assistance like food, clean water, emergency and shelter protection from harm. Those needs change on the moment of crisis passes, and those affected seek long-term assistance to rebuild their lives, secure jobs and livelihoods. This may seems pretty obvious. As a matter of fact the transition between the delicate moment from short-term to long-term relief, is too often one of the biggest failure in the humanitarian aid. The transition is badly mishandled in the field, putting lives in jeopardy and undermining the humanitarian community credibility.

Bridging the gap between emergency and humanitarian assistance and long term development aid is essential to help people survive disasters and get back on the path to self-reliance and dignity.

Although this is so clear in theory, why then is happening all the time on the field?

When talking about humanitarian aid is never easy to put theory into practice. Many unpredictable factors affect the good operation of the system since, as the same word states, is about human relationship and

which prevent things to work out smoothly as they do in theory. But this is not all. Humanitarian aid is not just all about humans.

The shift from humanitarian to development aid requires thorough and serious planning.

Too often the two phases fail to coordinate and effectively overlap their operations to ensure a smooth transition. As well, unfortunately too often aid is about money and profit; as it requires short and long term investments by the donors. What happens is that it becomes like any other market and the focus shifts from what people really need, to the donors and stakeholders will about what they want to invest on and obtain from it, and also about the return of image they will have.

As sad as it is, this procedure clarify one important thing we keep misunderstanding about humanitarian aid.

Generally, international humanitarian agencies operate on their own, without considering and involving local governments and communities. When is the moment to shift to the development phase, they should hand over to local institutions and staff, cooperating with development groups to create more permanent structures with longer-term

NGOs in Haiti |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Who is who in humanitarian aid Source: Development Initiatives 56

| Roles of humanitarian players

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

funding. Frequently, agencies erect walls

these donors, including UN and its agencies,

between their aid and development work for reasons which have nothing to do with problems of the affected nation itself. This reasons range from arcane administrative and financial procedures, to pressure on donor governments from domestic constituencies, to a lack of agreement between agencies and the national leaders or president about how aid should be disposed.

prevent them from bridging the humanitarian-development gap.

International donors don’t know what really happens in the field and what are the real needs. They come together to poll their development funds for the specific nation or region, through the multi donor trust fund.

A number of times, they do not have a realistic plan for how to spend that money quickly in a country debilitated by either disaster or war and oftentimes weak institutions. As a result the funds either are not spent in a reasonable time and are not spent on most important things. This leads to leaving the people with some relief but the desperate needs remain unfulfilled.

International donors are in the driving seat when it comes to providing aid and meeting the changing needs of the people. Yet the outdated bureaucracies and budgets of

In 2005, the UN rolled out a new system designed to provide better coordination within, and to bring a measure of predictability and accountability to, the humanitarian community. Unfortunately, once again this has fallen short of expectations; the effort to coordinate humanitarian aid in disasters doesn’t find a proper match of similar exertion to link emergency relief with early recovery and development.

This failure in connecting smoothly this two delicate phases with each other and with the local community, can in reality prevent people from rebuilding their lives. The human toll of conflicts and disasters is too high as it is to continue to ignore that this problem is the main threat to lives of displaced populations. Main driver agencies keep hiding the head under the sand, and attributing causes of failure in the lacked delivered aid to other reasons, because they are reluctant to hand over aid to local communities as they don’t want to lose the power on the situation and the consequent profit they make out of that specific aid. No matter how hard they try to

Coordination |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

RELATION GOVERNMENT - STAKEHOLDERS - DONORS - NGOs

BEFORE TAKING ACTION PRESENT SITUATION STAKEHOLDERS

GOVERNMENT

FOREIGN NGOs

LOCAL NGOs EU USA

DONORS

PRIVATE

The diagram shows how the different actors are standing as separate enclosed entities with low connection and therefore awareness of what others are doing.

Source: Author 58

| Relations within actors

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

hide evidence, this is certainly one of the

are bypassing the Haitian Government and

main reasons why aid fail to get to who really needs it. Therefore is time to act and really change this profit based humanitarian aid system, to a pure and transparent aid system based on mere and authentic humanitarian aid.

funnelling financial and material assistance through NGOs due to fears of corruption, which is undeniably present in the Haitian political reality. This causes the government to have minor capacity and less funding than foreign organizations which gain more trust by donors and eventually also by local population who turns to them to ask and receive basic services. This simple procedure weakens the governmental capacity and accountability from the inside, and undermines the basic possibility of Haiti to react and play a role in recovery from the inside-out.

This situation might seems of minor importance: as long as NGOs receive money they should be able to heal help the people with providing shelters and basic aid and reconstruct things. In point of fact the more one delves in the situation, the more complex and difficult it turns out to be.

The key point is that no one specifically can be blamed. What makes it so unclear and hard to grasp is the deep interconnection of many factors and prominent actors that play in a game of which they seems not longer to know the rules. Truth is they might actually know those rules: but the times are changing, the situations are different and there

The place to be as an NGO: Haiti “The number of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) operating in Haiti prior to the earthquake range from 3,000 to as many as 10,000. Haiti has the second highest number of NGO’s per capita in the world. However in the aftermath of the earthquake, the crucial work of these NGOs was tarnished by issues concerning NGO regulation and accountability”.4 Concerns about NGO oversight and donor coordination have been present in Haiti for decades. It turned out that the aid ‘machine’ of funding NGOs is not as good as it pretended to show. It may sound like a paradox but to date as a matter of fact, funding NGOs undermines the Haitian government. The motivation is as simple as true. Foreign donors 4

Peace Brief 23, April 26, 2010

Coordination |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

The reality is that for every $1 in foreign aid the Haitian Government receives $.01 and the Haitian people receive $.07. The rest of that dollar goes to overhead, salaries, and travel budgets. Clearly this is an ineffective model for aid.

Source: http://www.haitian-truth.org/haiti-needs-a-bailout-and-effective-foreign-aid-by-stanley-lucas/

DONORS WHAT THEY DONATE: goods - money emergency & short term

emergency short term long term

Government

foreign NGOs

private NGOs

foreign NGOs

The diagram shows the direct relationship between donors and private foreign NGO’s, bypassing the government for lack of accountability.

Source: author 60

| Donors

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

are some basic rules of aid coordination that

destructive and be the mean of channelling

needs to be changed as well, according to needs.

corruption and self interests for a profit.

In the humanitarian field, effective coordination is crucial. By effective is intended a synergistic participation of all the actors who works for reaching a unique goal for people affected by hazards which is relief.

Now it is convenient to address the specification of a distinction. Relief embrace a broad spectrum of activities, but it is possible to break it down into two main streams: short term and long term relief.

How does coordination affect relief? In all aspects. According to the intentions and aims of the group of people or organizations working for relieving, means of action and coordination activities have to be addresses differently but under a unique wing.

Here is where come the first big aim obstacle in aid coordination: every actor e aims for a lasting relief impact, but as a matter of fact most of them work with a short term goal and despite they are part of a bigger mechanism, there is no frank general coordination which brings all this effort together and make it really last, passing from foreign-to-local aid, to inner-self aid coming from the local community.

Of course there are big coordinators in the

If we want to change things and have a big shift, a serious reform of the whole game needs to take place. An integral process which embraces politics, economy, building regulations, human resources and new awareness and knowledge of the human dignity and respect for the planet needs to happen.

What is intended for ‘coordination of aid’ Coordination is a very meaningful and powerful word. The act of coordinating can be applied to every discipline. It doesn’t involve the creation of a product or a service anew, but is the power by which existing things get to work together, synchronizing in a unique synergy which creates a new organism. Coordination is very important when there is a need of using at the best possible, the qualities of single elements, to really empower them by enhancing their abilities.

Coordination can be very powerful when successful. On the other hand it can also be

Coordination of aid |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Haiti Coordination Plans Author: MCSN Aaron Shelley Source: HaitiEarthquakePhotos.com 62

| Meeting&Planning

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

picture. United Nations is the biggest and most important in the actual picture.

Not discussing the fact that UN is really doing work and involving people in relief practices and coordination matters, there is not such an organism of the UN that brings international aid, to really be effective at local level to the point that this power is handed over to the local communities once they are able to handle it. There are few cases that can be mentioned, who managed to see this transformation happening. One of them in Haiti is the case of successful cooperation between ‘Partners in Health’, a foreign NGO, who aimed to involve a local organization ‘Zanmi Lasante’ along with the Haitian ministry of health, really engaging in building hospitals and such, in order for the local system to acquire trust and accountability from the citizens who now turns to their own government to receive healthcare and not to a foreign partner. 5

5

More information about this collaboration on

http://www.pih.org/country/haiti

Definition of key terms Understanding concepts and people while talking about humanitarian aid and coordination is the first key for a clear comprehension of common concepts and goals.

Following is a brief explanation of the key terms as given by Development Initiatives in the Global Humanitarian Assistance session.6 •

Humanitarian aid

‘Humanitarian aid’ is aid and action designed to save lives, alleviate suffering and maintain and protect human dignity during and in the aftermath of emergencies. The characteristics that mark it out from other forms of foreign assistance and development aid are that: - it is intended to be governed by the principles of humanity, neutrality, impartiality and independence - it is intended to be short-term in nature and provide for activities in the immediate aftermath of a disaster.

6

http://www.globalhumanitarianassistance.org/

data-guides/defining-humanitarian-aid

Key terms |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

64

In practice it is often difficult to say where

points – for example, ‘disaster preparedness’

‘during and in the immediate aftermath of emergencies’ ends and other types of assistance begin, especially in situations of prolonged vulnerability.

Traditional responses to humanitarian crises, and the easiest to categorise as such, are those that fall under the aegis of ‘emergency response’: - material relief assistance and services (shelter, water, medicines etc.)

- emergency food aid (short-term distribution and supplementary feeding programmes) - relief coordination, protection and support services (coordination, logistics and communications).

But humanitarian aid can also include reconstruction and rehabilitation (repairing pre-existing infrastructure as opposed to longer-term activities designed to improve the level of infrastructure) and disaster prevention and preparedness (disaster risk reduction (DRR), early warning systems, contingency stocks and planning). Under the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) Development Assistance Committee (DAC) reporting criteria, humanitarian aid has very clear cut-off

excludes longer-term work such as prevention of floods or conflicts. ‘Reconstruction relief and rehabilitation’ includes repairing pre-existing infrastructure but excludes longer-term activities designed to improve the level of infrastructure.

Humanitarian aid is given by governments, individuals, NGOs, multilateral organisations, domestic organisations and private companies. Some differentiate their humanitarian assistance from development or other foreign assistance, but they draw the line in different places and according to different criteria. We report what others themselves report as ‘humanitarian’ assistance but try to consistently label and source this.

| Key terms

•

Global humanitarian assistance

The term ‘global humanitarian assistance’ is used within the context of the Global Humanitarian Assistance (GHA) programme to mean: - international humanitarian response (i.e. humanitarian aid from governments and private contributions) - domestic response (provided by govern-

Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

ments in response to crises inside their own

tions, including NGOs, the UN and the Inter-

countries) - other types of assistance that go to people in humanitarian crises which fall outside that captured in the data on ‘international’ or ‘domestic’ humanitarian response (e.g. peacekeeping and other official development assistance (ODA) activities such as governance and security).

national Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement. Breakdowns of where the money is spent and how it gets there, data is taken from UN OCHA’s FTS (a disaggregation of NGO, Foundations and Red Cross/Crescent reporting in the FTS plus private contributions from individuals and the private sector).

•

International humanitarian aid

International humanitarian aid (or ‘international humanitarian response’) is used to describe the contributions of: - international governments - individuals, private foundations, trusts, private companies and corporations.

- Humanitarian aid from governments •

“The Haitian Government may not have the resources to directly implement programs, but it does have the resources to oversee and coordinate NGOs activities.

NGOs also need to engage the Haitian government in order to ensure their work aligns with long-term Haitian government priorities”.

USIP, 2010

Private contributions

Private contributions are those from individuals, private foundations, trusts, private companies and corporations.

In the overall estimates of international humanitarian response, private contributions are those raised by humanitarian organisa-

Key terms |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

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Episode 1 | Understanding Humanitarian Aid

Delineation of a methodology of research.

I believe that theoretical research is fundamental to really develop, improve and above al innovate the practice towards a sustainable future. For this thesis, I didn’t have the opportunity to visit the interested country and have on field experience for now, but I thought I might use this academic time to do some extensive theoretical investigation.

A method used is literature review of features books following precious advice from tutors but also self advised research to indulge my personal curiosity about topic in a broader conception.

This also included a considerable scanning and evaluation of articles about the Haiti earthquake who led me to confront with many different public opinions on the matter, and strengthen my own.

A part from reading, I find it extremely important not to tend uniquely towards words and utopia, even though they are really powerful mean to extend the boundaries of the human mind. To address ethereal research in a realistic way, is essential to confront with people and their on-field experiences. A powerful and meaningful research tool is undoubtedly face to face talking and interviewing experts.

Therefore I made use of the power of talking and human relations as much as I could.

I talked to different people about different topics; however I will mention the few but essential contributions that made the difference to the outcome of this research.

First place I have made considerable ‘use’ of my research mentor knowledge, Alexander Vollebregt (TU Delft – Urban Emergencies studio). Our long and boundaries-less discussions, have always been very inspiring.

Above all, it was a step to step reality check, considering his extensive experience dealing with disaster prone areas and Haiti, either on field and academic.

Another essential reality check was James Kennedy, also a professor previously involved in the Urban Emergencies studio, and expert in refugees camps.(DESCRIPTION OF HIS QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERTISE) Also confrontation with other teachers and master students part of the Urban Emergencies Lab who have experienced the work and research in Haiti has been crucial to understand my own position in this broad field.

Methodology |

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EPISODE 2 | AID COORDINATION IN HAITI Delineation of the current situation of Haiti in the aid sector.

•

•

•

•

The current system: the Cluster Approach • What is the Cluster Approach?

• Why do we need the Cluster Approach?

• Who does what?

The ongoing aid organization structure in Haiti: • The official organization • The cluster system and the aid organization structure from a local perspective Pros and cons: notes from official evaluation papers on cluster system • Main achievements and progress made • Main problems and areas for improvement Reflection

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

“Coordination is vital in emergencies. Good coordination means less gaps and overlaps in humanitarian organizations’ work. It strives for a needs-based, rather than capacity-driven, response. It aims to ensure a coherent and complementary approach, identifying ways to work together for better collective results�.

UN OCHA

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Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

The current system: the Cluster approach.

T

he basis of the current international

capacity, coordination and accountability by

humanitarian coordination system was set by General Assembly resolution 46/182 in December 1991.

The Humanitarian Reform of 2005 introduced new elements to improve capacity, predictability, accountability, leadership and partnership.

The most important and tangible aspect of the reform is the creation of the Cluster Approach. “Clusters are groups of humanitarian organizations (UN and non-UN) working in the main sectors of humanitarian action, e.g. shelter and health. They are created when clear humanitarian needs exist within a sector, when there are numerous actors within sectors and when national authorities need coordination support.”1 Clusters provide a clear point of contact and are accountable for adequate and appropriate humanitarian assistance. Clusters create partnerships between international humanitarian actors, national and local authorities, and civil society.

“The cluster approach was introduced as a means to strengthen predictability, response

strengthening partnership in key sectors of humanitarian response, and by formalizing the lead role of particular agencies/organizations in each of these sectors.” 2 The work of the clusters is under a general coordination organism, OCHA (United Nations Office for Humanitarian Affairs).

OCHA works closely with global cluster lead agencies and NGOs to develop policies, coordinate inter-cluster issues, disseminate operational guidance and organize field support. At the field level, OCHA helps ensure that the humanitarian system functions efficiently and in support of the Humanitarian Coordinator’s (HC) leadership. OCHA provides guidance and support to the HC and Humanitarian Country Team, and facilitates inter-cluster coordination. OCHA also helps to ensure coordination between clusters at all phases of the response, including needs assessments, joint planning, and monitoring and evaluation.

1 http://www.unocha.org/what-we-do/coordination-tools/cluster-coordination

2 Cluster Approach Evaluation Final by OCHA EES November 2007

Cluster approach |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Cluster approach diagram Author: UN OCHA Source: http://www.unocha.org/what-we-do/coordination-tools/cluster-coordination 72

| Cluster approach

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

What is the Cluster Approach?

The foundations of the current international humanitarian coordination system were set

by General Assembly resolution 46/182 in December 1991. Almost 15 years later, in 2005, a major reform of humanitarian coordination, known as the Humanitarian Reform Agenda, introduced a number of new elements to enhance predictability, accountability and partnership. The Cluster Approach was one of these new elements.

Clusters are groups of humanitarian organizations, both UN and non-UN, in each of the main sectors of humanitarian action, e.g. water, health and logistics. They are designated by the Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) and have clear responsibilities for coordination The Cluster Approach was applied for the first time following the 2005 earthquake in Pakistan. Nine clusters were established within 24 hours of the earthquake. Since then two evaluations on the Cluster Approach have taken place. The first, finalized in 2007, focused on implementation. The second, conducted in 2010, focused on the outcome of the cluster approach in improving humanitarian assistance.

Today the Cluster Approach is used in more than 30 countries to deliver humanitarian assistance.

When emergencies occur coordination is necessary. Good coordination means less gaps and overlaps in the assistance delivered by humanitarian organizations.

The core functions of a cluster at the country-level as listed by Humanitarian Response are :3 1.

Supporting service delivery by providing a platform for agreement on approaches and elimination of duplication 2.

Informing strategic decision-making of the Humanitarian Coordinator / Humanitarian Country Team (HC/HCT) for the humanitarian response though coordination of needs assessment and gap analysis and prioritization 3.

Planning and strategy development including sectoral plans,, adherence to standards and funding needs 4.

Advocacy to address identified concerns on behalf of cluster participants and the affected population 5.

Monitoring and reporting on the 3 Humanitarian response: https://clusters. humanitarianresponse.info/about-clusters/what-is-thecluster-approach

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Key actors in the cluster system Author: UN OCHA Source: http://www.unocha.org/what-we-do/coordination-tools/cluster-coordination 74

| Cluster approach

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

cluster strategy and results; recommending

formance leads to greater accountability.

corrective action where necessary 6.

Contingency planning/preparedness/capacity building where needed and where capacity exists within the cluster.

Each cluster is also responsible for integrating early recovery from the outset of the humanitarian response. Exceptionally, the Resident/Humanitarian Coordinator may recommend an Early Recovery cluster also be established.

• Enhanced predictability: Sector and thematic responsibilities are now clearer, and formal mechanisms exist to clarify those areas where they are not, both at national and international level; • Engagement with national and local authorities: Having a single person to call within the international humanitarian architecture speeds up the resolution of issues, and allows greater access for the non-governmental community to government and UN decision-makers; • Inclusion of affected communities: Tools and services developed through the Cluster Approach ensures that those who know the most appropriate solutions to their problems be engaged in formulating the response. It also gives those affected by crises access to government and decision-makers; • More effective advocacy: Where the Clusters, singly or collectively, speak with one voice on issues of common concern, including those affecting groups who are not normally heard; • Joint strategic and operational planning: The formal process of coordination within and between Clusters enhances efficiency while improving effectiveness.

Why do we need the Cluster Approach?

Good coordination strives for a needs-based, rather than capacity-driven, response. It aims to ensure a coherent and complementary approach, identifying ways to work together for better collective results.

As it was spotted in the “First Cluster Approach Evaluation” by OCHA4, the Cluster Approach aims to add value to humanitarian coordination through: • Increased transparency and accountability: Greater transparency in resource allocation, co-leadership, and operational per4 Cluster Approach Evaluation Final, OCHA Evaluation and Studies Section (ESS), November 2007

Cluster approach |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Coordination architecture in the cluster approach Author: Humanitarian response Source: https://clusters.humanitarianresponse.info/about-clusters/who-does-what 76

| Who does what

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

Who does what?

To explain the ongoing situation in the coordination architecture of the Cluster Approach, information has been documented and quoted by the Humanitarian Response website.

When starting to talk about the clusters, the first thing that comes to say is that a great number of actors are involved in the humanitarian coordination architecture.

Following is the explanation of the cluster architecture as seen in the figure in the previous page, as explained by Humanitarian Response.

“The Emergency Relief Coordinator (ERC) is the Under Secretary General for Humanitarian Affairs, and leads the IASC. The ERC is responsible for the oversight of all emergencies requiring United Nations humanitarian assistance. In a country affected by a disaster or conflict, the ERC may appoint a Humanitarian Coordinator (HC). The ERC ensures IASC endorsement of the HC proposal for Cluster activation and Cluster lead appointments.

The Humanitarian Coordinator (HC) is re-

sponsible for assessing whether or not an international response to crisis is warranted and for ensuring the humanitarian response efforts, if needed, are well organised. The HC is accountable to the Emergency Relief Coordinator. HCs lead the HCT in deciding the most appropriate coordination solutions for their country, taking into account the local situation. Agreement must be reached on which Clusters to establish, and which organizations are to lead them.

The Humanitarian Country Team (HCT) is a strategic and operational decision-making and oversight forum established and led by the HC. Composition includes representatives from the UN, IOM, international NGOs, the Red Cross/Red Crescent Movement.

Agencies that are also designated Cluster leads should represent the Clusters as well as their respective organizations. The HCT is responsible for agreeing on common strategic issues related to humanitarian action.

At country level, Heads of Cluster Lead Agencies are accountable to the HC, for • Ensuring that coordination mechanisms are established and properly supported; • Serving as a first point of call for the Government and the HC, and ;

Who does what

77

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

•

Acting as a provider of last resort in

46/182 of 19 December 1991, the affected

their respective sector.

Cluster Coordinators are responsible for ensuring that Cluster-specific concerns and challenges that cannot be solved within the Cluster are raised and properly discussed at the HCT, and that ensuing strategic decisions are shared and acted upon at operational level.”5

State, i.e. the government and national actors, retain the primary role in the initiation, organization, coordination, and implementation of humanitarian assistance within its territory.”6

OCHA works closely with global cluster lead agencies and NGOs to develop policies, coordinate inter-cluster issues, disseminate operational guidance and organize field support. At the field level, OCHA helps ensure that the humanitarian system functions efficiently and in support of the Humanitarian Coordinator’s leadership. OCHA provides guidance and support to the HC and HCT, and facilitates inter-cluster coordination.

OCHA also helps ensure coordination between clusters at all phases of the response, including needs assessments, joint planning, and monitoring and evaluation.

“Under UN General Assembly Resolution 5-6 Humanitarian response, Who does what https://clusters.humanitarianresponse.info/about-clusters/who-does-what

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| Who does what

The Inter-Agency Standing Committee (IASC) is a unique inter-agency forum for coordination, policy development and decision-making involving the key UN and non-UN humanitarian partners. Under the leadership of the Emergency Relief Coordinator, the IASC develops humanitarian policies, agrees on a clear division of responsibility for the various aspects of humanitarian assistance, identifies and addresses gaps in response, and advocates for effective application of humanitarian principles.

Clusters benefit from wide and representative participation, but can also risk a loss of effectiveness if there are too many transient actors. Minimum commitments for participation therefore provide a common basis for what organizations – whether local, national, or international – commit to bring to country-level clusters. They are not intended to exclude any organizations nor prevent

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

seeking the participation of national authorities as appropriate.

The minimum commitments for participation in clusters include: • A common commitment to humanitarian principles and the Principles of Partnership • Readiness to participate in actions that specifically improve accountability to affected populations.

• Commitment to consistently engage in the cluster’s collective work, and capacity to contribute.

• Commitment to ensure optimal use of resources, and sharing information on organizational resources.

• Willingness to take on leadership responsibilities as needed and as capacity and mandates allow.

• Contribute to developing and disseminating advocacy and messaging for relevant audiences.

The minimum commitments are not prescriptive and should be adapted to actual needs and context. Country-level clusters should refer to the details in the IASC Coordination Reference Module when developing or updating their terms of reference and their own commitments.

Who does what

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

CLUSTERS WERE ESTABLISHED TO ADDRESS: • • • • •

Long-standing gaps Erratic coordination Insufficient accountability Inconsistent donor policies Proliferation of actors

• • • •

Government demands Changing role of UN Poor predictability Lack of transparency

Haiti aid Cartoon Image: © Chris Riddell 2010 http://www.theguardian.com/theobserver/cartoon/2010/jan/17/haiti-earthquake-cartoon-chris-riddell

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| Clusters

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

The ongoing aid organization structure in Haiti The official Cluster Coordination in Haiti:

level), a city in Haiti’s Province Artibonite

global perspective

particularly badly affected by the storms”2.

As we can see from the date of its establishment, the Cluster Approach is a very young system which has been introduced in Haiti since only a few years. During the first phase, cluster coordination was implemented through regular cluster meetings in Portau-Prince and in Gonaïves. The frequency of the meetings was changing according to the needs of the specific situations. For instance in Port-au-Prince meetings were usually held on a weekly basis, decreasing in frequency after the end of the emergency (from January/February 2009 onwards) and in Gonaïves meetings during the peak of the emergency were held daily, later on a weekly basis and irregularly after the end of the emergency. Additionally, were introduced daily and weekly inter-cluster meetings on both levels. This addition is an important detail, because the clusters are different sectors of a very complex system and as they do things on their own they have to relate their operate to the bigger organism and synchronize with it and within them.

Inconveniently, the clusters were not formally related to any of the existing coordination mechanisms. The new organism

The cluster approach was formally introduced in Haiti in August 2006, before OCHA had a presence in-country. This description of the aid coordination structure and cluster system, as in Haiti, is expressed here through an official source, a field report done by IASC. As reported in this evaluation of the cluster system, we can read that “[...] since Haiti is not in a chronic humanitarian situation but affected by reoccurring sudden-onset natural disasters, clusters were not activated before 2008”1.

According to the very scarce information available for that time, confusion and scepticism among humanitarians and donors alike followed the introduction of the cluster approach. “While some clusters started meeting to prepare for the hurricane season in summer 2008, they were formally activated by the IASC/ CPIO Haiti in September 2008 in response to the devastating series of storms. The clusters were activated in Portau-Prince (capital level) and Gonaïves (local 1-2 IASC CLUSTER APPROACH EVALUATION, 2ND PHASE country stud y, APRIL 2010

Aid structure in Haiti |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

TYPICAL ORGANISATION OF A CLA TYPICAL ORGANIZATION OF A CLA (Cluster Lead Agency)

RC / HC GOVERNMENT HUMANITARIAN COUNTRY TEAM INTER-CLUSTER COORDINATION GROUP

HEAD OF CLA EMERGENCY CLUSTER COORDINATOR IM

DONORS

CLUSTER MEMBERSHIP A

B

C

D

E

F

AFFECTED POPULATIONS

Typical organization of a CLA (Cluster Lead Agency) Source: Clusterwise edited by James Shepherd-Barron, www.clustercoordination.org 82

| Verticality

G

CLA PROGRAMME

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

came and established itself in the city and

organism.

in the country disregarding any local community, organization or agency existing at the local level. As expressed by the same IASC, this was eventually one of the biggest downsides of this new system.

As we can see in the figure aside, the cluster system is a pretty hierarchical system, very structured. This organization is based on a very vertical scheme, and there is little room left for horizontal communication.

As tasks are given by the main organisms to the different organs, the development goes vertically from the order to the product. The confrontation between organs, especially at a lower level is very little. As was said previously, there are inter-clusters meetings organized to keep the everyone up to date on the situation. However having this meetings turned out not to be enough because organization of things between clusters has to be established before things are set and done within the single clusters. The inter cluster work is of predominant importance and needs to have serious consideration beforehand. This actual set makes it difficult to reach a smooth collaboration. As a matter of fact the structure itself obstacles the transparency and the accountability of the whole

As explained in the evaluation, and resumed in the scheme on the next page, the different coordination forums already in place before the earthquake were : -The Group of ll (G11), which facilitated dialogue between the 11 main donors and the government.

-The Groupe d’Appui de Ia Cooperation Internationals (GAO), which included UN agencies, - The MINUSTAH, international development agencies, donors and international NGOs and facilitated coordination in the areas of disaster preparedness, resource mobilisation and technical cooperation.

-The Comite Permanent Inter-organisations (CPIO/IASC), which was the coordination body for humanitarian agencies.

-Internal coordination within the United Nations was the responsibility of the United Nations - Country Team and the MINUSTAH and had at its head the Special Representative of the UN - Secretary General.

-The international NGOs who had been present in Haiti fora long time had created the

Coordination forums |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

EXISTING COORDINATIO

CNGRD

Provincial Committee for Risk and Disaster Management

SNGRD

National System of Risk and Disaster Management Permanent Secretariat

MICT

Ministry for Interior and Territorial entity Main responsible in disaster

manage-

ment through the

DPC

OCHA

Department for Civil

United Nations

Protection

Office for the Coordination of

Operational coordination at national, provincial and municipal level.

Coordination architecture in Haiti Diagram by the author Source: IASC Haiti Cluster Approach Evaluation 2010 84

Humanitarian Affairs

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

ATION STRUCTURE

26 MEMBERS GOVERNMENTAL AND NGOs

GACI

International Coordination Support Group

UN MINUSTAH INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AGENCIES EMBASSIES

MINUSTAH

UN Stabilization Mission in Haiti is an integrated mission by United Nations.

DONORS INTERNATIONAL NGOs

SNGRD+DPC COU

Center for Emergency Operations responsible for disaster response.

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Comite de Liaison des ONG (CLIO) which

Pros and cons: notes from official evalua-

brought together national and international NGOs. Haitian civil society was organised around specific themes (Human Rights, etc.) or particular professions (e.g. peasant farmer associations).

-The Systeme National pour Ia Gestion et Ia Reponse aux Desastres (SNGRD) was created in1999 under the auspices of the Ministry of the Interior to manage disasters. It was run by the Direction de Ia Protection Civile (DPC) which, during previous disasters, had shown both its dynamism and its limits.

tion papers on cluster system

The cluster base was established into the MINUSTAH compound since it was literally the only intact building. The mission hosted most humanitarian actors. Living and working together on the compound facilitated informal inter-cluster coordination.

The lessons we learn from the mistakes are the greater lessons. An admirable work that the IASC also took care of and part of the evaluation, was to summarize the evaluation results of the overall performance of the cluster system in Haiti and it describe what the cluster approach was intended to achieve. It then outlines the main achievements and progress made, followed by a discussion of the main problems and areas for improvement.

Under humanitarian reform, global clusters are intended to strengthen system-wide preparedness and technical capacity and support humanitarian response by developing standards and policies, building response capacity and providing operational support.

The following section is an extract of the IASC evaluation. “Through global cluster appeals, over $57 million was raised to finance the activities of global clusters between 2006 and 2008.

29 Generally, global support varies substantially among the various clusters but overall,

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| Cluster evaluation

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humanitarian actors in Haiti felt they had re-

by trained cluster coordinators appeared

ceived little support from global clusters and the global IASC. Cluster coordinators were generally more positive about global level support than cluster members. However, the real level of global support to the clusters in Haiti was hard to evaluate, since in most cases neither interviewees nor available documents could help to attribute received support to its source. This attribution gap is partly related to the fact that cluster coordinators communicated with their agency’s desk officers, who in turn might or might not have communicated with the global clusters.

better organized than those facilitated by coordinators without training. Some cluster coordinators were surge capacity which helped lead agencies meet their responsibilities. At the same time staff turnover increased and staff often lacked contextual knowledge. The Logistics, Shelter, and WASH clusters stood out as examples with relatively high levels of global support. This included training, technical surge capacity (e.g. shelter experts) and guidance (e.g. terms of reference, short presentation of the global cluster, handbooks). Also, the cluster coordinators of these clusters were in-country during the entire emergency response and afterwards. The global logistics cluster provided a self-assessment tool for the cluster coordinator that also included all relevant IASC guidance notes, etc. Such a tool seems particularly helpful in mitigating the impact of staff turnover of cluster coordinators.26

Main achievements and progress made 30 Global cluster lead agencies provided support in clarifying the roles and responsibilities of the national cluster leads in cases where lead responsibility was unclear at the activation of clusters (e.g. Protection and Shelter). The training of cluster coordinators proved to be particularly helpful.

Trained cluster coordinators were reported to have clearly passed the message to cluster members about the cluster approach’s purpose and functioning. Furthermore, cluster meetings and activities facilitated

Main problems and areas for improvement Guidance from the global level on the setup and working of the cluster approach seemed particularly weak. Confusion about the cluster approach was reported to be high before

Cluster evaluation |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

BEFORE

AFTER

VERTICALITY OF THE CLUSTER APPROACH

IMPROVED HORIZONTALITY OF THE CLUSTER APPROACH

MAIN ORGANIZATION

SUB B

SUB A

CLUSTER coordinators NGOs in the clusters

A 1

2

B 3

C 4

5

MAIN ORGANIZATION

D 6

7

E 8

9

F 10

11

G 12

13

CLUSTER coordinators

H 14

15

16

PRODUCTS

...

NGOs in the clusters

PRODUCTS

Before Verticality of the cluster approach, Improved horizontality Source: author 88

| Verticality Vs Horizantality

SUB B

SUB A

A 1

2

B 3

C 4

5

D 6

7

E 8

9

F 10

11

G 12

13

H 14

15

16

...

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

the emergency and some cluster members, including NGOs that participate in or even colead global clusters, are still unclear about the approach today. The IASC Guidance Note and Operational Orientation were probably distributed within the country team before the emergency but most interviewees were unaware of the existence of these and similar documents. Health and Agriculture were clusters with a particular low level of global cluster support, the effects of which were still observable at the time of the evaluation mission. For example, in both cases the cluster coordinators were not aware of the cluster’s terms of reference. In the case of the Agriculture Cluster the cluster coordinator was not even aware of or properly informed about the purpose of the cluster approach.

Staff turnover is particularly difficult in this context. Individual examples, e.g. from the Health Cluster, indicated that cluster information could be handed on from the first to the second cluster coordinator but was likely to get lost during additional staff turnover, especially if the hand-over period took place within a time of little cluster activity.

Cluster coordinators and cluster member did not actively seek global level support.”2

Reflection Many conclusions can be drawn about the effectiveness of the current system. Many areas for improvement are also left open and need to be discussed further.

However within the lots of different issues, there are two things that can be considered as a key factor to really work on to activate new inputs in the current cluster system.

The first key is the focus on introducing clearer communication in the main vertical flow of information. And this can be done especially by focusing on the position of the ‘Cluster Coordinators’. Cluster coordinators have many roles, but within all they have an extremely important one: communication between the main organism which assesses the tasks, the cluster she or he is coordinating and the other cluster coordinators.

The second key is then to introduce more horizontality in the flow of information between the different clusters. Once again the cluster coordination is responsible for keeping this horizontal communication scheme more active.

2 IASC CLUSTER APPROACH EVALUATION, 2ND PHASE country stud y, APRIL 2010

Reflecton |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

The cluster system and the aid organization

It is important to note that several factors

structure from a local perspective

contribute to the impact of a natural disaster beyond the actual event itself and the symptoms of the individuals must be understood from a socio-cultural, historical and political perspective.

To understand what really cluster system is and how it works, a part from the official definitions and report given by the UN, an investigation which looked more into the local perspectives and perception it has been undertaken. The goal of this investigation is to have a parallel view of what the big organization and authorities say and what is really going on in the field.

This local perspective will be explained through the information collected on “Haiti Grassroots Watch” which is a collaboration of two Haitian organizations, Groupe Medialternatif/Alterpresse and the Society for the Animation of Social Communication (SAKS), along with students from the Faculty of Human Sciences at the State University of Haiti and members of two networks – the network of women community radio broad-

Disasters are very traumatic experiences. In assisting people affected by a trauma humanitarians need to take into account the type of responses and support that people receive when they experience traumatizing incidents, such as natural disasters. Nicolas and colleagues assert that “response trauma can be as traumatizing as the traumatic incident itself, if not more so, and thus must be taken into account in the assessment and treatment of individuals impacted by disastrous events.” This is particularly true for Haitians, who are living in a country with limited resources for coping with natural disasters. Traumatic impact from a disaster is often associated with factors such as poverty, inequalities and housing crises as opposed to the actual storm. Thus there is a risk of providing inadequate treatment to a client impacted by a disaster without an integration of the socio-cultural and political factors that are often attached to the traumatic experience of a natural disaster. 1 1 Nicolas, G., Schwartz, B., & Pierre, E. (2009).

Weathering the storm like Bamboo: the Strengths of Haitians in Coping with Natural Disasters. In A. Kalayji-

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| Clusters from a local perspective

an, D. Eugene, & G. Reyes (Ed.), International handbook of emotional healing: Ritual and practices for resilience after mass trauma. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

casters (REFRAKA) and the Association of

cial Affairs does have a small housing agen-

Haitian Community Media (AMEKA), which is comprised of community radio stations located across the country.2 Immediately following January 12, in Portau-Prince there were up to 70 or 80 Cluster meetings a week, many or all at the U.N. “Logistics Base” or “Log Base” near the airport. Now there are 40 to 50, mostly at the city and town level, with a national meeting once a week or once every two weeks.

While the Cluster coordinator is always from a large NGO or multilateral agency, as the emergency phase subsides, local government ministries and agencies are supposed to take over leadership, so they can coordinate and eventually direct the international agencies and NGOs. In Haiti “that has not been the case,” according to Jolanda van Dijk, an “Inter-Cluster Coordinator” who works for the Office of Humanitarian Affaires, OCHA. Instead, at the national level at least, the Haitian government has been slow to integrate the process. This happens because there is not a clear Haitian counterpart to a Cluster’s focus. For example, while the Ministry of So-

cy, there is no “Ministry of Housing.” Nor is there a clear ministry that could step into the “Camp Coordination and Camp Management” Cluster focus.

Van Dijk said the Clusters also share part of the blame.

“A couple of months into the disaster, we realized that Log Base is like an island. It is very far, it’s very isolated,” she said.

UN soldiers also restrict access and Haitians reported regularly being turned away.

Now, many Clusters hold meetings at the municipal level, but a review of meeting minutes posted online, and investigations in the field indicate that for most Clusters, the ministries or national agencies are not yet in charge.

The exception is the Water Sanitation and Hygeine (WASH) Cluster, held up by all – van Dijk, Cluster staff and Haitians who know about it – to be “the best” Cluster meetings are coordinated by a staffer from the National Directorate for Water Supply and Sanitation (DINEPA) and they are held in the relevant city or town.

In general, the transition over to ministries has been much slower in Haiti than in other countries, van Dijk said.

2

http://haitigrassrootswatch.squarespace.com/

Clusters from a local perspective |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

92

One reason is magnitude of the catastrophe

obtained indicates that there is some doubt

and the fact that “seven of 11 ministries collapsed,” she noted.

Another might be the fact that many meetings are still held in English and at the Logbase, according to Pierre Gary Mathieru, director of the National Coordination for Food Security, which is part of the Ministry of Agriculture. Many of the documents produced by the Clusters are also in English only.

“I won’t go to meetings anymore because I am in Haiti, and I can’t accept that foreigners are coordinating the Clusters,” Mathieu told Haiti Grassroots Watch.

Mathieu agreed that the government didn’t have the capacity to coordinate all the agencies and NGOs right after the earthquake.

But now, he said, “it’s time for the government to take charge… Strategic decisions should be made by the state, and then the NGOs can follow that strategy.”

Of course, the government needs to step up the plate also, Mathieu noted.

“Clusters are useful, they present people to share information,” he added. “But the national government needs to take over now.”

the ministries are up to the task.

The document, titled “Draft Transitioning the clusters” and dated September 28 and apparently compiled or written by Inter-Cluster Coordinator Tania Bernath, who works with van Dijk, runs through the 12 Clusters and makes assessments of the involvement of the relevant government ministry or agency.

The government seems to have a “lack of understanding of cluster system across most clusters,” the document notes and adds that there are “many examples of lack of coordination among and between government at different levels…”

Regarding the Protection Cluster, which is related to human rights, there is “very little interaction with government structures.”’

And related to the Camp Coordination and Camp Management Cluster (CCCM), there is a “lack of national governmental involvement in cluster,” the document notes.

Van Dijk said she and other Cluster staff know that the inclusion and eventual handoff of the Clusters to the relevant national agencies is important.

A recent memo that Haiti Grassroots Watch

“We very much want the Haitian govern-

| Who is in charge

Episode 2 | Aid coordination in Haiti

ment to be involved,” she said.

Watch that the lack of coordination and

The weeks and months ahead will tell if and how the planned integration and hand-off will take place.

participation at the national level is a roadblock, noting that he wished “all layers of the government would come together and speak with one voice.”

Who is in charge?

While five Haitian government ministries are in some way involved with the issue (Planning, Interior, Public Works, Social Affairs and Economy and Finances), it appears that the planning and coordination of figuring out housing for Haiti’s 1.3 million internally displaced people has so far been overseen and managed by foreign entities – two of the 12 “Clusters” – the Shelter Cluster and the Camp Coordination and Camp Management (CCCM) Cluster.

National and local cluster meetings happen every week but minutes and reports from participants indicate that ministries rarely participate in the national Shelter or CCCM meetings, many of which are held in English.

On the other hand, cluster staff do interact with the government officials at the local level.)

Shelter Cluster Coordinator Gehard Tauscher told in an interview to Haiti Grassroots

“I wish they would lock up all of the people in a nice place for a weekend – the UN, the agency people and the national government – and not let them out until they make decisions,” he said.

One Shelter Cluster staffer, Deborah Hyde, Information Manager for the Léogane Cluster, was a little less tactful in where to lay the blame.

“We need leadership and unfortunately in this country, the capacity for that is just not there,” Hyde told Haiti Grassroots Watch.

Tauscher and others acknowledged the national government didn’t immediately take up the housing issue in part due to the fact that it was directly hit by the earthquake – some 20 percent of state employees were killed or injured and seven of 11 ministries collapsed.

But nine months later, there still appears to be a lack of coordination and leadership.

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Conclusion on the current cluster system In many countries governments routinely affected by disasters have become adept at response and prevention. Case studies for this review show dramatic gains in places such as Bangladesh and Indonesia. But all too often the international response arrives as though this were not the case, sweeping aside local responders and adding to the chaos rather than alleviating it.

Donor agencies have to work with governments, and with affected people, as well as with aid agencies. They have to support local institutions rather than weaken them.

As appointed by DFID in review paper about humanitarian response: “Where national governments are capable, they invariably lead the response to disaster even when it is on an international scale. When governments are overwhelmed they either struggle to assert themselves, or find they are completely unable to coordinate. In some instances governments are actively belligerent, or hostile to international response (or to a particular group in their population being helped). This suggests four categories: • Strong and capable governments who take the lead (e.g.India).

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• Capable but underresourced governments

capacities in advance, incorporating disaster

who need help to lead (e.g.Mozambique).

• Governments who are unable to lead, and need the international community to do this on their behalf for a time (e.g.Haiti).

• Governments who are unable or unwilling to lead and are obstructive (e.g.Nigerin2009).”1

resilience into development processes. It also requires more work on bringing a disparate international response together so that it performs more reliably. It requires the establishment of permanent governmental organs which deal with disasters awareness and response constantly.

In these four broad categories the international community has to respond differently, but the approach has not always reflected this reality.

Given the lack of coordinated governmental efforts in Haiti to address the devastating impact of natural disasters, it is important to consider the socio-cultural, historical, economic, and political factors that are inevitable aspects of the natural disasters, as well as the strengths of the Haitian people in coping with these events.

This clarifies the point that the current approach towards organization and coordination of aid need to be implemented with new strategies. Such an approach would require much more work on the analysis of risks and 1 DFID, Humanitarian Emergency Response Review, 28 March 2011

Conclusions

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EPISODE 3 | PERMANENT CLUSTERS | RESEARCH PROPOSAL The development of an idea of ‘permanent coordination clusters’ in a network of aid coordination hubs in the Haitian capital, Port au Prince. Research proposal.

•

•

•

•

The importance of a permanent aid organization in a complex emergency Pattern of obstinacy in the Haitian persistence to “no recovery” after a disaster.

Precursors to permanent aid coordination integrated system: the case study of Central Asia.

• Disaster Response Coordination Unit in Kyrgyzstan – DRCU Implementation of a permanent cluster system in Haiti: a continuous coordination mechanism • Implementing a system to strengthen from the inside • Clustering the clusters

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The importance of a permanent aid organization in a complex emergency

A

s described in the former para-

and organization, till the moment of truly

graph, the current situation of the humanitarian aid delivery through the Cluster System approach in a country like Haiti defined as a ‘complex emergency’, temporary aid is precious but not enough.

Temporary agencies which in the past established themselves to help recovery after a disaster in Haiti, found themselves staying there for many years after the hazard struck, instead of just a few. One example could be the Dutch NGO Cordaid, which supposedly functions as a temporary element in the Haitian context, but as a matter of fact they have been there already for more than 25 years, helping the country within all the different situations.

If foreign agencies and companies want to establish themselves and dispose help to affected countries, why is this a problem?

The issue lies in the connotation of the word ‘temporary’. When there is temporary aid, people and local institutions are expected to be helped in a first phase lasting according to the gravity of the situation. Subsequently, at a certain point, it should be possible to initiate a phase of handing over help and coordination management to local ministries

pass the baton. However, the regeneration of the private and local sector, in Haiti as in many other countries in the same situation, in clearly not happening nor being helped to happen. Who is to blame here, is not the single agencies or companies which naturally are drawn to work in a country where there is need.

“Regenerating the private sector is critical to post-conflict or post-disaster recovery.

In the case of Haiti, yet out of every $ 100 spent by the US government for reconstruction following the 2010 earthquake in Haiti, only $ 1,33 went directly to Haitian companies. Procurement of goods and services is a necessary step in development and peace-building projects; it’s a crucial tool in development itself because is a way to create a multiplier effect for each reconstruction dollar”. 1 For this might sound logical on paper, in practice is the most difficult thing to do.

When in a complex emergency situation like Haiti, which was critical even before the major problems brought up by the earthquake, 1 Peace Dividend Trust, $pending the Development Dollar Twice: The Local Economic Impact of Procurement in Afghanistan (New York, 2009)

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Coordination architecture in the cluster approach Author: Humanitarian response Source: https://clusters.humanitarianresponse.info/about-clusters/who-does-what

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Episode 3 | Permanent clusters

every single aspect of the society and gov-

aid”2.

ernment becomes vulnerable. Consequently the risk of being overwhelmed by foreign aid becomes very high.

It has to be acknowledged that many people, organization and states come to truly help the country. However it would be ingenuous not to admit that not all the humanitarian aid is truly humanitarian. In fact there is clear profit behind it. This is the reason why, in this situations is very easy to leave out of the market local companies and instead turn to those big enterprises which come here to provide help, by getting huge contracts from states ergo a huge profit.

As highlighted by Centre for Global Development “hiring a national or local firm grows the local private sector, spurs long term income and job generation. Buying locally in the immediate aftermath of a disaster may also help local entrepreneurs to compete with outsiders. This contribute to fostering the local private sector, building local capacity and increasing sustainability, strengthening the local government, increasing accountability between government and citizens, improving the cost effectiveness of

What does this has to do with coordination?

Many reasons have been given to justify the exclusion of local actors from the humanitarian response in Haiti, such as the weakness of local institutions, human losses caused by the earthquake, the Presidential election, the cholera crisis and the partisan nature of Haitian organisations. The idea here is not to deny the importance of these factors, but there is a danger that, by concentrating on these, other essential issues are being overlooked which could explain why Haitians were marginalized during the emergency phase and why there have been difficulties in making the transition to reconstruction.

As underlined by Andrean Martel in a discussion on URG, one of the principal areas to look at in evaluating the participation and involvement of Haitian actors in this humanitarian response, which involved so many international actors, is that of coordination.

“Two years on from the devastating earthquake of January 2010, the transferral of coordination from the United Nations’ coordination mechanism, the clusters, to the 2 The need for more local procurement in Haiti, February 2013, Center for Global Development

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Haitian authorities has become a burning

effective and not to reach the people or the

issue. For more than a year now the UN authorities, led by OCHA, have been trying to develop exit strategies to instigate the transition from the clusters to sectoral tables, national coordination bodies which include institutional and community actors as well as the donors from a sector. This transition is proving to be somewhat stormy”3.

The whole point behind this undefined situation is that there is a clear lack of overall organization and coordination procedures of different actors, from big to small, and therefore there is not any synergy nor cooperation in the field. In Haiti, there is a coordination mechanism working which aims predominantly to coordinate foreign affairs and organization with clear disregard to integrating and enhancing the local capacity and potentialities.

UN OCHA and MINUSTAH in Haiti have been doing a lot of great work. However we have to accept that the main effort put by these organizations is out of focus. A lot has been done for Haiti but aid has often been blamed by local population or government to be in-

situations truly in need.

There is a dramatic lack of transparency, accountability and clarification of roles surrounding reconstruction spending on Haiti.

This is a crucial point to stress as a main cause for many countries of not helping to be in the recovery phase. If they truly want get to a stage of development and get back to stand on their own legs, they have to find the strength to react and cooperate form the inside out. Despite all the difficulties, they have to become capable to overcome the situation: international help in the first phase is an indispensable means, but after that is critical to go back to a self-support system.

3 Does humanitarian coordination exclude local actors and weaken their capacity? by Andréanne Martel for URD (Urgence Réhabilitation Développment)

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The proposal that comes with this thesis and especially with the research about the cluster system, aims to establish a possible framework for a permanent aid mechanism in Haiti. This proposal comes from reference case studies of similar situations, like Tajikistan and Kyrgyzstan which adopted permanent clusters in order to face the constant exposure of the country to natural hazards and conflicts as well.

However the ultimate intention of this pro-

Episode 3 | Permanent clusters

posal, is a real strategy of integration of

Pattern of obstinacy in the Haitian persis-

those permanent clusters with local institutions to really help a growth of strength and knowledge about disaster resilience and preparedness.

The process of establishment of those clusters is expected to be gradual. In an initial phase there will be a major presence of foreign support for financing, activities and training. However the interaction and involvement of local authorities will be always the crucial point.

The permanent cluster proposal is more a mechanism than a system: is something that really aims to penetrate the present situation, acknowledging the good and the bad part of it and fill the gaps with points of improvements.

It develops from something that in reality is already there, the classical clusters. But instead of being always a foreign affair, this time t becomes integral part of the Haitian policy. It’s a structure that the government and the economy of Haiti will always needs as long as there will be disasters coming and going. A receptive organism that will be built and lead from the inside, and it will be a platform to welcome, organize and coordinate foreign aid in crisis moments.

tence to “no recovery” after a disaster.

“Haiti has especially been battered by natural disasters throughout its history. The island lies in the middle of the hurricane belt and it is subject to string storms from June to November (i.e. hurricane season) and these storms have resulted in severe wind, damage, flooding, landslides, and coastal surges”.4 Different types of natural disasters have regularly struck Haiti in the last decades.

Poverty, environmental degradation and weak development have made the country very fragile. Landslides regularly disturb the circulation of people and goods. There are frequent hurricanes and tropical storms with tragic consequences for the population.

One of the factors which made the effects of the earthquake worse was the fact that disaster management had focused solely on climatic disasters. Priority was given to the more frequent risks (cyclones, floods and landslides) rather than rarer risks like earthquakes.

Despite Haiti’s history of being impacted by 4

World Bank 2008

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tropical storms and hurricanes, there is very little governmental infrastructure in place to respond to these events.

“In fact, the Haitian Red Cross is the only national group in Haiti that responds to these occurrences. This is due in part to the support of the American Red Cross that maintains a 15 person office in Port au Prince that works with other Haitians in carrying disaster response activities such as evacuation, search and rescue, acute emergency care, distributing supplies and so on. However, given the number of tropical storms and hurricanes that impact the country yearly, one disaster response network (that is not fully staffed)is clearly not enough to handle the devastating impact of these events. With all this fear and devastation, there is fear and uncertainty about the future of the country. The old Haitian saying “bourik chaje pa ka kanpe” (an overloaded donkey cannot stand up) may be applicable to the situation in Haiti with respect to the effect of natural disasters. Understanding the factors that lead to the vulnerability of the country may be one step in rectifying the overall impact of these tropical storms and hurricanes in

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| Patterns of obstinacy

Haiti”.5 Nevertheless, the Haitian population is incredibly resilient. Rural and urban informal sectors are supported both by the diaspora and by an extremely dynamic micro-finance system.

Causes of natural disasters in Haiti A number of causes have been documented as possible explanations for Haiti’s high vulnerability to storms and hurricanes. Some of these include poverty, inadequate infrastructure, deforestation, and an unstable political system. Each of these factors contribute to perpetuate the cycle of poverty.

Although the Haitian government cannot prevent the storms from hitting Haiti, it can put systems in place that help to limit the extent to which the storms can devastate the island when they occur. For instance, to address the deforestation issue: putting programs in place to help replacing forests 5 Nicolas, G., Schwartz, B., & Pierre, E. (2009).

Weathering the storm like Bamboo: the Strengths of Haitians in Coping with Natural Disasters. In A. Kalayjian, D. Eugene, & G. Reyes (Ed.), International handbook of emotional healing: Ritual and practices for resilience after mass trauma. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.

Episode 3 | Permanent clusters

that have disappeared could help to prevent such extreme and dangerous flooding from occurring. Therefore part of the reason that Haiti is so vulnerable to disaster in the face of tropical storms and hurricanes is that the country does not have systems in place to help reduce or limit the potential damage that can occur when storms strike the island.

It is important to note that several factors contribute to the impact of a natural disaster beyond the actual event itself and the symptoms of the individuals must be understood from a socio-cultural, historical and political perspective.

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Disaster response coordination mechanism in Kyrgyzstan UNOCHA Caucasus and Central Asia http://www.unocha.org/rocca/coordination/coordination-structure 106

| Permanent clusters

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Precursors to permanent aid coordination

The European Commission’s Humanitarian

integrated system: the case study of central Asia.

Aid and Civil Protection Department, OCHA, UNDP, and the United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) are expected to maintain their involvement and provide technical assistance and guidance to the Center.

“At the Second World Conference for Disaster Risk Reduction in 2005 168 nations, including countries from Central Asia, pledged to initiate the Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA), a key goal of which it is to develop and strengthen institutions, mechanisms and capacities to build resilience to hazards”.1 The overall objective of the project is that Central Asian countries are more efficient in the implementation of disaster risk reduction policy and operations, specifically through the development of capacity at regional, national, and sub-national levels for a more effective disaster risk reduction.

“In Kazakhstan, the project will support the creation of sustainable mechanisms for DRR through the formation of the Central Asian

In recent decades Central Asia, including Kyrgyzstan, has experienced a steep increase in the occurrence of hydro-meteorological disasters. This trend is likely to continue as climate change and in particular global warming alters the scale and annual flow of water resources in the country. As a consequence the frequency and severity of hydro-meteorological hazards such as floods and droughts is likely to increase. It is also feared that climate change will contribute to a higher prevalence of infectious diseases including epidemics and pandemics such as cholera, malaria and bird flu.

Since 2005 OCHA has contributed extensively to the establishment of CACDRRR, which is currently in its nascent phase. The founding documents are expected to be ratified by the Governments of the two participating countries, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, by end 2012. The Center, once operational, will work to improve regional cooperation and coordination in the field of disaster response and risk reduction. It will enhance solidarity and promote human security in Central Asia.

1 United Nations Development Programme Project Document. Sixth DIPECHO Action Plan: Enhancing Disaster Risk Reduction Capacities in Central Asia. Countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

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Center for Disaster Response and Risk Reduction through the following three subsets of activities: 1) improved inter-agency cooperation and coordination, 2) strengthened regional early warning and disaster preparedness and response capacities, and 3) harmonization of disaster management / civil defence between nations and civil society.

In Kyrgyzstan, the project will strengthen capacity of the established disaster preparedness and response coordination mechanism and support establishment of the National Platform for Disaster Risk Reduction by the Government of Kyrgyzstan.

In Tajikistan the overall objective is to identify Disaster Risk Management priorities and further streamline them into planning at national and local levels. The activities include support to a National Platform, strengthening the chairmanship of the Committee of Emergency Situations and Civil Defence in the REACT network, support to the implementation of the National Disaster Risk Management Strategy, implementation of GIS standards, assessment of seismic risk, and update of the DIPECHO database.�2 2 United Nations Development Programme Project Document. Sixth DIPECHO Action Plan: Enhancing Disaster Risk Reduction Capacities in Central

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The example of Kyrgyz Republic The Kyrgyz Republic is highly exposed to natural and manmade disasters. Landslides, mudflows and floods are major hazards, with 200-300 events every year. Seismic activity is constant, with more than 3000 earthquakes registered annually. In addition, the country is at high risk for man-made disasters from the industrial and nuclear waste dumps left over from the Soviet past.

The main objective of the project is to build on the mechanisms created under the 20082010 Joint Project on Enhancing Coordination for Disaster Response in the Kyrgyz Republic to further strengthen cooperation and coordination for disaster preparedness and response between the Government, UNCT, Red Cross and Red Crescent Movements and other major actors in this field.

Disaster Response Coordination Unit in Kyrgyzstan – DRCU The main objective of the project is to build on the mechanisms created under the 20082010 Joint Project on Enhancing Coordination for Disaster Response in the Kyrgyz Republic to further strengthen cooperation and coordination for disaster preparedness and

Episode 3 | Permanent clusters

response between the Government, UNCT,

- Functioning and effective information man-

Red Cross and Red Crescent Movements and other major actors in this field.3 Since 2008, DCRU has steered disaster preparedness and response efforts of the UN Agencies, Red Cross Red Crescent Movement and NGOs in support of the Government. Part of DRCU mechanism, the Rapid Emergency Assessment and Coordination Teams (REACTs) in the north and south of the country undertake joint needs assessments in small- to medium-scale emergencies. These inter-agency teams comprise representatives of the UN organizations, Red Crescent Society of Kyrgyzstan, and the wider humanitarian community.

agement strategy in place.

- Legal analysis of procedures for admission of humanitarian assistance is carried out.4

Expected results of the project: - Strengthening of capacity of members of DRCU, REACT teams, and sector groups.

- Inter-Agency Contingency Plan is developed and integrated into planning of international community and Government.

Asia. Countries: Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan.

3 Kyrgyzstan: Enhancing coordination for disaster preparedness and response http://www.preventionweb.net/english/professional/policies/v.php?id=22119

4 Enhancing coordination for disaster preparedness and response in the Kyrgyz Republic (2010-2012)

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Implementation of a permanent cluster

what they do separately and what they need

system in Haiti: a continuous coordination mechanism

to do together.

This clusterization of the clusters will be more active in normal times, when disaster alert is not on and when is not time of crisis. During crisis time, every cluster now present in the system presented by the UN, will activate under the group of belonging by ensuring more efficiency and time effective aid delivery, but remaining under the big cluster group in order to process better the coordination process.

In country like Haiti hit by natural hazards on regular basis and considering the existing societal system, needs to have a stable and accountable organism to refer to in time of disasters. •

Implementing a system to strengthen from the inside First place the necessity of this permanent cluster system comes from the deep need that the country has to build up an integral self reliant system to auto defend and support itself. This system will be implemented taking advantage of the good things done so far, but making them clear and more predominant in a situation where actors are quite independent and self deciding what to do. •

Clustering the clusters

As following the case studies the ideal situation to better manage the clusters is to reduce the number of single actors by grouping them thematically and by spotting the best combinations based on current practice of

Permanent clusters in Haiti |

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EPISODE 4 | From Permanent Clusters to the design of Aid Coordination Headquarters in Haiti | Background thoughts •

•

•

Existing coordination structure: the UN base camp from the eye of the experience • Interview to James Kennedy (CARE’s Shelter Cluster Coordinator) • Reflection Urban permeation: the contribution of an urban network of coordination hubs in strengthening resilience of Port au Prince The development of a aid coordination headquarters: present and future evolutions • Future scenarios | evolution of the urban coordination network in a time projection • Scenario 1: 5 y • Scenario 2 : 10 y • Scenario 3: 20 y

Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Base Camp Port-au-Prince.

Source: http://www.dialogo-americas.com/images/shared/images/2011/12/12/Haiti4.jpg

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Episode 4 | Background thoughts for design

Existing coordination structure: the UN base camp

C

oordination issues in the immediate

aftermath of the earthquake were treated inside the UN “Base camp”, inside the Toussaint Louverture International Airport complex in Port-auPrince.

This is the main headquarters for the United Nations Stabilization Force in Haiti (MINUSTAH). The purpose of the base camp is to support the UN, EU and other international bodies by providing the conditions to facilitate assisting a disaster-hit population via the rapid establishment of temporary camps for living and working in; and to assist with longer-term solutions in the form of prefabricated or permanent buildings.

In one of the discussions I had the honour to have with James Kennedy (former CARE’s Shelter Coordinator in Haiti) about his Haitian on field experience when discussing about current situation of the coordination complex in the city, the Base camp was described as “ a series of prefab containers

majority of the different clusters were into these containers. The container offices were sort of open plan, there was quite a bit of space in between them. This was in part just functionality because they get delivered by massive tracks, so the track needs enough space to go into the area to drop the container off and then turn around and go out again” continues Kennedy.

The number of people working in the base camp is very variable. They could be hundreds, thousand maybe. As a matter of fact, the base camp is like any other public building in a form of tent, like a school or a university. Once you have hundred people doing the coordination, then there are another hundred cleaning the space and working as a side services like cooking and so on. “If you have 50 organizations coming in for a coordination meeting that correspond to a minimum of 50 vehicles. And so there is also another part of why the base camp plan was so open, because they knew they had to have parking for 200 or 300 Land Rovers” add James

continuing our discussion.

buildings, a part from one which was a huge massive tent of the size of a football field which had lots of small little divided mini offices inside it”. The camp consists of several modules

and can cater for 20, 40 or 60 people. “The

Wanting to know specific figures regarding coordination members presence in the base camp, and in general in Haiti, represents a challenge.

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti Shelter cluster meeting Author: Shelter Cluster

Base Camp Port-au-Prince.

Author: Bjรถrn Johansson, MSB

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Episode 4 | Background thoughts for design

There is no specific rule for the amount

Kennedy says more about his experience of

of people, neither formal registration of what is going on exactly. The number of representatives of a single cluster can vary notably according to function and services provided. As Kennedy described it “[...] at

the life in the base camp: “In fact all of these

one point the shelter cluster which was one

the coordination meetings were in larger tents

of the biggest had 22 people, plus drivers and

placed in spaces or gaps elsewhere in the base

cleaners, etc. Direct coordination managers, 22.

camp. These tents might have been 10 by 5

This was the highest but there are other clusters

meters so having more space to get people in

which had 3 people. The number can change

although still not big enough”.

accordingly to the size and importance of the

“The main problem was that the tents were just

cluster and also the phases”.

made of cloth so there was no sound protection

containers offices where just the offices where you could sit and work on your laptop but they were not big enough for any coordination meetings and so I remember for the first 4/5 months,

and it was right next to the airport so when an

There was a smaller base camp even before January 2010. There are two reasons for the existence of this support even before the major hazard struck: one is that there were still residual humanitarian coordination going on due to the mud slides and land slides and floods from 2008. There was still some staffing doing the last phases from the august 2008 emergency in the northern part of the country up in Gonaive. Then there was also some staffing connected with the military presence of the MINUSTAH. After January 2010 that area was just expanded upon but it wasn’t done in a study ad-hoc manner.

airplane was over the top you couldn’t hear anything for 2 minutes or even if it wasn’t the plane you had all the heavy vehicles working on improving the base camp or taking supplies out. It was actually very challenging and it was not a perfect place for thinking and speaking at all. Also a lot of your tools can’t come into tents.

You can’t come with a projector, you can’t project pdf, you have to photocopy everything beforehand and carry it in a big pile and you can’t photocopy just in the corner. There were a lot of issues there” he continues.

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Reflection The problem of the current coordination place, the UN base camp, goes far beyond the issues of noise, lack of tools or amount of space provided, even though those are also issues connected to a preferable functioning of the coordination mechanism which will make things a little easier and faster.

It was remarkable that such a structure could be set up in few days after the earthquake to instantly start the coordination meeting and decide upon delivery of goods and help people lives that cannot wait to receive help because in extreme danger. The place has been “proper� enough without being spoiled with the necessity of a dedicated architecture. Obviously this is not the issue that this research aim to address and reach with the outcome of a project.

As pointed out previously the UN base camp was already existing as it is now, before the disaster in 2010 struck. The level of emergency and action needed at that point before the earthquake was still high but not so pressured.

The underlying issue of all is merely that no body really invests money in the creation of a place for coordination. It can be understood

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Episode 4 | Background thoughts for design

that there are far higher pressing issues be-

ever. The country is seriously entrapped in a

fore one thinks about investing money in a serious office complex in Port-au-Prince. But there must be long term investments as well and there must be signals of someone believing in the possibility of this country to grow and start being more independent from consistent foreign help and organization at any level.

Considering the number of disasters that affect Haiti every year and the consequent number of people and goods incoming in the land, not to mention the incredible amount of money donated from all over the world, there is a clear deficiency of use of the incredible potential that literally floods the country after each critical situation.

Part of this extensive potential needs to be addressed in the immediate problem solving, giving people shelters and solving emergency situation of hundreds of lives in danger. However if we take a closer look and we compare the the overall aid capacity that flows in the country with the problems effectively solved, is clear that there is a deficiency of use of that capacity.

There is a compelling need for long term planning in a country such as Haiti which don’t seem to overcome the disaster problem

vicious circle that does not let it get over the emergency and relief phase of every disaster. There must be a reason for this, perhaps there are million reasons. Notwithstanding all the reasons that can possibly be, a long term vision and growth for the country needs to be taken into account.

In light of the amount of calamities that alter the stability in Haiti, highly connected to political and economical issues that the country faces since many years back in the history, it is of primary importance to guarantee the existence of a place where decisions are made, action is taken and people can learn how to behave and what is going on really, in emergency and in long term time span. The country needs to get completely conscious about disasters and how they are handled.

Coordination headquarters and disaster awareness learning centre are to be though in order to plan and guarantee the start of a deep internal cultural development which will allow to become in the long term span, less vulnerable and more resilient from the inside out.

Image on the left: Haitian Art by Patrice Piard Reflection |

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Understanding dynamics of Aid coordination in Haiti

Map of Port-au-Prince with the first coordination office (first web= project site)

3-4 years

1-2 years

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| Webs generation: urban network

5-10 years

Episode 4 | Background thoughts for design

Urban permeation: the contribution of an urban network of coordination hubs in strengthening resilience The idea of the need of a place for disaster awareness and coordination mentioned in the previous reflection arises in a broader context.

The reason why this place has to exist is definitely not about a spoiled architect will to build a refined place to explore the wanders shades of the space. The reflection lays somewhat deeper in a real research of finding what would really set a long term vision to help Haiti to get itself together and rely of its own magnificent potential of people, culture, local knowledge and places.

To do so, as also James Kennedy was pointing out previously, the existence of a single place will not make a huge difference, for too many issues at a system level have to be addressed first in order to make things happen.

That is where the ultimate purpose of this combined research on a new cluster system as elucidated in the former chapters plus design proposal to be explained in the next chapters, comes to play.

Obviously the system has to change first

place. Change is possible is there are people believing in the it and directing the finances in the right critical spots.

Certainly the current status will not change by magic or just because someone really wants it. The situation in Haiti is too complicated and people have far more down to earth problems than to think about abstract concepts too far from the present moment.

The presence of a single building or complex for aid coordination is something that might be considered weak in light of the size and the complexity of the coordination machine. However this phase is unavoidable since every beginning is arduous especially when it comes to integrate a new scheme in a as weak as established structure.

For this reason, the idea of intervening in the city with an ago-puncture intervention of coordination offices which might develop over time in different part of the city, and coordinating and synchronizing with the main headquarters which would always be the main reference point for exchange of information in the network.

This urban permeation is seen as a necessity, as a network that has to develop and become strong, a network of important in-

Urban permeation

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Vision for a Coordination network

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Ideal concept of aid coordination offices network.

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formation and immediate action that has to

tures all around the city there will be in the

develop in order for the city to become more resilient.

The vision for this intervention is seen as a permeation because is intended as a delicate process of integration in the system and in the urban tissue, and not as a strong imposition over the existing organization.

The urban permeation will come to life promoting the development of this urban centres all around the city at a district level. The permeation will begin initially by changing the system with the new cluster coordination proposal. This centres will take physical space in actual existing offices of local municipalities along with existing cluster offices and primary basic services for the different districts. This will be part of a renovation plan which will have to happen to ensure that the existing structures, whenever still standing, are safe enough to withstand the next hazard. This renovation will consequently ensure the presence of coordination offices and disaster learning centres for the people at a district level. The location has been suggested to be in existing offices of local government, because coordination and management of aid has to become a local strength. By introducing this urban punc-

long term time span the creation of a higher level network which will operate at urban level.

This proposal insists on the belief that the coordination of immediate aid is essential to emergency relief, but the long term coordination of activities of re construction and money is even more essential for the country to initiate a real new cycle of self sustained development. Aid coordination and disaster awareness in Haiti has become a need as basic as water and sanitation. This issue cannot be avoided any longer if we believe in human dignity and we believe that people have the right to live their lives having more than just the mere possibility to survive.

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Immediate

5 years

12 years 8 years

3 years

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The development of aid coordination

cal or more abstract coordination plan.

headquarters with disaster awareness learning centre: present and future evolutions

The sign of the intervention needs to be strong and straightforward to the city, yet at the same time not invasive or bursting. It needs to be apparent to the population and easily noticeable. Undoubtedly is going to be something new and different from what is already there, also because the intended design is on purpose made with natural local materials and easy to execute techniques, which is something at the moment still unknown in Haiti, but also from the foreign organization that come to help, which seems not to invest in local stuff. The details about the concept and the appearance of the building will be explored further in the coming chapters where the specific choices are extensively explained and connected to the whole picture.

As appointed in the previous paragraph, the urban permeation of the coordination hubs all around the city of Port-au-Prince will take time as long as there is a plan to follow and invest money on.

As a starting point of the suggested plan, a first intervention has been thought to take place in a location which doesn’t follow the logic of the urban permeation to be integrated in an existing structure.

The first design intervention itself is intended to be constructed in different phases, also depending on the needs and adaptability of the plan, left on purpose open to any kind of adaptation of the space.

As we can see in the diagrams the design is made in such a way that it follows a strict grid, on which the structural pattern is based. This formal choice in a way makes things easier for the future needs of expansion of the offices or classroom spaces.

This specific choice for the first step has been made to assign a clear role to the gesture, in a sort of physical enunciation of the theoreti-

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EPISODE 5 | Fundamental design thinking | Basis for the empirical design intervention •

•

•

The choice of a sustainable design thinking in Haiti, as a determining factor in establishing “progressive development” towards long term progress.

• The choice of a sustainable architectural practice The cornerstones of the architectural design proposal: use of natural and local resources as a main deliverable A drop in the ocean: from a drop to the ocean. A single intervention as the beginning of a long term and persistent evolution.

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The choice of a sustainable design thinking in Haiti, as a determining factor in establishing “progressive development” towards long term progress.

Considering all the problems and the com-

In order to achieve long term planning it is

plex situation Haiti find itself to date, it would probably be strange at this point to propose a sustainable design project in Haiti. Probably most of the people would think of the fact that before getting to have sustainable buildings, Haiti really need to fix certain other ‘main’ issues.

However, after analysing the pre and post earthquake situation, it is quite clear that the conscious building design thinking in Haiti in certainly a main issue. We don’t want to go back into the same vicious circle of the reconstruction, just because we have to follow needs. It is very easy in a context like Haiti, to pay attention to immediate needs and to solve issues fast, taking care of the problems with the available stuff. It is controversial and understandable at the same time. In disaster contexts it is hard to get rational, even if you weren’t there, even if you didn’t lose beloved people. It is hard to get to see people struggling so much with life, and yet a the same time be rational and plan long term.

However long term planning is fundamentally essential here. It is crucial. But long term plans just don’t happen from day to day. It takes time, and consistency.

decisive to think progressively.

As the Chinese philosopher Laozi wisely asserted, “ A journey of thousands miles, begins with a single step”. Proposing a sustainable and conscious design thinking in Haiti is a long term goal. In order to achieve it, we cannot pretend that from tomorrow Haiti will stop using unsafe concrete, and take care of safety in building regulation. That is a daydream. And looking at the situation right now, it might seem impossible to even imagine that Haiti will ever get to a point close to something that could be called safe and sustainable.

The decision to proceed to the empirical design phase, connected to the aid coordination network theory, is reflected in the intention to make it real.

There is a strong theory behind the fact that Haiti has a strong potential as people, skills and natural resources. Reading fellows thesis1, who also worked on Haiti in the Urban Emergencies2 studio here at TU Delft, I was 1 Master thesis of Evelien de Visser, The Haitian dream; Master thesis of Richard de Ruiter “ xxxxx”; Master thesis of Laura Smiths, “gggg” 2 Urban Emergencies was a studio funded by Alexander Vollebregt at TU Delft in 2009, researching

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inspired by their research on facts that Haiti

The choice of a sustainable architectural

have the necessary means to stand up on its own. It is all there. They have to understand their own country on their own and stop relying uniquely on foreigners. It is possible to start this process because the potential is there. Furthermore there are people believing in that and willing to help this situation to become true.

I followed up on those thesis with mine, trying to find another essential piece of the Haitian puzzle which could help reconnecting those theories on self development to the problem of recurring disasters in Haiti, aid coordination and reconstruction.

I eventually found my way through the humanitarian aid bundle, establishing that disaster awareness and internal aid coordination in Haiti is another fundamental piece to start the progressive development.

But so what does it mean sustainable design thinking, in Haiti? This has to become clear at this point because lately the word sustainable is applied too often and not always with its full meaning.

practice

about progressive and integral development in countries affected by disasters.

UE Blog: http://haitiurbanemergencies.wordpress.com/

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Eco-housing, green development, sustainable design -- environmentally sound housing has as many names as it has definitions, but the Rocky Mountain Institute, in its “Primer on Sustainable Building”, flexibly describes this new kind of architecture as “taking less from the Earth and giving more to people.”

In practice, “green” housing varies widely.

It can range from being energy efficient and using non-toxic interior finishes to being constructed of recycled materials and completely powered by the sun.

Green building practices offer an opportunity to create environmentally sound and resource-efficient buildings by using an integrated approach to design. Green buildings promote resource conservation, including energy efficiency, renewable energy, and water conservation features; consider environmental impacts and waste minimization; create a healthy and comfortable environment; reduce operation and maintenance costs; and address issues such as historical preservation, access to public transportation and other community infrastructure systems. The entire life cycle of the building

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and its components is considered, as well

the point where they achieve

as the economic and environmental impact and performance.

Sustainable architecture is a process that can be repeated: “Sustainability is a concept increasingly used as a measure of the worth of an approach to meeting contemporary shelter needs. Sustainable architecture implies an approach that in a development context goes beyond the project phase. There is a focus on the process as well as the end product. Sustainable architecture recognizes that while the product may wear out over time, the process remains . This process can then be repeated without resort to major external inputs”3.

Sustainable architecture is a process that takes time: “A “sustainable architecture” package cannot be transferred as a readymade product. In searching for sustainable architectural approaches and an end result, we know that an overall idea may appear on paper to satisfy the characteristics listed above, but in practice many of these components may need to be developed to

sustainability in their given context. This takes time, to train and develop skills, to demonstrate an idea, or to put in place an organizational or financial system that can become sustainable”4.

Sustainable architecture is context-specific: each of the characteristics specified above are essentially context specific and relate to the resources that are locally available, or to the customs and needs of the local population.

This brief introduction to sustainability in architecture clarify the choice for such a practice in a context of intervention like Haiti.

The specific choices of the materials and the kind of design connected to this practice, will be explained further in the next paragraph.

3-4 Sustainable Architecture: A Definition

by John Norton in Sustainable Architecture Forum: http://www.housingfinance.org/uploads/Publicationsmanager/Misc_LocalEconomies.pdf

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The cornerstones of the architectural design proposal: use of natural and local resources as a main deliverable In a time where everything seems to be artificial, there are many things which bring us back to Nature and to the need to be in contact with it.

Artificiality makes everything complex. We are complex individualities already and we don’t need to complicate things even more.

But ever since the human kind have established life on this planet, it was always a challenge to grow, to change, to dominate, to earn.

To complicate things can be fine as long as there is money and workforce adapted to it.

There are cases of states like Haiti, where things are necessarily complicated even if there are not the facilities and tools to sustain that complexity.

Haiti has already been defined a complex emergency. This is because of the man made disasters added with the natural disasters.

To add complexity onto an already complicated situation, it exacerbate the whole.

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A drop in the ocean: from a drop to the ocean.

A single intervention as the beginning of a long term and persistent evolution

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EPISODE 6 | Design strategy | Aid Coordination headquarters in Port au Prince | Design Proposal •

• • •

• •

Rationale for the choice of the headquarters location: the existing amphitheatre, the IDP camp, connections to the city Physical constraints: occurrence of natural hazards in Haiti such as hurricanes, floods and earthquakes.

Program flexibility: disaster awareness learning centre and cluster offices Use of locally produced materials: bamboo, adobe. Case studies: • Mapungubwe Interpretation Centre by Peter Rich • Cassia Coop centre Design Reflection on adaptability of the space and connection of spaces: neuronal connections between different hubs at a macro level, connections within a single hub, within different actors at a micro level.

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The bamboo symbolizes the Haitian people. ..The bamboo is really weak, but when the wind comes, it bends, but it doesn’t break.

Bamboo takes whatever adversity comes along… that’s what resistance is for us Haitians; we might get bent… but we’re able to straighten up and stand.

-- Bell and Dandicat, Walking on fire, 23

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Chapter X | title

Design challenge The challenge of designing in a context like Haiti maintaining coherent principles with the personal fascination for nature and also consistent forms with the requirements of the research has been developed through a form finding process.

After a first initial approach to the design by the research, there has been a shift in the method to research by design.

During the first phase all the necessary data and principles have been collected, but the form wasn’t a consequence outcome of those and the design became challenging.

The new approach of continuing the research by designing have brought far more satisfactory results. This method started by finding a strategic and functional location for the new aid coordination headquarters to come to life. This location has been found in an area in the northern part of Port au Prince, which is now an IDP camp.

First place, the choice of designing a new building and not reusing an old one generates from the fact that old building in the city aren’t reliable after the earthquake and most of all, one of the goal of this project is to show how a big important construction can be realized by using local and natural materials. This choice is made in order to trigger a shift in the approach to the reconstruction, which now still uses imported materials such as concrete, of a bad quality or inadequate use.

Therefore the design unfolds in this super structure, disaster resistant, made out of bamboo arches and earth walls.

The specific shape of the complex has been generated by an urban presence in the site, an amphitheatre. This urban element is the fifth essence of the project, as it symbolizes a place of gathering people together and things going on.

From the centre of the stage of the amphitheatre urban element, a circular grid has been generated, which would give modular rule to the spaces and also relate the big scale of the project to the surrounding tents.

The grid also helped the structure to come to life and gain strength and coherence with the overall. The grid helps the structure to find rhythm through the space by defining rules of expansion: all the lines converging to the centre of the grid namely the centre of the stage of the amphitheatre are earth walls which divide different spaces and create thermal mass. All the circles of the grid when touching the earth walls, generates the bamboo façades. At the encounter point of the circles with lines converging to the centre, lie the bamboo load bearing structure. This structure is light and strong yet flexible and therefore adaptable to the disaster constraints.

The building is not going to blow away the tents of the IDP camp but it will grow according to strategic movement and relocation of the tent camp in time. This is the reason why the starting point of the project is a first phase, which wants to coexist with the existing presence yet being a strong presence and a new symbol of strength for the country.

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• HIGHWAY • PRIMARY ROADS • AIRPORT AND PORT

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Focus point: Amphitheatre

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CONNEC

FACE

ATTRACT

MEET TALK UNDERSTAND RESISTANT

COFFEE BREAK

DISCUSS

O

INDEPENDENT SUSTAINABLE

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ACTIVATE A

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NNECT

ACT

GATHER

INTERRELATE KNOW

SHARE

USS

EXCHANGE

ORGANIZE

PTABLE

INTEGRATED SYMBOLIZE

DECIDE ACCESSIBLE FLEXIBLE

TE A CHANGE

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OPEN CONCLUSIONS •

Reflections on urban resilience and vulnerability connected to implementation of a coordination tissue in the existing urban fabric

•

Recalling research questions: epilogue

Conclusion

Reflections on urban resilience and vulnerability connected to the implementation of a coordination tissue in the existing urban fabric The work on the design of the coordination headquarters in northern Port au Prince is intended to be a first step towards the development of a urban strategy towards the achievement of an aid coordination web that could cover proactively the entire city in few years.

The strategy was developed in order to cover different levels of actions throughout the process, from a very general research and understanding of dynamics of aid coordination in Haiti, to details of a specific design.

Every choice made in the process aimed to truly understand the necessities of the country for how this was possible to do without being there in person. Every decision made through the whole process is first place considering a true and sincere respect for the institutions and the people that are already working in the context. Furthermore, design choices, for as far as they could be worked out, were made with the intention to mediate and find a possible solution to overcome the current belief of what are the current materials good for reconstructing Haiti, perhaps a bit against the general present cultural belief but still coherent of what the local context can offer in respect to their economical growth.

The idea of the introduction of the permanent cluster aid system is rooted in the belief that a country like Haiti, which have issued to face from all possible sides, have also a lot to offer. The permanent aid system is therefore aimed to enhance the local community to take the situation into their hands

even over crisis moments, which happen quite often unfortunately, and not let the foreigners rule all the time.

Due to the fact that Haiti suffers from so many natural disasters which just exacerbate the human made disaster, the country arrived to the point to basically have a government but to be truly led by potent foreign institutions which by offering their help without acting locally, are ruling the country from the outside creating what over the years became an addicted dependency.

The work of this institutions and partners is admirable however this thesis sustains the belief that a different management of the strategies and money towards choices for reconstruction which detach from the common rules should seriously be considered.

The present situation sees the obstinate repetition of a vicious cycle which obviously involve specific choices in humanitarian aid made not only for the benefit of the country, but also for the economic benefit of some partner country.

To break this cycle, is necessary to address the entire amount of money donated to Haiti or whatever country affected by a disaster, towards the local economy for a disaster not only physically damage the structures, but in some cases it can devastate the state system as well.

Nowadays, all the issues concerning the planet we life in, go far beyond the well know ‘climate change’. Wealth discrepancy in the world between rich and poor, remains

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Conclusion

one of the biggest problem, which directly connects to the way rich people act on resources and economy.

When thinking about reconstruction design strategies but also design in the very general terms, it is essential to get to do wise material choices which go beyond the mere beauty of the material to achieve a personal satisfaction of

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Annex TERMINOLOGY Source: 2009 UNISDR terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction.

Acknowledgments: UNISDR Geneva [www. unisdr.org] The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) Terminology aims to promote common understanding and common usage of disaster risk reduction concepts and to assist the disaster risk reduction efforts of authorities, practitioners and the public. The 2009 version is the result of a process of ongoing review by the UNISDR and consultations with a broad range of experts and practitioners in various international venues, regional discussions and national settings. The terms are now defined by a single sentence. The comments paragraph associated with each term is not part of the definition, but is provided to give additional context, qualification and explanation. It should be noted that the terms are not necessarily mutually exclusive, and in some cases may have overlapping meanings. The Terminology has been revised to include words that are central to the contemporary understanding and evolving practice of disaster risk reduction but exclude words that have a common dictionary usage. Also included are a number of emerging new concepts that are not in widespread use but are of growing professional relevance; these terms are marked with a star (*) and their definition may evolve in future. (see www. unisdr.org).

SELECTED TERMS ACCEPTABLE RISK The level of potential losses that a society or community considers acceptable given existing social, economic, political, cultural, technical and environmental conditions.

Comment: In engineering terms, acceptable risk is also used to assess and define the structural and non-structural measures that are needed in order to reduce possible harm to people, property, services and systems to a chosen tolerated level, according to codes or “accepted practice� which are based on known probabilities of hazards and other factors.

ADAPTATION The adjustment in natural or human systems in response to actual or expected climatic stimuli or their effects, which moderates harm or exploits beneficial opportunities.

Comment: This definition addresses the concerns of climate change and is sourced from the secretariat of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). The broader concept of adaptation also applies to non-climatic factors such as soil erosion or surface subsidence.

Adaptation can occur in autonomous fashion, for example through market changes, or as a result of intentional adaptation policies and plans. Many disaster risk reduction measures can directly contribute to better adaptation.

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CAPACITY The combination of all the strengths, attributes and resources available within a community, society or organization that can be used to achieve agreed goals.

Comment: Capacity may include infrastructure and 06 physical means, institutions, societal coping abilities, as well as human knowledge, skills and collective attributes such as social relationships, leadership and management. Capacity also may be described as capability. Capacity assessment is a term for the process by which the capacity of a group is reviewed against desired goals, and the capacity gaps are identified for further action.

CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT The process by which people, organizations and society systematically stimulate and develop their capacities over time to achieve social and economic goals, including through improvement of knowledge, skills, systems, and institutions.

Comment: Capacity development is a concept that extends the term of capacity building to encompass all aspects of creating and sustaining capacity growth over time. It involves learning and various types of training, but also continuous efforts to develop institutions, political awareness, financial resources, technology systems, and the wider social and cultural enabling environment.

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COPING CAPACITY The ability of people, organizations and systems, using available skills and resources, to face and manage adverse conditions, emergencies or disasters.

Comment: The capacity to cope requires continuing awareness, resources and good management, both in normal times as well as during crises or adverse conditions. Coping capacities contribute to the reduction of disaster risks.

CONTINGENCY PLANNING A management process that analyses specific potential events or emerging situations that might threaten society or the environment and establishes arrangements in advance to enable timely, effective and appropriate responses to such events and situations.

Comment: Contingency planning results in organized and coordinated courses of action with clearly identified institutional roles and resources, information processes, and operational arrangements for specific actors at times of need. Based on scenarios of possible emergency conditions or disaster events, it allows key actors to envision, anticipate and solve problems that can arise during crises. Contingency planning is an important part of overall preparedness. Contingency plans need to be regularly updated and exercised.

CRITICAL FACILITIES The primary physical structures, technical

Annex

facilities and systems which are socially, economically or operationally essential to the functioning of a society or community, both in routine circumstances and in the extreme circumstances of an emergency.

Comment: Critical facilities are elements of the infrastructure that support essential services in a society. They include such things as transport systems, air and sea ports, electricity, water and communications systems, hospitals and health clinics, and centres for fire, police and public administration services.

DISASTER A serious disruption of the functioning of a community or a society involving widespread human, material, economic or environmental losses and impacts, which exceeds the ability of the affected community or society to cope using its own resources.

Comment: Disasters are often described as a result of the combination of: the exposure to a hazard; the conditions of vulnerability that are present; and insufficient capacity or measures to reduce or cope with the potential negative consequences. Disaster impacts may include loss of life, injury, disease and other negative effects on human physical, mental and social well-being, together with damage to property, destruction of assets, loss of services, social and economic disruption and environmental degradation.

DISASTER RISK

The potential disaster losses, in lives, health status, livelihoods, assets and services, which could occur to a particular community or a society over some specified future time period.

Comment: The definition of disaster risk reflects the concept of disasters as the outcome of continuously present conditions of risk. Disaster risk comprises different types of potential losses which are often difficult to quantify. Nevertheless, with knowledge of the prevailing hazards and the patterns of population and socio-economic development, disaster risks can be assessed and mapped, in broad terms at least.

DISASTER RISK MANAGEMENT The systematic process of using administrative directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies, policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards and the possibility of disaster.

Comment: This term is an extension of the more general term “risk management� to address the specific issue of disaster risks.

Disaster risk management aims to avoid, lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards through activities and measures for prevention, mitigation and preparedness.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION The concept and practice of reducing disaster risks through systematic efforts to ana-

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lyze and manage the causal factors of disasters, including through reduced exposure to hazards, lessened vulnerability of people and property, wise management of land and the environment, and improved preparedness for adverse events.

Comment: A comprehensive approach to reduce disaster risks is set out in the United Nations-endorsed Hyogo Framework for Action, adopted in 2005, whose expected outcome is “The substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and the social, economic and environmental assets of communities and countries.” The International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR) system provides a vehicle for cooperation among Governments, organisations and civil society actors to assist in the implementation of the Framework. Note that while the term “disaster reduction” is sometimes used, the term “disaster risk reduction” provides a better recognition of the ongoing nature of disaster risks and the ongoing potential to reduce these risks.

DISASTER RISK REDUCTION PLAN * A document prepared by an authority, sector, organization or enterprise that sets out goals and specific objectives for reducing disaster risks together with related actions to accomplish these objectives.

Comment: Disaster risk reduction plans should be guided by the Hyogo Framework and considered and coordinated within relevant development plans, resource allocations and programme activities. National

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level plans needs to be specific to each level of administrative responsibility and adapted to the different social and geographical circumstances that are present. The time frame and responsibilities for implementation and the sources of funding should be specified in the plan. Linkages to climate change adaptation plans should be made where possible.

EARLY WARNING SYSTEM The set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.

Comment: This definition encompasses the range of factors necessary to achieve effective responses to warnings. A people-centred early warning system necessarily comprises four key elements: knowledge of the risks; monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards; communication or dissemination of alerts and warnings; and local capabilities to respond to the warnings received.

The expression “end-toend warning system” is also used to emphasize that warning systems need to span all steps from hazard detection through to community response.

EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT The organization and management of resources and responsibilities for addressing all aspects of emergencies, in particular

Annex

preparedness, response and initial recovery steps. Comment: A crisis or emergency is a threatening condition that requires urgent action. Effective emergency action can avoid the escalation of an event into a disaster. Emergency management involves plans and institutional arrangements to engage and guide the efforts of government, non-government, voluntary and private agencies in comprehensive and coordinated ways to respond to the entire spectrum of emergency needs. The expression “disaster management” is sometimes used instead of emergency management. Emergency services The set of specialized agencies that have specific responsibilities and objectives in serving and protecting people and property in emergency situations.

Comment: Emergency services include agencies such as civil protection authorities, police, fire, ambulance, paramedic and emergency medicine services, Red Cross and Red Crescent societies, and specialized emergency units of electricity, transportation, communications and other related services organizations.

ENVIRONMENTAL DEGRADATION The reduction of the capacity of the environment to meet social and ecological objectives and needs.

Comment: Degradation of the environment can alter the frequency and intensity of natural hazards and increase the vulnerability of communities. The types of human-induced degradation are varied and include

land misuse, soil erosion and loss, desertification, wildland fires, loss of biodiversity, deforestation, mangrove destruction, land, water and air pollution, climate change, sea level rise and ozone depletion.

EXPOSURE People, property, systems, or other elements present in hazard zones that are thereby subject to potential losses.

Comment: Measures of exposure can include the number of people or types of assets in an area. These can be combined with the specific vulnerability of the exposed elements to any particular hazard to estimate the quantitative risks associated with that hazard in the area of interest.

EXTENSIVE RISK * The widespread risk associated with the exposure of dispersed populations to repeated or persistent hazard conditions of low or moderate intensity, often of a highly localized nature, which can lead to debilitating cumulative disaster impacts.

Comment: Extensive risk is mainly a characteristic of rural areas and urban margins where communities are exposed to, and vulnerable to, recurring localised floods, landslides storms or drought. Extensive risk is often associated with poverty, urbanization and environmental degradation. See also “Intensive risk”.

GEOLOGICAL HAZARD Geological process or phenomenon that may

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cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Comment: Geological hazards include internal earth processes, such as earthquakes, volcanic activity and emissions, and related geophysical processes such as mass movements, landslides, rockslides, surface collapses, and debris or mud flows. Hydrometeorological factors are important contributors to some of these processes. Tsunamis are difficult to categorize; although they are triggered by undersea earthquakes and other geological events, they are essentially an oceanic process that is manifested as a coastal water-related hazard.

HAZARD A dangerous phenomenon, substance, human activity or condition that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Comment: The hazards of concern to disaster risk reduction as stated in footnote 3 of the Hyogo Framework are “… hazards of natural origin and related environmental and technological hazards and risks.” Such hazards arise from a variety of geological, meteorological, hydrological, oceanic, biological, and technological sources, sometimes acting in combination. In technical settings, hazards

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are described quantitatively by the likely frequency of occurrence of different intensities for different areas, as determined from historical data or scientific analysis. See other hazard-related terms in the Terminology: Biological hazard; Geological hazard; Hydrometeorological hazard; Natural hazard; Socionatural hazard; Technological hazard.

INTENSIVE RISK * The risk associated with the exposure of large concentrations of people and economic activities to intense hazard events, which can lead to potentially catastrophic disaster impacts involving high mortality and asset loss.

Comment: Intensive risk is mainly a characteristic of large cities or densely populated areas that are not only exposed to intense hazards such as strong earthquakes, active volcanoes, heavy floods, tsunamis, or major storms but also have high levels of vulnerability to these hazards. See also “Extensive risk.”

MITIGATION The lessening or limitation of the adverse impacts of hazards and related disasters.

Comment: The adverse impacts of hazards often cannot be prevented fully, but their scale or severity can be substantially lessened by various strategies and actions. Mitigation measures encompass engineering techniques and hazard-resistant construction as well as improved environmental policies and public awareness. It should be

noted that in climate change policy, “mitigation� is defined differently, being the term used for the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions that are the source of climate change.

NATIONAL PLATFORM FOR DISASTER RISK REDUCTION A generic term for national mechanisms for coordination and policy guidance on disaster risk reduction that are multi-sectoral and inter-disciplinary in nature, with public, private and civil society participation involving all concerned entities within a country.

Comment: This definition is derived from footnote 10 of the Hyogo Framework. Disaster risk reduction requires the knowledge, capacities and inputs of a wide range of sectors and organizations, including United Nations agencies present at the national level, as appropriate. Most sectors are affected directly or indirectly by disasters and many have specific responsibilities that impinge upon disaster risks. National platforms provide a means to enhance national action to reduce disaster risks, and they represent the national mechanism for the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction.

NATURAL HAZARD Natural process or phenomenon that may cause loss of life, injury or other health impacts, property damage, loss of livelihoods and services, social and economic disruption, or environmental damage.

Comment: Natural hazards are a sub-set of all hazards. The term is used to describe ac-

tual hazard events as well as the latent hazard conditions that may give rise to future events. Natural hazard events can be characterized by their magnitude or intensity, speed of onset, duration, and area of extent.

For example, earthquakes have short durations and usually affect a relatively small region, whereas droughts are slow to develop and fade away and often affect large regions.

In some cases hazards may be coupled, as in the flood caused by a hurricane or the tsunami that is created by an earthquake.

PREPAREDNESS The knowledge and capacities developed by governments, professional response and recovery organizations, communities and individuals to effectively anticipate, respond to, and recover from, the impacts of likely, imminent or current hazard events or conditions.

Comment: Preparedness action is carried out within the context of disaster risk management and aims to build the capacities needed to efficiently manage all types of emergencies and achieve orderly transitions from response through to sustained recovery. Preparedness is based on a sound analysis of disaster risks and good linkages with early warning systems, and includes such activities as contingency planning, stockpiling of equipment and supplies, the development of arrangements for coordination, evacuation and public information, and associated training and field exercises. These must be supported by formal institutional,

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legal and budgetary capacities. The related term “readiness” describes the ability to quickly and appropriately respond when required.

a valuable opportunity to develop and implement disaster risk reduction measures and to apply the “build back better” principle.

PUBLIC AWARENESS The extent of common knowledge about disaster risks, the factors that lead to disasters and the actions that can be taken individually and collectively to reduce exposure and vulnerability to hazards.

Comment: Public awareness is a key factor in effective disaster risk reduction. Its development is pursued, for example, through the development and dissemination of information through media and educational channels, the establishment of information centres, networks, and community or participation actions, and advocacy by senior public officials and community leaders.

RESIDUAL RISK The risk that remains in unmanaged form, even when effective disaster risk reduction measures are in place, and for which emergency response and recovery capacities must be maintained.

Comment: The presence of residual risk implies a continuing need to develop and support effective capacities for emergency services, preparedness, response and recovery together with socio-economic policies such as safety nets and risk transfer mechanisms.

RECOVERY The restoration, and improvement where appropriate, of facilities, livelihoods and living conditions of disaster-affected communities, including efforts to reduce disaster risk factors.

Comment: The recovery task of rehabilitation and reconstruction begins soon after the emergency phase has ended, and should be based on pre-existing strategies and policies that facilitate clear institutional responsibilities for recovery action and enable public participation. Recovery programmes, coupled with the heightened public awareness and engagement after a disaster, afford

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RESILIENCE The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions.

Comment: Resilience means the ability to “resile from” or “spring back from” a shock.

The resilience of a community in respect to potential hazard events is determined by the degree to which the community has the necessary resources and is capable of organizing itself both prior to and during times of need.

RESPONSE

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The provision of emergency services and public assistance during or immediately after a disaster in order to save lives, reduce health impacts, ensure public safety and meet the basic subsistence needs of the people affected.

Comment: Disaster response is predominantly focused on immediate and short-term needs and is sometimes called “disaster relief”. The division between this response stage and the subsequent recovery stage is not clear-cut. Some response actions, such as the supply of temporary housing and water supplies, may extend well into the recovery stage.

RETROFITTING Reinforcement or upgrading of existing structures to become more resistant and resilient to the damaging effects of hazards.

Comment: Retrofitting requires consideration of the design and function of the structure, the stresses that the structure may be subject to from particular hazards or hazard scenarios, and the practicality and costs of different retrofitting options. Examples of retrofitting include adding bracing to stiffen walls, reinforcing pillars, adding steel ties between walls and roofs, installing shutters on windows, and improving the protection of important facilities and equipment.

RISK The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.

Comment: This definition closely follows the

definition of the ISO/IEC Guide 73. The word “risk” has two distinctive connotations: in popular usage the emphasis is usually placed on the concept of chance or possibility, such as in “the risk of an accident”; whereas in technical settings the emphasis is usually placed on the consequences, in terms of “potential losses” for some particular cause, place and period. It can be noted that people do not necessarily share the same perceptions of the significance and underlying causes of different risks. See other risk-related terms in the Terminology: Acceptable risk; Corrective disaster risk management; Disaster risk; Disaster risk management; Disaster risk reduction; Disaster risk reduction plans; Extensive risk; Intensive risk; Prospective disaster risk management; Residual risk; Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk transfer.

RISK The combination of the probability of an event and its negative consequences.

Comment: This definition closely follows the definition of the ISO/IEC Guide 73. The word “risk” has two distinctive connotations: in popular usage the emphasis is usually placed on the concept of chance or possibility, such as in “the risk of an accident”; whereas in technical settings the emphasis is usually placed on the consequences, in terms of “potential losses” for some particular cause, place and period. It can be noted that people do not necessarily share the same perceptions of the significance and underlying

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causes of different risks. See other risk-related terms in the Terminology: Acceptable risk; Corrective disaster risk management; Disaster risk; Disaster risk management; Disaster risk reduction; Disaster risk reduction plans; Extensive risk; Intensive risk; Prospective disaster risk management; Residual risk; Risk assessment; Risk management; Risk transfer.

RISK MANAGEMENT The systematic approach and practice of managing uncertainty to minimize potential harm and loss.

Comment: Risk management comprises risk assessment and analysis, and the implementation of strategies and specific actions to control, reduce and transfer risks. It is widely practiced by organizations to minimise risk in investment decisions and to address operational risks such as those of business disruption, production failure, environmental damage, social impacts and damage from fire and natural hazards. Risk management is a core issue for sectors such as water supply, energy and agriculture whose production is directly affected by extremes of weather and climate.

RISK TRANSFER The process of formally or informally shifting the financial consequences of particular risks from one party to another whereby a household, community, enterprise or state

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authority will obtain resources from the other party after a disaster occurs, in exchange for ongoing or compensatory social or financial benefits provided to that other party.

Comment: Insurance is a well-known form of risk transfer, where coverage of a risk is obtained from an insurer in exchange for ongoing premiums paid to the insurer. Risk transfer can occur informally within family and community networks where there are reciprocal expectations of mutual aid by means of gifts or credit, as well as formally where governments, insurers, multi-lateral banks and other large risk-bearing entities establish mechanisms to help cope with losses in major events. Such mechanisms include insurance and re-insurance contracts, catastrophe bonds, contingent credit facilities and reserve funds, where the costs are covered by premiums, investor contributions, interest rates and past savings, respectively.

SOCIO-NATURAL HAZARD * The phenomenon of increased occurrence of certain geophysical and hydrometeorological hazard events, such as landslides, flooding, land subsidence and drought, that arise from the interaction of natural hazards with overexploited or degraded land and environmental resources.

Comment: This term is used for the circumstances where human activity is increasing the occurrence of certain hazards beyond their natural probabilities. Evidence points to a growing disaster burden from such haz-

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ards. Socio-natural hazards can be reduced and avoided through wise management of land and environmental resources.

STRUCTURAL AND NON-STRUCTURAL MEASURES Structural measures: Any physical construction to reduce or avoid possible impacts of hazards, or application of engineering techniques to achieve hazard resistance and resilience in structures or systems; Non-structural measures: Any measure not involving physical construction that uses knowledge, practice or agreement to reduce risks and impacts, in particular through policies and laws, public awareness raising, training and education.

Comment: Common structural measures for disaster risk reduction include dams, flood levies, ocean wave barriers, earthquake-resistant construction, and evacuation shelters. Common non-structural measures include building codes, land use planning laws and their enforcement, research and assessment, information resources, and public awareness programmes. Note that in civil and structural engineering, the term “structural” is used in a more restricted sense to mean just the load-bearing structure, with other parts such as wall cladding and interior fittings being termed non-structural.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT Development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Comment: This definition coined by the 1987 Brundtland Commission is very succinct but it leaves unanswered many questions regarding the meaning of the word development and the social, economic and environmental processes involved. Disaster risk is associated with unsustainable elements of development such as environmental degradation, while conversely disaster risk reduction can contribute to the achievement of sustainable development, through reduced losses and improved development practices.

VULNERABILITY The characteristics and circumstances of a community, system or asset that make it susceptible to the damaging effects of a hazard.

Comment: There are many aspects of vulnerability, arising from various physical, social, economic, and environmental factors.

Examples may include poor design and construction of buildings, inadequate protection of assets, lack of public information and awareness, limited official recognition of risks and preparedness measures, and disregard for wise environmental management.

Vulnerability varies significantly within a community and over time. This definition identifies vulnerability as a characteristic of the element of interest (community, system or asset) which is independent of its exposure. However, in common use the word is often used more broadly to include the element’s exposure.

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Chapter X | title

About the author

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Vulnerability and Risk Assessment 2nd Edition. Module prepared by A.W. Coburn, R.J.S. Sspence, A. Pomonis, Cambridge Architectural Research Limited Oliver-Smith, Anthony (1998) “Global Changes and the Definition of Disaster.”

Chapter 15 (pp. 177-194), in What Is A Disaster? E.L. Quarantelli (ed.). London and NY: Routledge.

Risks and Rights: the Causes, Consequences and Challenges of Development-Induced Displacement, by W. Courtland Robinson, the Brookings Institution-SAIS, Project on Internal Displacement, May 2003 World disaster report 2012 by IFRC (International Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies) http://www.urd.org/Contextual-understanding http://international.cgdev.org/blog/deathtoll-haiti%E2%80%99s-earthquake-perspective http://www.dec.org.uk/haiti-earthquakefacts-and-figures http://www.haitiaidwatchdog.org http://thehaitidonorguide.com/# IASC Cluster Approach Evaluation, 2nd phase, country study, April 2010

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Clusterwise edited by James Shepherd-Barron, www.clustercoordination. org

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DFID, Humanitarian Emergency Response Review, 28 March 2011

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