U.S. Agriculture Outlook 2015 Edition

2015 edition

Interview:

JIM PERDUE CEO OF PERDUE FARMS

An Uncertain Harvest Immigration and agriculture

Plus:

The USDA’s BioPreferred Program A boost for biobased products

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USDA photo

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Library of Congress

Table of contents

TABLE OF CONTENTS USDA Year in Review............................................... 10

25

By J.R. Wilson

Interview: Jim Perdue, CEO of Perdue Farms...... 19 USDA photo

By Ana E. Lopez

A Just and Equitable Division................................. 25

125 years of the Second Morrill Act of 1890

By Eric Tegler

46

Dealing with Drought............................................... 34 Farmers find ways to survive – even thrive – as the long dry continues.

USDA photo

By Craig Collins

Aquifer Management............................................... 40 As drought grinds on, officials take steps to slow the drawdown.

60

By Craig Collins

Photo by Barbetorte

Plight of the Honey Bee............................................ 46 The multi-front effort to revitalize our ailing pollinators

By Craig Collins

The USDA’s BioPreferred Program........................ 54 A boost for biobased products

72

By David A. Brown

Photo by Lincoln Geiger

Au Naturel.................................................................. 60 The decision to pursue a healthier lifestyle often begins with organic eating, and farmers growing organic berries are only too happy to oblige.

By Tara N. Wilfong

Great Grain................................................................ 66

80

A look at the continuing evolution of wheat

NRCS photo by Jason Hughes

By J.R. Wilson

Interview: Eric Steenstra, Executive Director of the Hemp Industries Association....................... 72

By Eric Seeger

124 U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

5

Table of contents

Tomas Kirchen

96

Community Supported Agriculture....................... 80 Three decades of producer-consumer support have resulted in an American movement that promotes local traditions as well as healthier food for a healthier way of life.

By Tara N. Wilfong

The Green Barn: Bigger Yields on Smaller Environmental Footprints....................................... 86

Tech pushes new trends in irrigation, land management, and energy usage – and profits.

By Eric Seeger

Turning Up the Heat on Citrus Greening............. 94

By David A. Brown

The Modern Greenhouse........................................ 96

By David A. Brown

An Uncertain Harvest.............................................. 106 Immigration and agriculture

By Eric Tegler

Thinning the Herd.................................................... 112 Are large pork producers edging out their smaller competition?

By Jan Tegler

Interview: Phil Karsting, Administrator, Foreign Agricultural Service................................. 118 The Big Picture............................................................124

Winding down or waking up, it doesn't matter; you can turn to Fastline catalogs and Fastline.com to

Efforts to foster sustainability at all points along the food chain

...

By J.R. Wilson

Product Showcase.................................................... 133

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

7

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We are farmers.

The independent thinkers and all-day-long doers.

We are about equipment with greater horsepower and cleaner emissions.

New implements. More attachments. Better technology.

We are challenging traditions and starting a few of our own.

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fast protection. higher yields.

2015 edition

Published by Faircount Media Group 701 N. West Shore Blvd.

Tampa, FL 33609 Tel: 813.639.1900 www.faircount.com

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EDITORIAL Editor in Chief: Chuck Oldham Managing Editor: Ana E. Lopez Editor: Rhonda Carpenter Contributing Writers: David A. Brown Craig Collins, Eric Seeger Eric Tegler, Jan Tegler Tara N. Wilfong J.R. Wilson DESIGN AND PRODUCTION Art Director: Robin K. McDowall Designers: Daniel Mrgan, Kenia Y. Perez-Ayala Ad Traffic Manager: Rebecca Laborde ADVERTISING Ad Sales Manager: Patrick Pruitt Account Executives: John Caianello, Steve Chidel Jonathan Horne OPERATIONS AND ADMINISTRATION Chief Operating Officer: Lawrence Roberts VP, Business Development: Robin Jobson Business Development: Damion Harte Financial Controller: Robert John Thorne Chief Information Officer: John Madden Business Analytics Manager: Colin Davidson Events Manager: Jim Huston FAIRCOUNT MEDIA GROUP Publisher, North America: Ross Jobson Publisher, Europe: Peter Antell

ŠCopyright Faircount LLC. All rights reserved. Reproduction of editorial content in whole or in part without written permission is prohibited.

Faircount LLC does not assume responsibility for the advertisements, nor any representation made therein, nor the quality or deliverability of the products themselves. Reproduction of articles and photos, in whole or in part contained herein, is prohibited without express written consent of the publisher, with the exception of reprinting for news media use. Printed in the United States of America. None of the advertising contained herein implies U.S. Department of Agriculture endorsement of any private entity. This is not a publication of the U.S. government.

Olney Texas USA airtractor.com

USDA photo by David Kosling

USDA year in review

USDA Year in Review ccording to the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), agriculture supports one in 12 American jobs, provides more than 80 percent of the nation’s food, enables Americans to spend less of their income on food than most people in other nations, and supports markets for homegrown renewable energy and materials. Key to that is the USDA Farm Bill, a five-year plan authorizing $956.4 billion – about 2 percent of estimated total federal spending for the period – for agriculture services and programs affecting both U.S. and foreign citizens for the next five years.

“The new Farm Bill will allow USDA to continue record accomplishments on behalf of the American people, while providing new opportunity and creating jobs across rural America,” the department declared on its website. “It will enable USDA to further expand markets for agricultural products at home and abroad, strengthen conservation efforts, create new opportunities for local and regional food systems and grow the biobased economy. It will provide a dependable safety net for America’s farmers, ranchers and growers. It will maintain important agricultural research and ensure access to safe and nutritious food for all Americans.

A

10

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

It’s like a Swiss Army knife: A jobs bill, an innovation bill, a research bill, and a conservation bill.

– President Barack Obama on signing the five-year Agricultural Act of 2014 (Farm Bill)

USDA graphic

By J.R. Wilson

Above: President Barack Obama signs the Agricultural Act of 2014 at Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan, on Feb. 7, 2014. The president spoke on the importance of the act to America’s economy, detailing the progress made over the last five years and how this bill will build on that progress. Below: A graphic depicting the many facets of the 2014 Farm Bill.

USDA photo

USDA photo

USDA year in review

“The Congressional Budget Office projects that 80 percent [$756 billion] of outlays under the 2014 Farm Act will fund nutrition programs, 8 percent will fund crop insurance programs, 6 percent will fund conservation programs, 5 percent will fund commodity programs and the remaining 1 percent will fund all other programs, including trade, credit, rural development, research and extension, forestry, energy, horticulture and miscellaneous programs.”

The new Farm Bill incorporated significant changes in crop insurance, including making it the only risk management tool available to farmers and requiring them to purchase the insurance themselves before being protected. In FY 14, USDA reported, farmers spent nearly $4 billion on crop insurance premiums. The policy offers 50-to-85 percent coverage levels, “recognizing farm diversification through qualification for the highest coverage levels along with premium rate discounts for multiple crop diversification.”

Under the new Whole Farm Revenue Protection approach, farmers can insure all their crops at once, rather than commodity by commodity, which was limited due to a lack of insurance programs specifically designed for many fruits and vegetables. USDA said the whole-farm option will make it easier for the Risk Management Agency (RMA) to make coverage available to specialty crop, organic, and diversified growers.

“Crop insurance has been the linchpin of the farm safety net for years and continues to grow as the single most important factor in protecting producers of all sizes from the effects of

Left: Beekeeper Larry Loveless of Gillespie, Illinois, uses smoke to calm the bees as he opens the boxes for inspection. Loveless lost more than half of his colonies (13 out of 20) due to several days of sub-zero temperatures during the winter of 2013-2014. Loveless planned to start rebuilding the hives with help from the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Farm Service Agency (FSA) Emergency Assistance for Livestock, Honey Bees and Farm-Raised Fish Program (ELAP), which was reauthorized in the 2014 Farm Bill. ELAP provides assistance for the loss of honey bee colonies in excess of normal mortality if the loss was caused by an eligible adverse weather event, which includes winter storms. Above: The USDA’s FSA Livestock Forage Program (LFP), a disaster assistance program authorized in the 2014 Farm Bill, has enabled Glenn Nakagawa to maintain his original American Wagyu cattle herd of 70 cow/calf pairs and four herd sires.

unpredictable weather,” Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said. “Providing farmers the option to insure their whole farm at once gives farmers more flexibility, promotes crop diversity, and helps support the production of healthy fruits and vegetables.

More flexibility also empowers farmers and ranchers to make a broader range of decisions with their land, helping them succeed and strengthening our agriculture economy.”

The legislation also reauthorized disaster relief to nearly 2,500 livestock, honey bee, and farm-raised fish producers not covered by other agricultural disaster relief programs since the start of FY 12. However, the Farm Bill also capped disaster funding in that arena at $20 million per fiscal year, far less than claims covering FY 12-14, so USDA said it will reduce payments to ensure all applicants receive a prorated share of assistance.

Funding also was approved retroactively to FY 12 – and increased going forward – for disaster assistance, to nearly $900 million in FY 15. Other programs covered include Livestock Indemnity (for abnormal deaths due to agricultural disasters), Livestock Forage Disaster (grazing capacity drought and fire losses), and Tree Assistance (for orchards and tree nurseries). The Farm Bill limited cumulative payments across all disaster assistance to $125,000 per person per year.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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USDA photo

USDA photo by Bob Nichols

USDA year in review

In an urbanized society that has become increasingly less agrarian since World War II, agriculture has gone from the centerpiece of American life to something few people born since the dawn of the Space Age truly understand.

“I am constantly asked to make the case for rural relevance each and every day, a struggle I’m sure you all understand intimately,” Vilsack told European Union agricultural ministers in Luxembourg on June 6, 2014. “Not so long ago, the majority of people lived in rural areas and farming was a way of life for significant portions of our population. Today, we now struggle with the issue of how agriculture is perceived.

“Many people are so far removed from where their food comes from – three, four, and five generations – that they no longer feel that connection to the land. While they no longer live and work on the farm, consumers are increasingly keen on where their food comes from and how it is produced. We must continue to educate and inform and embrace the curiosity of consumers and ensure that they can choose between a wide variety of safe, wholesome food.”

Achieving that awareness may be less daunting than changing farmland demographics, which are facing a problem Japan has been struggling to resolve for more than a decade – younger generations seeking a future outside agriculture and leaving active farmwork to their grandparents and great-grandparents.

In a speech at the National FFA Convention & Expo in Louisville, Kentucky, on Oct. 30, 2014, Vilsack thanked the FFA for its help in getting the 2014 Farm Bill passed, then warned the high school students about “the aging nature of farmers in America today.”

“The average age of farmers is 58. It means that we have to do a better job of continuing to attract and retain people into this extraordinary calling. We are a strong and powerful

Left: Olivia Golden, executive director of the Center for Law and Social Policy, spoke about the Food Stamp Act of 1964 on the occasion of its 50th anniversary at the USDA in Washington, D.C., on Nov. 20, 2014. The Food Stamp Program, now the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), offers nutrition assistance to millions of eligible, low-income individuals and families and is the largest program in the domestic hunger safety net. In 2014, USDA awarded grants for processing, employment, and training programs related to SNAP. Above: Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack discusses USDA career opportunities with high school students during a visit to the Rural Development exhibit booth at the National FFA Convention in Louisville, Kentucky, on Oct. 30, 2014.

nation – in large part because we have the most productive farmers and the best farmers in the world. And it’s going to be important and necessary for the next generation to take up that challenge – to continue to grow, to continue to expand access to foods all over the United States and throughout the world,” he said.

“It’s up to you, the over 600,000 members of this organization, to ensure that there is a next generation of farmers prepared. And it’s going to be important and necessary for FFA to lead the effort in farming organizations across the United States to make sure that it’s not just male farmers.

We have young women who want to be farmers, as well.

Half of your leadership are women. We want young women to be engaged in agriculture, and FFA must lead that effort if we’re to make sure that we continue to have the American experience in agriculture.”

Research and programs supported by USDA and the Farm Bill also deal with what is becoming one of the most critical problems in the Western United States, as well as in many other nations: water.

New breakthroughs are being pursued to develop more drought- and heat-tolerant, saline-resistant crops to keep yields

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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USDA Year in review

USDA photo

up and American farmers able to produce food for the nation as well as remain competitive in global trade. With cities and suburbs whose populations exceed 1 million now common and demanding ever-higher volumes of water, effective management of water resources – especially in the drought-stricken West – has become critical.

USDA research in that arena includes efforts to improve irrigation technology to reduce spills and over-watering of crops and to develop new software and more robust forecasting models. Another major thrust is the investment of more than $30 million in the next five years in the National Institute of Food and Agriculture’s (NIFA) new Agricultural and Food Research Initiative (AFRI) Water for Agriculture challenge, aimed at addressing the agricultural component of critical water issues, from drought to flooding, excess soil moisture to water quality.

In fiscal year 2014, USDA also: • commemorated the 40th anniversary of the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants and Children (WIC) and announced nearly $34 million in funding for WIC technology improvements • awarded new funding for Regional Centers of Excellence in Nutrition Education and Obesity Prevention • awarded grants for processing, employment, and training programs for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP, nee Food Stamp Program) – along with grants to help states cut down on SNAP benefit trafficking • sought applications to establish a new, $2.5 million Rural Child Poverty Nutrition Center • provided $15 million to support rural business development and growth through the Rural Microentrepreneur Assistance Program • allocated $150 million for water and wastewater infrastructure • made permanent – with an authorization of up to $80 million – the Local and Regional Procurement (LRP) pilot program to provide international development assistance and expedite food aid • continued $200 million in annual authorizations for international market development • doubled funding for the Specialty Crop Research Initiative (SCRI) to $80 million annually • earmarked $200 million for a foundation for agricultural research • provided $250 million in additional funding for The Emergency Food Assistance Program (TEFAP), supporting food banks and pantries • added $100 million in funding for the Beginning Farmers and Ranchers Development Program • renamed the Farmers Market Promotion Program as the Farmers Market and Local Food Promotion Program and tripled annual funding to $30 million • set aside $65 million for Value Added Product Market

• •

•

•

Development Grants to advance the growth of local and regional food systems provided $328 million for wetland and farmland conservation increased funding to $72.5 million for the Specialty Crop Block Grant Program to promote fruit and vegetable production increased annual funding for pest and disease management and disaster prevention to $62.5 million through FY 17, then to $75 million in FY 18 and beyond moved forward on a Pilot Project for Procurement of Unprocessed Fruits and Vegetables, giving eight states – California, Connecticut, Michigan, New York, Oregon, Virginia, Washington, and Wisconsin – flexibility in spending part of their USDA food entitlement dollars on locally grown unprocessed fruits and vegetables for the National School Lunch Program

Helping farmers with rapidly advancing technology also has become a growing USDA concern. On Oct. 22, 2014, for example, Vilsack announced $190.5 million in grants and loans for 25 projects in 19 states, Puerto Rico, and the U.S. Virgin Islands to improve rural broadband and other advanced communications infrastructure.

“Modern telecommunications and broadband access is now as essential to the businesses and residents of rural America as electricity was in the 1930s,” he said. “USDA is committed to ensuring that rural Americans have robust broadband and telecommunications systems. The investments we are announcing today will provide broadband in areas that lack it, help ruralserving public television stations begin using digital broadcasts, and support other telecommunications infrastructure improvements.”

Not everyone saw the new farm bill in quite the overwhelmingly positive light shone on it by the president and USDA,

USDA Rural Development employees and North Central Telephone Cooperative representatives break ground on a new high-speed broadband project serving rural Tennessee and Kentucky. Ensuring access to modern telecommunications and broadband systems in rural areas is a priority for the USDA.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

15

USDA year in review

USDA photo by Bob Nichols

Lynne Roney (left), a soil conservation technician with the National Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), and Raul Moreno of Banamacc Farms examine a heavy-use area around a watering trough in his pasture in Edison, Calhoun County, Georgia. Moreno worked with NRCS to devise a conservation plan for his farm, which calls for cross fencing and concrete pads around watering troughs. Moreno was able to secure funding for the improvements with an Environmental Quality Incentive Program (EQIP) contract through the USDA NRCS. Critics of the 2014 Farm Bill point to cuts in funding for conservation programs like EQIP and the Conservation Reserve Program.

however. The National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition, for example, said while the nearly one trillion-dollar package contained a modest spending reduction of $23 billion over 10 years, that included automatic sequestration cuts over which neither Congress nor the administration had any control. In addition, it marked the first cuts in conservation spending since that became part of the farm bill in 1985.

“In every farm bill since then – 1990, 1996, 2002 and 2008 – the investment in conservation has increased,” the Coalition said in its online blog. “The size of the cut in the new 2014 bill exceeds the gains from the 2008 bill. When sequestration and backdoor farm bill conservation cuts in annual appropriations bills are added to the equation, a significant share of the gains from the 2002 bill have also cancelled out.”

The coalition was especially critical of the difference between what it claims to be the reality of the Farm Bill spending and what the bill itself claims will be spent in any given area, especially those falling under the growing umbrella of the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP), along with the Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) – the largest conservation and major land retirement program – and the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP) – the largest working lands program and only advanced conservation management program.

“Unless and until Congress revokes the meat ax automatic cuts known as sequestration, additional cuts will be made each year to all the Farm Bill conservation programs, with the sole exception of the CRP (which) will be held harmless. For instance, in the current year, each of the programs other than CRP will be reduced over 7 percent below the funding level stipulated by the Farm Bill. The exact percentage reduction fluctuates from year to year,” the coalition said in its analysis.

“The annual agricultural appropriations bill has also, for over a decade now, reduced spending for EQIP – and sometimes for other programs, as well – below the level provided by the Farm Bill through an arcane, backdoor process known as ‘changes in mandatory program spending.’

“So, for instance, the annual appropriations bill has never allowed EQIP spending to exceed $1.4 billion a year, yet the new Farm Bill mandates EQIP spending that is $3.25 billion greater than the heretofore annual appropriations reduction over the next 10 years. It remains to be seen whether or not any of the additional $3.25 billion will remain as EQIP funding.

If history is any guide, it is more likely to be shifted to other annual spending priorities, a result likely to only change when and if the agriculture committees organize to defend their spending mandatory decisions for conservation.”

In mid-December 2014, Congress approved the Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2015, which funds USDA and 10 of 12 other regular appropriation bills through Sept. 30, 2015 (the end of FY 15). That included an increase of $244,019,000 in agricultural programs over FY 14, along with increased funding in other areas affecting U.S. agriculture, including conservation programs ($43,656,000), Rural Economic and Community Development ($172,544,000), and domestic food programs ($1.6 billion).

On Nov. 6, 2014, USDA’s Economic Research Service released the 2014 edition of its annual report, “Rural America at a Glance,” which Vilsack said reflected the department’s efforts to improve the nation’s agriculture infrastructure and, through it, food production for both domestic consumption and global trade.

“Today’s report shows that USDA’s investments in rural communities, small businesses and people are working: Rural unemployment has fallen, rural out-migration has declined slightly since last year and rural poverty has stabilized. These trends are promising, but show that there is more work to be done and demonstrate the continued need for USDA’s efforts to alleviate persistent rural poverty and expand opportunity in rural America,” he said. “We have moved quickly to implement new programs and tools in the 2014 Farm Bill that spur economic development and support job creation in rural America.

“In addition, the Made in Rural America initiative helps rural businesses and manufacturers to capitalize on new demand for what is grown and made in rural America. The recently launched $10 billion Rural Infrastructure Opportunity Fund offers a sustainable platform for private sector investors to inject new support into needed rural infrastructure projects. These are just a few of the ways USDA is working to attract and retain a talented rural labor force, improve rural connectivity and access to information and education, move products to market, make communities more competitive and tap into the unlimited economic potential of rural America,” Vilsack concluded.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

17

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interview with jim PeRDUE

Interview:

Jim Perdue, CEO of Perdue Farms

By Ana E. Lopez

im Perdue is the chairman of Perdue Farms and the third generation to lead the 95-year-old, family-owned and -operated company. Perdue Foods offers several lines of chicken, turkey, and pork products to consumers, while Perdue AgriBusiness focuses on marketing, processing, and exporting various agricultural commodities for feed, food, and fuel use at home and abroad.

Perdue recently appeared in headlines with the news that its hatcheries had eliminated the use of human antibiotics. Jim Perdue took some time to answer questions we posed about how and why the company made this move and what impact it has had for consumers and for the company itself.

Photo courtesy of Perdue

J

U.S. Agriculture Outlook: The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released guidelines in December 2013 for reduced use of antibiotics in animal agriculture, but according to an interview with NPR in September 2014, your company has been working on phasing out human antibiotic use in your hatcheries for a dozen years.

What prompted Perdue to begin that process so far ahead of the government’s regulations?

Jim Perdue: Our decision to look at changing how we use antibiotics was not driven by any one event or piece of information. It was a result of listening to our consumers as well as observing what was going on in the scientific and regulatory communities. In 1996,

Jim Perdue, CEO of Perdue Farms.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

19

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interview with jim PeRDUE

Photos courtesy of Perdue

Harvestland® is a no-antibiotics-ever product line from Perdue Foods. It was launched in 2007.

the federal government established the National Antimicrobial Resistance Monitoring System for Enteric Bacteria to begin monitoring resistance to antibiotics. In 2001, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration issued its “Judicious Use of Antimicrobials for Poultry Veterinarians.” At the same time, we were seeing an increase in consumer inquiries about antibiotic use. We know our consumers are concerned and we are concerned, so we decided to see if we could successfully raise chickens using fewer antibiotics. And we’ve found that we can.

We focused first on removing growth-promoting antibiotics. We began phasing them out in 2002, and by 2007, we had successfully removed all human antibiotics from our feed. We do treat to prevent common illnesses using ionophores, a type of animal-only antimicrobial not used in human medicine. But we have been decreasing our use of even this “animal only” antibiotic in the past several years, primarily due to our increase in our “no antibiotics ever” raised chickens.

The final step in our journey toward reduced antibiotics use was eliminating their use in the hatchery, a process that began in 2009 and culminated in the summer of 2014. Most hatcheries typically use small amounts of antibiotics when vaccinating the eggs. This use is even allowed by the USDA National Organic Program – though we don’t allow it in our organic products.

It required investing in our hatcheries to create a clean environment to be able to successfully vaccinate eggs without antibiotics. It took us several years to get to zero. It is not something we’d recommend doing overnight as it can have adverse effects on bird health and food safety if not done carefully.

But it’s important to remember that no matter how carefully you raise animals, some are going to be exposed to infections that can only be treated with antibiotics. We have a responsibility to properly treat those animals. Regardless of the program, should animals become ill – including organic and no-antibiotics-ever – they will be treated as medically appropriate as part of Perdue’s animal welfare commitment. However, if antibiotics are used, those animals are not marketed as no-antibiotics-ever or organic.

What have been the biggest challenges for Perdue in adopting practices that reduce or completely eliminate human antibiotic use?

This is not something that you simply turn a switch to implement; it’s more than just taking human antibiotics out of your programs. It requires programs from breeder operations, through the hatchery and feed mill and onto the farm, that are sustainable without that use. It includes things like focusing on breeder hen health to start with a healthier chick, creating a “clean” environment in the hatchery, and improving the diet.

We feed an all-vegetarian diet, which in our experience is

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

21

interview with jim PeRDUE

Our track record shows that we don’t need regulation for us to change our practices in order to do the right thing. We stopped using fluoroquinolones, a medically important antibiotic, four years before the FDA banned its use. We were among the first to phase out the use of arsenic in chicken feed, well before its market withdrawal.

helpful for running a no- or low-antibiotic program. We also worked on a better and more successful vaccination program, and are using more pre- and probiotics.

What have Perdue’s and the government’s policies in regard to human antibiotic use meant for the farms and farm personnel on the ground raising your chickens?

Our chickens are raised by independent family farmers under contract. We provide veterinary and poultry management support for the famers. With a focus on reducing antibiotic use, our poultry health programs are targeted on disease prevention. That may require that we work on specific issues with a farmer – specific to their farm and even to a specific house on their farm, if necessary – to be sure they are providing the best growing conditions. It requires greater attention to detail at the farm level.

Can you please tell us a bit about Perdue’s No-Antibiotics-Ever program? When was it developed? How does it work? How has it fared in the marketplace?

In 2007, Perdue Foods launched the Harvestland® brand, a no-antibiotics-ever product line. That was a major learning experience for us. No-antibiotics-ever was a very small part of the market, but it gave the opportunity to learn what it takes to successfully run such a program. And we took those learnings and applied them across our entire company to reduce our overall antibiotic use. “No antibiotics ever” means just that – not in the hatchery, not in the feed, not in the water. Harvestland® is still a small but growing part of our business.

In 2011, Perdue acquired Coleman Natural Foods, adding organic chicken and no-antibiotics-ever turkey, pork, and beef. So after 12 years of working on it, we now have three approaches – reduced use, no-antibiotics-ever, and organic – that consumers can trust to provide appropriate stewardship of antibiotics and responsible animal care.

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U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

What has been the response from consumers to Perdue’s ef forts to decrease the use of human antibiotics on its birds?

We received a lot of positive feedback when we announced our most recent step of eliminating hatchery use. And when someone calls or emails, or as happens more and more, posts a question on Facebook, they appreciate that Perdue®, a brand they trust, has already responded to their concerns in this area.

I read that Perdue has not used antibiotics for growth promotion purposes since 2007. What effect has that had on the size of Perdue birds? On what alternative methods has Perdue relied to grow the largest chickens it can?

The size of our birds hasn’t changed but it does take our birds several days longer on average to reach market weight.

A highly digestible diet coupled with good gut health – an all-vegetarian diet that is easier on the digestive system, more use of pre- and probiotics – help improve feed conversion. A comfortable, low-stress housing environment provides the optimal growing environment for the birds.

What economic effect has the reduced use of antibiotics had on your company? Is it more expensive to raise birds without those drugs?

It costs more to raise chickens with fewer antibiotics. For instance, an all-vegetable diet is more expensive than one with animal byproducts. Additionally, when adjusted for size, we spend $4 million more a year on vaccines than our competitors. We also use more probiotics, which add to our costs. Our customers and consumers generally understand that quality products may cost more.

As the CEO of a company that has managed to make moves away from antibiotics, what would you say to other company leaders or farmers that balk at FDA regulations intended to phase out the use of human antibiotics in animal agriculture?

Our track record shows that we don’t need regulation for us to change our practices in order to do the right thing. We stopped using fluoroquinolones, a medically important antibiotic, four years before the FDA banned its use. We were among the first to phase out the use of arsenic in chicken feed, well before its market withdrawal.

If you look at the various proposed legislation at the local, state, or federal level, we would be compliant with all of them and have been since 2008. We’re always going to be guided by consumers and earning their trust. That is what has worked for us for 95 years and I don’t see that changing.

College of Agriculture K-State Research and Extension Making strides toward our Vision 2025 goals

To be one of the nation’s top five colleges of agriculture and K-State Research and Extension to become the world’s top destination for education, research, and extension.

Highlights

K-State is the home of four USAID Feed the Future Innovation Labs, providing global food systems research, teaching and extension efforts through: • Collaborative Research on Sorghum and Millet • Applied Wheat Genomics • Reduction of Post-Harvest Loss • Collaborative Research on Sustainable Intensification The National Science Foundation named K-State its lead institution for its first Industry/University Cooperative Research Center for Wheat Genetic Resources. We are improving the food production and disease resistance of wheat and other crop plants and providing a training hub for graduate students and young researchers.

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The K-State Department of Agricultural Economics offers the following options • Bachelors of Science in Agricultural Economics, with 6 option areas • Bachelors of Science in Agribusiness, with 3 option areas • Master’s and doctoral degree options, on campus and at Distance • Numerous Extension and Outreach programs held across the state, year around that correspond with online tools and resources such as AgManager.info

The K-State Master of Agribusiness Program is building agribusiness, one leader at a time. Apply today to gain a competitive advantage in your career tomorrow.

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Celebrating 125 years of providing access, enhancing opportunities

second morrill act

A Just and Equitable Division 125 years of the Second Morrill Act of 1890

By Eric Tegler rior to the mid 19th century, higher education in America was generally reserved for a few. People with the wherewithal – and the resulting social standing – went to college for education primarily rooted in classical studies and the arts. But for decades, there had been calls for extending higher education to a wider segment of the American public.

The notion of making higher education more accessible was surely altruistic, but it was also practical. Science was changing the nature of agriculture and industry with implications for America’s economy, society, and international standing.

Justin Smith Morrill and Jonathan Baldwin Turner understood the potential benefits of enabling more Americans to apply advanced education to agriculture and industry and sought to close the gap between the reality of a small, educated elite and the possibility of prosperous educated masses.

Morrill was a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Vermont’s 2nd District (and later a senator), a founder of the Republican Party, and an abolitionist. Turner was a professor at Illinois College, an agricultural researcher, activist, and abolitionist.

Turner had argued for higher education reform since the 1820s while studying at Yale. In 1851, he presented a plan for the development of “industrial universities,” which was published in the “United States Patent Office Report.”

The plan was discussed at the national agricultural society’s meeting the following year. After founding an industrial league in 1853, Turner and others urged Congress to launch new industrial universities through the use of federal lands.

Despite Turner’s passion, there was no real groundswell, no grassroots movement for the establishment of universities for the industrial class. However, Morrill had been thinking about higher education in largely the same terms as Turner, though he claimed not to have known of Turner’s work.

In 1858, Morrill gave a speech before Congress on the idea of land-grant universities, noting that agricultural productivity was declining while population was increasing and that Europe was ahead of the United States in both agricultural practices and the extension of agricultural

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Justin Smith Morrill (above) and Jonathan Baldwin Turner (right) both proposed the creation of land-grant universities. Eventually Morrill’s plan for establishment of the schools was passed as the 1862 Morrill Act. In the Second Morrill Act, passed in 1890, specific provisions were made to include African-Americans in the land-grant university higher education system.

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Continuing the

Legacy...

Through effective in-state, national and global partnerships, we continue our legacy of innovation and excellence in the education of students; fundamental and applied research; sustainable agriculture agribusiness growth and development; and conservation of our environment and natural resources. We give special focus to enhancing production, marketing profitability and sustainability of small, historically disadvantaged and underserved farmers; preventive health through nutrition education and research; and youth and rural community development.

Much of Tuskegee’s rich agricultural history is rooted in the works of George Washington Carver, with many brilliant men and women to follow. Tuskegee University continues to play an important role as a leader in producing minority graduates.

Points of Distinction • Ranked #1 in producing African American graduates in Agriculture, Agriculture Operations and Related Sciences • Ranked #1 in producing African Americans with Professional Doctoral degrees in Veterinary Medicine • Approximately 50% of African Americans enrolled in veterinary schools today across the country are graduates of the Department of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences Animal and Veterinary Sciences undergraduate program

College of Agriculture, Environment and Nutrition Sciences George Washington Carver Experiment Station 1890 Cooperative Extension Carver Integrative Sustainability Center Black Belt Market Innovation Center

LANGSTON UNIVERSITY FIND THE LION IN YOU SCHOOL OF AGRICULTURE & APPLIED SCIENCES • Agri-business • Animal Science • Childhood Development • Crop & Soil Sciences • Early Childhood Education • Natural Resources Management FIND THE LION IN YOU • American Institute for Goat OF AGRICULTURE & APPLIED SCIENCES ResearchSCHOOL • Agri-business • American Institute for Goat • Outreach• & Extension Animal Science Research • Childhood Development • Outreach & Extension Programs • Crop & Soil Sciences Programs • Early Childhood Education • Aquaculture • Biotechnology

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• Natural Resources Management

• Biotechnology

Home of the E(kika) de la Garza American Institute for Goat Research

100 Success Drive Langston, OK 73050 100 Success Drive 405.466.6145

Langston, OK 73050 ag@langston.edu www.langston.edu 405.466.6145 • ag@langston.edu Home of the E(kika) de la Garza www2.luresext.edu langston.edu/agriculture • ww2.luresext.edu

American Institute for Goat Research

second morrill act

Photo courtesy National Archives and Records Administration

George Washington Carver at work in September 1938 at Tuskegee University, one of the 1890 land-grant universities. Carver was an American scientist, botanist, inventor, and educator at Tuskegee University, and is best known for his research into alternative crops to cotton, such as peanuts, soybeans, and sweet potatoes, which he wanted poor farmers to grow to aid in the nutrition of farm families and to provide another source of cash income to improve the farmers’ quality of life. The 1890 universities were – and remain – a vital link between African-Americans and higher education.

education. The speech and subsequent efforts would lead to the Morrill Act of 1862.

Ironically, Morrill never attended college, though he was widely read. His standing as an Eastern representative from an old-line state was important. But he was not the first to introduce legislation aimed at establishing a land-grant system.

The Michigan Constitution of 1850 actually called for the creation of an agricultural school, and in 1855, America’s first agriculture college, the Agricultural College of the State of Michigan, known today as Michigan State University, was established.

Meanwhile, in 1853, Turner drafted a resolution calling for the Illinois congressional delegation to work to enact a land-grant bill to fund a system of industrial colleges, one in each state. The Illinois legislature adopted the resolution and work began. However, it was felt that such legislation would have a better chance of passage if introduced by an Eastern congressman.

Two months later, Morrill introduced his bill. The language was strikingly similar to that expressed by Turner. Both plans granted land for the use of new universities, but Turner’s provided for equal grants to each state while the number of senators and representatives each state had in Congress determined land allocations in Morrill’s.

The Morrill Act is often characterized as legislation providing for the practical education of a broader section of the public – the act itself specifies the “Liberal and practical education for the industrial classes in the several pursuits of life” – but neither Turner nor Morrill argued for a narrow technical education. Teaching of the liberal arts was part of their vision too.

Following its passage by Congress in 1859, President James Buchanan vetoed the legislation. Morrill resubmitted the act in 1861 with the stipulation that new land-grant institutions would teach military tactics in addition to engineering and agriculture. Though many Southern states didn’t support the plans, their secession with the opening of the Civil War facilitated passage of the Morrill Act, which was signed into law by President Abraham Lincoln on July 2, 1862.

Once the war had been decided, the new “land grants” (or “1862s” as they’re often called) were established via allocation of some 17,400,000 acres of land, sold for a collective endowment of $7.55 million. Despite their stated mission and their founding impetus, few farmers actually attended them initially. Those who did tended to become professors,

developing the scientific and practical literature of agricultural higher education.

Land-grant universities broadened their offerings in the following decades but did not enlarge access as widely as hoped. While the land-grant system was extended to the Southern states that returned to the Union after the war, most barred African-Americans from attending.

In 1865, about 4 million largely illiterate blacks were released from slavery. Morrill declared, “They are members of the American family, and their advancement concerns us all.”

Thus, he introduced the Second Morrill Act of 1890, which specifically included provisions for colored students.

Congress passed the Second Morrill Act, which, instead of land, granted funding for the establishment of additional land-grant universities. It included the stipulation that AfricanAmericans were to be included in the U.S. land-grant university higher education system. Still, the 17 Southern and border states would not consent to their admission. As a work-around, the act provided that these 17 states could found separate land-grant institutions for African-Americans to be funded by

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Celebrating 125 years PROVIDING ACCESS

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COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, FAMILY SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGY

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Fort Valley State University is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools to award baccalaureate, master’s and educational specialist degrees. Contact the Commission on Colleges at 1866 Southern Lane, Decatur, Georgia 30033-4097 or call 404-679-4500 for questions about the accreditation of Fort Valley State University. Fort Valley State University is an affirmative action, equal opportunity institution and does not discriminate against applicants, students or employees on the basis of race, gender, ethnicity, national origin, sexual orientation, religion, age, disability or marital or veteran status.

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Celebrating 125 years of providing access and enhancing opportunities.

Learn more about our programs at: www.uapb.edu/safhs

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C O O P E R AT I V E EXTENSION

Extension provides practical education to help people, businesses, and communities build a better future.

extension.ca.uky.edu The College of Agriculture, Food and Environment is an Equal Opportunity Organization.

second morrill act

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

James H. Hill, 1890 land-grant liaison with the Fort Valley State University (FVSU) Southern Region Sustainable Agriculture Research & Education Program, part of FVSU’s Cooperative Extension Program, takes farmers through the ins and outs of “How to Write a Winning Proposal & Identify Potential Grant Sources for Producers” during the “Virginia State University (VSU), U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Virginia Farmers Working Together” outreach workshop at VSU on March 7, 2013. Farmers shared and learned new ways to do more with USDA services, and how to apply for programs that will help grow their business. The 1890 universities all have agricultural extension services that are generally quite active in working with small farmers.

a “just and equitable division” of the federal grant. Section 4 of the Morrill Act of 1890 made it clear: … a just and equitable division of the fund to be received under this act between one college for white students and one institution for colored students established as aforesaid which shall be divided into two parts and paid accordingly, and thereupon such institution for colored students shall be entitled to the benefits of this act and subject to its provisions, as much as it would have been if it had been included under the act of eighteen hundred and sixty-two, and the fulfillment of the foregoing provisions shall be taken as a compliance with the provision in reference to separate colleges for white and colored students.

The original 1890 universities, many of which became known as historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), remain a vital link between African-Americans and higher education. Though they represent approximately 3 percent of colleges in the United States, they enroll 12 percent of all

African-American college students, produce 23 percent of all African-American college graduates, and confer 60 percent of all engineering degrees earned by African-American students.

HBCUs also educate half of the country’s African-American teachers and 40 percent of all African-American health professionals.

Like their 1862 counterparts, the 1890s also maintain one of the central tenets of the first Morrill Act – the idea of agricultural extension. Taking the latest in research literally to the field and to agricultural producers is a proudly held responsibility.

“The black land-grant universities are quite immersed in their land-grant mission,” John Michael Lee Jr., Ph.D., confirmed.

Lee is vice president of the Office for Access and Success at the Association of Public and Land-grant Universities (APLU).

“They’re the same as any other land grant, whether it’s Ohio State, the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, or University of Maryland College Park. They all have extension services, agriculture programs, research, and degrees. They support students and communities in rural and urban areas.”

Lee noted that 1890 institutions are particularly active outside large corporate farm settings.

“That’s one of the specialties for 1890s. They work primarily with small farmers, whereas the 1862 land-grant universities more often work with larger farms/farmers.”

The 125th anniversary of the passage of the Second Morrill Act is not going without recognition at these institutions, Lee said. A special website – 1890universities.org – has been created to recall the act and highlight the partnership between 1890s and the U.S. Department of Agriculture.

“Not only are they aware of the history, but they’re celebrating that history,” Lee enthused, adding that all the land grants are honoring the 150th anniversary of the 1862 act as well.

Agriculture remains one of America’s biggest economic activities, Lee pointed out. Whether their origins date to

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second morrill act

LIST OF THE 1890 LANDGRANT UNIVERSITIES

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

Students from the University of Maryland Eastern Shore, an 1890 land-grant institution, attend the Borlaug Symposium at USDA headquarters in Washington, D.C., on March 25, 2014. The symposium highlighted current efforts to address global hunger. Symposium panels featured high school and university students, as well as scientists and policy advisers from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID), USDA, and nongovernmental organizations. Leading students and individuals had the opportunity to present what they are doing to help achieve Dr. Norman Borlaug’s vision of creating the next generation of hunger fighters. The 1890 universities are playing an important role in addressing agricultural issues that have nationwide and worldwide effects.

the first or second Morrill Acts, institutions like North Carolina A&T State University, Ohio State University, Mississippi State University, or Alcorn State University do extensive work in solving agricultural problems and in local outreach. They administer 4-H to youth and reach out to veterans in addition to providing liberal arts and other degrees aligned with the land-grant mission, like engineering.

For example, Florida A&M’s Center for Viticulture and Small Fruit Research recently developed a new variety of large-fruited muscadine grape (a grapevine species native to North America) called “Majesty,” which is disease resistant and can be more efficiently cultivated in the southern United States. Likewise, a Florida A&M professor is working to solve problems with the honey bee population’s decimation by other insects. Given the natural role of honey bees, the research is relevant to the entire country’s ecosystem.

“They’re [1890s] working on problems that impact the world beyond the states they serve and reside in,” Lee affirmed.

On the extension side, Tuskegee University is working with small farmers in Alabama’s Black Belt region to connect their businesses and production to large retailers like Walmart.

“If it wasn’t for 1890s, a lot of small farmers wouldn’t be served in rural areas throughout many states, especially in West Virginia, North Carolina,

• Alabama A&M University • Alcorn State University • Delaware State University • Florida A&M University • Fort Valley State University • Kentucky State University • Langston University • Lincoln University • North Carolina A&T State University • Prairie View A&M University • South Carolina State University • Southern University System • Tennessee State University • Tuskegee University • University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff • University of Maryland Eastern Shore • Virginia State University • West Virginia State University • Central State University

Florida, and Georgia. They really do work with independent farmers and try to connect them,” Lee explained. “The extension services help communities help themselves. That’s one of the greatest facets of what the land grants do.”

HBCUs and other 1890s land grants also fulfill their mission to expand access to higher education in the spirit of Justin Smith Morrill, Jonathan Baldwin Turner, and legislation their work fostered.

“One of the most important things about land grants in general,” Lee acknowledged, “is that they have always promoted access to liberal and practical education for the industrial classes. They help ensure the American dream through access to education whether you are from Appalachia or from the inner cities of Atlanta or Detroit.”

No discussion of access to higher education can ignore its dramatically rising cost. According to Lee, land-grant institutions are keenly aware of the problem and are taking steps to address the cost of a degree. The APLU recently initiated a partnership with the American Association of Community Colleges and the American Association of State Colleges and Universities to work across sectors/institutional types to find ways to increase affordability.

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second morrill act

Land-grant institutions remain the most accessible institutions of higher education, and historically black colleges and other 1890s are among those bastions, providing access to a lot of low-income and first-generation college students.

“That association speaks to new thinking about how we can make college more affordable,” Lee said. It also reflects the values built into the land-grant system, particularly those universities that arose out of the Second Morrill Act. “Land-grant institutions remain the most accessible institutions of higher education, and historically black colleges and other 1890s are among those bastions, providing access to a lot of low-income and first-generation college students.”

That mission has been extended through the addition of land-grant status to institutions like the 1994 land-grant colleges for Native Americans. Land-grant institutions like the

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University of the District of Columbia are increasingly furthering their founding mission in urban settings as well.

“You’re seeing a reinvigoration of urban agriculture from land-grant institutions, not just those that are in urban areas but those located in rural areas as well,” Lee added. “West Virginia University is doing an [Urban Agriculture Conference] in Charleston, West Virginia. You’re seeing a focus on how we can serve urban centers with agricultural education.”

HBCUs and other 1890s are increasing their outreach and extension beyond U.S. borders to North America and further a field. Tuskegee University is working with farmers in Ghana, while other land grants are partnering with universities in Brazil, Canada, and Mexico. Lee said 1890s institutions are seeing an influx of international students and are sending more of their own students abroad.

The search for solutions to new problems is a continual challenge but also provides the universities that grew out of both Morrill Acts an opportunity to become ever more relevant. It’s an opportunity they’re embracing, Lee said.

“The 19th century land-grant idea has continued to evolve over the years to accommodate the needs we have in real time.

Universities that are 1890s institutions are now doing work in biofuels, looking at new power-generation possibilities. I think we’re seeing the land-grant system adapt to national challenges. That’s why we see some revisiting of the [land-grant idea] to incorporate some new themes.”

dealing with drought

Farmers find ways to survive – even thrive – as the long dry continues.

By Craig Collins

ince 2000, according to the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), drought has caused more than $80 billion in losses nationwide. A good chunk of that, $30 billion, was lost in 2012, when the most extensive drought since the Dust Bowl afflicted more than half the country, resulting in widespread crop failures.

It’s been bad just about everywhere, but in the bellwether state of California, where half the nation’s fruits, nuts, and vegetables are grown, the drought looks like a full-blown crisis when historic numbers are compared to current circumstances: Typically, 80 percent of the water delivered through governmentowned reservoir-and-canal projects is used to irrigate agricultural crops, and 60 percent of the state’s water supply comes from the meltwater of Sierra Nevada snowpacks. But as of January 2014, those snowpacks were at 20 percent of their historic average, and all but a few of the state’s reservoirs were below 50 percent of their capacity – a shortage so dire that for the first

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Farmers as Water Stewards There’s much farmers can do to optimize production while using less water: Micro/drip irrigation can cut consumption by a third to a half. Careful scheduling of irrigation, coupled with an intensive monitoring program, can minimize waste. Regular system maintenance can improve efficiencies. Local staff members of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Natural

USDA photos by Cynthia Mendoza

Dealing with Drought

time in history, the California State Water Project announced it would not be releasing any water for the year. With nearly 80 percent of the state suffering from what the weekly United States Drought Monitor classified as either “extreme” or “exceptional” drought, Gov. Jerry Brown declared a state of emergency and called for a voluntary 20 percent reduction in water use. In July, a study by the Center for Watershed Sciences at the University of California-Davis projected a 2014 loss of $2.2 billion and more than 17,000 jobs in California alone.

In the fall of 2014, NOAA’s climatologists offered little hope that 2015 would be much of an improvement: “While drought may improve in some portions of the U.S. this winter,” the agency wrote in an online statement released Oct. 16, 2014, “California’s record-setting drought will likely persist or intensify in large parts of the state.”

As warmer average temperatures and lower average precipitation increase stresses on the agricultural system, many farmers are making adjustments and innovations that will transform farming from its current status, which resembles an emergency response more than a proactive anticipation of the trends now seen as the new normal: warmer average temperatures and lower average precipitation.

dealing with drought

Opposite page and left: Drought damage in Fresno, California, in 2014. Below: A map depicting the status of drought in California in October 2014; it shows a condition of “exceptional drought” over 58 percent of the state.

of water. With few exceptions, farmers don’t waste water.

The problem today is simply that there isn’t enough water to support the crops they’re growing.

In drought-stricken areas throughout the country, already water-wise farmers are trying new things. These methods are sometimes entirely novel approaches, often enabled with technological innovations, but more often they combine proven techniques or revive practices from when farmers relied solely on rainwater. What they all have in common, however, is a long, considered look at conditions both on the farm – the climate, the soil, and the crops – and off, such as the changing needs and desires of consumer markets.

USDA image

Farming without Water

Resource Conservation Service (NRCS), positioned throughout the country, offer one-on-one consultation to create irrigation plans, and the NRCS and a host of other organizations offer guides to effective irrigation practices. Many growers are also figuring out how to utilize water sources other than surface flows or wells, such as municipal wastewater or agricultural runoff – or, in smaller-scale operations, grey water or roof runoff.

The fact is, however, that farmers have known about, and used, these approaches to conservation for generations.

California’s Department of Water Resources has reported, for example, that even as the state’s agricultural production rose 59 percent over the 40-year period from 1967 to 2007, the amount of water applied to farmland dropped 14.5 percent – that’s an 85 percent increase in tons of food per acre-foot

Before dams, reservoirs, and wells enabled them to build and calibrate elaborate irrigation systems, farmers managed to wring crops out of drought-stricken lands.

Dry land farming, a traditional practice in regions such as the Mediterranean for millennia, became a mostly forgotten practice among New World farmers, but drought is persuading many to take a second look in places such as the Coast Ranges of California, where farmers enjoy a Mediterranean climate and landscape.

Dry farming is more complicated than simply turning off the tap: It often involves breaking up the soil in the rainy season to saturate it, then compacting the top layer to hold in moisture against evaporation. Subsequent plantings will sink roots and hunt down the last drops. If done well, and if winter rains have been sufficient, little or no supplemental watering is necessary.

The dry approach is a bit of an outlier, unusual and not as profitable as traditional farming. It would be impossible in the Central Valley, but in farm-to-fork Coast Range counties, where rockier soils tend to hold at least some moisture through the summer, it’s catching on among smaller-scale growers of melons, berries, tomatoes, apples, grapes, and tubers.

One of the advantages of dry farming is that it intensifies the flavors of crops, particularly tomatoes and berries. It’s an important factor in the terroir, or geoclimatic influence, of the wines grown near the California coast. But its primary drawback is that its yields are much smaller, and it can’t really be scaled up. It’s appropriate for specialty farmers who want to earn profits through quality, rather than quantity, said Paul Vossen, a University of California farm adviser who works with Sonoma County farmers. “What’s happened,” he said, “is there’s now a specialty market for produce, where people can grow and distribute locally, to farmers’ markets and places like Whole Foods.”

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We build strategic partnerships across academia, industry, and government to apply information and resources where they’re needed. We help people, businesses, and communities to be successful, profitable, and sustainable.

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dealing with drought

Sorghum will produce grain under some really, really dry conditions, and it does it naturally. Sorghum survived over thousands of years in really, really dry and harsh climates in Africa. That’s the reason it was brought here.

A dry-farmed fruit or vegetable will almost always be worth more than its irrigated counterpart, said Vossen, but it’s up to each individual grower to run the numbers and determine whether dry farming, if it’s feasible, makes economic sense.

Soil Management Dry farming is only the most extreme among farming methods aimed at preserving moisture in soil. Conservation tillage – sometimes simplistically described as “no till” farming – is a method of building up organic matter in soil, tilling less, and preserving pore spaces to improve water retention. According to the NRCS, building 1 percent of organic matter into the top six inches of soil will retain approximately 27,000 gallons of water per acre.

In the San Luis Valley, one of Colorado’s prime agricultural regions, the drought has been devastating: Last summer

several counties in the valley were designated primary natural disaster areas due to agricultural losses, and the aquifer has been drained to an all-time low. To Brendon Rockey, a third-generation specialty potato grower who operates Rockey Farms with his brother, Sheldon, it had already become clear that they wouldn’t be able to do things the old way: plant half their land in barley to be sold to Coors Brewing Company, and half in potatoes. The barley, said Rockey, was too water intensive.

“We knew we could grow a green manure crop using significantly less water,” he said. Fallowing the ground – taking a year off and then planting again – would do nothing to build up organic matter in the soil. “That was a tough decision to make.

We were going from two cash crops down to one cash crop.

Barley, compared to potatoes, just wasn’t nearly as significant economically. And we decided we would rather save the water to grow potatoes for more years.”

At the same time, the Rockeys saw an opportunity to address the parasitic nematodes in their soil, which were beginning to have an impact on their potato crop. They installed soil moisture meters and planted a sorghum-Sudan hybrid grass proven to inhibit the nematodes found in their soil.

Because he concedes he didn’t do a great job of monitoring their use before they began cycling in green manure, Rockey can’t quantify the before and after, but his soil holds moisture better than before. “We’re to the point now where I’m averaging about 12 to 14 inches per year of irrigation water to grow a potato crop,” he said. “And I would say the average for the valley’s potato crop is between 18 and 20.”

The comparison, said Rockey, may not be entirely fair: His specialty potatoes, which include fingerling varieties, are

USDA NRCS photo

Young soybean plants thrive in the residue of a wheat crop. This form of no-till farming provides good protection for the soil from erosion and helps retain moisture for the new crop.

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dealing with drought

Grain sorghum grows on Wilder Farms in Navasota, Texas, on Aug. 23, 2013. The ground shows signs of drought, but the crop shows no ill effects from it.

typically smaller in size and produce smaller (but more valuable) yields. “But we’ve improved our soil dramatically,” he said. “We have better aggregation and the carbon levels have elevated as well.”

The amount of water needed to produce different crops varies widely, and many crops are slowly fading from places where they were once abundant. Corn, for example, is notoriously thirsty late in the season, when water is typically scarcest, and the USDA has documented a distinct shift in the nation’s Corn Belt to the north and west, where it’s cooler and wetter – or where, at least, farmers are more likely to have better access to surface and aquifer storage.

West central Kansas has been the epicenter of the state’s drought on the High Plains, and you won’t see much corn there, but that wasn’t always the case, said Earl Roemer, founder and president of Nu Life Market in Scott City, Kansas, one of the nation’s largest sorghum milling companies. Typically, neighboring growers planted both corn and sorghum – corn for profit, given market incentives, and sorghum for insurance.

But that practice has changed in the last three years. “Sorghum will produce grain under some really, really dry conditions,” he said, “and it does it naturally. Sorghum survived over thousands of years in really, really dry and harsh climates in Africa. That’s the reason it was brought here.”

There are two types of sorghum grown for food today: sweet sorghum, used in sweeteners, and grain sorghum or milo, which is used as either livestock fodder or food for people. “A hundred million people consume grain sorghum every single day as their primary cereal grain,” Roemer said, “but not here in the U.S. So we focused on sourcing the very specific sorghums that are utilized for food. Sorghum is an ancient grain, naturally gluten-free, and it’s not genetically modified. These attributes are in high demand now among consumers.”

Roemer’s efforts to meet these consumer demands are not recent; they began back in the late 1990s. But in his careful study of his own growing conditions and changing markets, he’s finally hit the sweet spot: He’s using less water to grow a crop consumers can’t get enough of. “What we’re trying to do here,” he said, “is sustain the Ogallala Aquifer long term, but also sustain our economy. We simply need a crop that can survive and produce grain under these conditions.”

Technology: Precision Farming Increasingly, some farmers have been able to refine their efficiencies with new technologies. One concept to arise in the Information Age is “precision farming,” which uses geospatial

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USDA photo by Bob Nichols

Plant Selection

data and metering devices to tell a farmer how much water or fertilizer is needed, not only on a specific plot or subsection, but down to individual plants.

Kenny Watkins, a fifth-generation farmer and cattle rancher and first vice president of the California Farm Bureau Federation (CFBF), uses technology on his farm in Linden, southeast of Sacramento. Watkins saves fuel and time with tractors guided by GPS, and he saves water in his fields and in his walnut orchards with a system of meters and probes that determine the amount of water he applies. With walnuts, one of the state’s thirstiest crops, such data is crucial. “You used to just go out and watch the plant,” he said. “But now instead of waiting for the plant or the tree to wilt down to know that it needs more water, or to see it’s turned yellow because you’re overwatering it, with this technology you’re able to stay ahead of all that and reduce the stress on the plant, which increases its productivity.”

Over the last decade, according to the CFBF, California farmers have invested more than $3 billion in technological upgrades to their irrigation systems, on more than 2.6 million acres. Agribusinesses, notably Monsanto’s Climate Corporation, offer several decision support services, such as Climate Pro™ or FieldScripts , to help guide farmers in efficient resource use: how much seed to plant, at what depth and spacing; how much SM

dealing with drought

water to apply; how much and what type of fertilizers. These “prescriptions” can be downloaded to a tablet or mobile device in the farmer’s tractor, which in turn can be programmed to convey data to the tractor’s machinery.

Such a setup, however, is still out of reach for many farmers, including Watkins, who doesn’t get cell phone service on his farm and has to personally check his sensors and probes. “A hundred years ago, the university extensions got information out to farmers so they could do a better job,” he said. “And the tool that set up that cooperative extension was the farm bill.

Today the Internet is how information is going to get to farmers to help them continue to be competitive. We need to be able to use that technology fully.”

Different Land Uses Of course, one proven method for surviving drought has always been to simply take land out of production and enroll it in one of USDA’s subsidy programs. The Conservation Reserve Program (CRP) and its offshoots encourage landowners to convert highly erodible cropland and other sensitive areas to permanent cover, such as grasses, trees, filter strips, forest buffers, or wetland. Other farmers, taking advantage of relatively generous federal crop insurance, have simply rolled the dice, planting and praying for rain. But if the last two farm bills are any indication, the safety net is shrinking.

In parts of the country where the drought has hit hard, farmers and ranchers have found ways to tap into natural resources other than water. In the San Luis Valley, which averages 340 days of sunshine every year, some farmland has already been converted into acres of silicon panels. The San Luis Valley Solar Ranch, a 30-megawatt (MW) photovoltaic (PV) power facility near the town of Mosca, reached commercial operation in March 2012. In May 2014, two energy companies teamed up to begin building a 50-MW PV facility on 320 acres in the San Luis Valley.

The National Renewable Energy Laboratory has rated the even drier High Plains of West Texas, where the sole source of year-round water is the rapidly depleting Ogallala Aquifer, as one of the nation’s most promising regions for wind resources.

Wind energy allowed farmers to first settle these plains, and it may be what allows many of them to stay, as a growing number of turbines are constructed on agricultural land and farmers are finding a reliable hedge against the dry years in royalties from electricity sales.

Nobody in these regions believes solar or wind farms will save them, and few farmers, if asked, would say they need saving. They’ve already made the choice to pursue what Theodore Roosevelt once referred to as “the strenuous life.”

But many are also seasoned realists, who understand that farming alone may not be enough to get them through what lies ahead.

aquifer management

Aquifer Management As drought grinds on, officials take steps to slow the drawdown.

By Craig Collins

t’s a historic multiyear drought in the American West. In some areas, such as California, it’s unprecedented: 2013 was the driest year on record. With 2014 forecast to be worse, farmers withdrew a half-million acres – an area the size of Los Angeles and San Diego combined – from planting because of insufficient water.

With shrinking snowpacks, rivers, and lakes, federal and state officials informed Californians that water supplies from the federal Central Valley project would be severely curtailed and that not a drop would be released from the California State Water Project. It was the first time in the State Water Project’s 54-year history that no water was released.

To offset such losses, farmers throughout the West have turned increasingly to pumping water from aquifers – underground reservoirs composed of gravelly and sandy geologic formations. In itself, this isn’t unusual: A 2013 report by the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) revealed that from 1900 to 2008, the nation suffered a net loss of underground water equal to twice the volume of Lake Erie, nearly 1.5 cubic miles of water withdrawn annually. The more startling statistic is that a full 25 percent of that volume – half a Lake Erie – was pumped out after the year 2000. Since then, we’ve taken an average of 6 cubic miles of water annually from underground.

In California, where the Central Valley accounts for onesixth of the nation’s irrigated land, water wells have literally changed the landscape, especially in the broader, drier San Joaquin Valley south of the San Francisco Bay Delta. In what the USGS has called “one of the single largest alterations of the land surface attributed to humankind,” the land sank, or subsided, as water was pumped out and the aquifer compacted. Between 1925 and 1977, the land sank over an area of 5,200 square miles in the San Joaquin Valley; the most dramatic subsidence occurred in an area near Mendota, which sank more than 28 feet.

The rate of extraction slowed after federal and state water projects started delivering irrigation from the Bay Delta through a system of dams, reservoirs, canals, waterways, aqueducts, and pumps. But sharp cutbacks in water deliveries have returned farmers to the old ways in the San Joaquin Valley.

A telephone pole in this late 1970s photo shows land subsidence in the San Joaquin Valley, California, due to aquifer system compaction.

Land surface subsided approximately 30 feet (about 9 meters) from 1925 to 1977. Signs on the pole indicate the former elevations of the land surface in 1925 and 1955.

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U.S. Geological Survey Department of the Interior/USGS U.S. Geological Survey/photo by Richard Ireland

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A June 2001 NASA Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) image of an approximately 557-squaremile area of fields in Kansas watered with center pivot irrigation systems drawing from the Ogallala Aquifer. The U.S. Geological Survey found that the amount of water drawn from the Ogallala Aquifer in the first eight years of the 21st century was equal to a third of the water drawn from it during the whole of the 20th century.

Since 2008, subsidence has quickened to a pace of nearly a foot a year – faster than the rate from 1925 to 1977 – and infrastructures such as canals, roads, and railways are buckling in spots. In some places, the water table has dropped 200 feet over the past two years.

For decades, the bad news for Californians has been that their state alone, of all the 17 states west of Kansas City, did not have statewide regulations to help manage the amount of water being pumped from underground. The good news is that this circumstance officially ended in September 2014, as the state legislature enacted three bills, known collectively as the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act, designed to increase local control and protection of groundwater basins throughout the state.

California’s is only the most recent attempt to manage dwindling groundwater reserves in the West. In other parts of the country, state, regional, and local governments have been wrestling with the issue for years. To date, the results of their management initiatives have been, admittedly, mixed, but in most cases, it’s also true that officials and stakeholders in these regions are just beginning to understand the scope of the problem, and of its potential solutions.

NASA image

The Ogallala Aquifer The nation’s largest and best-known aquifer is the Ogallala or High Plains Aquifer, which lies beneath 170,000 square miles of the Great Plains in a span from South Dakota to the Texas panhandle. The Ogallala has been tapped for irrigation since the 1940s, and according to the USGS, the amount taken from it over the first eight years of the 21st century equaled a third of the amount taken during the entire 20th century – a dramatic rate increase fueled by drought and higher corn prices.

Given its size and topographical diversity, the Ogallala isn’t monolithic; its rate of recharge – the replenishment of aquifer water from surface flows – varies widely. In the coarse, sandy plains of Nebraska, which are fed by Rocky Mountain rivers, the water table has actually risen in spots since the early 20th century; 65 percent of the Ogallala’s water lies beneath Nebraska. Farther south, soils aren’t as porous, explained David Steward, a professor of civil engineering at Kansas State University. “In much of the Kansas portion of the Ogallala Aquifer, we have really deep loess soils,” he said, “and they’re very good at holding water ... so in those areas, there’s not very much recharge occurring underneath them.”

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aquifer management

At some point, a long distance out into the future, we can only use the amount of water that’s recharging.

So we either have to use less water, or we have to figure out a source to recharge the aquifer.

The lowest Ogallala recharge rates occur in western Kansas and in the Texas High Plains, where few streams flow and soils vary from sandy loam to alkaline caliche, or hardpan. In 2012, the National Academy of Sciences forecast that 35 percent of the southern High Plains will be unable to support irrigation within the next 30 years if current pumping rates continue.

Steward and several colleagues reached a similar conclusion in a study published last year in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. If the current rate at which Kansas farmers are irrigating with groundwater continues, they concluded, nearly 70 percent of the Ogallala Aquifer could be drained within 50 years.

In Kansas, Steward’s study points out, 80 percent of the water now pumped from underground isn’t recharged. As in California and elsewhere, farmers and ranchers can survive by drilling deeper, but such a tactic causes immediate economic pain. The wells are expensive to drill and maintain.

Kansas and Texas each have systems in place that mandate regulation of groundwater by local or regional authorities, so it’s fair to ask why nobody has put the brakes on unsustainable extraction. But it’s complicated: In Kansas, for example, the law grants pumping allotments for beneficial uses of groundwater, including agriculture. Farming the High Plains contributes about $35 billion to the U.S. economy. To slam on the brakes – to suddenly reduce the amount of water pumped annually by 80 percent – would be to cause the immediate ruin of thousands of farmers and ranchers.

Of course, if that 80 percent reduction never happens, the Ogallala eventually will be pumped dry in the southern High Plains. Steward’s study spins out different scenarios in an attempt to estimate how Kansas agriculture can achieve what he calls the “smooth landing,” where pumping equals recharge.

“At some point, a long distance out into the future,” he said, “we can only use the amount of water that’s recharging. So we either have to use less water, or we have to figure out a source to recharge the aquifer.”

In both Kansas and Texas, the potential for new sources is being explored: The U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and state officials are discussing the potential for constructing an aqueduct to service western Kansas. In Texas, a research consortium including the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA),

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Texas Tech University, and the Texas Water Development Board is studying whether more precipitation will enter the aquifer if it is captured in the small wetlands, or playa lakes, scattered throughout the panhandle.

As hard as farmers try to wring greater efficiency out of their irrigation systems – and in Kansas they have succeeded for years, Steward said, in wringing 1.5 to 2 percent better efficiency annually – the incentives to expand and irrigate plantings have always outweighed the incentives to conserve water. But that era may be coming to an end. “I think one of the reasons our study resonated so much,” Steward said, “was that people are really attuned to living a way of life today that will provide for us and our needs right now, but also make sure that we leave something for future generations.”

Idaho’s Eastern Snake Plain Part of what makes management such a challenging issue in the Ogallala is its size and diversity: It lies beneath eight states and several dozen counties. But even in an aquifer that lies entirely within a single state’s boundary – the Eastern Snake Plain Aquifer (ESPA), beneath 10,800 square miles of the southern Idaho plains – competing demands for the state’s most important water resource have compelled its leaders to exercise some control of the water going into, and out of, the aquifer.

The ESPA region accounts for about 25 percent of Idaho’s economic output, and water is crucial to much of its $10 billion annual value. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency has declared the ESPA a sole source aquifer, due to the region’s nearly complete reliance on the aquifer for drinking water supplies. Its waters, which follow the flow of the Snake River from east to west and emerge from the ground in the American Falls and Thousand Springs region, are also used by canal companies, farmers, and fish hatcheries, among others. The recent history of the region is complicated, but the easiest way to sum it up is to say that after the spring flows started dwindling, people started suing each other.

State officials promptly concluded that there had to be a better way to manage this key water resource than litigation, and it set into motion a plan over the short, medium, and long terms to prevent overexploitation of the aquifer and also to provide for recharge. Work began on the plan – the ESPA Comprehensive Aquifer Management Plan, or CAMP – in 2006, and the Idaho Water Resource Board formally adopted the plan in 2009.

According to Neeley Miller, a senior water resource planner at the Idaho Department of Water Resources (IDWR), the data used in the planning stages revealed a perplexing irony: The increasingly efficient use of water by farmers, over the last half of the 20th century, severely reduced the ESPA’s recharge rate. Early 20th century canal and irrigation projects, built to service new agricultural lands, often flooded the plain: “They were pouring water through leaky ditches and leaky canals, putting it out through gravity irrigation onto the fields,” he said. “Very high water amounts,

aquifer management

Image courtesy of the Idaho Water Resource Board

A map from the Idaho Water Resource Board shows the location of the Eastern Snake Plain Aquifer. Work has been underway for years in Idaho to develop and implement its Comprehensive Aquifer Management Plan (CAMP) to stabilize this water resource and to recharge the aquifer.

way more than the crop could use. So that excess water seeped into the ground and built up the amount of water in the aquifer.” In the 1950s, Miller explained, farmers began drilling wells in outlying areas with no surface water source.

“So that’s sort of what led to this decline – increasingly efficient use of surface water, and then groundwater pumping and the drought events.” The ESPA now suffers a net loss of about 600,000 acre-feet annually.

The CAMP’s primary objective is to sustain the region’s economic viability by rebalancing water use and supply. The plan is being implemented in two phases: first, stabilization of the resource through management initiatives such as conservation, further efficiency improvements, and incentives for relying on surface irrigation rather than groundwater. After 10 years, the IDWR estimates that these measures will slice 200,000 to 300,000 acre-feet (an acre-foot is the amount of water that will cover an acre to a depth of one foot) from the annual water budget deficit.

The second phase will involve managed aquifer recharges to capture and direct surface flows before and after the irrigation season. “We’ve been doing that from about 2009 to 2013 and been averaging about 94,000 or 95,000 acrefeet a year of managed recharge,” said Miller. Pilot weather modification or “cloud seeding” projects are also adding to the amount of recharge by increasing the amount of snow that falls during winter storms – a practice that Miller said will continue in the future.

To reach the state’s ultimate goal – an annual water budget that zeros out its 600,000 acre-feet deficit – the CAMP will make adjustments to further increase recharge rates: funding expansions of surface flows to more seepage sites, and for longer durations. “And potentially after that,” Miller said, “we may look at, over the next couple of years, some injection well sites, where we deliver water to an injection well field and pump that back into the aquifer.”

Seeking Balance in the Central Valley In California, a latecomer to aquifer management, resource managers would love to have the kind of data the IDWR has used to assemble the CAMP, but one of the problems that has foiled reform for so long has been that under California law, well logs – the technical documents filed by drillers – are confidential, accessible only by people who meet specific criteria. Logs

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aquifer management

contain information on the depth, location, and geology of well sites. Without this data, it’s been impossible to understand just how Californians are using water in the Central Valley’s major groundwater basins.

California’s new groundwater law grants certain local public agencies the ability to become groundwater sustainability agencies (GSAs) for their basin (or a portion thereof), with the authority to develop and establish a groundwater sustainability plan (GSP). The law significantly enhances monitoring and reporting requirements for almost all groundwater users, who will be accountable to either the local GSA or the State Water Resources Control Board – the law includes a mechanism that allows the state government to step in if there is no local GSA, or if the GSA’s plan is insufficient.

Sargeant Green, the former director of the California Water Institute at California State University, Fresno, recently came out of retirement to help several county governments establish groundwater ordinances in accordance with the new law, which stipulates that if no local agency elects to become a GSA for an area, the county is presumed to be the acting GSA. The law, Green said, was crafted to recognize that effective management is most likely to occur at the local or regional level. Several regions, in fact, are exempt from the law’s provisions, because water rights within them have been established by court adjudications or arbitrators. Many of these basins are in suburban Southern California counties. “They actually have a watermaster who doles out the groundwater,” he said, “and people only get whatever is calculated to be their fair share – which is what the new plan eventually will get to.”

The law focuses on basins that have been designated as high- or medium-priority by the state’s Department of Water Resources, and the vast majority of these are in agricultural areas, accounting for 96 percent of the state’s groundwater pumping. These areas are required by the new law to have a GSP in place by 2022 – or by 2020, if a basin is determined to be critically overdrawn.

California Gov. Jerry Brown signs the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act, historic legislation designed to increase local control and protection of groundwater basins throughout the state. In Western states that have been facing severe drought conditions, efforts to manage groundwater are critical to ensure those resources are available for the future.

Many California farmers are opposed to the new law, but it’s not that they’re opposed to the idea of conserving groundwater.

Green has spent much of his career working with farmers, who, he said, tend to believe “groundwater and surface water should be operated conjunctively, and that [a] certain amount of water should be diverted to help fill up the groundwater,” he said.

So far, government efforts have focused on the demand side of the equation. “It may take a few decades to do it,” he said, “but we need to figure out how to manage and operate it as a single system, as opposed to two separate activities, each with its own control system.”

The Sustainable Groundwater Management Act does not directly address the issue of recharge, and the hydrogeology of recharge is not understood as well in California as it is in the Snake River Plain. The pieces, however, are slowly being put into place: A recent law is aimed at identifying and mapping recharge areas, and funds from Proposition 1, the $7.5 billion water bond that passed on the November 2014 ballot, may be used to finance infrastructure projects used to replenish groundwater.

In the future, as more is known about where, how, and at what rate California’s aquifers can be recharged with surface flows, these projects may be coordinated to create a balance between extraction and recharge. For now, the Sustainable Groundwater Management Act is aimed at keeping California’s aquifers from being pumped dry.

“It took us this long to get into this condition, so it’s going to take us a while to get out,” said Green. “I’m going to be busy for years.”

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honey bees

Plight of the Honey Bee The multi-front effort to revitalize our ailing pollinators

By Craig Collins t’s been a problem since at least 1947, but 21st century trends have been alarming enough that President Barack Obama, in the summer of 2014, launched a federal strategy to address the continuing decline of honey bees and other pollinators.

In his June 20 memorandum, the president directed the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) to establish and oversee a Pollinator Health Task Force that will include experts from 15 other federal agencies and chart a course for improving the health of the nation’s pollinators.

The memorandum was accompanied by a fact sheet that laid out the devastating numbers: • Since 1947, when there were 6 million managed honey bee colonies in the United States, the number of colonies has dropped to only 2.5 million. “Beekeepers in the United States,” the memo read, “have collectively lost an estimated 10 million beehives at an approximate value of $200 each.”

• Pollinators contribute $24 billion to the U.S. economy – $15 billion of which is attributed to honey bee pollination of specialty fruit, nut, and vegetable crops.

• Honey bees of the European species, Apis mellifera, which was brought to North America to pollinate the crops of some of the continent’s first settlers, enable the production of at least 90 commercially grown crops in North America. Eighty-seven of the world’s leading 115 food crops are dependent on animal pollination.

• For some crops, such as almonds, honey bees are virtually the exclusive means of pollination. California’s almond growers require the services of 1.4 million beehives – 60 percent of the nation’s managed hives – every year to produce 80 percent of the world’s almonds, a U.S. crop now worth more than $4 billion annually.

In 2006, commercial beekeepers began reporting losses of 30 to 90 percent of their hives – an alarming increase ultimately traced, in part, to the phenomenon now known as colony collapse disorder, or CCD. While CCD is often cited as a catch-all term for the varied causes of colony losses, it’s specific to the set of symptoms investigators observed in the field: the

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rapid loss of adult bees from a colony, with brood left behind so suddenly that there was still food in the hive – but curiously, no dead adult bees anywhere near the apiary or bee yard.

Dennis vanEngelsdorp, an assistant research scientist at the University of Maryland and director of the Bee Informed Partnership, a USDA-funded nonprofit dedicated to improving honey bee health, was one of these investigators. What became clear during their examinations, he said, was that the bees were very sick, probably with multiple viral infections.

“Bees are social insects,” he said. “So they have social-level immune responses. And one of those is what we call ‘altruistic suicide.’ Somehow, the bees knew they were sick, and so they would fly away from the hive and die. But some sickness apparently went through really quickly, so it seemed as if they all left at once. What we don’t understand is why those bees were so susceptible to viral infection.”

VanEngelsdorp said he hasn’t seen any evidence of CCD in the past three years, and the percentage of colonies lost annually – which averaged more than 32 percent from 2006-2011 – has trended down, to just over 25 percent since then. But that’s still much higher than the historic average, and higher than commercial beekeepers can replace every year.

Gradually, bee researchers at academic and government institutions, including the USDA’s Bee Research Laboratory in Beltsville, Maryland, just 10 minutes from vanEngelsdorp’s lab, are putting the pieces together and beginning to understand the honey bee’s susceptibility to numerous stressors.

Photo courtesy of USDA Forest Service

Getting to the Bottom of Pollinator Declines – and Helping Them to Survive

USDA photo by David Kosling

honey bees

One of the disorders most commonly associated with bee mortality is the Varroa destructor mite, which lives on the outside of bees and their larvae and infects them with a parasitic disease. Another parasite, the unicellular spore-producing Nosema ceranae – once thought to be specific to the Asian honey bee – was first discovered in dead adult bees from California’s Central Valley in 2006.

The list of diseases and disorders of the honey bee contains many more than these two parasites, but both have been around for years, and neither is typically a significant problem for a healthy hive. The fact that growing numbers of bees are succumbing to them, vanEngelsdorp said, is a sign that bees are being weakened by other stressors – and he and other researchers around the country are beginning to connect the dots. “It’s clear,” he said, “the bees are dying for a bunch of different reasons.”

Several studies, for example, have linked exposures to certain pesticides or fungicides – either through the ingestion of treated pollen or through direct contact during the planting

Opposite page: A bee gathers nectar from a flower. Bees are one of nature’s many pollinators for flowers and crops and are crucial in the production of fruits and vegetables. Honey bees are responsible for pollinating approximately $15 billion worth of crops in the United States each year. Above: Entomologist Jeff Pettis, Ph.D., formerly of the USDA Agricultural Research Service (ARS), examines a bee colony at Paramount Farms in McFarland, California, on Feb. 25, 2014. The USDA ARS and Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) are working on ways to mitigate the decline of the honey bee population by coordinating pollination research, conservation, and education among USDA agencies and their partners.

of treated seeds – and greater susceptibility to pathogens on the part of bees. The threat of exposure is often multiplied, said vanEngelsdorp, when chemicals are used in combination: “Sometimes one plus one is equal to four,” he said. “So we have to understand these complexities and figure out ways to make sure we guard against seeing them in the field.” He pointed to

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honey bees

USDA ARS photos

Above: A close-up photograph of a parasitic Varroa destructor mite. Right: Entomologist Jeff Pettis (right) and retired USDA ARS cytologist Bill Wergin examine a highly magnified photo of a honey bee infested with varroa.

the classic example of the insect growth regulators traditionally bundled in with the fungicides used in almond orchards.

The fungicide has been linked to lower resistance to parasitic infections in adult bees – and while the growth inhibitor posed no threat to adults, it prevented young bees from molting after being carried back to the hive, and killed off entire colonies.

One of the most important factors in weakening bees, vanEngelsdorp said, has been poor nutrition, due largely to a lack of forage. High corn and soybean prices have compelled many farmers to break out marginal lands that had been held as conservation easements. “In years past, farmers were getting paid to keep land there to prevent erosion and provide habitat for wildlife,” he said. “A lot of that bee forage got plowed under, and there’s a lot less food out there for bees, especially these large migratory operations.”

In addition to the Bee Informed Partnership, several organizations have been established to boost the health of honey bees. The Honey Bee Health Coalition, which includes more than 30 public and private partners, released a “Bee Healthy Roadmap” in October 2014 aimed at improving hive management, nutrition, and pest management among colonies and the areas where they are used as pollinators. Another nonprofit, Project Apis m., funnels research money into projects designed to provide growers with healthier bees.

While our agricultural economy rests largely on managed honey bee colonies, these colonies are not suffering in a vacuum: Some of the pathogens implicated in declining honey bee numbers are also affecting native pollinators. Population declines have been observed for many native pollinating species, such as bumble bees and Monarch butterflies, whose annual Mexico-to-Canada migration reached an all-time low in the winter of 2013-2014 (33 million butterflies, compared to 550 million in 2004).

One of the primary culprits in the decline of Monarch butterflies has been the lack of the only plant on which it will lay its

eggs, and one of its caterpillars’ primary food sources: milkweed, which is often targeted by commercial herbicides. Just as with honey bees, said vanEngelsdorp, very little is understood about how the use of agricultural chemicals – particularly the class known as neonicotinoids, which are sometimes applied to seed coats before planting – affects native pollinators. “There could very well be very dramatic and negative effects of these neonics on native bees and butterflies and other insects,” he said. “It gets into the groundwater, so it could be causing damage elsewhere.”

The safer use of pesticides, then, is inseparable from the issue of nutrition and forage: Farming marginal lands, along with the indiscriminate use of herbicides and pesticides, is destroying pasture land that provided habitat and forage for a variety of pollinators – though many farmers, particularly in the Upper Midwest, have been returning good bee pasture to their fields. Other growers have imperiled their own livelihoods by losing track of the fact that commercial honey bees are not discrete pieces of agricultural machinery, but rather – though

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One of the challenges bee populations face is a lack of forage.

Here, participants in a pollinator workshop spread wildflower seeds by hand to establish beneficial pollinator habitat at Dirt Works Incubator Farm on John’s Island, in Charleston, South Carolina.

The USDA’s NRCS in South Carolina and the Xerces Society, with the support of a Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education grant, are promoting the benefits of pollinators through handson workshops targeted to employees of NRCS, soil and water conservation districts, cooperative extension agents, and others involved in agricultural production.

often itinerant visitors – living creatures struggling, like all other creatures, for survival in a delicate ecosystem.

But it’s not the honey bee that’s in trouble, said vanEngelsdorp: It’s us. “We can’t keep losing pollinators like this,” he said. “The bees won’t grow extinct – it’s the beekeeper that will grow extinct. And we can’t afford that, unless we don’t want to produce apples in this country, or almonds or fruits and nuts and vegetables.”

USDA photo by Nancy Adamson

A Post-Industrial Approach to Pollination Almost certainly, the honey bee will continue to anchor U.S. crop pollination in the years to come. In several agricultural regions, researchers are focusing on ways to reduce their workload, and in turn the considerable risk inherent in our reliance on them to pollinate a third of the nation’s food supply, by making farms look and behave more like natural environments.

Before honey bees were brought to California in 1853, farmers relied on several wild bee species – including the Western honey bee, Bombus occidentalis – for crop pollination. B. occidentalis has nearly disappeared from California, where thousands of monocultural acres now scroll across the Central Valley and obliterate native habitat. But the state is still home to about 1,600 of the nation’s roughly 4,000 wild bee species, and researchers have begun to focus on their potential as agricultural pollinators.

Neal Williams, an evolutionary ecologist at the University of California-Davis, began his career more than a decade ago as a graduate student, contributing to the studies of conservation biologist Claire Kremen, who has since earned a MacArthur Foundation Fellowship and now runs a laboratory at UC-Berkeley.

Kremen’s early studies of Central Valley specialty crop growers – many of whom, in smaller-scale operations, relied solely on native bees for pollination – led her team to conclude

farmers could hedge risk by creating habitat to attract wild pollinating species. These natives could supplement, if not replace, the pollination performed by domesticated honey bees.

In the years since, Williams and his colleagues at Davis, sometimes in partnership with Kremen’s lab, have planted test plots aimed at refining the information farmers might need to attract native pollinators: which combinations of flowering plants and native bee species are optimal for use with certain kinds of crops, and where these flowering plants can be placed to maximize their contribution.

Many native species, Williams pointed out, have already been harnessed for agricultural pollination: Bumble bees, for example, have been used for pollinating greenhouse tomato crops and field berry crops. “They’re more efficient pollinators of certain types of flowers,” Williams said. “And blueberries and tomatoes are the types of flowers for which they do much better, per bee, than the honey bee does, and so much better that a colony of bumble bees – which is much, much smaller than the number of workers in a honey bee hive – can nonetheless do a better job.”

In surrounding Yolo County, Williams’ laboratory has put down several plantings, including linear strips of flowering plants bordering plots of summer crops such as melon, squash, and sunflowers. The strips are aimed at increasing forage and habitat for native bees.

It’s one thing to pollinate a small plot of organic watermelons – but a nut orchard of several thousand acres is another task altogether. Williams, however, has enlisted the help of many large-scale Central Valley growers in his investigations, including Paramount Farms, the largest almond grower in the world. Together, these partners are exploring whether the use of native pollinators can be scaled up and have an impact on industrial agriculture.

“They [Paramount Farms] have been a good partner for us,” Williams said, “because they have staff who are able to help us with the larger-scale plantings. Just last week, in fact, we planted about three acres of wildflower habitat adjacent to several of their almond orchard blocks. Their orchards are much bigger than that, of course – but three acres is getting to be a sizeable piece of land.”

As a rule of thumb, one acre of almonds requires two honey bee hives for pollination. Paramount Farms grows almonds and

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honey bees

pistachios on a total of 125,000 acres in the Central Valley, and Williams acknowledges that limiting plantings to the periphery of some of these huge orchards won’t do much to introduce wild bees to the interior.

But moving native forage and habitat into agricultural plantings is a complicated proposition, not only because forage plantings will necessarily displace valuable crops, but also because the use of pesticides could easily wipe out native pollinators. “Most of the growers we work with, as good stewards, definitely don’t want that to happen,” said Williams. With several growers, he’s discussed the idea of planting a strip of wildflowers down the middle of a field – an approach that would be most potentially useful to organic growers.

“Some of our organic growers are gigantic,” he said. “They’ll grow 20 or 30 acres of watermelon. So if we can get them to divide that field in half, and take one strip out, they may gain more in production than they lose by taking the watermelon out. That’s something we’re looking into, both empirically and with spatial models of pollination.”

To make such an approach work with large conventional growers, Williams acknowledges, is a challenge, compounded by the diverse microclimates of California’s growing regions. There will be no one-size-fits-all solution, he said: “We’re trying to figure out best management strategies that can work in different situations. The honey bee

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In January of last year, Williams, Kremen, and colleagues Alexandra-Maria Klein and Claire Brittain co-authored a report of research findings compiled at several California almond orchards from 2008 to 2010. When modest numbers of wild bee species such as blue orchard bees, sweat bees, carpenter bees, and bumble bees were introduced to blooming almond orchards and foraged along with domestic honey bees, they found the honey bees worked faster and more efficiently than in orchards where there were no native bee competitors. The wild bees, for reasons researchers are continuing to investigate, have made honey bees into better pollinators.

The task of repairing the damage done to the nation’s honey bee colonies is, like the numerous conditions that contribute to bee mortality, complex and multifaceted. As Williams pointed out, a better understanding of honey bee genetics and physiology, of their responses to pesticides, and of the food supplements they need to thrive will be critical to ensuring the pollination of a third of the nation’s agricultural crops. “But it’s also critical,” he said, “to have appropriate amounts of forage within landscapes we’ve simplified dramatically through agriculture. I think the future of crop pollination depends, to a significant degree, on the recognition that bees are organisms that live within a landscape.”

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biopreferred

The USDA’s BioPreferred Program A boost for biobased products

By David A. Brown

t’s the golf course groundskeeper laboring for pristine turf; the carpenter seeking formaldehyde -free adhesives; the banquet manager looking for disposable cutlery that’s biode gradable – each an example of consumers with options.

Some of those options are environmentally friendly and some are not. Resolutely in favor of the former, the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) has launched an aggressive initiative aimed at encouraging sustainable purchasing decisions.

Established in the 2002 Farm Bill and reaffirmed in subsequent bills, the USDA BioPreferred® program bolsters the White House initiative to promote the bioeconomy and its benefits of innovation, growth, and job creation. Essentially, the program seeks to promote biobased products in the federal marketplace, as well as the general marketplace, so long as they’re reasonably available, reasonably priced, and compliant with performance standards.

“Today, small businesses and global companies alike have harnessed the power of America’s farms and forests to create new and innovative biobased products that are used all around the world,” Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack said in a USDA communication. “The expanding bioeconomy means more than just additional consumer choices, it also means new jobs.”

Vilsack defines biobased products as commercial or industrial products (other than food or feed) composed wholly or in significant part of biological products including renewable agricultural materials (plant, animal, and marine materials) or forestry materials.

Essential to this designation is language from the 2014 Farm Bill, which amended Section 9002 of the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002 to require the BioPreferred program to “promote biobased products, including forest products, that apply an innovative approach to growing, harvesting, sourcing, procuring, processing, manufacturing, or application of biobased products regardless of the date of entry into the marketplace.”

By this mandate, products that were previously categorized as mature market products (those with a significant market

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share prior to 1972) and were previously ineligible for the BioPreferred program were included in the program, provided manufacturers apply an “innovative approach” in the life cycle of their product.

Indeed, products made from sustainable materials are finding their way into practically every aspect of modern life, from construction to cleaning, to gardening, and even automobile production (see “Biobased Products Driving Comfort” sidebar).

“Many of the products that come into the marketplace are substitutes in one form or another for products that would otherwise be made from fossil fuels,” said Jeff Goodman, chief of the USDA Environmental Management Division. “So to the extent that we are switching to renewable sources of raw materials, we have a number of benefits. [For example]

Photo courtesy Kansas State Athletics

A COMMON THREAD

biopreferred

The turf blanketing the Kansas State Wildcats’ outdoor stadium employs a soy-based backing that qualifies for the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) BioPreferred program and is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum-based products.

“The whole objective is to increase markets for biobased products made from agricultural feedstock and in so doing, drive demand for those crops,” Goodman said.

To this end, the USDA employs multiple strategies for accomplishing these objectives.

The Federal Marketplace The BioPreferred program requires all federal agencies, along with federal contractors, to prioritize biobased products within categories identified by the USDA in their purchasing plans. (Agencies must include and report on biobased acquisition as part of their Strategic Sustainability Performance Plans.) This represents billions of dollars in annual purchase agreements, so producers of biobased goods that are deemed cost competitive and meet performance standards basically have a deep well of buyers awaiting their wares.

we burn less fossil fuel and we can reduce the pressure on imports of fossil fuels.

“In general, these products made from crops have a better environmental profile than their petroleum-based counterparts.”

Although the BioPreferred program carries with it a strong emphasis on encouraging the kind of innovation and market development that promises greater employment and prosperity for rural America, Goodman said the opportunity applies broadly.

“That’s the case for some of our direct stakeholders,” he added. “There are a lot of very small companies that are making biobased products and there are some Fortune 100 companies involved as well. I’m expecting lots of things in between.”

PROMOTING THE PROGRAM Suffice it to say that the BioPreferred program is so much more than a good idea. For the USDA, it is the way of the future and the way to the future.

The Stamp of Approval Product marketing is ultimately a producer’s responsibility, but the USDA offers a huge opportunity for market positioning through BioPreferred’s Voluntary Labeling Initiative.

Products that are certified through the agency are allowed to display the USDA Certified Biobased Product label on their packaging.

Comprising a sun, sea, and soil motif, the label identifies products made from renewable resources composed wholly or significantly of biological ingredients including renewable plant, animal, marine, and forestry materials. The advantage here is that consumers can instantly identify biobased products that have been tested and verified by a third party for their biobased content.

On the List It’s prestigious and practical; items that qualify for Mandatory Federal Purchasing and/or those that are USDA Certified Biobased Products are eligible to appear in the USDA’s BioPreferred Catalog. While not an endorsement, inclusion certainly does set products apart as meeting strict requirements for verified biobased content standards and sustainable practices.

Richly diverse is the list of items populating the BioPreferred Catalog. Here’s a sampling: • Dynaweed: Developed at Iowa State University, this alternative to chemical herbicides offers pre-emergent control of crabgrass and other persistent, annual grassy and broadleaf weeds. Derived from a byproduct of corn syrup production, this granular “weed and feed” product stops

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biopreferred

ON THE JOB

Photo courtesy of GEMTEK Products

Indeed, products made from sustainable materials are finding their way into practically every aspect of modern life, from construction to cleaning, to gardening, and even automobile production.

weeds before they take root. The corn gluten meal ingredients in Dynaweed are so safe that they are commonly used in pet foods.

• Earth Juice Grow 2-1-1: Made by Peaceful Valley Farm & Garden Supply, this all-purpose fertilizer stimulates vigorous vegetative growth in hydroponics, rockwool, soil, and soilless mixes. Used for vegetables, ornamentals, lawns, trees, and shrubs, the product is derived from bat guano, kelp, sulfate of potash, feather meal, oat bran, blood meal, and steamed bone meal.

• Plybam Bamboo Plywood: Green Depot’s construction product is made from 100 percent bamboo, a rapidly renewable resource. Bamboo is naturally stronger than wood, so it’s perfect for use in countertops, shelving, cabinetry, and cutting boards in residential and commercial applications. Bamboo has a unique look and feel, but it can be cut, sanded, stained, and routed just like standard plywood. Plybam is laminated into a three-ply board using low-emitting adhesives.

• NavalKleen SCF: Produced by EnviroLogic Biobased Technologies, Inc., NavalKleen Small Craft Formula™ is a concentrated liquid bilge cleaner designed for recreational boat owners to maintain clean, odor-free, and environmentally safe bilges. The product uses an innovative bio-remedial action of hydrocarbon-degrading microbes to address a persistent boating problem. NavalKleen SCF cleans, deodorizes, and neutralizes harmful, polluting hydrocarbons and converts all these contaminants into carbon dioxide and water.

• AllerSafe Hand Dishwashing Soap and SC-1000 Aqueous Cleaner Concentrate: GEMTEK Products, LLC produces a variety of cleaners, solvents, lubricants, and specialty chemical products that are non-toxic, environmentally safe, and biobased and can be used in industrial, commercial, and at-home settings.

The Hand Dishwashing Soap, part of Gemtek’s AllerSafe product line, is a foaming liquid with improved grease-fighting performance without fragrances, caustics, toxic substances, phenols, terpenes, glycol esters, or traditional reagents. The SC-1000 Aqueous Cleaner Concentrate, part of the SAFE CARE product line geared toward industrial and commercial applications, is a biodegradable product that effectively removes greases and oils from surfaces.

Examples of biobased products at work include: • When visitors enjoy tidy facilities at Yellowstone National Park, it’s because the sanitation staff uses biobased lubricants and cleaning products throughout the park’s 2.2 million acres.

• Take an elevator ride at the Statue of Liberty, and you can thank biobased hydraulic oils for the smooth trip.

• At the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, researchers are finding new ways to include wood products in materials used for body armor, auto parts, and new buildings. Often, these wood products demonstrate superior strength and performance over traditional materials.

Soybeans have shown tremendous diversity as a feedstock for numerous biobased products and the U.S. military has adopted several. Each example reflects a federal preference that values equal doses of performance and sustainability. In a case study by the United Soybean Board (USB), Staff Sgt. Daniel Moore, 628th Logistics Readiness Squadron, Joint Base Charleston, South Carolina, addressed this very point.

“Going green is not ‘going soft,’ because these products really work, provide more choices, and are safer to use,” Moore said.

The USB offers other recent examples of soybean products serving in military scenarios: • At the Pentagon’s Metro Entrance Facility, shoes of all colors and sizes stride across EcoPath™ mats made from recycled, recovered, and sustainable materials. The backing system comprises recycled bottles, naturally renewable soybean-based polyols, natural rubber, and refined materials recovered from coal-burning electrical power plants.

• At Fort Belvoir Army Base in Fairfax County, Virginia, the base’s green building initiative earned the Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) Platinum certification for new construction. Central to the plan was the use of spray foam insulation with soy content.

GEMTEK’s AllerSafe line of products appears in the BioPreferred Catalog.

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biopreferred

Photos courtesy of GEMTEK Products

This series of photos shows GEMTEK Products’ SC-1000 Aqueous Cleaner Concentrate at work, separating crude oil from water so that the oil can be captured and removed. The product’s applications include oil spill recovery and soil/groundwater remediation, among other cleaning uses.

• The maintenance shop at the TankAutomotive and Armaments Command (TACOM) Transportation Support in Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, once used clay kitty litter to help clean up oil and other liquid spills, but no more. Gone is that wasteful, single-use option. In its place is Nature’s Broom, an environmentally friendly cleaner containing soy oil and other biobased materials.

• Naval Station Norfolk is one of several dozen U.S. military facilities that have switched to or installed new equipment that comes with the biobased transformer coolant Envirotemp® FR3®.

Made from soybean oil, this non-toxic product is highly favorable because it does not contain petroleum hydrocarbons, silicones, or halogens and therefore biodegrades quickly in the event of a leak or spill.

To keep the fires of innovation stoked, USDA Rural Development helps spur biobased product expansion with various economic tools such as loan guarantees. The USDA has also utilized contests to encourage and recognize outstanding innovation in the use of sustainable construction practices.

Perhaps the greatest motivation, though, will come from an ever-broadening horizon for the advancement, production, and sale of products that fill daily needs without depleting natural resources.

BIOBASED PRODUCTS DRIVING COMFORT Ford owners may not intuitively think of soybean fields when they buckle the seatbelt, but they can certainly thank those green fields for the comfortable ride. That’s right; it’s “move over” for the old formula for petroleum-based seat foam. Today’s Fords use a mixture partially composed of soy-based foam.

Through its research partnership with parts manufacturer Lear Corporation, Ford became the first major automaker to use this biobased material in 2008 with soy-based foam-padded Mustang seats. Since then, the company has extended this technology across its product lineup. And, in 2010, Ford began using soy foam blends in headliners, with head restraints made with soy-based material soon to follow.

“When Ford first started doing this, the biobased foam accounted for about 5 percent [of the seat padding], but through research and development, they have increased that to about 30 percent,” said Jeff Goodman, chief of the USDA Environmental Management Division. “Over time they have increased demand for soybeans pretty dramatically.”

According to a description on the company’s website, all Ford North American-built vehicles use biobased foam in seat cushions and backs.

The statement went on to say that Ford’s use of biobased foam has helped it reduce its petroleum oil usage by more than 3 million pounds annually, while carbon dioxide emissions have dropped by more than 15 million pounds.

Ford maintains its “Reduce, reuse, and recycle” commitment to the company’s global sustainability strategy to reduce its environmental footprint while accelerating the development of advanced, fuel-efficient vehicle technologies around the world.

The soy-based foam technology – now licensed to other entities such as the John Deere Corporation – has earned Ford and Lear several awards, including the Society of Plastic Engineers’ Innovation Award and R&D Magazine’s annual R&D 100 Award.

Ford’s ongoing research into renewable sources of foam has included palm, rapeseed, and sunflower oils.

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organic BERRY farming

Au Naturel The decision to pursue a healthier lifestyle often begins with organic eating, and farmers growing organic berries are only too happy to oblige, nurturing their plants with wholesome goodness – and nothing else.

By Tara N. Wilfong

n almost any given day, a philosophical debate is waged in the produce sections of American grocery stores. Shoppers, plagued by indecision, internally ponder one of life’s most hotly debated subjects: to buy produce that was grown organically versus conventional, non-organic produce. Proponents from both sides vehemently preach their gospel, leaving consumers to consider the pros and cons of pesticide-free produce and determine the financial and health-related ramifications for their own families.

The organic debate is a war that has been waged for decades. Ever since the first wave of U.S. farmers began to extol the benefits of sustainable, pesticide-free practices, consumers have quickly followed their lead, becoming advocates for eating organic and choosing this alternative to nourish their families. Others debate the wide gulf between price and health and wonder whether the benefits are worth the investment.

To help consumers make a more informed decision, the Environmental Working Group (EWG), a food safety watchdog for the American people, analyzes the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) annual data on pesticide residues found on produce, ranks food items in descending order according to the amount of residue they have, and publishes a yearly list of the highest offenders. This “Dirty Dozen,” as it’s now commonly known, often contains the names of some familiar fruits and vegetables that are regularly consumed. Careful to balance the

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bad with the good, EWG also publishes “The Clean 15,” a list of the top 15 fruits and vegetables the USDA tested and found to have the least amount of pesticides.

In 2014, the pesticide data from 51 popular produce items, both domestic and imported, were analyzed. In addition to apples, grapes, peaches, and nectarines, two fruits that find themselves on EWG’s Dirty Dozen list nearly every year are strawberries and raspberries. In fact, last year a single sample of strawberries confirmed the presence of 13 different pesticides, a result that helped rank strawberries No. 2 on the Dirty Dozen list. To be clear, the USDA reminds

zenpix

Above: A field of organic strawberries. Because berries have a propensity to absorb and retain pesticides, many consumers opt to purchase organically grown berries that are not treated with herbicides or pesticides. Opposite page: The Environmental Working Group puts together annual lists of the foods that, according to U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) data, contain the most pesticide residue (“The Dirty Dozen”) and the least (“The Clean Fifteen”).

organic BERRY farming

EWG’s 2014

Clean Fifteen Asparagus

Onions

Avocados

Papayas

Cabbage

Pineapples

Cantaloupe

Sweet Corn

Cauliflower

Sweet Peas (Frozen)

Eggplant Grapefruit Kiwi

Sweet Potatoes

Mangoes

consumers that the government sets allowable limits for pesticide residues that it deems safe. Any produce sold at grocery stores and markets should meet these national standards for food safety.

One possible reason for the proliferation of pesticides on these tiny morsels is the fruit’s makeup itself. Like raspberries, which fared much better than their juicy counterparts and ranked No. 27 on the list, strawberries are delicate and have a soft skin, says Rob Meadows, who, along with Patricia Rydle, is a co-owner of Sunshine Valley Berry Farm in Rochester, Vermont. Although Meadows does not grow strawberries on his tiny, organic farm, which is nestled in Vermont’s Green Mountains on scenic Route 100, he said, “these fruits, like raspberries, are soft and multi-surfaced, allowing them to have a high retention of sprays. The spray adheres to the surface of the fruit and then is quickly absorbed. In addition to the pesticides that are sprayed directly on the fruit, the berries take up herbicides from the soil as well.”

With the propensity to absorb and retain pesticides – not to mention the regularity on which they appear on EWG’s Dirty Dozen list – raspberries and strawberries are among the fruits consumers should consider buying organic. The

EWG’s 2014

Dirty Dozen Apples Celery Cherry Tomatoes Cucumbers Grapes Nectarines (Imported) Peaches Potatoes Snap Peas (Imported) Spinach Strawberries Sweet Bell Peppers principles of organic farming are simple: Crops are grown pesticide- and herbicide-free, preventing these chemicals from contaminating the soil as well as the plants. To be sure, there are organic insecticides the USDA deems acceptable – and many organic farmers do use them – however, most growers say they are not as prevalent as pesticides and herbicides and they tend to be quite expensive for a less-effective result in terms of insect destruction.

While the method sounds simple enough, the implementation of organic standards is much more convoluted, with regulations and stipulations – not to mention a bit of farming savvy – factoring into every step of the process.

Large organic operators who grow an array of vegetables and fruit generally rely on the traditional methods of crop rotation and nurturing the surrounding ecological balance to naturally promote the health of their crops. Smaller operations do not rotate crops, focusing instead on soil and plant health through sustainable practices.

Cognizant of potentially harmful contaminants, all organic farmers follow strict guidelines that often subject them to exhaustive paperwork and pricier operational costs. “Growing organic strawberries, in particular, can be quite challenging

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Pictured from left, Lynnea Schurkamp, Kristin Thornblad, and Sam Jones-Ellard of the USDA Agricultural Marketing Service’s National Organic Program review publications at the USDA National Organic Program booth at the Natural Products Expo East Conference in Baltimore, Maryland, Sept. 26, 2013. Though its organic certification process can be daunting, the USDA has helped farmers and businesses create an industry that today encompasses more than 17,000 organic businesses in the United States alone, and has grown to $35 billion annually in U.S. retail sales.

and expensive to manage,” said Amber Kosinsky, director of marketing for Wish Farms in Plant City, Florida, one of the largest growers and shippers of strawberries in the country, with growing operations in both Florida and California. “With conventional growing, if you see an issue, you can typically address it right away by treating the plant, but with organic growing, you must stay one step ahead at all times. If you see that your organic crop is thirsty, then it’s already too late to reverse the damage.”

For many farmers, particularly those with small operations, pursuing organic certification through the USDA and complying with specific regulations in order to sell, label, and represent their products as organic is a tricky endeavor.

To begin, there is a three-year moratorium on the use of prohibited substances, particularly herbicides and pesticides. Once this transitional period has passed, farmers can apply to a USDA-accredited certifying agent with a complete description of their farming operation, including a history of substances used on the soil and plants, as well as a business plan detailing what will be grown and how the science of planting, growing, and harvesting will be approached. Once national certification is approved, farmers are required to be recertified on an annual basis. Recertification requires

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compliance with all USDA organic regulations and on-site inspections as well as detailed updates on the farm’s operations for the year.

“The certification process can be tremendously onerous,” Meadows explained. “For the small guys, like us, following organic principles is a labor of love for the earth, but it’s costing us in other ways to promote this healthy lifestyle. To have the privilege of displaying the certified organic sticker on your produce, you have to spend more money, invest more time, and be subjected to intrusive questioning about every facet of your farm. The saddest part about this scenario is that the farmer who knowingly poisons his fruit with herbicides and pesticides doesn’t have to do anything, while the organic farmer who is promoting good practices is penalized. So if you think about the ‘real’ cost of producing clean, healthy, organic food, you’ll agree that the price tags on the produce at the grocery store are not really representative of the bigger picture.”

The USDA’s national certification process can be daunting, so many small growers have opted for private, organic certification through nonprofits like the Certified Naturally Grown program, which requires less paperwork but still demands acquiescence to internationally accepted sustainable and organic standards. Meadows, for example, is certified locally

by Vermont Organic Farmers, whose regulations were built on the USDA’s standards, but with additions posed by the members of the local farming community.

In addition to the challenges of pursuing organic certification, many organic berry farms must also contend with the threat of pests, and the real challenge of controlling them without conventional sprays. One particular species that is quite prevalent and wreaking havoc on berries is the spotted wing drosophila (SWD), a tiny fruit fly that originated in Japan and made its first known appearance in California in 2008.

Today, the SWD can be found plaguing berry farms throughout

USDA photo by Bob Nichols

organic BERRY farming

organic BERRY farming

Hannah Burrack, North Carolina State University, Bugwood.org

For the small guys, like us, following organic principles is a labor of love for the earth, but it’s costing us in other ways to promote this healthy lifestyle. To have the privilege of displaying the certified organic sticker on your produce, you have to spend more money, invest more time, and be subjected to intrusive questioning about every facet of your farm.

North America, resulting in severe crop losses for these commercial growers.

Organic berry farmers, who cannot use sprays and poisons on their crops, are forced to find alternative ways to deal with these virulent pests. Drawn to ripening berries and fruit of a number of different varieties, including strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, blackberries, cherries, and nectarines, to name a few, the female SWD pierces the tender fruit and lays her eggs inside.

As the eggs hatch and the larvae begin to grow, they burrow and feed from inside the fruit. Infected fruit begins to discolor and decay just a few days after the eggs are laid.

Unfortunately, once the SWD discovers a crop on the verge of ripening, a strong gust of wind is all it takes to disperse it throughout the entire berry farm. Once present, its rapid breeding cycle allows the pests to decimate ripe berries in a short amount of time, leaving small, white larvae in the fruit.

Although there are a few organic insecticides on the market that can help control the fruit fly, there are limitations to their effectiveness. Entrust, a common and effective insecticide, which Meadows uses to control the SWD population on his 11-acre farm, can be used only for a limited number of applications per season to ensure the flies don’t build resistance to the spray. For many organic farmers, the number of applications aside, use of the spray is also limited by their budget, as Entrust is expensive and often not cost-effective for smaller operations.

For Heidi Eleftheriou, owner of Heidi’s Raspberry Farm in Corrales, New Mexico, organic insecticides aren’t a viable option for her crop simply because she chooses to farm without the use of artificial aids. Committed to preserving the land for future generations, she prefers a much more hands-on and natural approach to berry farming, including providing hives for honey bees to pollinate her raspberry blossoms and relying on a flock of native Rio Grande turkeys among her hedgerows to control the insect population. “My operation is small, but I’ve never applied any type of pesticides through foliar spraying or drip and I haven’t had pests until this past year,” she explained.

An adult spotted wing drosophila on a raspberry. Organic berry farmers must contend with the threat of such pests without the use of conventional sprays.

“An entomologist from New Mexico State University’s [NMSU] agriculture department warned me about the SWD, so we put bait traps with apple cider vinegar in my fields to count the population.”

The bait traps were effective and did give a good amount of information about the SWD population that descended on Eleftheriou’s raspberries, allowing her and researchers from NMSU to learn about the fly’s life and breeding cycles and determine the most effective way to control the population.

Since the pests are most virulent the closer the fruit is to harvest, Eleftheriou learned to be steadfast in her picking schedule, even when colder conditions made the task unpleasant. “I watched the fruit flies and I studied their behavior,” she said.

“I learned that I had to work around their life cycle, and that meant that I couldn’t offer them a lot of red fruit, which is the ideal breeding ground for their eggs.”

Controlling unwanted and potentially hazardous pests certainly is a daily chore for organic farmers. But perhaps just as challenging is the art of diversification within this agricultural science that growers must employ to strike a balance between the financial – and physical – toll of sustainable practices. To get the most out of their season, which is often defined by extreme temperatures, farmers must plant a number of varieties that can be harvested throughout the year. Raspberries, for example, have summer and fall varieties, both of which have berries that ripen during the early, mid and late-season, while different varieties of strawberries typically bear fruit in the spring, summer, and fall.

In California, however, where the climate is more temperate, strawberries have a 12-month growing season, making the state the top producer of strawberries in the country. According to the California Strawberry Commission, California’s crop in

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organic BERRY farming

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PICKLES Florida Michigan

Photos courtesy of Wish Farms

Florida’s relatively mild winters provide ideal growing conditions for strawberries, including ones grown organically. Wish Farms is the largest organic strawberry grower in Florida.

2013 accounted for 88 percent of the nation’s total fresh and frozen strawberries. On the other side of the country, Plant City, Florida, is widely known as the Winter Strawberry Capital of the World, and cultivates more than 11,000 acres of strawberries each year, according to the Florida Strawberry Growers Association. “The actual process of growing organic strawberries is very difficult,” Kosinsky said. “But a typical Florida winter climate perfectly mirrors ideal growing conditions, with highs in the 70s and lows in the 50s. This, coupled with the fact that the majority of strawberry acreage in Florida is located in

A typical Florida winter climate perfectly mirrors ideal growing conditions, with highs in the 70s and lows in the 50s. This, coupled with the fact that the majority of strawberry acreage in Florida is located in the Plant City area in Hillsborough County, where the annual Florida Strawberry Festival is held, has helped solidify our recognition as the Winter Strawberry Capital of the World.

the Plant City area in Hillsborough County, where the annual Florida Strawberry Festival is held, has helped solidify our recognition as the Winter Strawberry Capital of the World. In fact, since 2003, Wish Farms has continued to be the largest organic grower in Florida, representing more than 90 percent of the winter domestic supply of strawberries.”

With millions of pounds of organic berries picked each season, the marketing strategies for consumer and commercial sales are as diverse as the individual farms themselves.

Larger operations like Wish Farms have national and international contracts with major retailers like Whole Foods and The Fresh Market. Others strike deals with local restaurants and grocery stores, or sell their fresh produce at farmers’ markets and farm stores.

A popular practice among smaller operations is the “youpick” policy, where customers pick all the berries they want for a set per-quart price. Most who participate in the “you pick” concept consider it a special event, bringing the family for an afternoon of fun on the farm and leaving with fresh, healthy produce, as well as the experience of being one with nature. For the farmer, who often has an abundance of ripe berries on the vine and not enough laborers to pick them at their peak, this practice ensures a timely harvest and is a smart economic decision.

Last season, 70 percent of Sunshine Valley Berry Farm’s crop was snapped up by visitors who adopted the “you pick” philosophy. In seasons past, that number has been as high as 80 percent, Meadows says, and that’s his goal for next season. Heidi’s Berry Farm also runs on a “you pick” policy, and both farms either sell their remaining berries at local farmers’ markets or make homemade jams to sell in farm stores. “Our biggest problem has never been whether we can sell all of the berries we grow,” Meadows said. “No, what we worry about most is growing enough to meet the demand of all the people in our community.”

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wheat

Wheat is harvested in Idaho. Wheat’s global importance as a food crop cannot be denied – trade in wheat exceeds that of all other crops combined.

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wheat

Great Grain

A look at the continuing evolution of wheat

By J.R. Wilson ome 12,000 years ago, nomadic hunter-gatherers in the Fertile Crescent – modern-day Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, western Syria, southeast Turkey, Kuwait, Iraq, and western Iran – took what is considered one of the most important steps in the evolution of human culture: They began harvesting, then replanting, naturally growing wild grasses, including the predecessor to wheat.

This reliable source of food, which also featured long-term storage capability, enabled the development of villages, then towns, cities, nations, and the growth of the human population from an estimated 1 million to more than 7 billion in only 11 millennia. Wheat has grown with and become the single most important food grain of that evolution, with modern world trade in wheat exceeding that of all other crops combined.

The first successfully cultivated wheats were einkorn, a diploid (paired chromosome) species, and emmer, a natural hybrid of two diploid wild grasses. While prehistoric farmers knew nothing of genetics, they nonetheless used crossbreeding – both accidental and deliberate – largely with wild grasses, and selection of the best grains to seed future fields. That led to stronger, higher yield and more edible new varieties of wheat – and the eventual demise of einkorn and emmer by the Bronze Age. The new wheats were polyploid (more than two paired sets of chromosomes), resulting largely from cultivation processes and experimentation by growers. Tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes in each cell) varieties of domesticated wheat became predominant as human cultivation intensified and eventually were crossed (apparently by accident) with a wild diploid species, creating hexaploids (six sets of chromosomes).

Today, durum (hard) wheat is tetraploid, while the more common bread wheats are hexaploid. Bread wheat has no natural wild hexaploid progenitor, but is a farming-associated natural hybrid that has become the world’s leading crop.

Wheat accounts for more than 20 percent of total human food calories and is the staple food for about 40 percent of the world’s population, primarily in Europe, North America, and western and northern Asia. About 95 percent is bread wheat, with the remainder being durum, used in pasta and semolina products.

USDA ARS photo

S

Modern wheat falls into six classifications: 1. hard red winter 2. hard red spring 3. soft red winter 4. durum (hard) 5. hard white 6. soft white The higher gluten content of hard wheats makes them best for making bread, rolls, and all-purpose flour, while soft wheats are used for flat bread, cakes, pastries, crackers, muffins, and biscuits. Wheat is easily digested by nearly 99 percent of the human population, is highly nutritious, is responsible for nearly 700 million tons of food produced each year, and can be grown in environments from near arctic regions to the equator, sea level to 13,000 feet.

Largely because of its dominant place in the human diet, wheat also has been the subject of numerous modifications, from the first human farmers who selected the best of the predecessor grains to cultivate, to “semi-dwarf wheat,” a disease-resistant, fertilizer-amenable strain with a shorter, thicker stock that could bear the increased weight of the grain.

The resulting increase in reliable yield won developer Norman Borlaug the 1970 Nobel Peace Prize for the subsequent drop in world hunger and starvation.

By 1997, an estimated 81 percent of the world’s 530 million planted acres of wheat were growing semi-dwarf wheats. A U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) study the following year showed U.S. wheat yields averaging 41.7 bushels per acre; that peaked at 47.1 in 2014.

But Borlaug’s achievement was only one of many changes in wheat types and processing methods across the millennia, especially in the past century. Contrary to some claims, however, all result from cross-breeding different strains of wheat and related plants, not genetic engineering to introduce genes from unrelated species. In fact, many recent experiments and advances have involved controlled cross-breeding of modern wheat strains with some of the ancient wild grasses – or their existing equivalents – responsible for the evolution of early wheat in the first place.

In wheat research and development, a better understanding of the plant’s genetic structure allows scientists to identify and isolate those naturally occurring genes that have an impact on every aspect of the resulting crop’s viability, from grain size to pest and environmental resistance to yield – both per stalk and per acre – to ease of processing.

For example, Bikram S. Gill, Ph.D., director of the Wheat Genetics Resource Center (WGRC), created in 1979, and his team at Kansas State University have mapped the wheat genome and improved wheat germplasm to enable the creation of new varieties of wheat with characteristics designed for specific needs, such as enhanced insect and disease resistance.

The only major food plant not previously sequenced, the wheat genome is nearly three times the size of the human genome.

Gill said the blueprint allowed researchers to study sequenced segments of the common wheat genome to

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wheat

Kansas State University Division of Communications and Marketing, David Mayes

Bikram Gill, Ph.D., is the director of the Wheat Genetics Resource Center at Kansas State University. He and his team have mapped the wheat genome and subsequently were able to identify a gene that prevents preharvest sprouting, a problem that can cause crop losses estimated at $1 billion annually.

find a naturally occurring gene, called PHS, that prevents preharvest sprouting, in which significant early rain causes the wheat grain to germinate too soon, leading to significant crop losses. Preharvest sprouting causes wheat crop losses estimated at more than $1 billion each year. And given its massive and complex genome, Gill said it would have been impossible to isolate PHS without sequencing the wheat genome.

“Preharvest sprouting is a very difficult trait for wheat breeders to handle through breeding alone. With this study, they will have a gene marker to expedite the breeding of wheat that will not have this problem,” Gill said.

In a Kansas State University news release, Kansas State associate professor of plant pathology Eduard Akhunov, a collaborator with the International Wheat Genome Sequencing Consortium, described the wheat genome blueprint as critical for plant science researchers and breeders.

“For the first time, they have at their disposal a set of tools enabling them to rapidly locate specific genes on individual wheat chromosomes throughout the genome,” he said. “This resource is invaluable for identifying those genes that control complex traits, such as yield, grain quality, disease, pest resistance and abiotic stress tolerance. They will be able to produce a new generation of wheat varieties with higher yields and improved sustainability to meet the demands of a growing world population in a changing environment.

“This is a very significant advancement for [the] wheat genetics and breeding community. The wheat genome sequence provides a foundation for studying genetic variation and understanding how changes in the genetic code can impact important agronomic traits. In our lab, we use this sequence to create a catalog of single base changes in DNA sequence of a worldwide sample of wheat lines to get insights into the evolution and origin of wheat genetic diversity.”

In August 2013, the National Science Foundation (NSF) named Kansas State University as the lead institution for the world’s first Industry/University Cooperative Research Center (I/UCRC) on wheat. As the first such NSF center for any crop plant, the Kansas State facility is focused on improving food production and disease resistance for wheat and other crop plants; it also serves as a primary training site for the next generation of researchers.

Co-directed by Colorado State University, NSF I/UCRC collaborators include Kansas State’s departments of agronomy, plant pathology, entomology, and grain science and industry; USDA’s plant science and wheat genetics units; the Kansas Wheat Commission and Kansas Wheat Alliance; and several corporations, including Bayer CropScience, Syngenta, Limagrain,

Dow AgroSciences LLC, General Mills, and the Heartland Plant Innovation Center.

With the creation of the NSF I/UCRC, the Wheat Genetics Resource Center gene bank, comprising some 14,000 wild wheat species strains and 10,000 genetic stocks – the largest in the world – has relocated to the new Kansas Wheat Innovation Center. As a result, it has become the primary source for wild wheat species, genetic stocks, and genomic resources for researchers worldwide. And with current and future scientists working alongside industry and academic partners on new genetic research, Gill said, future global wheat breeding and crop yields will be significantly accelerated.

With an increasingly detailed understanding of wheat at the genetic level, future research also will be able to expand beyond plant resiliency and yield and into improvements in taste, wheat-based products, and even the possibility of using food crops to improve human health through so-called “functional food.”

“People as consumers are more interested in not only getting calories from food, but getting health benefits, as well,” Gill said.

Having the genome is only the beginning of the effort, however.

“The wheat genome only has 21 chromosomes, but each chromosome is very big and therefore quite complicated,” Akhunov explained in the Kansas State University news release.

“The largest chromosome, 3B, has nearly 800 million letters in its genetic code. This is nearly three times more information than is in the entire rice genome. So trying to sequence this chromosome – and this genome – end-to-end is an extremely complicated task.”

But with wheat’s status as one of the top sources for food staples for the majority of the world, the advances made by cutting- edge research facilities such as the WGRC and NSF I/UCRC are key to feeding the planet’s

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wheat

Photo by Kay Simmons

Near some wheat plots in Kenya in 2005, Nobel Peace Prize winner Norman Borlaug, Ph.D., (second from left) consults with leaders from Kenya and CIMMYT (the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) about Ug99, a virulent strain of the wheat stem rust disease that poses a serious threat to wheat. Borlaug’s development of semi-dwarf wheat resulted in increased crop yields and a drop in world hunger.

7 billion-plus people – a number some estimates predict will grow to 10 billion in the next four decades and reach nearly 11 billion by the end of the century, due to a combination of high birth rates in the developing world, continued improvements in infant mortality, and rising life expectancy worldwide.

“As the global population continues to rapidly increase, we will need all the tools available to continue producing enough food for all people in light of a changing climate, diminishing land and water resources, and changing diets and health expectations,” said Sonny Ramaswamy, Ph.D., director of USDA’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture, in the news release. “This work will give a boost to researchers looking to identify ways to increase wheat yields.”

All of the changes already seen in modern wheat have significantly changed the very nature of wheat-based products; as a result, those eaten today, in the United States and around the world, bear little resemblance to those from only a few decades ago. The hardier wheat variants also have simultaneously increased the amount of the food grain available to importing nations and greatly expanded the ability of many more nations to become wheat exporters.

About half of all U.S. wheat is exported, but despite significant growth in global demand, the total U.S. acreage devoted to wheat has dropped by roughly one-third – nearly 30 million acres – since its peak in 1981.

“The number of major exporting countries that can supply these importers has expanded in recent years from the traditional exporters (the United States, Argentina, Australia, Canada and the European Union). Ukraine, Russia, and Kazakhstan have become significant but highly variable wheat exporters. These three Black Sea exporters together surpassed U.S. exports in 2009/10 and again in 2011/12 by 11.6 million metric tons (mmt) and 10.1 mmt, respectively. During the mid-1990s,

their combined wheat exports were less than 5 mmt,” according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s “Wheat Baseline: 2014-23.”

“Since 1981 and 1982, when U.S. wheat exports accounted for about 45 percent of world exports, the U.S. export share has trended down, averaging about 20 percent over the last three years. ... The five largest traditional wheat exporters (United States, Australia, the EU, Argentina, and Canada) are projected to account for more than 60 percent of world trade in 2023/24, compared with nearly 70 percent during the last decade. This decrease is mostly due to increased exports from the former Soviet Union. U.S. wheat exports are projected to generally be in a 28- to 30-million-ton range during the coming decade.

However, the U.S. share of world exports declines over the projection period.”

As to the future, the “Baseline” report projects a continued expansion of world wheat trade by nearly 19 percent in the next 10 years, rising to 177.5 million tons, with import growth concentrated in developing nations where income and growing populations drive demand. That growth will be led by the 15 countries of the Economic Community of West African States, other Sub-Saharan African countries, Egypt, other countries in the North Africa and the Middle East region, Indonesia, and Pakistan.

However, the report also predicts a continuing decline in market share for American wheat growers.

“The U.S. wheat sector is facing long-term challenges as productivity gains and producer returns for competing field crops outpace those for wheat. Over the next 10 years, the planted area of U.S. wheat is projected to fall. Wheat yield enhancements are expected to continue to lag those for competing row crops, primarily corn and soybeans,” the USDA predicts.

“U.S. exports are expected to show little growth with the increased trade competition, particularly from Russia, Ukraine, and Kazakhstan. Furthermore, domestic food use, although growing, no longer provides the dynamic market growth experienced from the 1970s through the mid-1990s.”

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interview with eric steenstra

Interview:

Eric Steenstra, Executive Director of the Hemp Industries Association

By Eric Seeger or the last century, the United States had a complicated relationship with hemp. During the formative years of modern drug law, this once-common industrial crop became a legal liability for farmers. It even got outlawed – a case of guilt by association. Hemp is a member of the cannabis family, which got it lumped in with marijuana regulations during the 1930s, ’40s, and later. Even though the hemp species has no psychoactive effects, lazy legislation drawn under the guise of protecting the public effectively removed this plant from the nation’s fields for more than 50 years.

Efforts to re-legalize hemp seemed like an agri-political sideshow for decades, and entire generations of farmers grew up knowing little more about hemp than that it was 1) cannabis and 2) illegal to grow. But groups continued to advocate for the misunderstood plant, and about 10 years ago their message caught the attention of then-Rep. Ron Paul, R-Texas. Embracing a crop so closely associated to marijuana came with inherent political risks, but those who defended it made a simple but convincing argument: This is a historical crop that our parents used to grow, it’s not a drug, and its legal status represents a classic example of misguided over-regulation.

During that time, hemp started making its resurgence in the marketplace. Fibers derived from the plant’s stalk were being used in everything from clothing to car parts, and its seeds and oil became popular ingredients in dietary and body care products. Hemp represented millions of dollars worth of sales, yet it was still illegal to grow in the United States.

That all changed in 2014 when the Farm Bill went into effect, as the legislation allows states, under some conditions, to grow hemp for research purposes. Republicans (many from Kentucky, a state that used to be a top hemp producer) led a push to have the crop decriminalized. Now, U.S. farmers find themselves behind the rest of the world in their understanding of hemp’s growing characteristics and in having a base of processors to buy their crops.

We talked to Eric Steenstra, executive director of the Hemp Industries Association and longtime member of Vote Hemp, a 501(c)(4) lobby group that has been working to change hemp laws at the state and federal levels for 15 years. He explains the crop’s past, its industrial potential, and the beginnings of its new future in American agriculture.

F

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U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

U.S. Agriculture Outlook: Hemp was a very common crop in the United States through World War II. Why did it drop off?

Eric Steenstra: In 1937, when Congress passed the Marihuana [sic] Tax Act to regulate marijuana, they didn’t make a clear distinction between hemp and marijuana – just cannabis. If you wanted to grow hemp, you had to pay tax and

Photo courtesy of Eric Steenstra

Above: Hemp Industries Association Executive Director Eric Steenstra, right, shakes hands with James Comer, Kentucky’s commissioner of agriculture. With passage of the 2014 Farm Bill, Kentucky has implemented hemp research and pilot programs.

Opposite page: A field of hemp in France. U.S. farmers are behind other countries when it comes to an understanding of hemp’s growing characteristics, but legalization of hemp for research aims to change that.

interview with eric steenstra

Photo by Barbetorte

get a marijuana producer’s tax stamp. It was a bit of stigma and an additional requirement, so a lot of farmers didn’t want to deal with that.

There was a push to grow hemp during World War II but not after it. The government didn’t promote it anymore, and it dropped off. And then in 1970, they passed the Controlled Substances Act, and hemp was completely thought of as marijuana. It didn’t matter [that it is a] different variety of plant; it was defined as [a] cannabis plant, so it was all considered to be marijuana according to law.

Can you please explain the difference between hemp and marijuana?

They are two different varieties of the same plant species. A rough analogy one might use: This is the difference between a Chihuahua and a St. Bernard. They are both dogs, but they are each unique animals with different characteristics.

Hemp is a genetically distinct non-drug variety of the cannabis plant. Hemp is grown for its fiber and for its seed, so typically it is row crop. When grown for fiber it is planted densely (3 to 6 inches) on center similar to corn, with tall stalks.

On the other hand, a marijuana plant will be grown like a bush to maximize foliage. Marijuana varieties of cannabis (Cannabis indica) plants are bred for production and use of leaves, flowers, and resin, which contain the plant’s psychoactive component tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). Hemp (Cannabis sativa) has very low amounts of THC (by law it is less than .3 of a percent). The scientific community considers hemp varieties of cannabis to have less than 1 percent THC content.

[Translation: hemp cannot create a “high” sensation similar to marijuana.]

Cannabis plants are dioecious and have male and female varieties on separate individuals of the same species.

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interview with eric steenstra

Despite its decades-long illegal status in the United States, hemp has been in the U.S. marketplace for years in a wide variety of products, including Living Harvest’s Tempt hemp milk.

Marijuana growers want only female plants, and don’t want pollination to occur because they don’t want seeds. Hemp is grown very differently, and in some states where marijuana is grown legally, marijuana growers came out against hemp legislation because they were afraid it would negatively affect the growth of their crops.

TEMPT Hemp Foods, Health Brands Collective

Even as recently as 2003 there were federal laws being written that singled out hemp as an illegal crop.

What change on the political front made recent legalization possible?

So, sometimes things like this appear to have happened overnight, but of course they don’t. And so with hemp this has been a very long process, and we formed this political group [Vote Hemp] in 2000 with the goal of working with policymakers.

We worked step by step with state legislators; the first five years we didn’t have any federal legislation. But we finally got our first bill in 2005 – that was sponsored by Ron Paul, who was at that time a mainstream Republican-Libertarian policymaker. We struggled for a few years to get people to support the bill – we got a handful, 10 or 12 the first year or two.

Slowly, we went door to door, office to office educating members about the issues. We were also working with people at the grassroots level to contact policymakers at the state level.

Another thing that happened was that companies wanted to make products with hemp. And since no one could grow it here, they just imported it from overseas. More and more companies did this, and their products were successful. We were tracking those products in the market, and the market has grown to hundreds of millions of dollars now.

Policymakers took a look at that and said, “Hey, this is an industry here. It’s creating jobs. It makes sense, but [hemp] is imported. Why shouldn’t American farmers be able to participate in that market?”

Despite being an illegal crop for so long, hemp has actually been quite mainstream in the U.S. marketplace for a number of years, right?

People are usually surprised to hear that companies like BMW, Mercedes, Ford, and Daimler have all used hempbased composites in their materials. There are millions of cars on the road with hemp parts. For example, BMW has been using hemp materials in their door panels since, I think, about 2004. You’ll find this in their 3 Series and 5 Series cars. This was a big improvement for them, because they previously used a fiberglass-based product, and now they have a product that’s lighter in weight, performs better, is recyclable at the car’s end of life, and lower in cost. So it’s a win-win for the auto industry to move to a natural fiberbased composite.

You also have international designers like Calvin Klein and Georgio Armani that have made clothing and other textile goods from hemp. Other household brand names include shoes companies like Nike, Adidas, Vans, and Converse, [which] have all [made products using hemp].

In the food market, Nature’s Path – a $250-300 million organic-natural products company with processing plants in Washington and Wisconsin – has a successful line of cereal called Hemp Plus® Granola and a number of other hemp items in their range.

Nutiva® is a Richmond, California-based company, with a Superfoods line that includes hemp products. Living Harvest is a maker of hemp milk – this is a very popular product because of its fatty acid profile and its omega-3 and omega-6 balance is really good. Those are just a few examples, and we are seeing a lot of new and novel uses

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interview with eric steenstra

of hemp as well – and there will be more and more developing. We estimate total market for foods and body care is $184 million.

That’s not including textiles and the building materials market, where hemp is up and coming. For example, the wooden core of the plant is [blended with lime] in a product called Hempcrete. … It has incredible insulation property, breathes naturally, and is mold resistant. This is a non-toxic and natural insulation wall material that has been used extensively in Europe and is now coming to the U.S. There is a very significant marketplace for hemp, and it’s growing every year.

What did the first season of legalized hemp look like in the United States?

The Farm Bill was approved by President [Barack] Obama and signed into law early in 2014. A handful of states – including Kentucky, Vermont, and Colorado – started implementing research and pilot programs.

There are 30 states that do not distinguish hemp from marijuana. More states are working on legislation for 2015, so I expect that number to go down. We have researchers interested in Kentucky, Colorado, Hawaii, North Dakota, California, and a number of other states that are looking at this as well. Some states had been sitting on the sidelines of hemp research prior to the Farm Bill because hemp was illegal, and the law didn’t distinguish it from marijuana. Many states told us, “What’s the point of passing legislation to regulate hemp farming if federal law says it’s illegal?” The 2014 Farm Bill has opened this up. There are research and pilot programs now, and the states are saying, “OK, now we can go in and do this. The USDA has this in their sights, and it is another crop we can look at.” I am hopeful that the next Congress will pass legislation to allow for commercial hemp farming in states that will allow farmers to grow hemp.

During 2014, Kentucky, Colorado, and Vermont had farmers who were licensed by [the] state to grow hemp. Kentucky had a number of pilot programs where private farmers grew hemp as agents of the Kentucky Department of Agriculture and provided the results of those pilot programs back to the department. The department imported and provided seed to the farmers in exchange for them sharing the results.

What conditions does hemp need to grow well?

Well, hemp has been grown historically in many states. The one that has the most history for hemp farming is Kentucky and the state was known for providing high-quality hemp seed to farmers in other states. We have historical records of it being grown as far west as California, and as far north as North Dakota and Canada. All through the Midwest – Minnesota, Wisconsin. Indiana had a big program, too. I don’t think there are many places where hemp can’t be grown in the U.S. Well, maybe not Alaska.

Hemp is such a hardy plant that when it was banned, it was regarded as a noxious weed because they couldn’t get rid of it. It would come back each year. It needs decent well-drained

Hemp History Week — June 1-7, 2015 For the past six years, retailers have used the first week of June to help educate their customers about hemp’s role in American agriculture. In 2014, 1,100 retailers nationwide participated in Hemp History Week, including the Whole Foods chain and health food co-ops. To find Hemp History Week locations near you, or to host an event, visit www.hemphistoryweek.com.

soil and minimally 8 to10 inches of rain per year – optimally 13 to 15 inches per year. And like every crop, it needs to be rotated properly.

Compared to cotton – water input for cotton [is] huge – hemp doesn’t require as much [pesticide or herbicide]. It can be grown conventionally – it takes nitrogen and fertilizers – but more than 50 percent of cannabis is grown organically. That’s how it’s grown for much of the food market What parts of the hemp plant have commercial value?

There are a few main areas of the plant that have value. The first is the stalk, which breaks down to the bast fiber, or bark.

It’s the long fiber that runs down the length of the stalk. It’s very hardy and one of strongest natural fibers known to man.

It was used for thousands of years in ships; they all had hemp sails. If you look up “canvas” in the dictionary, you will see it is derived from the word “cannabis.” Before we had automobiles and planes, the biggest method of world travel was ships and navies. They used hemp sails and ropes, in addition to the caulk that kept them afloat (oakum is a blend of hemp fiber and pine tar). Hemp was extremely important.

[The] core of the stalk is woody [and] can be used for cellulose: for building materials, animal bedding, or any other material whose basic building block is cellulose.

The seeds are very nutritious. They have a very good balance of omega-3 and omega-6. They are also used to produce hemp oil, which can be used to produce biodiesel, lubricants, paints, and other materials. … When the oil is pressed from the seed you get seed cake, which is a great source of protein. [You can also find protein powders on the market.] Hemp nut, which

Industry Website The Hemp Industries Association (HIA) is a nonprofit trade group that, since 1994, has represented the interests of the hemp industry including farmers, manufacturers, and researchers. The HIA’s goals include educating the public and industry about the benefits of industrial hemp, encouraging research and development of new products made from industrial hemp, and serving as a networking platform for its members. For more information, visit www.thehia.org.

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interview with eric steenstra

Various parts of the hemp plant can be put to use. Its seeds (left) are a nutritious food source and can be used to produce hemp oil (which itself has many applications). The bast fiber (bottom left) is one of the strongest known fibers, and the core of the stalk (also bottom left) is a useful material for construction.

are getting hemp grown in Canada, China, and elsewhere.

But as processers come online here, producers will start to look for more local [providers]. That will be their opportunity to connect.

Photo by Natrij via Wikimedia Commons

D-Kuru/Wikimedia Commons

Can hemp be compared to any modern North American crops?

I often point to soy. It was a relatively niche crop in the late 1960s and early ’70s, and today it is probably one of the top three crops in the U.S. If you look at the nutritional profile of the soybean, I think hemp is very competitive. I think hemp has a better nutritional profile, and more people [are] looking for alternatives to soy. Hemp from a fiber standpoint has way more potential than soy does. I think hemp can eventually become a commodity like soy or corn. It will take some time for it to develop, but within 20 years, we can see hemp become a major commodity crop in the United States, being grown on millions of acres.

comes from removing the outer shell to extract the seed’s core, is very popular and is found in many food products.

Cannabidiol (CBD) is known for having medical benefits, especially for treating seizures. CBD extract comes from the cannabis flower, and it has garnered a lot of interest for hemp.

This is an area that is up and coming.

Now that hemp has been legalized, how will advocacy change?

At this point, hemp is still in an early stage; we’re looking to connect people who are looking to do business. “Where can I sell my crop?” It may take a couple of years for the market to shift toward U.S. farmers, because right now producers

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COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE

Community Supported Agriculture Three decades of producer-consumer support have resulted in an American movement that promotes local traditions as well as healthier food for a healthier way of life.

By Tara N. Wilfong

hirty years ago, two different farms in bordering New England states forever changed the farmerto-consumer relationship. As producers, they realized the importance of bringing clean, healthy food to the public, but also understood that meeting the demand of all the people, particularly those living in urban locales, was nearly impossible. Over the years, as the number of consumers dependent on a particular farm’s harvest grew, the proportion between what a farm could provide and how many people it could provide for became skewed. Concerned that the financial and physical demands on the land would grow as well, farmers sought a viable solution. To overcome this potential disconnect, Temple-Wilton Community Farm in Wilton, New Hampshire, and Indian Line Farm in South Egremont, Massachusetts, adopted a radical new concept in farming in which producers and consumers from a local community form an economic partnership for their mutual benefit.

While this progressive idea had taken successful root on a smaller scale decades earlier in Europe and Japan, the principals of both American farms loosely based their interpretations on the European ideal, with its traditions in anthroposophy and biodynamic agriculture. As they endeavored to adopt their own unique practices, the concept of community supported agriculture (CSA) was created and a movement was born.

Although both farms are credited with pioneering the CSA concept simultaneously in the mid-1980s, they approached the movement with distinct philosophies, developing two varied models that are still thriving today.

T

Rooted in Tradition Years before CSA found its bearings on this continent, farmers in Europe – and even some here in America dating as far back as 1945 – were implementing the ideals of Rudolf

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Steiner’s biodynamic farming, which initially was considered the cornerstone of the CSA movement. A prominent Austrian philosopher and scientist in the 1920s, Steiner believed that the spiritual and the physical worlds were connected, and that nature is a living and self-sustaining organism that unites material, biological, and spiritual elements. His philosophy, which takes the fundamentals of an organic lifestyle to a higher level, describes agriculture as an interconnected whole, with animals, plants, and people creating a unit in which none can thrive without the others.

Experimenting with these ideals on a farm just outside Hamburg, Germany, in the 1970s and early 1980s, Trauger Groh was so intrigued by the experience that when he began to make plans with Lincoln Geiger and Anthony Graham for their new endeavor – Temple-Wilton Community Farm – they explored this approach. Just 80 miles away in Massachusetts, this same scenario was playing out with discussions among the principals of what would soon be their inaugural CSA founded at Indian Line Farm. Like Groh, Swiss immigrant Jan Vander Tuin worked on a biodynamic farm in Switzerland. Moved by the experience, he brought the philosophy to the United States, and discussed its viability with Robyn Van En and Susan Witt.

COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE

Photo by F Delventhal

People with CSA memberships at Clagett Farm in Maryland pick up their weekly share of farm produce. In a community supported agriculture, or CSA, model, members support the farm’s operations financially with memberships or pledges and in return receive a portion of the farm’s harvest – fresh, locally grown foods.

The trio, led by Tuin, who is credited with coining the phrase “community supported agriculture,” adopted the CSA concept slowly, first by undertaking a project with a small apple orchard in which they sold 30 shares their first season, before embarking on their CSA Garden at Great Barrington in 1986.

The garden, which was created on leased land from Van En’s Indian Line Farm and began as a three-year shareholder lease, continued to thrive until 1990, when the trio parted ways and Van En continued to operate a CSA through Indian Line Farm.

In New Hampshire, the pioneers who founded TempleWilton’s CSA in 1986 continue to find success with their model, giving it the distinction of being the oldest continually operating CSA in the country. “It just started at the right moment and under the right set of circumstances,” said Geiger, who describes himself as a farmer, a visionary, and a nurturer of

one of our greatest natural assets: the Earth. “When we introduced Temple-Wilton’s CSA philosophy, which was perhaps a bit avant-garde for the time, we were fortunate that we had a number of like-minded people in the community who saw the benefits of our approach.”

Unlike many CSAs – the commonly accepted name that refers to the financial commitment between farmer and consumer and the subsequent sharing of the harvest – TempleWilton garners financial support through pledges instead of annual shares. From the onset, Geiger, Graham, and Groh, who maintained the notion that all people are farmers and in turn must farm to survive, decided to take this ideal to the next level by asking the members of their CSA to commit to the overall operation of the farm.

During the farm’s annual budget meeting, the total costs for operating the farm are presented to members, who pledge a level of financial support that is often based on their income and the level of commitment that is comfortable for them.

Although one member may pledge only a few hundred dollars for their share of the season’s harvest, another could perhaps pledge in the thousands. Both members retain equal share in the harvest even though their level of financial support differs.

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College of Agriculture and Food Sciences

Careers Grow Here! www.famu.edu/cafs FamuCafs @CafsNews Famu_Cafs

COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE

Photo by Rumi Geiger

Lincoln Geiger walks with Jewel the cow at Temple-Wilton Community Farm. Along with Trauger Groh and Anthony Graham, Geiger founded Temple-Wilton Community Farm in 1986; it is the oldest continually operating CSA in the country.

As the produce is harvested throughout the season, members can take as much as they’d like without worrying about predetermined limits or prepackaged baskets. “This idea was pretty radical even from the start,” Geiger admitted. “We were at the tail end of the hippie days and the baby boomer generation was pretty receptive to alternative ways of thinking, so we thought it was worth a shot. It’s a philosophy that forces people to disconnect the money from the food and see food as a right, not as a commodity.”

Indian Line Farm’s CSA adopted a different philosophy from the start in regard to membership, and it’s one that a great majority of farms across the country employ today. Here, members purchase a share of the harvest, which provides them with a selection of fresh, seasonal produce each week during the farm’s growing season. In some instances, members have their choice of produce, but are limited by the amount they can take so there is ample supply for every member. In other scenarios, members pick up a pre-filled basket with their weekly produce. While the quantity of produce may vary from week to week, members generally take home enough to sufficiently supplement their family’s meals for the week.

Like many farms, Indian Line Farm allows its members to customize their shares based on their specific needs and desires. Options include regular shares, summer shares, fruit shares, flower shares, and even working shares, which allow members to offset the cost of their regular share by working a set number of hours on the farm during the season. Depending on the type of share, the cost can vary from a few hundred dollars per season to nearly $1,000.

From an economic standpoint, CSA operators don’t generally concern themselves with how much money they can make in a given season since they are wholly funded through member support. Instead, operators look to their fields with a critical eye and a question of whether they have enough to feed all of their people. This mind-set, although refreshing, is extraordinary for such a capitalistic society, but it’s one that CSA pioneers are proud to preach. Perhaps just as contrary is the concept of diversifying their crops instead of specializing in a few chosen varieties.

At Temple-Wilton Community Farm, for example, this act of diversification stems from years of honing their skills and studying the preferences of all their members. As they blazed the trail for this groundbreaking movement, the farmers had the opportunity to try different things and learn from their mistakes, providing other growers who were new to the CSA concept with a virtual operating handbook. “At the heart of the CSA is a careful balance between what people want to eat and what we as farmers can grow on the farm,” Geiger explained.

“It can be tricky since different crops require different soil. The

dynamics between growing the food and consuming the food is a real study in human behavior, and in terms of the CSA, it’s constantly fine-tuned.”

From the onset, both CSA models, which were spearheaded by the pioneers, have been successful and have shared many commonalities. In both scenarios, membership is capped, allowing the farm to produce enough to satisfy the needs of all its members. In addition, members and farmers are partners, sharing the risks and benefits of annual food production. If the crop is stricken due to weather or infestation, the farmer does not shoulder the financial loss alone. Likewise, if the growing season is abundantly successful, both partners benefit from the bounty. “The best thing about the CSA in particular is that you get to know all these individuals and the actual process of providing food for them becomes very personal,” said Elizabeth Keen, who, along with her husband, Alex Thorp, has been the co-owner of Indian Line Farm since they purchased it in 1999. “We have a connection that has literally grown from the ground up, and I am committed to fostering it and seeing it thrive.”

For Keen, who was not born in a farming family or even “called” to the profession, the opportunity to not only run, but

This idea was pretty radical even from the start. We were at the tail end of the hippie days and the baby boomer generation was pretty receptive to alternative ways of thinking, so we thought it was worth a shot. It’s a philosophy that forces people to disconnect the money from the food and see food as a right, not as a commodity.

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American Agriculture and Rabobank – A Recipe for Success

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Photo courtesy DIY wine dine home garden

Photo by Lincoln Geiger

COMMUNITY SUPPORTED AGRICULTURE

Left: Photos of several weeks’ worth of shares from a CSA in Colorado reveal the variety of locally grown produce that CSA members often enjoy. Above: The farm yard at Temple-Wilton Community Farm. CSA participants partake of the vegetables grown as well as milk from the farm’s cows. The farm also produces eggs, cheese, yogurt, and meat, though CSA members purchase those items separately.

own, Indian Line Farm came about purely by happenstance.

By the mid-1990s, the farm had lost some momentum and when Van En died suddenly from an asthma attack in January 1997, Indian Line Farm was no longer growing crops, let alone operating its CSA. Stunned community members were fearful the farm would be sold to the highest bidder, so they encouraged Keen and Thorp to work the land and revitalize the CSA. As it turns out, the couple had just finished apprenticeships at a nearby CSA farm and were considering their options for the future. Keen, who had met Van En just prior to her death – not in a farming capacity, but when she helped her prepare for a CSA conference – was familiar with the farm and its history. Soon Keen and Thorp were leasing the farm, and now, nearly 20 years later, they have restored Indian Line Farm to its former state, reestablishing the CSA, reconnecting local consumers to the bounty of the earth, and becoming a role model for sustainability as Van En always envisioned. According to a passage written in Basic Formula to Create Community Supported Agriculture, Van En wrote, “… the main goal … of these community supported projects is to develop participating farms to their highest ecologic potential and to develop a network that will encourage and allow other farms to become involved.”

Today, thousands of farms from one end of the country to the other have active and thriving CSAs. While the exact number is hard to pinpoint, many experts estimate the number to be between 6,500 and 13,000. With more growers participating in this farm-to-table movement – and more consumers choosing to serve their families fresh-from-the-farm produce – CSAs are flourishing. People living in large, metropolitan areas

in particular have contributed to the movement’s success.

Health-conscious and eco-minded, many city dwellers have rejected fruits and vegetables grown in the conventional sense, opting instead for organic produce and eagerly joining local CSAs that have cropped up in and around their cities.

This desire for a healthier alternative is exactly what propelled the movement to immediate success. During the early 1980s, when the food industry was in a great state of flux, with fresh, local farm products giving way to imported foods shipped from great distances, America’s heartland was steadily losing ground to urban development. Farmers began to abandon their farms for more lucrative professions and consumers were left with fewer options for sourcing food locally. Taking a stand against this undesirable wave of commercialism, the pioneers of the CSA movement approached the basics of farming with a fresh perspective, and subsequently revitalized the local agricultural scene.

With its origins in biodynamic agriculture, the CSA movement is fundamentally rooted in sustainability, with advocates promoting agricultural stewardship and environmentally conscious growing practices. “We like to say that this way of farming and sharing the gifts of nature in a sustainable fashion is organic up to a level where we are actually growing an organic community,” Geiger explained. “This is a symbiotic engagement all the way down to the root hairs. Just as the plants’ roots reach into the earth, nature reaches out to us – from humus to human – and the relationship becomes a full circle. Nature gives freely of her life and grows to become each one of us: we the people, we the creatures, and we the living earth. Our farming philosophy, and, at this point, my personal passion, is to connect people back to the earth and to nature and help them see that they truly belong here. It’s not only about promoting healthier practices, but also reconnecting humans with the rhythms of nature.”

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green barn A free-stall heifer barn with 720 photovoltaics (solar panels) at Brubaker Farms in Mount Joy, Pennsylvania. Solar power can help to reduce a farm’s electricity costs, and with government incentives and a steady decrease in the cost of solar equipment, such renewable energy systems are more affordable than ever.

The Green Barn: Bigger Yields on Smaller Environmental Footprints Tech pushes new trends in irrigation, land management, and energy usage – and profits.

By Eric Seeger

B

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weather forecast offers a reason to skip the next costly round of irrigation.

Armed with such specific information, farmers are more in control of their own success than ever before. Risk is still a heavy factor in the business, but efficient practices will be the key to farmers keeping more “green” in their wallets.

Finding the Energy Farms have some of the longest history of putting renewable energy to work. The classic wind-powered water pump is a staple of old-time rural imagery, squeaking and turning and letting nature do the work. But the last decade has seen

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

eing a “green” farmer used to mean that you were something of an outsider in the industry – that you almost couldn’t operate on a scale above the small family farm. Not so much anymore.

As producers look to increase their yields in a marketplace where equipment and fuel costs can vary wildly from year to year, science is showing us that there are consistent gains to be made. The days of relying on observations of field conditions and throwing water and fertilizer on top of seeds (and hoping that the mix is correct) are swiftly passing by. The modern farm is getting smarter, leaner, and cleaner. Farmers are now able to micromanage their crops, reading nutrient levels in the soil through sensors while deciding if the three-day

green barn

the windmill transform into something completely different, as industrial-scale windmills have cropped up across the country. Farmers started leasing small sections of land to help utility companies generate clean energy. Now, many farmers are seeing another generation of sustainable power come online – this time, harvesting the electrons for themselves with solar panels.

Depending on the type of farm, electricity can be one of the largest annual operating costs. Irrigation systems, barn lighting, and automatic milking systems are just a few of the processes that keep the electric meter spinning. But government incentives combined with the steadily decreasing cost of solar equipment have made the technology accessible to family-scale farms.

The average cost of solar panels has gone from $76.67 per watt in 1977 to just 61 cents per watt today, according to Seth Pepper of Agriculture Energies (www.agriculturesolar. com). “The cost of electricity from solar panels is now lower than the cost of retail electricity for most people,” Pepper said.

Agriculture Energies helps farmers plan and install solar and other renewable energy systems on their properties. Using an energy audit, it estimates how much output the farm will need and consults with the farmer about which systems to install. According to the menu of services offered by Agriculture Energies, jobs can range from installing solar power on a single irrigation pump to creating a system that can power an entire dairy operation.

“One kick that we get out of this new way of powering is to see the reaction when a farmer goes from a large 100-HP generator to the silent power of a solar-powered pump,” said Pepper. It’s a big difference compared to the sound of a diesel generator echoing through a valley.

The company offers a few different plans that include complete purchase and installation of the energy systems or equipment leases. With either one, farmers are able to avoid the fluctuation of traditional energy costs. They will, however, continue to be connected to the electrical grid to help supplement power needs. On the other hand, if the system is generating more electricity than required, most utility companies offer energy buyback programs that use meters to record how much energy the solar panels are putting back into the electrical grid.

“We have systems that will pay for themselves in two to three years. The challenge for solar is that if it is a cash purchase, the cost is all up front,” said Pepper, although upward of 70 percent of the purchase price can be reduced from tax incentives.

Farm banks offer resources for low-interest loans to farmers and ranchers. And the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) offers loans and grants for sustainable energy development on farms through the Rural Energy for America Program (REAP).

Once the system is paid off, it is effectively producing free energy, and today’s solar panels are designed to last between 25 and 50 years.

“Solar products are reliable,” said Pepper. “What I would recommend is that you find a developer that you can form a

REAP: The Benefits Started in 2008, the Rural Energy for America Program (REAP) has helped many farms across the country develop their own renewable energy or become more energy efficient. It has already supplied more than a half-billion dollars in grants and loans to rural businesses – often farms. The program got a boost in the 2014 Farm Bill, where it was guaranteed at least $50 million per year in funding for the next five years. The program will fund up to 25 percent of a given project’s cost. The application process is extensive, and it begins with contacting your state’s Rural Energy Coordinator’s office. To learn more about REAP, visit: www.rurdev.usda.gov/BCP_Reap.html

long-term relationship with. What some people will do is buy the product and say that someone on the farm or ranch already can install them. This can create unnecessary risk. Take the time to hire people who do this for a living. … Make sure that you are with people you can trust.”

Better Planting and Nutrient Retention Farming greener means getting the most yield out of your land with the least amount of irrigation and fertilizers. That means using the right seed hybrids in the correct locations of fields. This year is unique in that it’s the first time farmers will have the opportunity to really start customizing how their fields are planted, thanks to the arrival of automated multi-hybrid planters.

The technology allows one machine to plant two types of seeds in different parts of the same row. Think of it like turning a planter into a giant dot-matrix printer that works its way across hundreds of acres. The farmer – working with an agronomist – pre-programs a map of the field into the Trimble GreenSeeker Handheld Crop Sensor Farming crops takes a lot of intuition, but the days of guesswork are rapidly coming to an end. Remember the first time you ever used a digital infrared thermometer?

This is like that, but it takes readings on your plants’ health – particularly their NDVI (Normalized Difference Vegetation Index) numbers. Trimble® has used this technology to manage fertilizer equipment, but this hand-held device allows farmers to check on their crops without hauling out the big equipment. It pairs with a smartphone app that gives users an understanding of the plants’ health, according to Trimble. That snapshot will help farmers understand if their plants need more or less fertilizer or irrigation. www.trimble.com/agriculture/ gs-handheld.aspx

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green barn

planter’s computer, selecting the best type of seed hybrid for the variations in soil quality, moisture, or sunlight. During the seeding process, the planter uses GPS to track its location and which seeds to place in the soil. To replicate this without the automated technology, an operator would have to constantly stop the planter to manually switch from one seed type to another.

Precision Planting released the vSet™ Select hybrid system, which is a retrofit for a variety of existing planters and brands.

On the other hand, the Kinze® Multi-Hybrid system is designed specifically for its newer 4900 Series planter.

The technology is new, but 2013 South Dakota State University tests showed multi-hybrid planters do improve yield. “On average … the variable-hybrid plots yielded 5.1 more bushels per acre than did the same hybrids planted as single lines across the landscape,” the study found in a corn test. It also saw increases in yield on plots testing soybean crops.

And last year, manufacturers ran tests of their own to hone the equipment and software. 2015 will be the year for early adopters, but expect to see smarter seeding become the norm as farmers look to maximize production.

Another technology to improve field performance is coming out of Mississippi State University. The university has been conducting research to help reduce water and nutrient runoff at lowland farms. The initial goal was to reduce the amount of soil and nutrient loss to local waterways that eventually drain into the Gulf of Mexico, creating algae blooms known as

During the seeding process, the planter uses GPS to track its location and which seeds to place in the soil. To replicate this without the automated technology, an operator would have to constantly stop the planter to manually switch from one seed type to another.

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dead zones. Some of the farmers experimented by re-grading portions of their lands in ways that would redirect runoff into retention ponds instead of streams.

Farmers are able to capture the majority of water that falls on their land (along with the nutrients and fertilizer) that would have washed away and re-use it for irrigation. The findings come from the university’s Research and Education to Advance Conservation and Habitat (REACH) program.

Partnering with the USDA’s Natural Resources Conservation Service and state organizations, REACH works one-on-one with famers to develop plans to keep rainfall on agricultural lands. So far, 40-plus farms representing more than 126,000 acres have signed on for the program – with a waiting list.

Some farmers are reporting reduced costs because they pump less water from the aquifer and reduced fertilizer usage.

The program has also reported improved crop yields.

Though some of the practices in Mississippi might not work in other parts of the country with differing topography, more research-based programs like REACH are starting to show up in states like Idaho and Ohio. Their goals are to reduce nitrogen levels in local waterways; that translates to keeping soil and nutrients on farmlands. Conservation upgrades like these

Images courtesy of Precision Planting

Right, top: A field planted using Precision Planting’s vSet Select multi-hybrid planter, which enables farmers to efficiently plant two different types of seed in a single row without having to manually switch from one seed type to another. Right, bottom: Screenshots from Precision Planting’s FieldView app showing data about the field pictured in the photo above. The “Hybrid” image shows the farmer which type of seed is planted where, and the “Population” image shows the amount of seeds planted per acre.

green barn

A tailwater recovery system, which catches runoff from fields for reuse in a farm irrigation system, in place on a Mississippi farm. The REACH program at Mississippi State University works with farmers to develop plans like this tailwater recovery system to enable them to use water in their operations more efficiently.

may be eligible for financial assistance through the NRCS’s Environmental Quality Incentives Program.

Photo courtesy of Mississippi State University REACH Program

Smart Irrigation: Less Is More Merely spraying water onto plants used to qualify as good irrigation, but research in recent years found that there are immense gains in efficiency – unbelievably obvious ones – to be made with the integration of some rather basic technology.

The problem has not been a mistake on the part of farmers, rather their irrigation systems have been stuck in the 1950s.

Smarter systems are being developed at every scale, from nursery farms up to large fields.

Water woes and droughts are no longer a problem of just the West. Even the Southeast – a much wetter area – has started to become the subject of water consumption lawsuits. And USDA reports have shown this region to be witnessing the largest increases in irrigation demand nationwide. Every gallon that doesn’t get pumped onto a field equates to savings (electrical costs) in a farmer’s pocket, and it means more water is staying in local waterways and aquifers. Most important, proper irrigation means better crop

The Bright Idea There’s more to the solar energy industry than just keeping the lights on. Operators of industrial-scale solar farms in North Carolina are turning to local livestock farmers for help maintaining their fields of solar panels. Though photovoltaic panels are relatively low maintenance, solar companies are usually responsible for keeping the grass around them low. That’s where sheep come in. Sun-Raised Farms is a group of North Carolinabased farmers who are grazing their sheep and helping solar companies at the same time. The sheep pose less risk to the equipment than other livestock like goats or cattle, according to Frank Marshall of FLS Energy, a solar company that allows sheep onto many of its fields across the state.

“You don’t see many big solar projects being developed in suburban areas where land is more expensive to buy or lease,” said Chad Ray, who founded the Sun-Raised Farms cooperative with his wife, Jodi. “They are usually put in rural areas, which displaces farmers or crops.”

Sun-Raised was created to put livestock back on some of those fields. The organization trains farmers how to size and manage herds on these lands, and it has developed a market with high-end restaurants and the grocery chain Whole Foods. Ray said that Sun-Raised will gradually expand operations into more states in the region. www.sunraisedfarms.com

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Potato and Sugar Beet Equipment Pilers, Even Flow Bins, Scoopers, Conveyors, Eliminators, Bulk Beds, Crop Carts, Planters, Cultivators, Defoliators, Windrowers, and Harvesters Spudnik.com

green barn

José Henrique Debastiani Andreis

Good to the Last Drop These days, it seems irrigation systems are giving farmers every reason not to put water on their fields. Lindsay Corporation offers a robust suite of hardware, software, and plug-and-play sensors that can give farmers precise data about the moisture in their fields, control pumps remotely, and track weather data at multiple sites. All this information gets packaged into its FieldNET Mobile apps, which makes managing irrigation basically as simple as checking your bank account online. www.Growsmart.com and www.myfieldnet.com yields, because overwatering can be just as harmful to crops as underwatering.

For starters, many new field irrigation systems will be using longer drop hoses to spray water – at lower pressure – closer to the soil. Research at the University of Georgia’s (UGA) College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences has shown that older systems that watered the entire plant, instead of just the ground, needed much more water to achieve proper soil moisture. Properly maintained systems with longer drop hoses and controls to keep water inside the field reduced water consumption by up to 20 percent.

New variable flow nozzles have turned watering into more of a precision process than ever. Farmers are able to program their irrigators to turn off when they reach places on the farm that don’t need to be watered. For instance, the system can be set to shut off flow to the nozzles as they pass over farm roads, ponds, or patches of fallow ground.

Now, with the integration of moisture sensors, irrigation is becoming smarter every year. “It’s giving growers a plant’seye view of what they need,” stated Paul Thomas, Ph.D., a horticulture researcher and professor with UGA Extension, in a press release about studies in efficient sensing technologies in nursery settings. “Since plants can’t talk, these sensors can tell us what they need.” The study showed that by using sensors on a few sample plants in each of the nurseries’ different crops, managers were able to drastically reduce the amount of water being applied by the system. Less water also means less fungicide and healthier plants, which equates to lower costs and higher crop output.

Researchers from that nationwide study estimate that when calculating the improved crops and reduced costs in water, fertilizer, pesticides, and fungicide, new irrigation systems with smarter datalogging would likely pay for themselves within the first year. That same sort of technology is reaching the field scale. With enough sensors properly placed, farmers can see exactly how much water their crops really need.

To learn more about irrigation news and research across the country, visit www.smart-farms.net.

The SmartIrrigation Cotton app. Such technology can help farmers develop irrigation plans that address their crops’ needs without wasting resources.

The next big gains in water management will come from weather prediction. Free systems like the SmartIrrigation Apps help farmers develop irrigation plans for various crops; for instance, SmartIrrigation offers four different apps for citrus, strawberry, and cotton crops as well as for “Urban Lawn.” The goal is to help farmers avoid running their irrigation systems if rain is in their future – or worse, running their systems while the rain is actually falling. More and more, watering will become a matter of using a tablet computer than actually turning valves.

As farms continue to develop, economics will favor producers who can produce more with less water, the right plants, less fertilizer, and lower energy costs. It pays to work green.

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UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI: COLLABORATING FOR THE GREATER GOOD

Mizzou Agriculture Blends Disciplines to Solve Food Problems

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COOKING UP AN OBESITY CURE The obesity epidemic has defied a single solution for 30 years. CAFNR is coordinating a new collaboration of research, teaching and outreach from multiple MU disciplines to attack the problem.

Mizzou’s MUNCH (MU Nutritional Center for Health), and the complementary MU Physical Activity and Wellness (MU PAW), is a joint effort

by CAFNR and Mizzou’s College of Human Environmental Science (HES), School of Medicine (SOM) and others.

The plan is to merge research expertise in agriculture, medicine, food science, journalism, exercise, dietetics and other disciplines into a holistic approach. Chris Hardin, professor and chair of nutritional sciences, is the MUNCH director.

The team of scientists researches the multiple factors that cause kids and adults to become overweight and remain obese. By identifying all factors contributing to obesity, programs can be developed that more effectively improve public health.

Project MUNCH has already made a significant discovery in the relationship between breakfast and satiety — what makes people feel full and stop eating.

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Heather Leidy, assistant professor of nutrition and exercise physiology, found that eating a protein-rich breakfast increased fullness along with changes in brain activity responsible for food cravings. The high-protein morning meal also reduced evening snacking on highfat and high-sugar foods.

MY PARTNER, THE COW In the ’90s, Missouri’s dairy industry was in trouble. More than 50 percent of the state’s dairies had disappeared, leaving fewer than 2,000 operating by 2000. The primary reason was Missouri’s cost of production — labor, operating costs and overhead — was too high. Farmers struggling to keep up worked 365 days a year, causing them to burn out and seek other jobs.

To find a solution to both problems, 14 Mizzou agronomists, economists, nutritionists and dairy specialists formed the Pasture-Based Dairy Team to improve the economics, lifestyle and environmental concerns of dairy in Missouri. They came up with what seemed like a counter-intuitive solution — abandon confinementstyle methods of dairy and put the cows back in the pastures to graze.

This method turned out to be a sound economic model for Missouri, according to Robert Kallenbach, associate professor of agronomy and member of the team.

The Show-Me state has about 11 million acres of pasture and hay lands not suited for anything but grazing. Using these pastures, compared to feeding corn, is significantly cheaper. Also, the reduced need for labor to feed the cows positively impacted the farmer’s bottom line.

Cows roaming the pastures eliminated another bit of labor, too. In a confinement system, someone must collect the manure and spread it in the pasture to recycle nutrients. The cows also accomplish this themselves in the new system.

Dairy cows in the pastures at sunrise at Mizzou’s Foremost Dairy Center.

The economic impact? By 2008 the number of Missouri dairy cows in pasture-based systems was 10 times larger than a decade before.

One-hundred million dollars of new investment flowed into the industry.

Best yet, a 600-cow Missouri farm now costs exactly half of what it once did.

And the impact goes beyond just dollars. More than three-quarters of producers reported greater job satisfaction and 71 percent said they have more leisure and family time.

FOOD SELF SUFFICIENCY, FROM THE GROUND UP One in six Americans is food insecure.

In Missouri, hope is growing in their backyard through Grow Well, a program that puts seeds and gardening expertise into the hands of hungry people.

The project is a collaboration between area food pantries and the Interdisciplinary Center for Food Security, housed in CAFNR. Helping hungry people grow their own food accomplishes three things, said program coordinator Bill McKelvey: It increases the amount of food, it increases people’s feelings of self-sufficiency and it improves the nutritional value of their diets. Because of a lack of healthy options,

Photo by Morgan Lieberman

reparing for a world population of 9 billion by 2050 isn’t just about more food. It’s about consuming healthier food and producing food in smarter and more efficient ways. University of Missouri College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources (CAFNR) researchers collaborate to make smarter choices even easier. CAFNR is among the top 15 colleges in the world for plant and animal research, and, with partnerships across campus, the state, the nation and globe, is well suited to create sustainable solutions for our future.

UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI: COLLABORATING FOR THE GREATER GOOD

food pantry clients are more likely to be diabetic, have high cholesterol, high blood pressure or be obese.

Almost 90 percent of these gardeners have shared surplus vegetables with friends, family and neighbors — helping them have nutritious options. More than half of the gardeners froze some food to eat during off-season months.

Grow Well has proven to be one of the most cost-efficient assistance programs around. It runs approximately $4 per person to provide 20 different varieties of spring and summer vegetable seeds.

Photos by Kyle Spradley

FOR TASTIER BEEF IT’S PEPPER, SALT AND SNIP CHIPS It’s been known for centuries that altering the genetics of cattle improves productivity. Today, a simple and cheap tool drills into those genetic traits — like disease susceptibility, reproduction and growth — to an incredible degree. The tool also can identify those flavor profiles that make a steak worth buying.

The Illumina BovineSNP50 Bead Chip, nicknamed the snip chip, looks like a multi-colored microscope slide. It allows breeders to find those important DNA markers and act accordingly.

The chip was co-developed by Robert Schnabel, CAFNR research associate professor; Jerry Taylor, professor and Wurdack Endowed Chair; and colleague Curtis Van Tassell at the Agricultural

Research Service’s Beltsville Agricultural Research Center in Maryland. The chip has been commercialized and is not only being used by the beef industry but the dairy industry as well.

STOP GOBBLING THE PROFITS Feed accounts for 70 percent of a poultry producer’s costs. Jeff Firman, professor of poultry nutrition, has developed a new turkey diet that can save producers $13 to $25 per ton. That’s a lot of scratch — almost 15 billion pounds of chow go to fatten the birds each year.

Higher corn and soybean costs — the makings of the feed — have been a continuing problem. Producers can’t pass on those cost increases to consumers — an increase in 2010 saw retail grocery sales drop by 6 percent.

To attack the feed costs, Firman studied the relationship between protein and the energy nutrition requirements of the growing turkey — specifically how a more precise addition of amino acids can decrease the need of corn and soybean meal. Bottom line: less expensive grains can be substituted for the more expensive proteins.

The results from the study have already helped Missouri producers save thousands annually on feed, but more importantly, feeds the animal a more beneficial meal. With a more nutritional diet thanks to researchers at CAFNR,

Left: Bill McKelvey, Grow Well project coordinator, said fruits and vegetables can be hard to come by for food pantry clients. Many pantries have limited refrigeration, so they stick to canned and processed foods. That often leaves patrons without something healthy or fresh. Top: Deborah Garrett, Manager of Business Administration in the MU Department of Nutrition and Exercise Physiology, is examined by Research Assistant Ying Liu. The clinic-like setting, staffed by SOM and HES faculty and staff, is capable of measuring blood markers of health and physiologically relevant compounds, cognitive function, and real-time body glucose over several days. It can also evaluate body composition using a dual X-ray absorption device and a bod pod. Above: Turkeys at Mizzou’s Rocheford Turkey Farm.

Missouri farmers are able to provide better husbandry for their animals that can create healthier food to feed the increasing population of the globe in a more sustainable way.

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By David A. Brown

t’s like a sauna for citrus, but this is no luxury – and neither is time – for Florida growers. An innovative new approach to the long-standing plague of citrus greening employs steam to treat trees infected with the crop-wasting bacteria.

Pioneered by Reza Ehsani, Ph.D., associate professor of agriculture and biological engineering at the University of Florida Citrus Research and Education Center in Lake Alfred, Florida, citrus steam treatments seem to be the best hope for securing this vital crop worth an estimated $9 billion to Florida’s economy. And given citrus greening’s rapid acceleration, this breakthrough comes not a moment too soon.

“There’s an exponential curve where the first phase of this disease is slow, but we are entering the second phase where we are losing crops at a faster rate,” Ehsani said. “There is a sense of urgency among the growers to do something now because it may be too late if we wait more.”

As of December 2014, Ehsani and his team had applied this thermotherapy to 1,200 citrus trees in multiple Central Florida groves. Stressing that the long-term picture of citrus greening remains cloudy, the hot vapors appear to, at least, cleanse the emergent portions of infected trees.

“I’m trying to be careful not to make any claims that are not true,” Ehsani said. “It takes time to collect data, but short-term results are encouraging.”

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THE PROBLEM Backing up a step, citrus greening was discovered in southern China in the early 1900s. Also known as huanglongbing (HLB), the scourge was first found in Florida in 2005. Transported tree to tree by a winged insect known as the Asian citrus psyllid, citrus greening starts with leaf discoloration and progresses into branch dieback and discolored, misshapen fruit unfit for consumption.

As Ehsani explained, controlling the psyllid is very difficult. Spraying has limited effects, and with a 2 percent survival rate, the insect can quickly reestablish. And once the infection reaches the tree’s roots, the damage is irreversible.

“Besides the steam treatment, there’s no way to kill the bacteria,” Ehsani said. “If you can’t kill the bacteria, you have to remove the bacteria, and if you remove the bacteria you put yourself out of business. Until we can develop a tree that is resistant to the bacteria, we have no other option.”

THE PROCESS Fitting the hydraulic arms of citrus hauling trucks with a tenting device, Ehsani’s team is able to quickly cover a tree like an awning. Then, using a commercial-grade steam generator, they inject a very wet steam into the tent and bring the temperature up to about 137 degrees Fahrenheit.

Elsewhere, some growers have tried treating infected trees with solar-heated tents for up two days at a time. Seasonal temperatures and sunlight periods yield varying results, while the labor-intensive process

Photo by Marco Pitino

Turning Up the Heat on Citrus Greening

citrus greening steam treatment

is slow and costly. By comparison, Ehsani’s technique works year-round.

Moreover, with no chemical use, the steam treatments require no regulation.

Steam is environmentally friendly and works for multiple types of citrus.

As with any new method, Ehsani noted that his steam technique is still a work in progress. He has applied for additional grant funding to continue his research and refinement.

“We’re trying to understand how the tree responds in various seasons,” he said. “It’s possible to use this treatment year-round, but we’re trying to understand the best time of year.”

THE OUTLOOK

Photo courtesy of Dr. Reza Ehsani

Though thermotherapy has had promising outcomes, it is not without its drawbacks. According to a report by the University of Florida’s Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, heat-treated trees often drop their old leaves and the new ones are easy psyllid targets. That makes reinfection a strong likelihood, but Ehsani said thermotherapy remains the best tool in the box.

“This is not a cure; it is just a shortterm [action] to prolong the life of the tree,” he said. “It gives growers time to stay in production and make money and not lose their crops.”

On the upside, Ehsani is pleased with the private-sector interest his work has sparked. Several manufacturers, including ScoringAg.com, have made progress on commercial citrus steam treatment equipment. Moreover, grant money available through the U.S. Department of Agriculture will likely enable further development.

“I’m very encouraged because really, there is no other option in the short term,” he said. “There’s a lot of long-term research into controlling the psyllid and growing a [more resistant] citrus tree.

The steam treatment, in a way, is a simple solution to a difficult problem.

“I think with the amount of money that is being put into this, we will see a cure at some point in the near future.

The problem we have is that we don’t have enough time.”

Suffice it to say that this is cause sufficient to turn up the heat on citrus greening.

OUTSTANDING RESEARCHER INVENTOR TEACHER Greg Möller works on the most basic human needs: clean water, safe and sustainable food, and a healthy environment. He excels as a researcher, inventor and teacher. The Association of Public and Land-grant Universities honored the University of Idaho environmental chemist as a 2014 Teacher of the Year, one of two nationwide. The College of Agricultural and Life Sciences food science professor and researcher’s patents promise better wastewater technologies worldwide.

Innovative doculectures apply media technologies in his online class “Principles of Sustainability.” bit.ly/UIdahoSustainable

Opposite page: Trees infected with citrus greening, but not treated with heat, have obvious disease symptoms and reduced productivity. Above: Citrus greening steam treatment in progress.

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www.uidaho.edu/cals

modern greenhouse

The Modern Greenhouse

By David A. Brown

reenhouses have come a long way since Rome’s early horticulturists devised simple yet effective methods to meet Emperor Tiberius’ year-round demand for fresh cucumbers. Now driven by the needs for efficiency and resource conservation, modern greenhouses are all about shattering barriers and expanding possibilities.

Robert Hochmuth, who serves as a regional specialized extension agent for vegetable crops at the University of Florida’s Suwannee Valley Agricultural Extension Center, frames the fundamental benefit of protected agriculture as a greater level of control over the growing processes. Be it a highly technical multi-use greenhouse or a simple, one-crop high tunnel structure, raising plants within protective walls limits the threatening variables.

“We can minimize the negative impacts of weather by eliminating [factors such as] the higher risks of freezes or the heavy rainfall that we have in Florida,” Hochmuth said.

“The main thing is we can create a more favorable environment and reduce disease and insect pressure by going inside a structure.

“It’s all about control; we’re not at the mercy of weather events, insects, and diseases as much as we would be out in the field. The end result is we can produce a high-quality crop over a much longer period of time or enter into the marketplace at a time when we normally would not be able to have a product to sell if we weren’t under some type of protected agriculture system.”

To Hochmuth’s latter point, mentions of agriculture probably conjure visions of states with moderate to warmer climates – not one with an annual average temperature of 43 degrees.

Nevertheless, the 2012 Census of Agriculture shows that New Hampshire cranked out nearly $200 million in agricultural products. Milk and chickens accounted for about $55 million and $13.5 million, respectively, but the vegetables, flowers, and plants raised in greenhouses generated nearly $2.4 million for the Granite State.

Where today’s protected agriculture technology is taking us is a course not so different from that of their founding purposes. But like mountain streams expanding into a mighty

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river, development, innovation, and creatively ambitious efforts swell U.S. greenhouse productivity to meet an ever-increasing national demand.

Casting various greenhouse technologies as tributaries feeding the river of protected agricultural productivity, let’s highlight some of the many flourishing inflows driving this growth.

KEEPING WATCH For the small backyard greenhouse, daily visual inspections provide sufficient observations regarding plant health and crop development. However, larger commercial operations, often with several thousand square feet of greenhouse space, simply cannot rely on eyeball judgments. That’s where the use of computer-based monitoring systems with digital representations has replaced long walks.

“The sensors that large commercial greenhouses use to monitor photosynthetic rates, to monitor for specific diseases and pests are really fantastic,” said Kevin Folta, Ph.D., chair of Horticultural Sciences at the University of Florida. “These mechanized opportunities allow growers to precisely control fertilizer rates and water needs based on plant needs, rather than a simple schedule. This decreases inputs, lowers costs, and improves the crop quality.”

Hochmuth agreed and pointed to the integrated controls that measure accumulated light levels as a key element in greenhouse management. When light levels reach a predetermined threshold, it triggers an event such as opening vents to release warm air, starting an irrigation cycle, or activating a cooling pad.

Gene A. Giacomelli, Ph.D., is a professor of agriculture and biosystems engineering at the University of Arizona and also directs the school’s Controlled Environment Agriculture Center.

He noted that, while sensors in greenhouses are not exactly new, per se, recent applications have developed a more finely focused approach.

It’s like asking the plant for its opinion.

“It gives you a more direct idea of what the plant is experiencing,” Giacomelli said. “There’s been a lot of work on plant

Photo courtesy of the University of Arizona Controlled Environment Agriculture Center

modern greenhouse

Myles Lewis explains how to grow lettuce and herbs hydroponically in a floating system during the 2014 Greenhouse Crop Production and Engineering Design Short Course held at the University of Arizona Controlled Environment Agriculture Center (CEAC) in Tucson. Greenhouses provide crops with protection from adverse weather, pests, and disease, and the ability for growers to control the environment within means they can produce crops over a period of time longer than a growing season in the field.

sensors that tell if the plant is in stress conditions or in optimal growing conditions.

“Until recently, standard procedure has been that you control the environment around the plant, because it’s been demonstrated that if you keep that temperature, humidity, and light level, then the plant will grow fine. But you never really measured the plant itself. That has been changing over the past five to 10 years and it will continue into the future.”

Folta noted that the tomato industry – dependent upon a high-value, soft crop – has particularly benefited from these modern greenhouse controls, which monitor growth and

development, as well as post-production elements. Raising a good-looking tomato is the first challenge; getting that vegetable to the consumer without losing that fresh appeal is equally important. Here, Folta points to automated harvesting and transport systems run by GPS-coordinated drones as a key development in promoting such greenhouse efficiency.

“These new systems maximize [the growers’] productivity and uniformity and, at the same time, tie them in with on-site packaging and distribution facilities,” Folta said. It’s a way to tie the production directly to the logistical chain that moves [the product] on to the retail market.

“Having the crop grown 100 meters from where they’re being packaged and placed on the pallets eliminates a lot of lag time. This one-stop shopping allows a fresher product with very uniform traits to be sent out to the consumer.”

As with most forms of horticulture, pests remain a constant concern for greenhouse growers. However, Folta pointed out that the systems used to monitor plant growth also provide important information relevant to the cultivation of organic pest management.

“I think greenhouses afford an opportunity to use beneficial insects like predatory mites to control the damaging mites,” he said. “Because of the control temperatures and

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modern greenhouse

the environment, you can tailor specific species of predatory insects that match your conditions and the needs of your crops.”

RESOURCE MANAGEMENT For most people, the terms “planting,” “crops,” and “harvest” intuitively imply the use of some measure of natural soil. But soil isn’t always necessary to the practice of growing plants.

As Giacomelli stated, constant pressure to achieve greater efficiency, while conserving what he terms “the big four” resources – water, labor, energy, and plant nutrients – has spurred intensive R&D into soilless planting options.

Central to this theme is hydroponics – the practice of growing plants in water. Aeroponics, which suspends plants in racks and irrigates them with nutrient misters, is considered a subset of this practice and a good option for space-limited greenhouses. Another option to the standard hydroponic setup is a soilless medium such as coconut fiber, composted pine bark, and perlite (made from volcanic rock) with a nutrient-rich water infusion.

In any form, Giacomelli said, hydroponics leverages the economies of scale principle and squeezes the most return out of that big four.

“For example, in the same area of a greenhouse compared to the open field, you can get 10 times more production per year,” Giacomelli said. “You’ll use more water than in the open field, but less per product – weight of product or numbers of heads of lettuce or numbers of tomatoes.

“Resource-use efficiency in water, energy, labor, and nutrients is more possible in a controlled environment greenhouse than in an open field. There’s a lot of activity to make that happen and hydroponics is [a key element].”

Among its many uses, Hochmuth said that hydroponics is commonly employed in the production of leafy greens like lettuce, kale, and Swiss chard – all currently in high demand – as well as the trendy microgreens crops. These miniature versions of full-sized food plants like radishes, peas, and arugula are often called “vegetable confetti” for their use in jazzing up salads and other dishes with light toppings that pack intense flavor.

Understandably delicate, microgreens demand the protected environment of a greenhouse like the one built by Ivory Smith, a former Army National Guardsman and founder of SmithPonics in Poplarville, Mississippi. Producing rainbow radish, pea shoots, and mustard mixed microgreens for farmers’ markets and high-end restaurants, Smith found his civilian calling through “Armed to Farm,” a workshop series sponsored by the National Sustainable Agriculture Information Service. Funded in part through USDA Rural Development, the workshop gave veterans a chance to learn about sustainable small-scale farming practices and to visit working agribusinesses for firsthand lessons.

Other notable advancements in protected agriculture include:

Having the crop grown 100 meters from where they’re being packaged and placed on the pallets eliminates a lot of lag time. This one-stop shopping allows a fresher product with very uniform traits to be sent out to the consumer.

LED Lighting: A well-constructed greenhouse will protect what’s on the inside from what’s on the outside, typically meaning climatic conditions challenging to a given crop’s production. However, when not enough of what’s on the outside – in this case, the sun – reaches what’s on the inside, it’s time to activate the backups.

For more than 50 years, growers have been fitting greenhouses with artificial lights to fill in the gaps left by cloudy conditions or shorter winter days. Not a bad move, but also not a complete problem solver. The truth is most lighting systems can put the pinch on a grower’s budget, while their available light spectrums fall short of that which is most efficient for plant photosynthesis.

To address this issue, a team of academics and industry scientists led by researchers from Purdue University have directed grant funding from the USDA’s National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) to investigate the use of light-emitting diodes (LED) in greenhouses. The team designed LEDs that produce the exact light quality that plants need while consuming a small percentage of the electricity required by the high-pressure sodium lamps that are more commonly used.

The team’s experiments revealed encouraging numbers, most importantly a 75 percent savings in electricity consumption for an equal product yield. According to numbers published in a USDA blog on the team’s work, there were approximately 4,200 greenhouse acres in the United States during the initial testing period. Installing LED systems in each of these structures could reduce energy consumption by a whopping 3.5 billion kilowatt-hours. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency says that would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by nearly 3 million tons a year.

Certainly a tool for the entire agriculture industry, LEDs offer the potential to play a key role in “urban agriculture” – essentially, greenhouses serving the demand for fresh, local produce within city limits. Land costs can be prohibitive, but Giacomelli said the past decade has seen a proliferation of rooftop greenhouses, which take advantage of available square footage with space-efficient layouts designed for optimal productivity. A common strategy is vertical growing Continued on page 103

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modern greenhouse

Photo by Tomas Kirchen

The aquaponics greenhouse at The Farming Fish houses six large fish tanks and hydroponic plant beds where owners Olivia Hittner (center) and Michael Hasey (second from left) raise tilapia and greens. The symbiotic system uses less water than it would take to grow the same amount of produce in the ground.

FISHY AND EFFICIENT With 40 acres of certified organic farmland in southern Oregon, Michael Hasey and Olivia Hittner produce a myriad of fruit, vegetable, and nut crops. However, their business name, The Farming Fish, bespeaks the pride of their operation: an aquaponics greenhouse.

A handful of years ago, Hasey and Hittner designed and built the 365-foot by 30-foot structure where they raise tilapia and basil, lettuce, and watercress in a sustainable, closed-loop environment. Impressively, their operation is set up to yield more than 7,200 cases of greens and 12,000 pounds of fish per year.

Complementing production ef ficiency, such operations also uphold the modern theme of environmentally responsible growing. In operations such as Hasey and Hittner’s, aquaponics uses a fraction of the water needed to grow plants in ground, consumes significantly less energy, and results in a much smaller carbon footprint than that of traditional in-ground operations.

“We’re showing every day that resources can be utilized and preserved for future generations,” Hittner said in a YouTube video. “Our practices have shown that the family farm can not only survive but thrive in the modern food system without degrading the environment.”

Space, energy, water, nutrients – they’re all precious resources with no room for waste or inefficiency. Of all the innovations in greenhouse technology, few have had as much of an impact as the rapidly growing field of aquaponics.

In an aquaponic system, fish farming (aquaculture) coexists with hydroponics (growing plants in water), with each side getting something helpful from the other. In the simplest form, waste from the fish tanks passes through a biofilter where nitrifying bacteria turn it into a nutrient stream that benefits the plant crops. This stream is then pumped upward to the grow beds, where plants absorb the enriched water and clean it for safe return to the fish tanks.

In a continuous cycle of resource sharing, food fish such as tilapia, trout, carp, and salmon are raised essentially next door to cold season crops like carrots, peas, lettuce, and Swiss chard, or warm season crops including tomatoes, cucumbers, melons, and green peppers. Not only does this diversify greenhouse production, it reduces the cost and environmental impacts typically associated with traditional plant nutrients.

“I think what we can expect more of in the U.S. is the marriage of multiple protected agriculture solutions that synergistically supply the needs of each other,” said Kevin Folta, Ph.D., chair of Horticultural Sciences at the University of Florida. “I think anything that helps us conserve our inputs, and certainly fertilizer being an important one, is helpful.

“One agricultural product’s waste is another agricultural product’s treasure. And being able to exploit those opportunities is a key way to sustainably farm going forward.”

Today’s consumers drive a growing demand for fresh, organic, and locally grown foods. Aquaponics has shown great promise as a continuing source of such products, thanks to a space-efficient, low-input formula.

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modern greenhouse

USDA photo

Photo courtesy of the University of Arizona Controlled Environment Agriculture Center

Left: A sensors and controls workshop at the annual Greenhouse Crop Production and Engineering Design Short Course at the University of Arizona CEAC. In the workshop, students learn how to use and implement sensors in a greenhouse that monitor environmental factors such as air temperature, humidity, and carbon dioxide level to help provide the optimal environment for growing a plant. Bottom: New energyefficient LED luminaires are used in U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) greenhouses at the Western Regional Research Center in Albany, California. The lights reduce greenhouse gas emissions and save money in electrical costs, and the plants in the greenhouses used for research

by USDA Agricultural Research Service scientists are growing faster and producing higher yields.

Continued from page 99

systems, which maximize available space and integrate well with artificial lighting systems.

Semi-closed Systems: Giacomelli likens the semi-closed systems used in some contemporary greenhouses to a building’s air-conditioning system, but instead of catering to human comfort, this technology makes the most of resources at hand by recycling air within a greenhouse. Rather than ventilating the air, during which carbon dioxide and water are lost, a semi-closed system dehumidifies, cleans, and returns the air through the greenhouse without sacrificing the moisture and gases that plants can reuse.

New Materials: Since the sun still comprises the primary heat source for

greenhouses of all sizes, their covering material must permit the passage of solar radiation while maintaining sufficient durability. Giacomelli said one of the newer materials to gain widespread acceptance in recent years is ethylene tetrafluoroethylene, also known as ETFE. Traditionally an architectural material (notably used in Beijing’s Olympic swimming stadium), ETFE boasts high corrosion resistance and strength over a wide temperature range. About 1 percent the weight of glass, this recyclable material transmits more light through its nonstick surface.

On the developmental side, Giacomelli has high hopes for the next generation of greenhouse covering materials, which include photovoltaic cells capable of not

only transmitting sunlight, but absorbing it and generating electricity. Giacomelli said the potential for this clean energy to power greenhouses in undeveloped areas will allow protected agriculture to flourish in previously untapped regions.

Grafting Developments: One plant produces a desirable crop; another is known for its stronger root system. Cutting the root sections off both plants and then grafting the strongest bottom with the most desirable top yields a plant with the greatest ability to thrive and produce.

Giacomelli said that the concept’s extensive European and Asian success has taken root in the United States over the past five years.

These and many more fascinating developments are propelling protected agriculture ever higher in productivity and resource efficiency. Once reserved solely for rulers and wealthy aristocrats, greenhouses now serve the objectives of massive commercial operations as well as the small-scale ambitions of local market growers.

Giacomelli points to the expansion of urban agriculture as evidence of how greenhouse technologies are enabling anyone with a green thumb to produce something fresh and edible.

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An Uncertain Harvest Immigration and agriculture

By Eric Tegler n 2014, America once again, unwillingly, revisited the question of immigration. It is, frankly, a fraught topic, steeped in complexity, special interest, national identity, international relations, stereotypes, and morality. Squarely bordered within the broader issue is the business and culture of agriculture.

Migrant agricultural labor – legal and illegal – stretches well back into American history. However, the origins of the contemporary landscape of migrant agricultural labor date to the 1920s, when illegal immigration was the subject of heated congressional debates. Edward H. Dowell, vice president of the California Federation of Labor, testified before the U.S. Senate Committee on Immigration in February of 1928 about the burden of the unrestricted flow of Mexican agricultural laborers on the state’s taxpayers, prisons, hospitals, and American workers’ wages.

The Emergency Quota Act of 1921 and successive federal legislation reduced legal immigration for foreign nationals except Mexicans and Northern Europeans. Immigration dropped sharply during the Great Depression, but the trend reversed during World War II, when the federal government set up a program (the Bracero Program) to import Mexican laborers to work temporarily in agriculture, primarily in the Southwest. The goal was to import foreign workers during agricultural harvest and then encourage them to go home.

During the Bracero Program (concluded in 1964), a parallel rise in illegal immigration occurred, driven in part by agricultural demand for cheap, unskilled labor. As successive legal immigration legislation, such as the 1965 Immigration Act, was put in place over the years, illegal migration for agricultural work continued apace, a phenomenon reflected in U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) and U.S. Department of Labor statistics.

According to the Farm Labor Survey (FLS) of the USDA’s National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS), the annual average number of people employed as hired farmworkers, including agricultural service workers, decreased slightly from 1,142,000 in 1990 to 1,032,000 in 2007. In the years since it has held steady at just above 1 million. The 2012 total was 1,063,000, of which 576,000 were full-year positions, 199,000 were part-year positions, and an estimated 288,000 were agricultural service workers brought to farms by contractors.

The Department of Labor’s National Agricultural Workers Survey (NAWS) found that the share of hired crop farmworkers

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not legally authorized to work in the United States grew from roughly 15 percent in 1989-91 to almost 55 percent in 19992001. It has subsequently fluctuated around 50 percent. Since 2001, the share of farmworkers who are citizens has increased from approximately 21 percent to about 33 percent, while the share who hold green cards or other forms of work authorization has fallen from about 25 percent to about 19 percent.

The vast majority of farmworkers (approximately two-thirds) are from Mexico. According to the NAWS, the proportion of hired crop farmworkers born in the United States or Puerto Rico fell from about 40 percent in 1989-91 to a low of approximately 18 percent in 1998-2000, while the share born in Mexico rose from 54 percent to 79 percent over the same period. Since 2000, the U.S. and Puerto Rican share has rebounded and the Mexican share has fallen to about 68 percent.

Contrary to popular perception, the share from Central America and other countries has never exceeded 6 percent.

Concurrently, the share of Hispanic, mostly Mexican, workers in the dairy industry has increased significantly, according to the USDA Economic Research Service.

The Great Recession affected farm employment less than non-farm employment, according to the Bureau of Economic Analysis. While employment fell 4.7 percent for the non-farm economy between 2007 and 2009, farm wage and salary employment fell by 1.5 percent. The USDA states that unemployment rates for hired farmworkers, as with other major occupational groups, more than doubled between 2007 and 2010, to 15.9 percent. However, employment levels for hired

Mexican farmworkers who have been accepted for farm labor in the United States through the Bracero Program, circa 1942-1945. The Bracero Program was established by the U.S. government to bring temporary farmworkers from Mexico to the United States.

National Archives and Records Administration

immigration & agriculture

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

immigration & agriculture

farmworkers did not decrease over this period. This apparent contradiction may arise due to greater turnover in the farm labor market and a larger number of former farmworkers rejoining the labor force. Overall, the agriculture labor population remains a small proportion of the U.S. labor force. The 2 million-plus individuals who work on farms for wages sometime during a typical year were less than 2 percent of the 156 million U.S. workers with work experience in 2012, according to Philip Martin, Ph.D., chair of the California Comparative Immigration & Integration Program at the University of California-Davis.

Baldemar Velasquez has worked with this “2 percent” his entire life as a crop worker, a noted labor activist, and Farm Labor Organizing Committee (FLOC) founder and president.

Born into the migrant labor community in the United States, Velasquez gained respect and notoriety for successfully organizing farmworkers and negotiating collective bargaining deals with manufacturers like Campbell’s Soup Company in the 1980s and 1990s.

More recently, Velasquez and the FLOC negotiated a three-way collective bargaining agreement between North Carolina-based Mt. Olive Pickle Company, the North Carolina Growers Association, and H-2A Guest Program workers in North Carolina. The agreement is particularly notable in a state where unionization efforts of any kind are rare, much less one that organizes foreign workers.

“We were duplicating previous supply-chain agreements we had signed with manufacturers in Ohio, cutting a deal that works for everybody – manufacturers, suppliers, and workers,” Velasquez said. “Mt. Olive was a champion of the guest worker program, recognizing that most of the agricultural workers in

Migrant workers delicately lift and separate the greens from large sweet potatoes at Kirby Farms in Mechanicsville, Virginia, on Sept.

20, 2013. The majority of hired farmworkers in the United States are from Mexico.

the area were undocumented and the need for documenting workers. Most of their suppliers were members of the North Carolina Growers Association, which specialized in [administrating] undocumented workers. Because of all of these forces, Mt. Olive ended up brokering a meeting and signing a collective agreement.”

North Carolina has one of the highest percentages of H-2A workers in the United States and the North Carolina Growers Association is the largest user of H-2A workers in the country.

Undocumented workers like those in the H-2A program are not guaranteed the labor rights of U.S. citizens, so private agreements must be struck to confer similar rights unless prevailing laws require equal treatment. In some states like California, equal treatment is required and some labor laws, workers’ compensation for example, make no distinction between legal and illegal workers.

President Barack Obama’s executive order on deportation puts the FLOC’s North Carolina agreement in a potentially different light. More broadly, it is still being assessed by the agricultural industry. Its constitutionality and implementation are open questions, as are its details.

Could it promote stability and open the door to large-scale unionization? Groups like the powerful Western Growers Association are uncertain. While it might create a more

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immigration & agriculture

AP photo/Scott Smith

Farmworkers Jesus Zuniga, center, and Tranquilino Ruiz, who holds a United Farm Workers flag, watch President Barack Obama’s speech on immigration on television at a Fresno, California, community center on Nov. 20, 2014. The fate of Obama’s executive order – and its potential effects – on immigration are uncertain.

stable workforce, the association is not clear on whether the action would mean more or less enforcement/compliance by U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) and what reporting/documentation issues might arise.

“It turns out to be quite complicated for how this might shake down for agriculture,” said Thomas Hertz, Ph.D., an economist in the Rural Economy Branch of the Resource and Rural Economics Division of the USDA’s Economic Research Service.

“That could be why the Western Growers Association hasn’t come out strongly [on the issue] one way or another.”

Whether the president’s executive order goes forward as envisioned or not, the guest workers organized by the FLOC in North Carolina increasingly fit into an agricultural production model that is becoming more integrated by the year. Martin affirms that farm employment is increasingly concentrated, increasingly full-time, and a potentially larger share is covered by unemployment insurance (UI).

The farm labor workforce is trending older and is polarized into high- and low-skilled workers. Changes in crop production driven by consumer demand are accelerating the adoption of technology and a preference for guest worker arrangements.

“Farm employment is concentrated on a relatively few large farms,” Martin acknowledged.

Martin points out that, specifically, the largest 10 percent of farm employers hire 60 to 80 percent of U.S. farmworkers.

The 2012 Census of Agriculture (COA) reported that 7 percent of U.S. farms, about 41,000, hired 10 or more workers and accounted for almost 60 percent of all workers hired directly by farmers. It’s logical to assume that the concentration of farm work may give growers increasing market power with respect to labor, but that it may also create conditions more favorable to potential unionization.

Full-time equivalent jobs are also increasing. Martin points to data that show 566,000 U.S. farms reported $27 billion in expenses for hired farm labor in COA 2012, and 217,000 farms reported $6.5 billion in contract labor expenses, making total expenditures on farm labor $33.5 billion. Based on calculations using the average hourly earnings of U.S. farmworkers in 2012, Martin added: “The estimated number of hours worked by hired farmworkers is almost 2.9 billion, making the number of full-time equivalent (2,000 hours) farmworker jobs 1.4 million in 2012, up 17 percent from 1.2 million in 2007.”

Similar calculations using state-level data suggest 3.1 billion hours worked in 2012, up 11 percent from 2.8 billion in 2007.

USDA data showing that almost all new entrants to the farm workforce have been unauthorized Mexicans over the past two decades is amplified regionally, according to Hertz.

“If you look at new workers, in California fruit and vegetables, new-hires might be 70-80 percent unauthorized. It’s partly a question of where you’re looking.”

Despite new arrivals from Mexico, the average age of crop workers rose to 37 in 2011-12. An overall slowdown in new entrants is cited as a factor by Martin. Velasquez points to consistent turnover among crop workers. After gaining experience, younger workers often leave agriculture to seek other employment.

The polarization of agricultural labor skills – with a large population of unskilled laborers on the bottom (according to NAWS, crop workers had an average eight years schooling in 2011-12) and many university-educated professionals with accounting and managerial jobs at the top – may encourage turnover as well.

Changes in labor demand patterns may be affecting hired farmworker demographics as well. The NAWS shows that more workers are settled in one location and that crop workers are doing more farm work, an average 35 weeks in 2011-12.

According to Martin and the USDA, they’re also becoming more similar to non-farmworkers, commuting from nonfarm housing to jobs with one farm employer. The USDA calls these workers “shuttlers,” distinct from traditional migrant workers who “followed the crop” in the past. Those workers, the USDA says, are now a relative rarity.

According to Martin, the average hourly earnings of U.S. farmworkers in 2012 was $11.52 an hour. The USDA’s Farm Labor Survey breaks that figure down further, showing the real average hourly earnings of non-supervisory farm laborers fluctuating between $10.50 and $10.80 since 2007 (in constant inflation-adjusted dollars, at 2012 prices).

Real farmworker wages have risen at 0.8 percent per year

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CAFNR

College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources

Using center-pivot irrigation rather than flooding to grow rice greatly increases the land on which the crop can be cultivated. The technique can reduce water use by 30 percent or more, according to Gene Stevens, Extension professor of plant sciences, pictured below. Studies at the University of Missouri’s Fisher Delta Research Center, part of the College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, on this new use for an American innovation, are working to greatly increasing the world’s production of rice – a primary food staple in many countries across the globe. cafnr.missouri.edu

Irrigation water use is reduced by

30% or more by growing rice under a center pivot.

Over half of the rice consumed in the United States is American grown.

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5

80%

immigration & agriculture

since 1990. Despite the slow wage growth, farm labor average hourly earnings exceeded the highest minimum wages in the United States in 2014.

Technology and alternative labor arrangements are gradually working their way into the farm labor market. A relatively recent expansion in demand for labor-intensive berries and other crops has stimulated additional demand for workers in some regions. Coupled with fewer new agricultural laborers, Martin said the demand is prompting efforts to mechanize, to develop mechanical aids that make farm work easier, and to hire more guest workers via the H-2A program.

Though overall demand for labor has risen, there have recently been offsetting factors from crop choices to drought, particularly in California, Hertz explained.

“Crops which are out of fashion, like peaches for canning, have impact on labor demand. There are parts of California where they have all the labor that they need given drought conditions and other factors. However, there are other parts like Northern California where the cost of housing is so expensive that they can’t get workers up there. The wine country in Sonoma and environs has been having trouble attracting labor.

Regional cost of living is a real issue for agricultural workers.”

A Fair Day’s Pay and an Executive Order The contours of agricultural labor described above may slowly be changing. But as the title of this piece suggests, in both cases, the “harvest” is uncertain.

Given the rare collective bargaining agreement that the FLOC struck in North Carolina in 2008, we asked Velasquez if unionization might stabilize the local labor force and give rise to other macro-economic benefits, thereby signaling a trend.

“It doesn’t matter whether workers are H-2A, legal, or undocumented,” Velasquez said. “There’s a lot of turnover in the industry. There are cases where legal/illegal workers work for the same farmer for quite a number of years. But in many cases, it’s a very mobile, elusive labor supply that can be here today, gone tomorrow.”

Conceding that turnover is higher among undocumented workers, the FLOC’s president opined that, “A guest worker will probably give a grower more dependability because their visa is tied to the employer.” But he noted that since H-2A workers who leave their employers technically become undocumented, the program effectively limits mobility, making guest workers a captive labor force.

The FLOC’s long-held goal is essentially to unionize agricultural workers, but also to promote stability and the idea of farm labor as a professional, market-driven pursuit.

“Our job in organizing these folks is to create stability and a professional workforce,” Velasquez explained. “Somebody’s got to finish and harvest the crops. Workers need a fair day’s pay for a fair day’s work. We’re not talking about handouts and welfare programs, we’re talking proper remuneration for back-breaking work which is not appreciated in this country or by the agricultural industry.”

What effect the president’s executive action might have on efforts to unionize agricultural labor as well as a variety of other issues is, as we’ve noted, being debated within and without the agriculture industry. Many have expressed uncertainty about the action’s potential impact on migrant workers.

Velasquez has no such doubt: “It won’t have an impact. I can say that flatly.”

The 1986 amnesty granted by President Ronald Reagan in the Immigration Reform and Control Act, like previous reforms, did not generate momentum for collective bargaining, Velasquez said. He contends that the existing industry supply chain design prohibits collective bargaining possibilities and that, even if legislation passed, employers would have to act to permit unionization.

“I told immigration advocates in the 1980s the issue in agriculture is the exploitation and marginalization of the supply chain driven by manufacturers and large retailers.”

Nor would the executive action likely stem the tide of immigration, according to the FLOC founder.

“This won’t solve the U.S.-Mexico immigration problem.

They refuse to look at the labor supply like a market like they do with everything else in our trade agreements with Mexico and Central America.”

Velasquez argues that trade agreements like the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) not only separated the labor market from overall free-market supply-demand forces, they have displaced Mexican farmers, who have been unable to effectively compete with highly subsidized, technologically advanced American producers.

“The more products you began to eliminate tariffs on, the more migration began to increase. In terms of corn alone, you displaced 2 to 3 million corn farmers and their families in Mexico. What do you think they’re going to do?”

While some displacement may have occurred, the role of Mexico itself – where collective bargaining and workers’ rights conditions in agriculture lag far behind the United States – cannot be dismissed. “Frankly, overall it’s a very dim picture when it comes to labor rights in Mexico,” Velasquez said.

If a freer market for migrant agricultural labor were designed, would it touch off higher labor costs? Velasquez believes that if it did, American consumers might be willing to pay the price, citing increased demand from consumers for products certified for humane treatment of animals and low environmental impact. It’s an assumption that would have to be tested. The issue of increasing mechanization and its effect on labor won’t require assumptions, Velasquez said.

“That’s going to happen regardless of the cost of labor because manufacturers are continually looking for ways to make production more high tech. That will happen whether there are unions or not, whether there are high wage earners or not. Frankly, in agriculture, some of the jobs that we do are jobs that machines ought to be doing.”

Technology is yet another factor, along with economics, national sovereignty, societal corruption, education, and more, in what for agricultural workers looks to be an uncertain harvest for years to come.

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U.S. pork production

Thinning the Herd Are large pork producers edging out their smaller competition?

By Jan Tegler

he answer to that question, put to us by the editors of this edition of U.S. Agriculture Outlook, in a word is – yes.

Less than five decades ago, there were more than 1 million hog farms in America. Today, the number hovers just above 63,000, according to the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Census of Agriculture. Moreover, the Census and other sources reveal that the annual number of hogs and pigs raised has more than doubled since 1987 – a period during which the total number of domestic hog farms has decreased by roughly 75 percent.

USDA data for 2013 indicates that the industry is larger in economic terms as well, with gross income for 2013 measured at more than $23.4 billion a historic high. Looking forward, the Department of Agriculture forecasts a record 10.9 million tons worth of domestic pork production for 2015. By any metric, American pork is more abundant than ever but the herd of small traditional producers has thinned severely, losing market share to larger, commercial entities.

Consolidation is prevalent in nearly every industry throughout the developed world, driven by global demand, technological progress, economies of scale, flows of investment, and other competitive forces. Thus, it comes as no surprise that agriculture, while unique in some regards relative to other industries, mirrors the trend toward fewer, larger players across all of its major sectors, including pork production.

The ongoing inversion of the U.S. pork industry is a phenomenon that overtook it more rapidly than most realize. To understand how quickly the change came about, we chatted with industry experts in academia and at the USDA, and with producers themselves. We also asked the question, is there a role for small pork producers in the future?

T

The Way We Were “We had as many as a million hog farms as recently as 1967,” said Ron Plain, Ph.D., professor of agricultural economics and extension economist at the University of Missouri. “We’re now down to 63,000 or so today. There was a very quick decline in the number of producers in the 1980s and 1990s. Technology was the key driver of change.”

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In the decades following the 1960s, technology – specifically swine nutrition – advanced to the point that hog production could move from pasture to barn, Plain explained.

“As long as pigs were outdoors, it was difficult to put together a really large-scale operation successfully. Once pigs were moved indoors, the cost-effectiveness of large buildings began to take over and we got what followed – fewer hog farms and larger operations.”

Christopher Hurt, Ph.D., professor of agricultural economics at Purdue University, concurred, attesting that “it only took about 15 years [1985 to 2000] for the industry to move from a primarily family farm business to an industrial-scale industry dominated by large corporate producers.”

Indeed, Hurt penned a widely respected article in 1994 chronicling the “Industrialization in the Pork Industry.” As he notes, structural change in agriculture had come earlier to other sectors. The poultry industry, for example, had moved toward vertical integration in the 1950s. It was expected that the pork industry would follow suit, but change didn’t really occur in rapid fashion until the 1980s.

Examining industry data, Hurt illustrated just how quickly change was overtaking the pork business.

“In 1980, 670,000 farms produced hogs. Only 236,000 such farms remain. Just think – that’s a 65 percent out-migration in a 14-year period,” Hurt wrote in his 1994 article.

Posing the question – “Who is leaving the industry?” – Hurt concluded that small farms were migrating away from pork production in huge numbers.

“Of the 434,000 farms that have left the industry since 1980, most (85 percent) had [fewer] than 100 hogs in inventory. The remainder were under 500 head of inventory,” Hurt wrote.

The industrialization, specialization, and verticalization of the commercial pork industry became apparent just as quickly, according to Hurt. The emergence of megahog operations (integrators), a rapid surge in contract production, and movement toward vertical coordination of production and processing combined with an inflow of capital from investors attracted by the structural shift in the sector.

In addition, the geographic concentration of pork production began to change, Hurt noted. North Carolina, long known for its integrated poultry industry, led the trend toward industrialization.

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

U.S. pork production

While traditional hog production remained centered in the hog-corn belt of the Midwest, Smithfield Foods (America’s No. 1 pork producer today, boasting the largest slaughterhouse and meat-processing plant in the world) opened new, specialized facilities in North Carolina in the 1980s. The firm focused on vertical integration in pig production, allowing it to control the development of its pork from conception to packing.

Smithfield’s megahog operation was a clarion call among many signals to the rest of the industry. Pork production was changing. Farmers had to decide whether they were large enough and had potential to expand and keep pace or leave the business. As we’ve already illustrated, most small, traditional operators departed.

The Freese family is a good example. Betsy Freese, the executive editor of Successful Farming magazine and author of the annual “Top 25 U.S. Pork Powerhouses” report, grew up on a hog farm in northeastern Maryland.

“What has been eliminated for the most part are the commercial farms like the one I grew up on in the 1960s and 1970s,” she said. “We had 120 sows, farrow to finish. We sold our hogs to Hatfield Packing (now Country View Family Farms) in Philadelphia for market hogs.

“Basically no one has a commercial farm of that size anymore,” she continued. “You can’t make a living. My

The last several decades have seen a steady decline in the number of small farms producing pork and an increase in the number of farms with 5,000-plus head of hogs. At the same time, the number of hogs and pigs raised in the United States has doubled since 1987.

father quit raising hogs in the mid-1990s. It was hard for him to even get a slot with a commercial packer. Unless you had enough production that you were able to send a trailer load of market hogs per month, they didn’t want to mess with you.”

Freese added that the shift she experienced on the East Coast was mirrored all over the Midwest.

“There used to be hog buying stations scattered around Iowa where small family farmers would take their market hogs.

Once the station gathered maybe a couple hundred hogs from five or six different farmers, they would take those to the plant.

Those stations are gone.”

Bigger Is Better The USDA’s Census of Agriculture, compiled by the department’s National Agricultural Statistics Service every five years

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U.S. pork production

A sign outside of the headquarters campus of Smithfield Foods, Inc., in Smithfield, Virginia. Smithfield Foods is America’s No. 1 pork producer today.

since the mid-1980s, provides a range of data that readily illustrates the structural shift in the pork industry and the decline of small commercial hog farms.

Using the “Hogs and Pigs – Sales” data set, a good metric for commercial hog production, one can observe the downward spiral as industrialization took hold. In 1987, the total number of farms with hog and pig sales was 238,819.

The Ag Census records for 1997, 2002, 2007, and 2012 tell the rest of the story, with numbers of farms dropping as follows: 112,377; 82,028; 74,789; and to the present 55,882.

Drilling down into the data further, we see that the number of commercial hog farms with sales of 5,000 or more head increases steadily, from 1,630 in 1987 to 7,302 in 2012.

Meanwhile, the total number of hogs and pigs sold rises from 96,569,359 in 1987 to 199,115,305 in 2012, more than doubling in 25 years – that, despite two major recessions during the period.

Moving in the opposite direction were operations with fewer than 100 hogs. In 1987, the total was 59,891. By 2012, the total had dropped to 37,470. Significantly, the vast majority of operations with fewer than 100 head were farms with one to 24 hogs. And as Plain observed, those numbers don’t tell the full story.

“If you look at the census data, the big chunk of those small operators are really micro-farms with fewer than 25 head of hogs. A lot of them are simply 4-H or FSA [USDA Farm Service Agency] projects – people raising pigs for the experience or to show at a county fair.

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“The amount of pork we produce in the U.S. increases on average about 1.5 percent per year,” Plain added. “That’s been true for more than 80 years. And the amount of pork produced for consumption has steadily grown throughout the transition period. It’s just that now, that pork is being produced on far fewer farms than was the case 30 years ago.”

Further insight into just how marginal small commercial hog farms are is evident in the observations of Hurt and Freese.

“The largest 25 pork companies are about 60 percent of the breeding herd, but maybe around 65 percent of U.S. production,” Hurt said. “And that is just the biggest 25.”

Freese’s “Top 25 U.S. Pork Powerhouses” report lists the biggest producers by number of sows. With a total of 3,312,500 among them for 2014, the Top 25 grew by 132,650 sows or 3 percent from 2013.

Quoting the report, “They did this by purchasing existing farms, building new sow farms, increasing the sow density in existing farms, or revamping sow farms that had been sitting empty. All in all, 70,000 of the added sows, or 52 percent, were new to the industry.”

Smithfield Foods is No. 1 on the Top 25 list, roughly double the size of the second-largest producer, Triumph Foods. Wellknown agribusiness names like Cargill, Maxwell Foods, Tyson Foods, and Hormel Foods predominate, but there are large family-owned operators on the list, too. Make no mistake, however: The big family-owned operations are on a very similar business footing as the more widely known commercial players, said Freese.

“You incorporate not because you’re big and integrated and massive, but for liability, etc.,” Freese explained. “Maschhoffs [The Maschhoffs] claims to be the largest family-owned hog farm. Christensen Farms, part of Triumph Foods, are probably the second-largest family-owned company in the pork industry. They are tightly controlled and owned by family members, but have a large number of employees and focus on large-scale professional production like the integrators.”

These family-run titans are the exception, though. As Freese pointed out, just because a major pork producer has “family”

Kristoffer Tripplaar/ Sipa USA

There used to be hog buying stations scattered around Iowa where small family farmers would take their market hogs. Once the station gathered maybe a couple hundred hogs from five or six different farmers, they would take those to the plant. Those stations are gone.

U.S. pork production

attached to its name doesn’t mean mom and pop are behind the operation. Country View Family Farms is a good example, she said.

“That’s Hatfield Packing out of Philadelphia. They took their production side and gave it this fuzzy name. That’s done so the consumer thinks, ‘These are family farms.’ In this case, it’s strictly vertical integration – all owned by Hatfield Packing.”

The contemporary structure of the hog industry is as follows, according to Freese: At the top are integrated producers. These are complemented by a much smaller but still sizeable segment of contract producers – farmers who raise hogs for the integrators. This segment has grown too over the last 25 years.

“Some of them would own sows but usually they are just feeding hogs on contract,” Freese noted. “Then there’s the very small subset that own hogs for organic production or show-pigs.”

Niche Pork In answer to the question – what role is left for small pork producers? – everyone we spoke with was in agreement. Niche markets such as those that favor organic/specialty pork or the show-pig industry are where producers with fewer than 400 sows can carve out business.

As in many other businesses, niche or “boutique” products command a premium. The higher margin makes doing business on a small scale possible. The domestic market for organic foods has grown significantly in the last decade as some American consumers join the movement to meat produced without hormones or growth promoters.

But specialty or organic pork is also attractive to foreign markets. More than 20 percent of American pork production is sold for export. A slice of that market is devoted to pork that Americans don’t generally consume.

Berkshire hogs are purebred swine derived from a unique stock in Berkshire, England. Originally exported to the United States in the early 19th century, this purebred animal was introduced to improve the quality of American herds. By 1875, the American Berkshire Association (ABA) was founded to maintain the breed purity of Berkshires via a national registry.

In the decades that followed, American pork producers emphasized carcass leanness while sacrificing meat quality.

Consequently, Berkshire pork, like many other heirloom styles, all but vanished from the domestic table. But the ABA has worked for more than a century to “protect pedigree integrity and promote the importance of purebred animals.”

There is a growing taste for Berkshire pork once more in America and ABA now counts 700 members nationally.

According to association spokesperson Amy Smith, about

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USDA ARS photo

U.S. pork production

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

Above: A sow nurses her litter of piglets. Small pork producers average fewer piglets per litter than larger hog farms, which translates into fewer pigs they can produce to sell.

Right: Third generation farmer C.J. Isbell takes pride in the feed and the way he raises his pigs in pastures at Keenbell Farm, Rockville, Virginia. With interest in locally and organically raised foods growing, Isbell finds it a challenge to expand fast enough to meet demands for his pasture-raised pigs.

half of the members produce Berkshire for meat and sell commercially to farmers’ markets, high-end restaurants, and supermarket chains. They also sell significant quantities to the Japanese.

“A lot of our pork is exported to Japan but the domestic side is also growing,” she said. “The Japanese like highquality meat across the board. Where Americans are kind of afraid of marbling in prime beef and pork, the Japanese look for that.”

Maria Kawulych and her husband, Donald Longenecker, owners of Creek Place Farms in Bowmansville, Pennsylvania, raise 110-140 Berkshires per month for commercial sale with an average herd of 145 sows. The two founded Creek Place Farms together and operate it strictly as a business, selling most of their Berkshires for breeding stock.

“We’ve developed our part in this niche market,” Kawulych said. “We now sell predominantly what are known as feeder pigs. It’s basically a starter pig for people. We do all our own breeding in house, the farrowing or birthing and raise the hogs to a certain age. At that point we sell them. Then the buyer finishes them. From there they go directly to CSAs [community supported agriculture], farmers’ markets or specialty boutiques, or to restaurants in New York.”

Like most on the specialty side of the industry, Kawulych and Longenecker are passionate about their organic production, raising purebred hogs that reproduce in smaller numbers than industry-raised pigs and take longer to reach maturity and breeding age. While that limits output, it does yield the quality demanded by premium customers, and, Kawulych believes, fuels the market.

“I think we’ve just scratched the surface,” she affirmed.

“I think there’s so much opportunity not just in Berkshire but in niche pork as a whole. Producing products closer to where they will be consumed is cost-effective and adds value for customers. So many people want a local source. From a food-safety standpoint, the closer it can be produced to its consumer, the safer it is.”

Other purebred swine are growing in popularity as well.

Pasture-raised pork is also gaining traction – an interesting return to the tradition the industry abandoned and yet another niche. The show-pig industry is not to be ignored either, Freese argued.

“It’s a separate industry from the commercial producers, but there are a lot of people who have smaller farms selling show pigs for 4-H and FSA. They wind up as pork too.”

Outlook While there does seem to be a role for small producers in niche markets, pork experts are unanimous when it comes to the future structure of the industry. Consolidation will continue.

“We have written regarding how the industrial model of animal production is expected to dominate globally in the future,” Hurt stressed. “Looking ahead, the biggest growth potential is going to be in global chicken and pork production.”

Plain agrees the trend toward larger operations will continue and points to a prime driver of the growth.

“As the size of the hog farm goes up, the number of pigs per litter goes up. That’s one reason it’s very difficult for small farms to stay in business. Last year, those that had fewer than 100-head of hogs in inventory averaged 7.75 pigs per litter. Farms with 5,000-head of hogs or more averaged 10.28 pigs per litter. So the large operations have 2.5 more pigs per litter to sell than the smaller farms and that nets a lot more money. That also drives investment toward larger operations.”

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interview with phil karsting

Interview:

Phil Karsting, Administrator, Foreign Agricultural Service

hil Karsting was appointed administrator of the Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) in May 2013.

He served more than 22 years on Capitol Hill, most recently as chief of staff to Sen. Herb Kohl, D-Wis., then-chairman of the Senate Appropriations Subcommittee on Agriculture, Rural Development, Food and Drug Administration, and Related Agencies.

Previous Capitol Hill assignments include serving as senior analyst on the staff of the Senate Budget Committee, where he handled issues relating to agriculture, rural development, housing, telecommunications, energy, and the environment.

Concurrent with his duties as administrator of FAS, he serves as: vice president of the Commodity Creditor Corporation (CCC), chair of the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Interagency Coordinating Committee on International Agriculture, and as an adviser to USDA’s task force on Historically Black Colleges and Universities.

He began his association with American agriculture working in his family’s farm supply business in rural Nebraska. He received a bachelor’s degree in agricultural economics from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln. He is also a graduate of the International Culinary Institute in New York.

P

U.S. Agriculture Outlook: Fiscal year 2014 was a banner year for food and ag exports, reaching an impressive $152.5 billion and supporting 1 million U.S. jobs. What is the general outlook for next year?

Phil Karsting: Ag exports in fiscal year 2014 were the highest on record and we are very proud of that at FAS. Initial projections for fiscal year 2015 forecast exports to reach $144.5 billion, a decline from [2014], but still the secondhighest year for U.S. agricultural exports in history. Most of this decline is a result of falling commodity prices in light of expected record U.S. corn and soybean crops this year. We anticipate especially strong export performance for horticultural products, including fruits, vegetables, and nuts, which are forecast to surpass grain and feed exports in value for the first time in history.

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Funding for the Market Access Program and Foreign Market Development Program lapsed, and both programs were temporarily suspended in 2013 due to lack of a Farm Bill. How important is it to have these export programs now back in place?

At its core, FAS is all about creating new opportunity for U.S. farmers and ranchers so that they can sustain and grow their businesses and, in turn, foster economic growth in our rural communities. Thanks to the 2014 Farm Bill, we have the tools to continue that work.

Since 2009, we’ve helped approximately 70 U.S. agricultural producer organizations – each representing hundreds or thousands of producers – expand commercial export markets for their goods through the Foreign Market Development and Market Access Programs.

Collaboratively, we engage in a wide variety of activities that help their members build markets for their products. We work together to help them research markets, find foreign buyers, and participate in trade missions and shows.

An independent study demonstrated that U.S. agricultural exports increased by $6.1 billion as a result of the increased joint investment in foreign market development by government and industry during the 2002-09 time frame studied. Overall, U.S. agricultural exports have increased $35 for every additional market development dollar expended by government and industry.

Why is international trade so important to agriculture?

Twenty percent of U.S. farm income comes from exports.

That’s incredibly significant. International trade affects the bottom line – either directly or indirectly – of nearly every farmer and rancher in America. As we look to the future, we know that U.S. products are recognized worldwide for their quality and safety, and we expect this number to continue to grow as our world becomes more interconnected and trade becomes even more prevalent.

Can you tell us a little bit about the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP) and its importance relative to U.S. agricultural exports?

interview with phil karsting

USDA photo by Ken Hammond

U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) Foreign Agricultural Service (FAS) Administrator Phil Karsting.

The Asia-Pacific region is critical to U.S. agriculture. Our agricultural exports to TPP countries totaled more than $61 billion and accounted for more than 40 percent of our total in 2013.

We believe that growing consumer purchasing power in that part of the world will continue fueling demand for high-quality agricultural exports.

Yet the United States has very few preferential trade agreements compared to our competitors in the region. For example: • The EU [European Union] has or is working on several trade agreements with Asian countries.

• In April, two of our TPP partners – Australia and Japan – reached an economic partnership agreement.

• The 10 ASEAN [Association of Southeast Asian Nations] nations already have preferential trade agreements among themselves and with six other countries in the region. And there’s a regional partnership in the works that would further liberalize trade among those 16 nations.

The United States risks getting left behind. That is why we are pursuing a TPP agreement that will reduce existing tariff and non-tariff obstacles, clearing a path for even more U.S. agricultural exports to the region.

To get the most out of trade agreements like TPP, we need Congress to take action on Trade Promotion Authorit y ( T PA). T hrough T PA , Congress outlines high - standard objectives and priorities for U.S. negotiators to pursue in trade agreements, which helps build consensus on U.S. trade policy. TPA will help ensure that America’s farmers, ranchers, and food processors receive the greatest benefit from the Trans-Pacific Partnership, the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership (T-TIP), and other trade negotiations.

How does the “Made in Rural America” initiative connect rural producers to international markets?

Just 1 percent of U.S. companies export; we want to change that by capitalizing on demand for quality American products. Ninety-five percent of the world’s consumers live outside the borders of the United States. We think this creates a significant opportunity for our exporters, particularly rural businesses in the food and agriculture sectors.

The administration’s Made in Rural America initiative, launched

by President [Barack] Obama at the 2014 Farm Bill signing, will help

rural entrepreneurs access federal resources so they can connect with new customers and markets abroad.

We want to position America’s farmers and ranchers so they can capitalize on emerging export markets and continue driving economic growth in rural America.

We’re connecting rural innovators with government export resources through streamlined websites, trained staff, and regional forums. Tools and counseling are now more available for rural businesses looking to connect with foreign buyers or participate in trade events and promotions, like trade shows and missions.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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interview with phil karsting

USDA photo by Lance Cheung

USDA FAS Administrator Phil Karsting speaks at the U.S. Agricultural Export Development Council (USAEDC) Conference in Alexandria, Virginia, on July 10, 2013.

I had the privilege of attending a Made in Rural America Forum in Portland, Oregon, last fall. It was inspiring to see in person how our resources can help rural Americans pursue new markets, increase their business, and become more competitive in the global economy.

Demand for organic products is a growing market, especially in Canada and Mexico. How has the USDA streamlined trade with foreign governments to help open new markets for organic farmers and handlers in the United States?

USDA has worked to make the trade of organic products a much easier process. Under the Obama administration, the United States has established organic trade arrangements with Canada, the European Union, Japan, and, most recently, Korea.

Before these agreements, growers and companies wanting

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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interview with phil karsting

Phil Karsting, FAS administrator, listens as Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack replies to a question posed by Owen Paterson, Secretary of State for Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, United Kingdom (not pictured), during a discussion on agricultural production and trade at the USDA in Washington, D.C., June 30, 2014.

efficiently produced elsewhere. Beyond helping to keep local food prices affordable, trade also helps to buffer the impact when a country’s domestic production is affected by things like drought or flood.

A focus on predictable, rules-based trade helps promote both investment and innovation. Trade fosters greater competition, so food is produced where it can be most efficiently grown. Thus, farmers can maximize their productivity and the quality and value of the food they produce, while minimizing costs to consumers. Strong, integrated agricultural markets increase the availability of safe and nutritious food, and expand economic growth.

USDA photo by Bob Nichols

to trade organic products had to obtain separate certifications to two different standards, which meant a double set of fees, inspections, and paperwork. It was a huge limit on trade. Now, if a product is certified organic by one party, it can be sold as certified organic across the border in a partner country, without going through that second certification process.

FAS food aid and trade capacity building programs create new oppor tuni t ies for trade and economic growth by establishing and strengthening market-oriented policies and structures in developing countries. What is the significance of helping to build

agricultural capacity in developing countries?

Economic growth in developing countries is strongly tied to agricultural productivity and we know from experience that economic growth is good for agricultural trade. Recent studies suggest that every 1 percent increase in agricultural income per capita reduces the number of people living in extreme poverty by between 0.6 and 1.8 percent.

From a global food security perspective, it is not sufficient to focus on food production alone. It is equally important to consider agricultural trade as a key component of achieving food security.

Simply put, trade enables countries to access food products that are more

Any additional thoughts or comments?

The Foreign Agricultural Service is charged with empowering U.S. farmers, ranchers, and food processors to be as competitive as possible in the global economy. As such, we have a presence in over 90 countries around the world.

These offices are staffed by agricultural attachĂŠs and locally hired agricultural experts who are the eyes, ears, and voice for U.S. agriculture around the world. They handle a range of issues, from helping us determine world crop numbers to resolving trade problems.

They promote American products abroad and work with other governments to broaden the market for U.S. imports. We have made great progress expanding international trade, and a large part of that is owed to the FAS staff on the ground around the world, along with our Washington, D.C., staff, working to elevate American businesses and trade.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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sustainable agriculture

The Big Picture Efforts to foster sustainability at all points along the food chain

By J.R. Wilson ustainability in the production, transport, processing, and sale of food – sometimes called farm-to-plate – is a concept that has created major programs at all levels along the food chain. But what it actually means and how it can or should be accomplished can vary from the perspectives of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), giant retailers such as Walmart Stores, the National Sustainable Agriculture Coalition (NSAC) – an alliance of “grassroots” organizations – global alliances such as The Sustainability Consortium® (TSC®), and the Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS).

According to federal law (U.S. Code Title 7, Section 3103), sustainable agriculture is an integrated system of plant and animal production practices with long-term, site-specific goals to:

S

124

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

• Satisfy human food and fiber needs • Enhance environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends • Make the most efficient use of nonrenewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural biological cycles and controls • Sustain the economic viability of farm operations • Enhance the quality of life for farmers and society as a whole “Sustainability rests on the principle that we must meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. Therefore, stewardship of both natural and human resources is of prime importance,” according to the University of California Sustainable Agriculture

NRCS photo by Sabrenna Bryant

sustainable agriculture

Research and Education Program. “A systems perspective is essential to understanding sustainability. The system is envisioned in its broadest sense, from the individual farm to the local ecosystem and to communities affected by this farming system, both locally and globally.

“An emphasis on the system allows a larger and more thorough view of the consequences of farming practices on both human communities and the environment. A systems approach gives us the tools to explore the interconnections between farming and other aspects of our environment. A systems approach also implies interdisciplinary efforts in research and education. This requires not only the input of researchers from various disciplines, but also farmers, farm workers, consumers, policymakers and others.”

In his book Sustainable Agriculture: An Introduction, published by the National Center for Appropriate Technology, NCAT program specialist Richard Earles defines sustainable agriculture as the production of abundant food without depleting the Earth’s resources or polluting the environment: “It is agriculture that follows the principles of nature to develop systems for raising crops and livestock that are, like nature, self-sustaining. Sustainable agriculture is

also the agriculture of social values, one whose success is indistinguishable from vibrant rural communities, rich lives for families on the farms and wholesome food for everyone. But in the first decade of the 21st Century, sustainable agriculture, as a set of commonly accepted practices or a model farm economy, is still in its infancy – more than an idea, but only just,” he wrote.

“Although sustainability in agriculture is tied to broader issues of the global economy, declining petroleum reserves and domestic food security, its midwives were not government policymakers but small farmers, environmentalists and a persistent cadre of agricultural scientists. These people saw the devastation that late 20th Century farming was causing to the very means of agricultural production – the water and soil – and so began a search for better ways to farm, an exploration that continues to this day.”

To achieve true sustainability, he postulates, the United States – and global agriculture, in general – must abandon the industrial production model adopted in the 20th century that created a “vertically integrated agri-business.” While that resulted in abundant, cheap food for U.S. consumers in the short term, it failed to acknowledge farms as biological systems, and rather treated them as mechanical, resulting in high production at the expense of degraded soil and water, reduced biodiversity necessary to food security, an increased dependence on imported oil, and more farm acreage moving from family farms to “Big Ag,” crippling rural communities in the process.

“In recent decades, sustainable farmers and researchers around the world have responded to the extractive industrial model with ecology-based approaches, variously called natural, organic, low-input, alternative, regenerative, holistic, biodynamic, biointensive and biological farming systems,” Earles wrote. “All of them, representing thousands of farms, have contributed to our understanding of what sustainable systems are. And each of them shares a vision of ‘farming with nature,’ an agro-ecology that promotes biodiversity, recycles plant nutrients, protects soil from erosion, conserves and protects water, uses minimum tillage and integrates crop and livestock enterprises on the farm.”

One approach to eco-friendly, year-round crop production is the “high tunnel” – essentially, an unheated greenhouse with a high roof, ranging from as small as 1,000 square feet to up to 20-plus acres. Using natural sunlight to modify the internal environment, high tunnels can be used to extend the growing season for fruits and vegetables, improving production stability by reducing the risk of crop failure due to bad weather, insects, water shortages, etc.

Ann Pringle Washington, right, and her family secured assistance through the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s (USDA) Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) to construct a seasonal high tunnel, enabling them to grow fresh produce year-round on their small farm in Eastover, South Carolina. High tunnels are one way to farm land in a more sustainable manner.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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sustainable agriculture

Courtesy of Walmart

In recent decades, sustainable farmers and researchers around the world have responded to the extractive industrial model with ecologybased approaches, variously called natural, organic, low-input, alternative, regenerative, holistic, biodynamic, biointensive and biological farming systems.

The USDA supports that approach through its Environmental Quality Incentives Program’s voluntary Seasonal High Tunnel Initiative, which helps producers improve plant, soil, and air quality and reduce nutrient, pesticide, and energy use while providing consumers with locally grown fresh produce. Since 2009, USDA’s National Resources Conservation Service has helped producers nationwide build nearly 10,000 high tunnels.

Walmart, one of the world’s largest food retailers, has created its own sustainability program and enlisted more than a dozen other corporations, environmental groups, farmers organizations, and investment companies – representing some $100 billion in Walmart sales – to collaborate on efforts from environmentally sound food production to better overall proficiencies to recycling.

“Walmart and our suppliers recognize that collaboration is the key to bringing sustainable solutions to all of our customers,” company president and CEO Doug McMillon told those groups at Walmart’s inaugural Sustainable Product Expo in April 2014.

“A great deal of innovative work is happening every day, but there are still too many gaps and missed opportunities. Today’s commitments are about creating real systems change from one end of the supply chain to the other – meaning how products are grown and made, how they’re transported and sold, and how we touch the lives of people along the way.”

Those joining the Walmart effort include: • Campbell Soup • Cargill • Coca-Cola • Conservation International • Dairy Farmers of America • Environmental Defense Fund • General Mills • Goldman Sachs • Johnson & Johnson • Kellogg Company • Keurig Green Mountain • Monsanto

• PepsiCo • Procter & Gamble • Unilever • World Wildlife Fund “No one should have to choose between products that are sustainable and products they can afford,” Manuel Gomez, Walmart’s vice president of sustainability, added. “We want to make sustainability easy by taking the guesswork out of values-based shopping. Accessibility and transparency really put the customer in the driver’s seat.”

TSC, a self-described “organization of diverse global participants that work collaboratively to build a scientific foundation that drives innovation to improve consumer product sustainability,” sees sustainable agriculture as a global concern. On its website, it identifies “drivers and needs for more sustainable products and standardization,” which include scientifically grounded and transparent data and methodologies, helping consumers make informed decisions, setting lifecycle sustainability measurement standards for producers, evaluating both the costs and benefits of new regulations, bringing multinational corporations to a harmonized approach, and improving understanding of and efforts related to environmental conditions in every nation.

“TSC informs decision-makers on product sustainability throughout the entire product life cycle across all sectors,” according to the organization’s website. “The Consortium creates scale as it represents 100+ of the world’s largest organizations, working together to create pre-competitive, crosssector solutions. Sector and Consortium Working Groups ... work together to create sustainability-related knowledge about particular product categories, continuously adding to the scope

A display of locally grown produce in a Walmart store. In October 2010, Walmart committed to doubling the amount of locally grown produce it sells in the United States by the end of 2015.

U.S. AGRICULTURE OUTLOOK

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sustainable agriculture

USDA photo

Farmer Kirk Brock demonstrates how he uses cover crops on his 1,000acre farm northeast of Monticello, Florida, to improve soil health. The Union of Concerned Scientists describes the use of cover crops as one of four approaches to shift from industrial food production practices to more sustainable agro-ecological agriculture, or “healthy farms.”

of products covered by our Sustainability Measurement and Reporting System.”

The Sustainability Measurement and Reporting System is “a standardized framework for the communication of sustainability-related information throughout the product value chain.”

By using this tool, the TSC website states, “companies can improve the quality of decision-making about product sustainability and design better products. They have the opportunity to effectively manage the sustainability of upstream supplies and suppliers, while communicating product sustainability downstream to consumers.”

In calling for a new vision for U.S. agriculture, the UCS claims the path the nation has been on “is a dead end” that damages the environment, harms rural communities, and limits future productivity. Historically, those same elements combined to bring down past great civilizations, from the Egyptian Old Kingdom to the Maya to the Mississippians (aka Mound Builders) of North America, who flourished between 900 and 1450 A.D. “Farmers and scientists are transforming U.S. agriculture in a more sustainable direction – and smart policies can help speed the transition,” the organization said. “But federal farm policy still stacks the deck in favor of outdated industrial methods.

Smart new policies and investments can help level the playing field and give healthy farms a chance to thrive.”

To help achieve its goals, the UCS has launched a petition drive calling on the president to establish a National Food Policy.

“We recognize that food is at the center of many of the critical issues of our time – public health, water and air quality, labor and immigration, climate change, racial and economic inequality, and ultimately the nation’s food security and socioeconomic prospects,” the petition states. “It’s time for a major shift: we need a comprehensive policy solution that will nourish consumers,

expand opportunities for farmers, and protect workers, natural resources, and the environment from exploitation.”

The UCS said that shift from industrial food production to agro-ecological agriculture – “healthy farms” – would include four major approaches: “Landscape – Integrating uncultivated areas helps preserve biodiversity, reducing the need for fertilizers and pesticides and increasing productivity.

Integrating Crops and Livestock – Plants and animals are good for each other. A healthy farm takes advantage of this by recycling nutrients in the form of manure.

Crop Diversity and Rotation – Growing a variety of different crops increases soil fertility and reduces the need for pesticides.”

Cover Crops – Blanketing bare fields with cover crops in between cash crop plantings is just what the doctor ordered for healthy soil, recycling nutrients, and reducing weeds and pests.”

Meanwhile, NSAC called the new Farm Bill “a mixed bag for sustainable food and farming systems” that included some elements supported by the organization, but ignored others.

“The bill invests over $1.2 billion over the next five years in the innovative programs for beginning farmers, local food, organic agriculture, rural development and specialty crops that were left in the dust for the past year,” according to the NSAC blog. “The bill also reconnects crop insurance subsidies to basic conservation requirements and rejects a series of harmful fair competition, environmental and commerce riders.

Despite these highlights, the bill fails to reform farm commodity and crop insurance subsidies and continues the regime of uncapped, unlimited payments.”

In a Dec. 11, 2014 blog post, NSAC was even more critical of the final annual appropriations bill released by Congress two days earlier: “Overall, it’s bleak news for sustainable agriculture – complete with drastic cuts to critical conservation programs and anti-farmer policy riders that favor big livestock integrators over actual farmers ... Of the trillion dollars in newly appropriated funds for 2015, $20.6 billion (or roughly 2 percent) is directed to fund food, farm, and rural development programs administered

by USDA and the Food and Drug Administration (FDA). This level is a cut of $305 million below last year’s funding.

“The 2014 Farm Bill cut $4 billion from voluntary conservation assistance programs, or over $6 billion when accounting for sequestration. The new spending bill ... piles on, taking nearly $600 million more, primarily from the Environmental Quality Incentives Program (EQIP) and the Conservation Stewardship Program (CSP). ... The bill contains a noxious legislative rider preventing USDA from implementing basic

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sustainable agriculture

USDA photo by Bob Nichols

Brooke Barron assists Ashlee Johnson in locating a farmers’ market at the “Know Your Farmer, Know Your Food” (KYF2) exhibit at a USDA Open House on the National Mall. KYF2 is a government effort to strengthen local and regional food systems, thereby also positively affecting the physical and financial well-being of communities.

common sense protections for family farms that raise livestock and poultry for multinational meat companies. ... On the whole, the new bill increases funding and resources for USDA’s farm programs and loan-making agency, but misses the opportunity to jump-start and expand investments in innovative programs aimed at beginning farmers and rural entrepreneurs.”

USDA’s “Know Your Farmer, Know Your Food” (KYF2) is touted as a key part of the government effort to strengthen local and regional food systems, including supporting a growing number of small and niche farmers, many selling directly to consumers or local markets rather than to major food companies.

“A surge in consumer demand for locally produced food is creating jobs and opportunity throughout rural America.

Beginning farmers are finding an entry point into agriculture through local markets. Experienced farmers are diversifying their sales to capture added value through local branding. Small businesses are developing new packing, processing, distribution and retail opportunities. And consumers are learning more about where their food comes from and gaining access to fresh, local foods,” according to the KYF2 mission statement.

“Local and regional food is already a multi-billion dollar market and growing quickly. ... Local and regional markets often provide farmers with a higher share of the food dollar, and money spent at a local business often continues to circulate within [the] community, creating a multiplier effect and providing greater economic benefits to the area. Our mission is to support the critical connection between farmers and consumers and to strengthen USDA’s support for local and regional food systems.”

According to the KYF2 website, through this effort, the USDA seeks to develop integrated programs and policies that: 1. Stimulate food- and agriculturally based community economic development; 2. Foster new opportunities for farmers and ranchers; 3. Promote locally and regionally produced and processed foods; 4. Cultivate healthy eating habits and educated, empowered consumers; 5. Expand access to affordable fresh and local food; and 6. Demonstrate the connection between food, agriculture, community and the environment.

KYF2 has partnered with a number of government and private organizations, including USDA’s People’s Garden Initiative to foster individual gardens worldwide, Agriculture in the Classroom to improve agricultural literacy among K-12 teachers and their students, and NCAT’s Appropriate Technology Transfer for Rural Areas (ATTRA).

Calling 2014 “a year of action, partnership and innovation at USDA” in his Dec. 22 blog post, Agriculture Secretary Tom Vilsack cited what he called a “small snapshot” of department efforts, many directed at or in some way supporting agricultural sustainability, including: • moving more than $4.3 billion in critical disaster assistance to thousands of producers • answering nearly 1.3 million questions to help consumers stay food-safe • making 340 investments in local food infrastructure and launching a series of new web directories designed to connect consumers with farmers’ markets, on-farm markets, and food hubs • providing more than 3,500 microloans to help beginning and veteran farmers grow their businesses • lessening the threat of wildfires to communities by treating 1.7 million acres of forest land As evidenced by Walmart, NSAC, TSC, UCS, multiple state university and government sustainability programs, USDA efforts, etc., in recent years, people at every stage of the U.S. food chain, from farmers to consumers, have begun to pursue concepts, processes, and systems to better define and implement sustainable agriculture.

“Little by little – one crop, one field, one family at a time – sustainable farming is taking root,” according to Earles. “Off the farm, consumers and grassroots activists are working to create local markets and farm policies that support sustainable practices. They are working to raise consumers’ awareness about how their food is grown and processed – how plants, animals, the soil and the water are treated.

“And they are working to forge stronger bonds between producers and consumers that will, in time, cement the foundations of locally and regionally self-sufficient food systems.

In contrast to mono-cropped industrial megafarms that ship throughout the world, the vision of sustainable agriculture’s futurists is small to mid-size diversified farms supplying the majority of their region’s food.”

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