Exotics Keeper November 2023

NEWS • DENDOBRATES TINCTORIUS • KEEPER BASICS • GIANT GECKO • COMMUNAL NESTING www.exoticskeeper.com • november 2023 • £3.99

BREEDING GREEN TREE PYTHONS Learn how to breed these beautiful pythons from first-hand experience.

LAKE TITICACA WATER FROG

We caught up with The Bolivian Amphibian Initiative to speak more on the weird and wonderful “water frogs” of South America.

KEEPING AN EYE ON THINGS

Dr Michaela Betts looks at ocular issues in captive lizards. What are the primary contributing factors to ophthalmic disease?

OLD PYTHON, NEW TRICKS?

Elizabeth Sheriff discusses the many ways in which keepers can manage positive interactions with large constrictors.

CONTACT US EDITORIAL ENQUIRIES

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About us MAGAZINE PUBLISHED BY Peregrine Livefoods Ltd Rolls Farm Barns Hastingwood Road Essex CM5 0EN Print ISSN: 2634-4707 Digital ISSN: 2634-4689

EDITORIAL: Thomas Marriott Dr Michaela Betts DESIGN: Scott Giarnese Amy Mather .........................

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Every effort is made to ensure the material published in EK Magazine is reliable and accurate. However, the publisher can accept no responsibility for the claims made by advertisers, manufacturers or contributors.

Readers are advised to check any claims themselves before acting on this advice. Copyright belongs to the publishers and no part of the magazine can be reproduced without written permission.

Front cover: Green tree python (Morelia azurea) Right: Blue dyeing dart frog (Dendrobates tinctorius)

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s the cooler months start to draw in, things are beginning to heat up here at Exotics Keeper Magazine. We’ve now had a few months with our new, extended page count and our attention is being turned towards operational advancements. We’re aiming to get your magazine sent to you even earlier in the month. It’s something I have wanted to do for a long time, but it would have caused a few logistical problems that weren’t easy to overcome. Well, now the survey has been completed, our subscriber base is larger, and the magazine is bigger than before, it seems like the right time to make the jump.

In other news, I am working very hard to finalise the EK Survey Official Report ready for publication. Sadly, it hasn’t made it into this issue, but keep your eyes peeled! I have recently caught up with Dillon at the Animals at Home Podcast to discuss the survey (you can get a bit of insight by listening to the episode) and hope to share the full document very soon.

This issue welcomes a few guest writers old and new. As well as our resident veterinary writer

Michaela Betts’ piece on ocular issues in captive lizards, we also have a piece on reticulated python behaviour by Elizabeth Sherriff and breeding green tree pythons by Branden Darlison-Hoskin. Branden also produced a fantastic piece on breeding rough neck monitors back in 2021. Remember, if you’re a printed subscriber you can also access the Member’s Area for a whole archive of back issues to read in digital format.

Thank you.

Thomas Marriott Editor

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EXOTICS NEWS

The latest from the world of exotic pet keeping.

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BREEDING GREEN TREE PYTHONS

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Branden Darlison-Hoskin successfully bred his pythons earlier this year.

Here’s how he did it…

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT

Focus on the wonderful world of exotic pets. This month it’s the New Caledonia Giant Gecko (Rhacodactylus leachianus).

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FLASHBACK FEATURE: TINC OUTSIDE THE BOX

Dendrobates tinctorius in the wild.

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OLD PYTHON, NEW TRICKS? Managing positive interactions with large constrictors

by Elizabeth Sheriff.

THE LAKE TITCACA WATER FROG

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Marine Aquaria.

KEEPING AN EYE ON THINGS

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Did you know...?

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T he weird and wonderful “water frogs” of the Andes.

Ocular issues in captive lizards with Dr Michaela Betts.

KEEPER BASICS:

FASCINATING FACT

Exotics News

EXOTICS NEWS The latest from the world of exotic animals

press their body on the branches and become almost invisible,” said Frank Glaw, part of the team from the Bavarian State Collection of Zoology in Germany that described the new species in the Salamandra journal.

©Glaw, Köhler, Ratsoavina, Raselimanana, Crottini, Gehring, Böhme, Scherz & Vences, 2023

New species of gecko described in Madagascar A new species of gecko has joined the Uroplatus genus; Uroplatus garamaso, a leaf-tailed gecko found in Madagascar.

Existing primarily in humid and dry forests in northern Madagascar, deforestation and wildfires are major threats to the newly found species. As with most of Madagascar’s wildlife, the gecko is endemic to the island, leaving it at a high risk of extinction from continuing habitat loss.

The species is the latest in a string of reptiles and amphibians described in Madagascar, with similar species distinguished from one another using DNA analysis.

Uroplatus garamaso are a larger example of lead-tailed gecko, ranging from 8.3 to 13.9 centimetres in length.

The species also has distinctive yellow and red eyes. Their main defence from predators is imitating tree bark, blending seamlessly into their surroundings during the day, and becoming more active at night.

“For this purpose, they have skin fringes along the head and body and a flattened tail. During daytime, they

Psychedelic rock gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica)

Endangered species at risk in Vietnam

A Vietnamese-German research team has found that a lack of captive populations of some of Vietnam’s most endangered species is making a significant contribution to their risk of extinction.

Of Vietnam’s over 400 known reptile species, a third of which are endemic to the country, many face significant threats from habitat loss, being harvested for traditional medicine, the pet trade and human consumption.

These challenges, combined with a lack of captive populations, place many of these rare reptiles at imminent threat of extinction.

The research team conducted a study of the country’s fifty most endangered reptiles, assessing their health, distribution and other environmental factors.

The study emphasised the importance of captive populations of the most endangered species, which include the psychedelic rock gecko (Cnemaspis psychedelica) and the Gia Lai benttoed gecko (Cyrtodactylus gialaiensis).

Research found that only one fifth of the country’s reptile species were in captivity, mainly overseas, meaning that there were, in some cases, no individuals from the most endangered species included in conservation or breeding programmes. Without the safety net of captive populations existing for possible reintroduction to wild habitats, the team found these species were at significantly higher risk of becoming completely and irreversibly extinct.

The team is calling on authorities to increase the number of endangered species held in zoos to maintain the possibility of reintroduction if habitat can be salvaged and other risks to the wild population mitigated in the future.

New species described in Vietnam

A species of keelback snake found by two porters in the Hoang Lien Range in northwest Vietnam has been identified as a previously undescribed species.

H’mong porters Chang A Sung and Pao A Vang encountered Luan Thanh Nguyen and Daniel Kane, Lead Herpetology Keeper at the Zoological Society of London (ZSL), who were looking for frogs on a six day expedition. After showing them the small, metallic purple snake with an orange neck and a pale line along its upper jaw, the four suspected it was a new species.

This was later confirmed by the team at ZSL after photographs and measurements were sent by the team in Vietnam. The individual was identified at a keelback snake, semiaquatic reptiles that are found in South, East and Southeast Asia. They are both venomous and poisonous, absorbing and storing toxins from their prey.

Why did the skink stay home?

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Exotics News

Mojave Desert tortoises live in burrows, often making them hard to reach and therefore study. The technology allows researchers to understand how hot the burrows become and when the tortoises choose to emerge, with the information contributing to conservation efforts to save the species.

With ZSL confirming the scale positioning and colouring did not match any record of a described species, the team had to ensure the individual was not a less common variation of an existing species. DNA analysis allowed a ‘tree’ to be created, showing the individual in relation to its closest relatives. The analysis showed the new snake was as much as 4% different from its next closest relativethe same difference between humans and gorillas. With the new discovery confirmed, the team could set about naming the species.

“It didn’t take us long to reach an agreement. This snake shares the Hoang Lien Mountains with the H’mong people, and throughout the years we’ve worked in the region, the contribution of porters from the local H’mong community - such as Chang A Sung and Pao A Vang - has been invaluable to the success of these expeditions,” said Kane and Nguyen in a post on the ZSL website.

“This species – the 34th keelback snake known to science – is therefore named the H’mong keelback snake (Rhabdophis hmongorum) in their honour.”

As human populations encroach on their habitats, and with extreme droughts occurring more and more frequently, numbers of Mojave Desert tortoises have been steadily declining. The threat to their habitat poses a risk not only tortoise populations, but also to the many other species that rely on their systems of burrows for survival.

This complex ecosystem and its protection are now at the forefront of conservationists’ efforts, with San Diego Zoo running projects to identify the impact of solar power facilities on the tortoises as well assisting in the development of optimal habitat restoration plans, all with the aim of safeguarding the vulnerable species.

Caribbean island undergoes successful eco-restoration

Redonda, a tiny Caribbean island a little over a mile long, has caught the world’s attention after celebrating its recent transformation from barren rock to lush ecosystem.

Mojave Desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii)

Researchers use ‘iButton’ technology to monitor the heat of tortoises Researchers in the US are using a new device to monitor desert tortoises to gain a better idea of their ideal conditions.

Using ‘iButtons’, small round sensors attached to the shells of Mojave Desert tortoises (Gopherus agassizii), Tom Radzio, a researcher at the San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, and his fellow researchers are able to keep track of the critically endangered reptiles and monitor their conditions.

The sensors can monitor how hot the tortoises are and what temperatures they have experienced in certain places and at certain times. The technology has previously been used in medicine and food-shipping industries and is now at the forefront of conservation efforts.

The information provided by this research is essential for the protection of the species as it shows the conditions under which the animals thrive. It can show how challenges such as climate change are affecting the tortoises and the places they live and makes it easier to ascertain their ideal habitats for the future.

There was a b-lizard!

NOVEMBER 2023

Due to invasive black rats and goats introduced by early colonists, Redonda, the third isle of Antigua and Barbuda, was stripped of its wildlife and vegetation. The rats preyed on the eggs of birds and reptiles, decimating the island’s nesting animal population, while goats stripped the island of vegetation.

A project launched in 2016 saw the goats relocated and the island’s rat population exterminated, leaving it unrecognisable. It is now once again a haven for wildlife, seeing endemic species such as the critically endangered Redonda ground dragon and fifteen species of land birds, including frigatebirds, return to its shores.

While the island itself is tiny, the Redons Ecosystem Reserve spans 74,000 acres, meaning Antigua and Barbuda has already reached its “30x30” aim; protecting 30% of the planet for nature by 2030.

Local non-government organisation (NGO) the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) piloted the project with Antigua and Barbuda’s government as well as overseas partners such as Fauna and Flora International (FFI).

Arica Hill, executive director of the EAG, said: “This is the largest marine protected area in the Eastern Caribbean; it showcases the amazing work that conservationists and environmentalists can do right at home. What is even more significant is that the government has trusted us to legally manage it too.”

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Exotics News

Despite its overwhelming successes, the EAG has plans to continue the rejuvenation of the island’s wildlife by reintroducing species that previously inhabited the island, such as the burrowing owl. It is a small bird that burrows underground and, due to the rarity of the species, would be a significant addition to Redonda’s now-thriving ecosystem.

The funds will now be allocated to the protection of three priority areas of the Peruvian Amazon. A focus of the project will be assisting Indigenous people that live in the rainforest, helping them to continue to safeguard their home.

Johnella Bradshaw, the reserve’s coordinator, reflects on the global impact the project has made: “When you think about conservation, you think about things happening in America or Europe, not a little island in the Caribbean.

The deal comes after the 1998 Tropical Forest and Coral Reef Conservation Act allowed countries to trade all or part of their debt to the US in exchange for conservation commitments. The act has been utilised twenty-two times in fourteen countries, generating more than US$380 million for conservation around the world.

“Now we are at the forefront of international conservation we can change that narrative, and show younger generations that people who look like me can do this.”

In the Peruvian deal, a number of environmental organisations have provided a further three million dollars to assist the swap scheme, supporting the historical initiative.

The Amazon rainforest covers around ten percent of Peru, making up a significant portion of its landscape, however the deal signifies the Amazon’s global importance.

M. Sanjayan, CEO of Conservation International, one of the contributors to the debt fund, said: “Today’s debtfor-nature swap is a historic moment for Peru, a crucial signal from the United States government and a positive harbinger for the future of conservation as we pursue innovative ways to protect – and properly value – the nature that sustains us all.”

The Amazon rainforest in Peru

US and Peru trade off debt for nature fund

The Peruvian government have signed a deal to redirect the more than twenty-million US dollars it owes to the United States to conservation efforts within its own borders.

Debt-for-nature swaps are being increasingly recognised as a solution to the problem of countries with spectacularly biodiverse regions being unable to finance major conservation efforts.

“There’s a growing recognition that many countries that would like to support conservation can’t because of financial constraints, including burdensome debt,” said Andrew Schatz, a senior legal adviser for Conservation International.

“Debt-for-nature swaps give them that chance.”

Written by Isabelle Thom

ON THE WEB

Websites | Social media | Published research

Each month we highlight a favourite website or social media page THIS MONTH IT’S: ANIMALS AT HOME The mission of Animals at Home is simple: To inspire others to push the limits of their reptile husbandry by promoting the importance of high level, creative care individualized for each reptile. www.youtube.com/@AnimalsatHomePodcast

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BREEDING Title

GREEN TREE PYTHONS

By Branden Darlison-Hoskin

NOVEMBER 2023

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Breeding Green Tree Pythons

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he Northern green tree python (Morelia azurea) is a Boid from Papua and neighbouring islands. Famed for its striking green appearance, variable morphology and characteristic ontogenetic colour change, the species has been in high demand with hobbyists for a long time. Now, successful captive-breeding alongside a greater understanding of the species’ husbandry requirements is beginning to pave the way for these stunning snakes to become well-established in herpetoculture. Breeder and hobbyist, Branden Darlison-Hoskin successfully bred his pythons earlier this year. Here’s how he did it…

Background

My passion for reptiles came from watching Steve Irwin's “Crocodile Hunter”. I remember watching an episode when Steve and Terri both had a stunning pair of Southern green tree pythons (Morelia viridis) and it sparked my interest in them. Little did I know that 15 years later I would have successfully captive-bred my own green tree pythons!

I purchased my first “green tree” (M. azurea) back in 2017 at the Houten Reptile Expo in The Netherlands. This was a species that I had rarely come across in many of my local reptile shops, so when my eyes glanced across at this “Manokwari” I immediately fell in love. I had researched the species for a long time and this was the right time for me to commit.

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Basic husbandry

In my experience, green tree pythons are best suited to a sterile environment, especially when breeding. For that reason, my enclosures are constructed from PVC so that they can be easily cleaned and wiped down regularly.

Green tree pythons require adequate perches on which to sit comfortably and I use ridged, plastic-coated garden stakes for this purpose. The perches should be no thicker than the girth of the snake and no thinner than half of their girth.

Lots of people use different perches. Some use real branches, and some use PVC pipe that has been heated with a blow torch and twisted, but I like the garden stakes as these are easy to clean and I find that the animals can NOVEMBER 2023

Breeding Green Tree Pythons

“I would like to thank Gary Copplestone of Devon Chondros for his expertise, help and guidance on breeding green tree pythons.” - Branden Darlison-Hoskin

©Branden Darlison Hoskin

grip onto the ridges more easily. I also provide plenty of plastic plants that hang from the ceiling to try to recreate a rainforest environment, whilst still being able to clean the enclosures easily and effectively.

do well with them on the floor. Water is changed daily as ‘green trees’ love fresh, cold water. I also use newspaper as a substrate which helps to maintain a sterile environment.

Green trees can become overweight if fed too often and can easily prolapse if given prey that’s too large. I feed my snakes every two to three weeks, using either large mice or small weaner rats. Importantly, I don’t feed unless the last food item has been fully passed through to ensure my animals do not get compacted.

Pairing

Lighting and heating

I use a low UV (0.4) T5 bulb as my primary form of lighting. For heating, I use reptile radiators, controlled by a microclimate thermostat. I prefer the EVO 3 Connected, as you can keep an eye on and control the thermostat through an app. I keep the daytime temp at 28.5°C and the night-time temp only drops by 1.5°C to 27°C. All my “green trees” have large water bowls and, when the lights go off, I see them regularly hang from the perch and drink. Some people offer elevated water bowls but mine NOVEMBER 2023

I sourced my female in February 2021 as a captive-farmed import from Indonesia. I purchased her as a “high-yellow Biak” and she weighed just 261 grams. As she was an import, I took a faecal sample to the vet to check for any internal parasites. This came back as positive for pinworm, with a very high reading. She was treated successfully with Panacur and then started to put on weight very well. When I finally paired her in March 2023, she weighed 813 grams, meaning she had more than tripled her original body weight in two years.

My close friend (@Nipper_tattoo) kindly donated a male to me as he was reducing his collection. The male was purchased as a “high-white Sorong” and is a stunning example of the locality form, with the most incredible blue and white pattern. Eventually, when I was confident the pair were in the right health conditions and well established, I started the breeding process.

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©Branden Darlison Hoskin ©Branden Darlison Hoskin

Breeding process

My first step towards inducing the breeding process was to reduce the nighttime temperatures in both enclosures.

Over a few weeks, I slowly reduced the night temperature from 27°C to down to 20°C but kept daytime temperatures at a consistent 28.5°C. I did this by reducing 1°C every seven to ten days.

On the 28th of March, during the day, I introduced the male Sorong to the female Biak and instantly she was very interested in him. She was dropping urates and rubbing her cloaca all over the perches, but she showed no aggression. He, on the other hand, showed no interest until the 6th of April which was the first evening that the night temperatures dropped to 20°C. They copulated on and off for just over a week, then showed no interest in each other. They both sat on the same perch but on opposite sides of the enclosure. This gave me confidence in the pairing going forward.

The males tend to go off food for a few weeks in the runup to breeding. However, he fed just after copulation. My

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female instantly went off food, which is the first refused meal since I got her over two years ago.

Over the next few weeks, her colour seemed to dull and fade, and she had a very light tinge of blue. I believe she ovulated on the 30th of April, showing a large, mid-bodied swell, which looked like she had eaten a large prey item.

She had a pre-lay shed on June 2nd and laid her eggs 18 days later. I was warned by an experienced breeder that, with it being her first time breeding, she may drop the eggs from her perch and potentially in the water bowl. I was recommended to put blankets in the bottom of the enclosure and provide a much smaller water source.

She had a dark plastic tub full of dry sphagnum moss which had a small opening, so she felt safe and secure, and in the days close to laying she showed great interest in it. In the evenings she would also wrap herself in and under the blanket, but would return to her favourite perch by morning.

On the day she laid, I noticed she wasn’t on her perch. She had found an opening in one of the blankets and wriggled her way in. I needed to see if she had laid the eggs and NOVEMBER 2023

Breeding Green Tree Pythons

©Branden Darlison Hoskin unfortunately believe I may have disturbed her as she was preparing to lay. As soon I peeked under the blanket, she struck at me and shot straight up to her perch and coiled up. Frustratingly, I had to go to work and came home to find she had laid 15 eggs, but they had been dropped from the perch and were sitting on the blankets below. She was coiled up on the perch and showed no interest in them.

I didn’t know how long they had been sitting there, none were stuck together, and they also felt cold. I was dreading that I missed this opportunity, but I marked each egg with a marker pen the way I found them and placed them in the incubator immediately.

Incubation

After the female laid the eggs, I was recommended to take her out, clean her down, and thoroughly disinfect the enclosure. If she could smell the eggs, she could potentially stress and starve herself. I followed these steps, and on the first attempt to feed (which was around 5 days later), she ate her first meal with no hesitation.

My incubator was a simple, homemade, polystyrene box. I had a heat mat on the bottom, which was attached to the microclimate EVO 3 Connected thermostat, and I set this NOVEMBER 2023

to 30.3°C. I had the egg crate elevated off the heat mat on small feet. On top of the egg crate, I had a plastic tub with around an inch depth of vermiculite. I then placed more eggcrate on top of the vermiculite. I positioned the probe of the thermostat exactly in the centre of the eggs, so I knew the eggs were sitting at the right temperature.

I was aiming for 99% humidity and, with it being such a high figure, I had to avoid the tub collecting too much condensation as it may have dripped on the eggs and caused issues. I was also recommended to put a heat mat on the poly box lid, this was also controlled by the EVO 3 Connected but this probe was taped to the heat mat itself.

This was set to 30°C which stopped the condensation forming. I also had a small computer fan inside the poly box to help circulate the air. I used a digital thermometer and hygrometer, and I positioned the probe in the same place as the thermostat to ensure the temperatures were reading correctly. I also had 2 more thermometers and hygrometers inside the tub, and this taught me a valuable lesson. I learnt that all 3 digital thermometers and hygrometers were all showing different readings, and these are all typical reptile products that you would buy at your local reptile shops. Upon further research, I found for just £30 you can buy a configured one that will give you an exact reading.

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Breeding Green Tree Pythons

©Branden Darlison Hoskin

Hatching time

After day one, the eggs started to shrivel. By day two it got much worse and by day three I thought I had lost them all. Even though the hygrometer read 99%, I was worried the readings weren’t correct so I added even more water to the vermiculite. When I placed the eggs into the incubator, I placed plastic straws on either side of the eggs to stop them from moving. I still wasn’t convinced that the humidity was correct, so I sprayed some paper towel and wrung it out so it was damp to the touch but not soaking. The straws allowed me to place this above the eggs without touching them and I repeated this process every day. The eggs were still shrivelled, but each day they started to look plumper and when candled, they showed good blood vessels.

Hatching

On day 45, I placed some garden mesh in the tub, so they had a place to perch if they hatched. On the 10th of August, day 51 of incubation, I came home from work and checked the incubator to find one red neonate.

However, my excitement soon turned to disappointment as I realised it had died. The umbilical cord from the egg

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©Branden Darlison Hoskin sack was tightly wrapped around the snake and had cut off circulation from the egg sack to the snake. So, for the next few days, I checked the incubator every hour, even throughout the night. It was both exhausting and exhilarating. I had so much disappointment from the loss of the first one, but it gave me some hope that maybe at least one might be fertile.

On the 11th of August at 3am, I opened the incubator to see a red “neo’s” head poking out of the egg. I was ecstatic! Finally, a live, healthy-looking baby green tree python. Eventually, when this neo left the egg, it was evident that this was much bigger than the previous one, which shows the nutritional value they get from the egg sack. I set it up in my hatchling rack and it perched straight away. I used the garden fencing mesh as it’s the perfectsized perch for their tiny bodies.

On the 12th of August at 7am, I had my first yellow neonate. I had another two red ones hatch on the same day, and on the following day I had a further two yellow and one red hatchlings, making seven in total (four reds and three yellows).

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©Branden Darlison Hoskin

©Branden Darlison Hoskin

Reflection

Although I started with 15 eggs, only seven made it through incubation. I had slept about five hours in three days.

After the lack of sleep, the emotions were running high. Breeding these green tree pythons was certainly my proudest achievement so far, but now came the worry of making sure they became well established and started feeding. I weighed them after two days and, providing my scales were calibrated correctly, three of them weighed 6 grams, two weighed 7 grams, one NOVEMBER 2023

weighed 8 grams, and one weighed 9 grams.

It was evident within the first week they had grown significantly. Again, this shows the importance of the egg sack that gives them the crucial advantage needed for their start in life. On the 21st, the second egg that hatched had its first shed.

Amazingly it fed exactly 10 days later on the 31st, with a defrosted pinkie and it defecated on the 3rd of September.

More late nights lay ahead as this species is nocturnal so I am currently feeding

them from 1am onwards. Each night I see them leaving the perch and exploring the enclosures just like the adults. It's fantastic to see their instincts kick in and all of them caudal luring while coiled on a perch. I am currently still pinching myself and this is truly a dream come true. Not only is this one of my favourite species on the planet, but it has been a project that has taken a long time and slow conditioning. I am not an expert nor claim to be one, I'm just a passionate herper, who has always had a love for the animal kingdom.

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Title Species Spotlight

SPECIES SPOTLIGHT The wonderful world of exotic animals

New Caledonia Giant Gecko (Rhacodactylus leachianus) The New Caledonia Giant Gecko (Rhacodactylus leachianus) stands as the largest known species of gecko, often reaching lengths of 25 to 35 cm (10 to 14 inches) or more. Their large eyes and sticky toe pads make them perfectly suited to an arboreal life in the canopy.

New Caledonia giant geckos have diverse colouration and patterning, varying from locality to locality. Many of these localities and “lines” can be found in the hobby today.

From vibrant greens to deep browns and greys, their hues help them blend seamlessly into the lush foliage of their Pacific home in New Caledonia.

In captivity, these large geckos require a spacious, vertically oriented terrarium with ample climbing opportunities and hiding spots that mimic their natural habitat. The keeper must maintain moderate temperatures around 24-27°C (75-80°F) and humidity levels of 60-80%. This is easily achieved with a good quality UVB bulb (and a heat mat attached to the side of the vivarium in cooler homes).

New Caledonia giant geckos are omnivorous meaning they should be fed a mix of prepared diets and insects. The keeper should look for a formula that provides all the necessary nutritional elements that the gecko needs to avoid the need to add supplements.

This is particularly important with leachies as they are reported to be more fussy than other New Caledonia geckos. Insects should vary in species and size and act as a form of enrichment to support the primary powdered/prepared fruitbased diet.

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Dendrobates tinctorius "tumucumaque"

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OUTSIDE THE BOX

Dendrobates tinctorius in the wild.

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FLASHBACK FEATURE

TINC

Title

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Tinc Outside the Box

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ike many poison frogs, Dendrobates tinctorius is a highly variable species. Ongoing research in their native range of the Eastern Guiana Shield (Suriname, Guyana, French Guiana and Brazil) has identified a spectrum of over 50 distinct localities, or ‘morphs’. The most popular of which, D. tinctorius azureus was previously thought to be an entirely different species until recently. Colloquially named the ‘dyeing’ poison frog, this species of large-bodied Dendrobate is popular in captivity for its stunning colouration and bold personality. Experts began breeding this species over fifty years ago, but now they are widely available, making it even more important for hobbyists to know exactly where their animals’ roots are.

Nominate (Kaw Mountain)

The term “nominate” basically refers to the “original” (or first discovered) species locality and allows scientists to describe subspecies from a specimen (holotype) discovered in this area. So, for example, if there are several subspecies belonging to the same species, the ‘nominate’ form is the one which was described first and most closely resembles the original description of the species when it was discovered. In this case, D. tinctorius is one species, which has no subspecies. The term ‘nominate’ is therefore incorrect. However, there is a morph sometimes called ‘nominate’ but now more frequently referred to as ‘Kaw Mountain’ which could be described as the original dyeing

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poison frog. It is characterised by a black pattern on the dorsal, broken up by a distinct yellow line. The flanks are a textbook yellow-blue and showered in small black dots.

Surprisingly, the ‘nominate’ morph is one of the smallest morphs of the species, with a maximum SVL of just 40mm. They can be found in a remote location in French Guiana, around the Kaw Mountains at low elevations.

Naturally, this pocket of rainforest maintains extremely high humidity. They are most closely associated with large boulders and tree trunks and frequently inhabit openings with felled trees.

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Tinc Outside the Box

Powder blue

Azureus

Azureus, commonly known as the ‘blue’ poison dart frog was only discovered in 1968 (and officially described the following year) by M.S Hoogmoed. At the time, it was thought to be a new species Dendrobates azureus. This is unsurprising, given that it is the only tinc and possibly the only frog to be a uniform vibrant blue. In fact, it is one of a very tiny number of species that even possesses blue pigment (most use complex light reflections to appear blue). This puzzled Hoogmoed who wrote in his notes: “Among other things, John and Leo reported having seen blue frogs in the forest island. My first reaction was to NOVEMBER 2023

ask them how much rum they had drunk that day because nothing like a blue frog existed, and it was like hearing about blue elephants. Anyway, they maintained they had not drunk a single drop of rum, which was indeed most likely, but that they had seen blue frogs hopping about on the forest floor.”

The paper continues: “After about 20 minutes I saw my first blue Dendrobates in the wild. It was sitting on the forest floor on fallen leaves, and when I moved nearer it hopped away with short, quick movements. Its bright blue colour contrasted beautifully with the brown dead leaves.

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Azureus

Title

It was easy to capture. During my trip through the creek valley, I saw many more and collected some of them, restraining myself from capturing more than a few because I had no idea about the extent of the forest island and the size of the population of the blue Dendrobates. Also, at the time, I had no idea whether this species would occur in other forest islands in the region or not. Most specimens were on the ground, but a few were moving up the trunks of large trees to… where? During my further stay at Vier Gebroeders Bivouac (till October 7, 1968) I discovered that populations of blue frogs were present in several other forest islands around Vier Gebroeders

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Mountain. However, because of the size of the forest islands and the fact that they were not interconnected, the exchange of genetic material between populations was likely to be low, and only some individuals were collected as evidence of their presence in other forest islands. Back in Holland, I set to work on the collected material and, finally, the description of the new Dendrobates, which one year later was published under the name Dendobates azureus (Hoogmoed, 1969). Because of its very striking colour, I could convince the editors of the journal to publish a coloured plate to show the real-life colour. At that time a rare and very costly thing.”

Although azureus is now considered a ‘morph’ of tinctorius, the isolated pockets of jungles have created other colourations. These include paler blue varieties including the ‘sky blue’ and ‘fine spot’.

Citronella

This is the largest of all the tinctorius morphs at a whopping 74mm SVL. They are mostly yellow on their torso and dorsal, with a characteristic black dot on their head (although a small number of animals don’t have the black dot). This morph still has blue legs, most have extremely deep blue (almost black) legs. In 2013 NOVEMBER 2023

Title

a handful of individuals were imported with pale to bright blue legs. ‘Citronella’ has a wide range in Suriname, but certain populations were reportedly over-collected. Igor Zhidov, an early exporter, claimed he discovered this morph entirely by accident.

Despite female Citronella’s being huge Dendrobates, like the rest of the species, they are highly specialised in small food items. Comparatively, a 74mm member of the Ranidae family would likely feast on large insects and perhaps other frogs. Dendrobates and more specifically tinctorius would happily pick off minute invertebrates such as springtails and aphids. Of course, in captivity, this should be comprised mostly of pinhead crickets, fruit flies and springtails.

Nikita

Nikita occurs in all three countries. It looks very similar to ‘Citronella’ and for a long time was thought to be the same locality. It is much smaller than Citronella, reaching a size of around 55mm SVL and can be extremely variable in its patterning. Some individuals will have lots of black patterns with a spectrum of blues, while others will be almost entirely black and yellow. It is not uncommon for this morph to exhibit bright yellow around their front ankles, which is often a giveaway for identifying them against other locales.

Nikita

Just to complicate things, not all ‘Nikitas’ will have this bracelet so keepers that have sourced ‘Nikitas’ should seriously consider researching their animals’ history and make notes of the locality they have. Although many novice keepers or first-time pet keepers might not see the importance of genetics, especially if they do not plan to breed their animals, this information may be extremely important. ‘Nikita’ was named after the daughter of one of the exporters in Suriname.

Patricia

The ‘Patricia’ form is found in Suriname and has been bred in captivity in the USA since 1999 and is now often available in the UK. It is characterised by pale blue legs with few spots. The name ‘Patricia’ is thought to have come from expert breeder, Patricia Grueneberg, owner of Vanishing Jewels – an exotic pet shop which pioneered poison frog keeping and has since closed. She was a close friend of the importers who brought the first specimens into the US. At this time, Suriname was rumoured to be closing for export and as more hobbyists turned their attention to amphibians, experts began buying the early imports at extremely high prices.

Patricia

With the elevated price tag, expert breeders put a lot of time and resources into producing captive-bred animals. Expecting that there would no longer be any wild-caught specimens to mix bloodlines, breeders were extra vigilant with genetics. Now, ‘Patricia’ is one of the most widely available ‘tinc’ morphs. Of course, a wider availability means there is likely some cross-breeding or misidentification now. This morph looks very much like the ‘powder blue’ variety but lacks spots on its legs.

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Title

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Have you seen any disease, noticed unusual symptoms, or had unexpected deaths in your tadpoles?

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Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden

Have you observed any change in their behaviour, such as: sudden and erratic movements, swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, erratic movements,and swimming in circles, loss of equilibrium, sluggishness, floating at the surface or death? sluggishness, floating at the surface or death?

Researchers Researchers at the University of Oxford at the University of Oxford need your help. They are trying to track the spread need your help. They are trying to track of a newly identified disease of tadpoles. the spread of a newly identified disease you suspect that your tadpoles are of tadpoles. If you suspect thatIf your showing signs of the disease symptoms tadpoles are showing signs of the disease mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk symptoms mentioned above, please make contact at http://tadpole-doctor.co.uk.

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responsibility 22 and the University of Oxford bear no responsibility for this The Royal Society project. for this project.

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Title

Robertus

Tumucumaque

Tumucumaque

Bakhuis

The Tumucumaque Mountain National Park is a 38,000mile squared national park in the Brazilian Amazon. It is the world’s largest tropical rainforest national park and is still harbouring many secrets of the natural world. In 2004, a scientific expedition stumbled across the ‘tumucumaque’ morph. The next two years saw 11 independent expeditions aiming to document the little-known species in this region. Several specimens were collected to be maintained in educational facilities. At the time, those individuals were the only legally kept animals.

the original ‘robertus’ were first imported from was kept a very close secret for many years and thus, protected wild populations long enough for a good number of captivebred animals to be produced. This locality was discovered

by Jan Robertus Hanzen around one decade ago. Initially, it was imported in small numbers to the US and later to Japan. Now it is one of the most popular tinctorius morphs in captivity.

The ‘tumucumaque’ is possibly the most controversial of all tinctorius morphs. As they live in a protected area, the animals that made their way into the Netherlands between 2006 and 2010 were smuggled illegally. In the US, the offspring of illegally sourced animals are still considered to be ‘illegal’, so these animals were seized and moved into zoos. As the origin of captive-bred individuals became more and more ambiguous, it is thought that the remaining illegally harvested frogs were then sold onto wider breeding collections. Sadly, this is a common occurrence with some species possessing an unscrupulous history. In the case of ‘tumucumaque’ and Adelphobates galactanotus ‘blue’, their introduction to the hobby came at a time when the illegality of these animals was widely documented and shared online. Now, however, they are available in good numbers of captive-bred stock despite very few UK breeders working with them.

This is a dwarf variety of tinctorius that is rarely seen in Europe. At just 35mm, they are possibly the smallest variety of tinc. They are found around the Bakhuis mountains in Western Suriname and are predominantly black, with blue and ivory markings. Keepers often say this morph is slightly more cryptic than its larger-bodied cousins. This morph is now being frequently bred in the USA.

It is easy to see why this species is so sought after. This morph is medium-sized and highly variable in its patterning but characterised mostly by a mottled/marble appearance.

They can exhibit bright yellows, oranges and even silver elements, often with large black spots. This is why it is sometimes referred to as the ‘peacock’ poison frog.

Robertus

Possibly the most variable of all the commonlybred tinctorius morphs, a single locality can produce a vast array of different animals. Interestingly, the location that NOVEMBER 2023

Bakhuis

The Bakhuis mountains have always been vulnerable to exploitation. Their unique geographical make-up means this region is regularly mined by various companies and de-forestation is a serious concern. In the mid-20th Century the ‘West Suriname Plan’ aimed to mine Bauxite from the region but was later abandoned when Suriname became independent in 1980. As a former Dutch colony, many of the earliest imports of herptiles from the Guiana Shield went directly into Europe through the Netherlands.

The ‘Bakuis’ is no exception, as Mr Ensink (Maastricht) and Dr Hoogmoed (discoverer of Azureus) brought the first animals into Europe following their discovery. They bred readily in captivity and are now infrequently seen in captivity.

A ‘northern’ variety of the Bakhuis has also been described. This variety supposedly behaves very differently from other morphs and has been photographed in small colonies. Although tinctorius is known for being aggressive and territorial, male ‘Bakhuis’ have been photographed in groups of five, guarding a communal pool of tadpoles.

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Title Outside the Box Tinc

Tinctorius exports today

Dendrobates tinctorius is a CITES Appendix 2 listed species and has been since 1987. This means that their numbers could become threatened if they are subject to unregulated trade. Therefore, a quota-based system has been implemented which allows a set number of animals to be exported from the wild each year. For example, each year Guyana permits 500 individuals to be exported from the wild. Their data suggests that this is an appropriate number that does not negatively impact wild populations, whilst fulfilling international demand and generating economic value for the peoples who harvest them. Suriname, on the other hand, has historically permitted 1886 animals to be exported each year. Whilst the species is more widespread in this country and most of the popular ‘morphs’ hail from Suriname, this has

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been deemed unsustainable by EU officials. Therefore, a suspension was placed on the quota between 2003 – 2008. In Brazil, exporting wildlife has been illegal since 1934, but more recently outlined as a ‘crime against the environment’ in 1998. Therefore, any animal or locality endemic to Brazil cannot be exported legally. This has consequently made Brazil the epicentre for illegal wildlife trafficking and ethical hobbyists should be extremely vigilant when sourcing animals from this region.

Now, poison frogs are frequently captive-bred across the world. Amphibians are generally prolific breeders and with specialist equipment more accessible than ever, there is a whole spectrum of species readily available that do not impact wild populations. Contrastingly, extensive logging in the Guiana Shield, including Brazil where it is not NOVEMBER 2023

Tinc Outside theTitle Box

considered “a crime against the environment” is perfectly legal. This is proving a significant threat to highly localised populations of D. tinctorius such as “Azureus”, which already live in isolated pockets of forest.

Therefore, it is extremely important that hobbyists only source captive-bred specimens and where possible, continue to breed these animals. It is well documented that D. tinctorius locales will breed with one another, so it is of vital importance that keepers do not house different morphs together. Breeders, who aim to produce more animals in the future should also be extremely vigilant and keep extensive records on the lineage of their animals.

Identifying the correct morph can be a good first step, but networking with other breeders and customers to track the roots of the animals, as well as their offspring may help NOVEMBER 2023

prevent inbreeding. It is common for siblings to produce viable tadpoles, with young froglets looking very similar to one another it is not easy to identify the offspring of inbred animals. This has already caused many captive-bred frogs to appear much smaller than their wild counterparts.

Whilst some argue that ‘fresh bloodlines’ from wild-caught parents are the resolution to this problem, that only helps if the breeders producing the animals are highly selective with their pairings. Animals with poor genetics hold less conservational value as their potential for reintroduction, many generations into the future, is minimal. It would be wrong to vilify the pioneering hobbyists and breeders who provided the eclectic mix of species we see in herpetoculture today, but the more we know about the origins of the animals we keep, the easier it is to make informed ethical decisions.

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Title

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NOVEMBER 2023

THE LAKE TITCACA Title

WATER FROG

The weird and wonderful water frogs of the Andes.

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The Lake Titcaca Water Frog

T

he Titcaca water frog, or “scrotum frog” is perhaps one of the most unusual amphibians on Earth. Despite its bizarre appearance, Telmatobius culeus is perfectly adapted to inhabiting harsh environments. Found in the world’s highest lake, this species, like other members of its genus, is highly-localised and thus at risk of extinction.

However, Bolivian Amphibian Initiative are working hard to prevent this. We caught up with Arturo Muñoz, President of the BAI to speak more on the weird and wonderful “water frogs” of South America.

Introducing the genus

Telmatobius is a genus of frog endemic to South America.

The genus is distributed throughout the Andes, with an altitudinal range from 1900 to more than 4000 meters above sea level. Currently, 64 species are officially recognized from Ecuador, Peru, Chile, Bolivia and Argentina.

The genus is always associated with water and most species are primarily aquatic. Some species within the genus are entirely aquatic such as the Titicaca water frog (Telmatobius culeus) and Junin frog (Telmatobius macrostomas).

However, it is a diverse genus, and some species frequently leave the water, especially at night and can be found a good distance away from permanent water sources.

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Many species of Telmatobius are threatened with extinction.

Like many montane species, they face numerous perils alongside a naturally restricted distribution range.

The Bolivian Amphibian Initiative began working with Telmatobius in 2006 and soon established an official project to protect members of the genus in 2007.

Since then, they have managed to captive-breed several species, establish habitat restoration and reintroduction programmes and network with international organisations across the world to conserve and protect these unusual amphibians.

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The Lake Titcaca Water Frog

Arturo diving with the Titicaca water frog ©Arturo Munoz

An imperilled genus

There is a wide range of threats that are faced by different species of Telmatobius across South America.

Some threats are unique to individual species, such as the introduction of non-native fish like trout to Andean rivers and Lake Titicaca, whereas other threats are more universal, like habitat loss.

Arturo Muñoz is the Founder of the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative and completed his PhD on the Lake Titicaca frog (T. culeus). He told us: “There are different reasons why the genus is threatened, but mainly because they have restricted distributions that make them more susceptible NOVEMBER 2023

to different threats such as pollution in the water bodies due to agricultural activities and mining in surrounding areas, also some species of Telmatobius that live in rivers and streams are threatened by the use of water for agriculture. People change water currents to use in plantations which decreases the habitat of these species.”

“Habitat loss not just due to human activity, but also climate change has an important role in the decline of this genus, due to more extreme climate conditions, some streams and water bodies in the Andes are disappearing and the habitat of this genus, and some of the populations probably extinct.”

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The Lake Titcaca Water Frog

Titicaca water frog ©Arturo Munoz Another major threat that faces many montane Anurans across the world, but especially in South America, is the spread of Chytrid (Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis often shortened to “Bd”). Scientists have observed sharp population declines of many amphibians since the late 1980s, particularly in South America where Bd is thought to have originated. Some populations of Telmatobius espadai and Telmatobius yuracare have disappeared completely, with several other populations thought to have followed a similar fate. Other species of Telmatobius, such as the Titicaca water frog (T. culeus) have seemingly lived with Bd for over a decade, with no major mortalities directly attributed to the fungus. In fact, one of the oldest papers to ever identify or reference Bd, is a study on T. culeus in Lake Titicaca.

Arturo added: “Andean species generally have smaller distribution ranges and habitat conditions are also more exposed to climate change such as very extreme conditions (dry periods, droughts and others). Also, the area in the Andes is ideal for Bd, which is affecting different species in the region. Lowland species are widely distributed, and densities are normally much higher. Add to this that habitats tend to be more uniform and you can see why the species we have here in the Andes are facing such immense threats.”

Conservation strategies

As with any species-focused conservation plan, each member of the Telmatobius genus must be addressed uniquely. However, to ensure longevity around the organization’s actions, the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative

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focuses heavily on establishing good relationships with local people. From networking with students to run individual projects, to donating educational tools to rural communities, BAI addresses several aspects of conservation in their work.

Jaime Salamanca, a representative of the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative explained: “All the projects we are working with have an educational component. We manage different activities and publications to improve awareness and knowledge of the species. Our project with the Titicaca frog (T. culeus), for example, sees us work with local communities and people living close to the lake to ensure they know of the species' conservation requirements. We also work with schools to educate children from a younger age."

"Another aspect of what we do is coordinating with, for example, the municipality for the confiscated frogs arriving in La Paz City and with the Zoo in La Paz. By working collaboratively with them, we can ensure the confiscated frogs are kept in good condition and learn more about their captive requirements. But if we work with other species, such as T. hintoni or T. simonsi, the neighbours of the area in Cochabamba or Sucre are key stakeholders with municipalities and other BAI representatives in the area. Besides these local programmes, we also try to reach people with our social media publications in a way that can reach more people across and outside of Bolivia.”

Perhaps the most famous of all Telmatobius species is also the one that requires this kind of relationship-building action most; the Titicaca water frog (T. culeus).

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The local people of Isla de Luna have a special relationship with the frogs ©Dirk Ercken

The Lake Titicaca frog

Commonly referred to as the “scrotum” frog, Telmatobius culeus has a unique and somewhat unsightly appearance. It is found only in Lake Titicaca (and surrounding smaller lakes) in Southeast Peru and Northwest Bolivia. Lake Titicaca is the world's highest navigable lake, located at an altitude of approximately 3,810 meters (12,500 feet) above sea level.

Titicaca water frogs are amongst the world’s largest aquatic frogs and reach up to 20cm or more. They are highly adapted to life in cold, high-altitude waters and are known for their slow, deliberate movements across the lake bottom. Their loose, wrinkled skin is a unique adaptation that is thought to help them breathe more effectively in the high-altitude, oxygen-poor waters of Lake Titicaca. These frogs also have unusually small red blood cells, that can be more tightly packed to transfer more oxygen across the body. Add to this that the Lake Titicaca frog has the most amount of haemeglobin of any amphibian and it’s easy to understand how the species survives such harsh Andean environments.

“The population of Titicaca water frogs has been declining rapidly in recent years,” said Arturo. “Pollution from agriculture, and untreated sewage from surrounding cities and towns, together with mining has significantly affected the water quality of Lake Titicaca, making it difficult for these frogs to survive.”

“The Titicaca water frog is listed as Endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). It faces numerous threats, including habitat degradation, pollution, overharvesting for traditional medicine, and the introduction of non-native species. In 2015 massive mortalities were reported where a high number of frogs died in a couple of weeks.”

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The Titicaca water frog has cultural significance to the local people living around Lake Titicaca. In Andean mythology, it is believed to be a protector of the lake and its creatures.

These frogs play a crucial role in the ecosystem of Lake Titicaca as both predators and prey. The Titicaca water frog also has an unusual reproductive strategy. They lay their eggs in clusters, attaching them to underwater vegetation and the male frogs will actively guard the eggs.

Conservation organizations and researchers have been working to protect the Titicaca water frog. Efforts include habitat restoration, captive breeding programs, and education initiatives aimed at raising awareness about the importance of preserving this unique species and its habitat.

Arturo continued: “With Titicaca Lake Project we are focusing more on working with local communities and trying to work in habitat conservation involving local communities and the creation of a sanctuary for the frog, that will protect not just the species but also its habitat, the approach that we use for each species are evaluated and based on the situation will be different or not, we never assume that we can just extrapolate one programme to another, first we need to gather all the information and then decide the steps that are needed to carry out.”

The Bolivian Amphibian Initiative successfully captive-bred Titicaca water frogs back in 2009 and although captive breeding is only a small part of what the organization does, it has allowed other institutions to learn more about the species in an ex-situ context. Numerous zoos across Europe now exhibit Telmatobius. This raises awareness of a highly threatened genus of amphibians that are less charismatic or colourful than other taxa, such as Atelopus.

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The Lake Titcaca Water Frog

Lake titicaca water frog spawn developing underwater ©Arturo Munoz

Captive breeding of Telmatobius

The Bolivian Amphibian Initiative has successfully bred Telmatobius hintoni, Telmatobius simonsi, Telmatobius culeus, and other two species of Telmatobius with unconfirmed identities.

However, the institution will only remove animals for captive breeding if it is completely necessary. The breeding component of BAI began when Arturo decided to collect 20 T. hintoni tadpoles from the wild in 2007 to learn more about how to breed the genus. This has allowed herpetologists to understand much more about Telmatobius in a captive setting.

Arturo continued: “The main goal of starting a captive breeding program was to learn to keep in captivity and to breed different species of Telmatobius, because when we started there were no recorded successful attempts at breeding the genus. People had tried, but none of them were successful.”

“The idea was to learn to keep them in captivity in good conditions and to breed them, so we could use the gained experience in the case it would be needed with one species.”

After successfully keeping and breeding T. hintoni BAI attempted to keep the Titicaca water frog in captivity to use the knowledge learned with T. hintoni and then apply it with T. culeus. At the time, the species was common and could easily be removed from the wild to learn more about the species without causing too much detriment to the species. BAI did not want to establish a breeding project because the idea was to learn about this species in captivity and so they kept the sexes apart. However, their focus changed in 2015, when a mass mortality event killed thousands of frogs and wiped the species out entirely from a 450km area of Titicaca.

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Arturo added: “In the case of T. culeus, it was a necessary second step in the project. A pollution event happens in Titicaca Lake quite often. Organic matter causes blooms of green algae, which is not a problem during the day as there is a lot of photosynthesis but at night there’s a loss of oxygen. This turned the lake anoxic, so the frogs had no oxygen to breathe. There was also a lot of organic waste at the bottom of the lake and when more water flowed into the lake, it moved this matter which released a lot of toxic gasses, killing everything.”

Naturally, the mass mortality of these highly localised frogs caused a major stir amongst conservationists and the species was listed as Critically Endangered. Now, with better understanding and field research, the species has been reclassified as Endangered. Partly due to its occurrence in small neighbouring lakes and a captive breeding project that has taught us more about the species in a captive setting.

“We still don’t know whether Telmatobius culeus really is just one species” added Arturo. “The method that is being used to characterise the species is outdated.

I was speaking to some geneticists to propose we try new methods but it is also a very expensive method but it provides a better picture about the genetics of the different populations in the lake. Therefore, we needed to take animals from two sides of the lake to start the breeding project for conservation purposes. At this point, it wasn’t just to learn.”

The Bolivian Amphibian Initiative are now finding that the populations of Titicaca water frog are returning and wild re-introductions are not necessary yet. However, some captive populations are still maintained in collections within Bolivia for potential reintroduction if necessary, as well as ex-situ populations for educational purposes.

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The Lake Titcaca Water Frog

©Arturo Munoz

Husbandry challenges with Telmatobius culeus

Breeding Titicaca water frogs can be simple or very difficult based on a few husbandry aspects. The first major thing that can have a direct impact on the mortality of the frogs, is the hardness of the water. T. culeus requires hard water.

The water in Lake Titicaca is around 250(mg/L), whereas the water in Cochabamba or La Paz City is closer to 40(mg/L).

This means that even with the perfect setup, using water from these cities will cause the frogs to moult a lot of skin and eventually die. In some cities, the water is much harder and therefore, maintaining the species is easier.

Arturo continued: “We are currently working on mapping the hardness of the water in any city where we might want to set up a breeding project. By publishing the husbandry parameters of the species, we hope to give other institutions the tools they need to keep the species. If the water is good quality and there is enough oxygen, they are not a problem to keep.

Arturo’s PhD was based on the foraging strategies of the Titicaca water frog. He explored their diet in the wild, the proportions of what they were eating and the percentage of nutrients they were receiving. Naturally, this has guided best husbandry practices for the species in captivity. “I took some data on the foods the frogs were receiving in captivity in zoos and aquariums and found that it is VERY different to the wild” he said. “I’ve found zoos to be giving them far too much fat and very low levels of calcium compared with wild animals. Most of the times the calcium/phosphorus ratio in captivity was negative, whereas in the wild it is positive.”

If a collection wants to maintain the species long-term, other, more complicated husbandry elements are required NOVEMBER 2023

©Arturo Munoz for success. In the high Andes, UV radiation is extremely high. Arturo has discovered that this plays a major role in the physiology of the Titicaca water frogs, despite them being an entirely aquatic species. His research found that frogs that were not given appropriately high levels of UV had symptoms of metabolic bone disease. This applied to several species of Telmatobius.

“We also saw a difference in the eggs” Arturo added. “We found that adults that had more UV laid eggs that were more successful. This wasn’t a proper experiment, but it was a very obvious observation.”

Captive breeding of the Titicaca water frog

To breed Telmatobius culeus, the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative had to understand the conditions that prompt the species to breed. They kept several dataloggers in Lake Titicaca at different depths and in different areas of the lake to record temperatures. These data loggers recorded temperatures every five minutes for two entire years.

Arturo continued: “We were using shipping containers as our breeding facility. By mirroring the temperatures and light to the data that we had recorded from the lake, we found out that you can choose when you want to breed the species.”

“Some fish respond to water changes. ovoviviparous fish, for example, will breed almost immediately after changing the water if they are pregnant. It’s the same for some species of Telmatobius. If you change the water, a few days later, the frogs will lay eggs. This makes sense because in the Andes, in the dry season, you are going to have a lot of still water and the quality will be quite poor. In the wet

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Isla del Sol, Lake Titicaca season, a lot of fresh water is introduced into the lake and the water quality will be completely different! This shocks the frog and stimulates them to breed.”

Titicaca water frogs can breed year-round. In Lake Titicaca the frogs have two peaks of reproduction, this is in July and March, when the water temperatures start to change between wet and dry seasons. “In the wild, the frogs adapt to different situations,” said Arturo. “we observed with another species, Boana riojana and found that when the tadpoles hatch some metamorphose one year, but the others won’t metamorphose until the following year. This is also the case with Telmatobius and it is an adaptation to the different seasons. Some tadpoles may need to metamorph into frogs to avoid drying up, but if they all metamorph they may be under increased predation pressure. Animals have plasticity and you need to try to keep this plasticity in captive populations too, if you are planning to reintroduce them.”

“A study on Majorcan midwife toads (Alytes muletensis) found that after eight generations of captive breeding, the tadpoles’ tails developed in a different shape to their wild ancestors. In the wild, Majorcan midwife toad tadpoles have differently shaped tails to be able to escape a particular snake species that prey on them. If you take these animals out of the wild and breed them for multiple generations, they will lose that ability to escape

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that predator. Of course, in captivity, you are not going to introduce a snake to try to retain that influence, but we should be very careful with captive breeding. This is why the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative always uses captive breeding as a last resort, or, in the case of Telmatobius, to learn more about the genus.”

Other species

Although Telmatobius are all broadly referred to as “water frogs” each species is unique. This has meant that BAI must implement a variety of different husbandry and breeding techniques to be successful in the captive breeding component of their Telmatobius recovery plans.

“T. hintoni is a very different species to T. culeus” explains Arturo. “This species is semi-aquatic. For that reason, the setup of the terrarium is different. We provide different habitats so that the frogs can choose between a water and a land area. Also, the water system is different. It has been built in a way that creates some current within the aquarium. Diet and water requirements are also different for this species and so we try to mirror what they would consume in the wild.”

This is an excellent example of conservation being directly supported by the Herpetoculture industry as many of the components required to build complex multi-habitat NOVEMBER 2023

enclosures are products designed and manufactured by the pet industry. It allows in-situ conservationists to explore captive breeding initiatives as a last resort because products are readily available to establish ex-situ projects.

Of course, resources are not limitless and therefore Bolivian Amphibian Initiative must focus its actions on the most threatened species, using the best scientific data available. “We try to focus conservation actions on species that really need them” added Arturo. “In that sense, we try to update the categories in the IUCN with our research. Over time, some of them have decreased in their category and others have increased. The idea is that, based on updated and systematic data, the species that need conservation actions will be in a higher category than the ones that are not so threatened. This means we can allocate our efforts in a better and more efficient way.”

The Sucre water frog (Telmatobius simonsi) is another species that is threatened with extinction but is not well known, nor studied. Further research conducted on the species has found that while it was once present across the montane forests Santa Cruz, Cochabamba and Chuquisaca, in reality, after several campaigns there are only three identified populations. This means that the species once thought of as Vulnerable, is now listed as Critically Endangered. Currently, BAI is NOVEMBER 2023

working with herpetology students who live close to the restricted ranges that are occupied by different species and encouraging them to begin their own projects. In doing this, BAI can offer support, but the herpetologists can effectively manage an entire conservation project thoroughly, helping to develop their experience and providing boots-on-the-ground support for the species.

Arturo explained: “We are at the first stage at the moment collecting information about Telmatobius simonsi populations to try to see the status of the species.

This is always our priority, to learn how things actually are.

Based on that information, we will see what actions are needed and based on the situation, we will develop an action plan that can be similar to other species.”

With the Bolivian Amphibian Initiative at the forefront of gathering in-situ data on enigmatic species, such as the water frogs of the genus Telmatobius, other organizations can provide their might in financial support and global herpetological studies. Right now, Synchronicity Earth, Durrell Wildlife and Amphibian Survival Alliance are all taking active roles in supporting the global effort to protect these drab, unassuming amphibians. Within Bolivia, Museo Nacional de Historia Natural and the Bioparque Vesty Pakos, amongst other institutions are also taking a real interest in studying, protecting and preserving Telmatobius species.

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NOVEMBER 2023

KEEPING AN EYE Title

ON THINGS Ocular issues in captive lizards with Dr Michaela Betts.

NOVEMBER 2023

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Keeping an Eye on Things

T

he topic of reptile ophthalmology encompasses snakes, lizards, tortoises, and crocodiles.

However, these species possess a wide range of genetic diversity between each other. They show different predispositions to different ocular conditions, though underlying husbandry issues are often a contributing factor in the development of diseases.

Lizards commonly present to veterinary practice with eye issues such as adhesion of substrate material, bacterial and fungal infections, periocular lesions or masses, and corneal trauma. However, less common conditions seen include cataract formation, abnormal globe size, and eyelid deformities.

One should never assume that ocular symptoms are caused by a primary eye condition. Although trauma from within the enclosure or irritating foreign material may be a cause of abnormalities, suboptimal husbandry and underlying systemic diseases can often present in this way.

In captive reptiles, inappropriate thermal gradients and humidity, poor diet, overcrowding, and environmental stressors are primary contributing factors to ophthalmic

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disease. Congenital or developmental ocular diseases are uncommon in reptiles in general.

Anatomy & Physiology

The lizard eye may be divided into the cornea near the front of the globe, and the orbital segment towards the back of the globe, with ‘globe’ referring to the eyeball itself. The cornea is made of tough, transparent tissue and acts like a window that controls and focuses the entry of light into the eye. The curvature of the cornea can be enhanced in lizards, alongside changes to lens spherity, through contractions of the anterior ciliary muscle. The retina is avascular and captures the light entering the eye and helps translate it into an image. It receives nutrition from the choriocapillaris. The NOVEMBER 2023

Keeping an Eye on Things

About the author: Michaela graduated from the Royal Veterinary College in 2018 with a degree in Veterinary Medicine. She initially worked with small animal, exotic, and wildlife species before spending 2 years at Suffolk Exotic Vets as a first opinion and referral exotic animal clinician.

She currently works as a research assistant in pathobiology and population sciences at the Royal Veterinary College and as a small animal and exotic species veterinary surgeon. Alongside this, Michaela is an educational speaker for Just Exotics, providing further education in exotic animals to other veterinary professionals, and is a member of the British Veterinary Zoological Society and Association of Exotic Mammal Veterinaria`ns. She is currently completing her RCVS Certificate of Advanced Practitioner in Zoological Medicine. conus papillaris is a feature of the reptile eye that projects into the vitreous cavity (the space between the retina and lens) to provide nutrition for the retina.

(Gekko gecko). This multiple-pupiled feature is thought to affect refraction of light to help with understanding how far away a prey item is, prior to hunting it down.

As with avian species, in the white part of their eyes lizards possess tiny bones called ‘scleral ossicles.’ They have 10-14 overlapping scleral ossicles that extend anteriorly.

These give shape and stability to the globe and serve as support for the ciliary muscle. The ciliary body produces the fluid in the eye. Reptiles have a ciliary roll rather than the ciliary processes recognised in mammals and birds.

There are two main ocular glands in lizards. These secrete fluid to lubricate and moisten the ocular surface. All lizards possess a Harderian gland which curls around the globe at its posterior aspect. Excluding chameleons and geckos, lizards also have a dorsotemporal lacrimal gland.

Lizards that possess eyelids, have a mobile lower lid, a relatively immobile upper lid, and a nictitating membrane or “third eyelid” which cleans the eye when they blink. The eye opens primarily through the downward movement of the lower eyelid, which contains a large cartilaginous plate. The exception to this is certain geckos and Ablepharine skinks which instead have fused eyelids that form a spectacle.

Chameleons are another exception in that their eyelids constrict around the cornea and so there is more limited movement. Chameleons also have independent movement of each globe to enable them to fixate on prey species.

There are many differences between the eyes of different reptile species due to the different environmental niches that they inhabit. These differences in ocular anatomy and physiology can also be seen between different lizards.

For example, nocturnal lizards possess large corneas and an almost spherical lens, and their pupil when dilated is hexagonal in shape to allow for a much larger pupil diameter. The depth of the globe is reduced compared to diurnal lizards to allow for greater irradiance on the retina.

Whilst diurnal lizard retinas are only populated by cones, nocturnal lizard retinas possess cones that have developed morphological features of rods. The ellipsoid region of the cone photoreceptors of diurnal species contains oil droplets, which are believed to function as light filters and to contribute to colour differentiation.

Another interesting difference is the polchorate (many pupiled) iris of some reptiles, such as the Tokay gecko NOVEMBER 2023

Many lizards also possess a ‘parietal eye’ which is quite forwardly positioned and often covered by a translucent skin scale. This structure is attached to an area of the brain called the pituitary gland. It plays a significant role in seasonal and diurnal physiological and behavioural cycles, such as reproduction, through light detection.

Conjunctivitis

Conjunctivitis is an inflammation of the eyelids, sometimes with concurrent eyelid swelling, and there can be mucoid ocular discharge, or the eyelids can become sealed together with dried discharge. This is commonly associated with bacterial infection in lizard species, and the author notes leopard geckos as being particular “offenders” in clinical practice.

Even if the eyelids are not sealed shut with dry discharge, conjunctivitis can impair the vision needed to see food items, and the infection and discomfort can also contribute to anorexia. Conjunctivitis can also be an important sign of septicaemia, not just localised infection of the eye alone.

Warm water compresses and gentle soaking can help as a first step in opening any sealed apertures. However, the eyelids should not be forced open to reduce the risk of trauma to the eye. A vet visit is recommended to assess the lizard for a correct diagnosis and thorough ophthalmological examination, and prescription of topical and/or systemic antibiotics will often be indicated. Flushing of the eye may also be warranted with warm saline and a sterile catheter by a trained professional, particularly in cases where retained shed or exfoliated skin are present.

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Terrific Tarantulas and How to Keep Them

Example of pre moult alopecia in Brachypelma hamorii tarantula ©Benjamin Kennedy

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NOVEMBER 2023

Periocular masses

Firm swellings around the eye that gradually grow and expand are the most common presentation of periocular masses reported in lizards. There can also be secondary trauma as the masses grow larger in size, and displacement and inflammation of the surrounding tissues as well as the growing mass itself can affect vision.

Bacterial lesions, fungal infections, tumours, infiltration of inflammatory cells leading to granuloma, and parasitic infection are all differentials.

Reptile pus is very thick and hard, and so it can be difficult to differentiate abscess from neoplastic mass, particularly just by feel or appearance. Some masses may also be both neoplastic and infectious/inflammatory. As such, the appropriate management for these must be based on an appropriate diagnosis. However, in most of these cases surgery is indicated to explore and resect/remove the mass that has developed, regardless of what it is.

Corneal trauma

As mentioned previously, the cornea is the clear outer part of the front of the eye. Damage or inflammation of the cornea can give it a cloudy or more opaque appearance.

However, corneal trauma will often present as ocular discharge, excessive blinking of the affected eye(s) and holding it more closed than usual, and conjunctivitis.

Anything that rubs the surface of the eye could be a source of corneal trauma. For example, bedding caught in the eye, foreign bodies like grass seeds, or corners of sharp objects. Retained shed building up beneath the eyelids and being in contact with the surface of the eye is another possibility. For animals housed communally, trauma from conspecifics either accidentally or through fighting is also a risk.

Severity of trauma ranges from very minor and superficial to development of ulceration to perforation of the eyeball itself. Management is dependent on severity and underlying cause but may involve pain relief and topical medications, culture and sensitivity testing and appropriate antibiotics, tear replacement drops, or even NOVEMBER 2023

surgery to repair the cornea. In all cases, any underlying husbandry issues should be identified and corrected.

Eye ulcers should be identified and appropriately treated promptly. They are known to be a painful condition in other species, and very severe ulcers can become deeper and lead to rupture of the globe. Uncomplicated corneal ulcers should heal within 1 week, though older animals may take slightly longer to heal.

Perforation seems less likely to occur in lizards with a spectacle as this acts protectively over the surface of the cornea. If there is damage to the structures within the eye, or intraocular infection occurs, then the prognosis of the eye is guarded, and it may need to be removed.

Keratitis

Though trauma is more commonly seen in lizard patients, non-traumatic corneal diseases can also be presented.

Keratitis describes an inflammation of the cornea. Whilst this may be due to ulceration, it can also be noted in cases of infection and/or excessive provision of ultraviolet light.

Hypovitaminosis A

Although it is more commonly reported in turtles and tortoises, vitamin A deficiency is thought to be one of the most common causes of eyelid pathology in reptiles.

This usually presents as swelling of the eyelids or periocular region, but there can also be ocular discharge and redness of the eye. There can be secondary bacterial infection associated with this condition, and there may be other disease processes going on internally due to the deficiency.

It is important to be aware of species variations when checking for eye redness as some reptiles, such as some varanid monitor lizards, have a red episclera (the “white” of the eye) which would be an indicator of ocular inflammation in a different species.

This condition is more commonly seen in younger animals and is typically associated with feeding a diet deficient in vitamin A.

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Prevention of Ocular Conditions

Appropriate husbandry practices for the species are vital in maintaining good overall health for reptile species.

Environmental temperatures and being within the Preferred Optimal Temperature Zone for a species is crucial for governing the rate of reptile physiological processes. Inappropriate thermal gradients and humidity will reduce any reptiles’ ability to maintain a healthy immune system to combat infection. A minimum of both the hot and cool end of any vivaria should be monitored continuously, ideally with a minimum-maximum thermometer to identify any fluctuations in temperature, particularly overnight. For vertical rise set-ups, the temperature gradient should expand in both the vertical and horizontal planes. Similarly relative humidity should be monitored constantly with a hygrometer, and any fluctuations around heat or lighting set-up should be noted and addressed, as necessary. It is important for the probes of these to be measuring at the level the inhabitant is within the set-up itself.

Low environmental relative humidity can lead to dehydration of the lizard and its skin. This, alongside affecting mechanical functions such as the properties of a gecko adhesive foot hairs, can be a contributing factor in difficulties with retained shed. In the author’s experience, retained shed around the head and eyes can be a particular issue in leopard geckos and result in secondary infections of the eye and, in more severe cases, periocular abscesses that require surgical removal.

Conversely, inappropriately high humidity can have impacts on bacterial and fungal loads due to dampness of substrate or may make some substrates more adhesive.

Ventilation should never be compromised to maintain

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correct humidity as this can also contribute to a build-up of airborne bacteria and fungal spores.

Within the set-up, care should be taken with substrate and paraphernalia choices so that anything included is appropriate for the species but with a minimal risk of adhesion to ocular surfaces or resulting in a traumatic injury. There should also be multiple refuge areas throughout the different humidity and heat gradients to allow inhabitants to remove themselves from ultraviolet light exposure if they deem it necessary. Appropriate environments for the species to facilitate shedding should also be provided. For example, a hide with damp moss that is misted daily should be provided for leopard geckos to help with removal of old sloughed skin. This also provides a necessary humid microclimate that allows the inhabitant to better regulate its humidity.

Providing a nutritionally balanced and appropriately supplemented diet is also crucial to ensure optimal body condition of the reptile and to reduce the risk of contributing vitamin deficiencies. All lizards should be fed appropriately for their individual species and age.

Conclusion

Ocular conditions are a frequent reason for lizards to require veterinary assistance. The conditions themselves can cause discomfort, and vision loss. Ocular conditions not only impact an animals’ ability to localise food but can also contribute to heightened levels of stress and consequent immunosuppression. Many ocular conditions in lizards can be linked to issues with housing and diet, and prompt identification and correction is needed. Eye trauma is a reason to seek immediate veterinary assistance.

NOVEMBER 2023

Some Issues Are More Than Skin Deep

100% NATURAL PEST CONTROL TAURRUS® is a living organism (predatory mite) that is a natural enemy of the snake mite (Ophionyssus natricis).

TAURRUS® mite predators are very small, measuring less than 1mm as adults. They are able to live for several weeks and reproduce in the areas where they find their prey. Despite its small size, the TAURRUS® predator acts aggressively and is able to attack and kill preys 3 to 4 times larger than itself.

Once released, the microscopic predators will actively seek and consume parasites. Once eliminated, the predators disappear naturally. The mode of action requires several days. After introduction of TAURRUS®, pest populations should be monitored: at first it will stabilize, and then gradually decline. In heavy infestations, several releases may be needed to eradicate all parasites.

NOVEMBER 2023

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OLD PYTHON,

NEW TRICKS? Managing positive interactions with large constrictors by Elizabeth Sheriff.

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NOVEMBER 2023

Title

NOVEMBER 2023

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Old Python, New Tricks?

R

eticulated python’s (Malayopython reticulatus) are becoming increasingly popular in private herpetoculture. These constrictors can reach up to 20ft in length and like in other pets, it is important to understand the animal's behaviour. Learning theory is crucial for this. The following article discusses the many ways in which keepers can manage positive interactions with large constrictors.

Learning theory introduction

There are four types of learning theory; classical conditioning, where an animal learns to associate an irrelevant stimulus with a relevant stimulus, like food; operant conditioning, where an animal learns to associate a reward or punishment with its own actions; habituation, where an animal, after regular exposure, no longer responds to a stimulus; and sensitisation, the opposite of habituation, where an animal responds increasingly to a relevant stimulus that it perceives as having consequences. Learned behaviour is shown in these two examples of normal behaviour; food aggression and vivarium defensiveness, and two examples of abnormal

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behaviour; a snake that is refusing its food or excessively nose rubbing against the glass of its enclosure, both often exhibited by reticulated pythons. These behaviours are reinforced, whether accidentally or purposefully, by operant conditioning, classical conditioning, sensitisation, and habituation. However, they can also be counteracted or reversed using these four theories.

Normal behaviours

The two normal behaviours, food aggression and vivarium defensiveness, were likely acquired through sensitisation.

Food aggression lasting for several days after feeding is NOVEMBER 2023

Old Python, New Tricks?

About the author: I have been keeping reptiles for over 10 years now with a fondness for large constrictors and I am currently in my second year of Level 3 Animal Management. I have 19 animals ranging from Reticulated Pythons to a Black and White Argentine Tegu. I have a particular interest in animal welfare and behaviour and I am hoping to study Herpetology at Bangor University after college.

normal in reticulated pythons because of their strong food response, as well as them being opportunistic feeders.

These snakes will tend to strike at quick movements, vibrations or loud noises in their vicinity following being fed due to their senses being heightened. This will lessen as the days go on; however, this could easily be reinforced accidentally by simply walking past the enclosure or performing normal tasks in proximity to it, a common occurrence in a captive environment, or purposefully by tapping and banging on the enclosure. This will most likely increase the snake’s response and level of sensitisation every feeding time.

Another normal behaviour in Reticulated Pythons is vivarium defensiveness. Although there is some argument as to whether snakes are territorial, vivarium defensiveness is usually caused by a lack of socialisation i.e., handling; a task hard to maintain regularly with large constrictors that often require a minimum of two people to handle them, or because the snake has not been taught, through learning theory, the difference between feeding time and enclosure maintenance or handling. This behaviour can NOVEMBER 2023

be accidentally reinforced by simply dropping the water bowl in the tank, causing a disturbance, or purposefully reinforced by being loud and heavy handed when working in the enclosure. These reinforcements can cause the snake to become sensitised to your presence because it learns to associate you with negative experiences that cause stress to the animal.

Abnormal behaviours

The two abnormal behaviours, excessive nose rubbing, and refusal of food can be acquired through operant conditioning and sensitisation. A snake rubbing its nose lightly or climbing on the glass of its enclosure is usually a normal exploratory behaviour. However, this behaviour can become abnormal when it becomes excessive to the point that the animal is pushing very hard on the glass engaging in self-mutilation. This behaviour can be caused by many things including medical and husbandry issues.

Not knowing how to address these issues can be a form of accidental reinforcement, but it can also be caused and reinforced by operant conditioning. Williams, M.L.;

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Torrini, L.A.; Nolan, E.J.; and Loughman, Z.J. did a study on classical and operant conditioning in four clutches of false water cobras (Hydrodynastes gigas). They used positive food reinforcement and targets to train the snakes to move from one enclosure to another. The snakes in clutch 4 completed their goal behaviour in full, and their stress behaviours showed a significant decrease. This is one of few studies carried out on operant conditioning in reptiles.

A snake that’s tank is being opened when it is “glass surfing” (climbing the glass) may come to associate that as positive reinforcement of its own behaviour. If the positive reinforcement is not given immediately however, the snake may increase its behaviour, to the point that it is becoming excessive and even engaging in self-mutilation.

It then becomes a behaviour that needs to be rectified quickly. This appears to be a relatively common issue in Reticulated Pythons, perhaps due to them being more intelligent and inquisitive than other species, meaning they require a very vast amount of space that can be harder to provide in captivity, though not impossible.

Rectifying behaviours

A snake that is refusing its food in captivity can also be caused by medical or husbandry issues, but it can also be down to stress. Stress is often caused by sensitisation to a stimulus. In this case it was likely accidentally reinforced by performing normal, loud tasks in the vicinity of the enclosure, as well as constant foot traffic which can be very stressful for a flighty and nervous snake. It may also

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be purposefully reinforced by excessive and unnecessary handling, which would cause stress in any animal that hasn’t been properly socialised or acclimated to human touch.

There are several things you could implement to prevent food aggression and sensitivity post-feeding. It can be as simple as keeping the animal in a room with little foot traffic so that interaction can be suspended temporarily, though this is likely to only mask the food aggression, and should you need to handle the animal during that time, the issue will likely return. A preferred method is target training. Due to the reticulated python’s intelligence, it is possible to teach the animal to associate an object with its food by only presenting that object to it prior to every feed. The snake will quickly learn that it will not be fed until it has seen the object and their response to your presence will likely decrease very quickly. The snake will become highly sensitised to this object however, so it should be used only in relation to food and never in conjunction with tap or hook training.

Assessing medical factors is crucial before attempting to change animal behaviour as many abnormal behaviours can be caused by health problems, as well as exacerbated by them. Even if the illness is not the main cause, but a hindrance to the behaviour issue, it must be dealt with first, before anything else. Only then can you know how learning theory is affecting the behaviour.

There are multiple illnesses that can cause or exacerbate nose rubbing, but a common one is snake mites.

Ophionyssus natricis is (the hematophagous snake mite) is NOVEMBER 2023

Title

the most commonly found ectoparasite in captive snakes. It can cause lethargy and behavioural changes, including increased soaking and nose rubbing.

Snake mites can cause extreme itchiness and irritability in snakes often causing them to rub and push their faces and bodies against the tank, either due to a desperation to relieve the itch or because they are restless from the discomfort. It is vital that snake mites are ruled out before attempting to adjust behaviour because they can quickly spread to other reptiles in a captive setting, so the snake needs to be quarantined immediately, and everything inside the enclosure will either need to be disposed of or cleaned thoroughly.

Food refusal is another classic symptom of many health issues. One common health issue in snakes is a respiratory disease. In captive reptiles, respiratory disease is a common cause of mortality and morbidity. Often, inadequate environmental conditions result in an immunocompromised animal allowing easy access for viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic agents. A snake that is ill NOVEMBER 2023

with a respiratory disease will become lethargic and lose interest in food, usually because they are struggling to breathe, or even because the underlying cause of the respiratory illness i.e., poor husbandry, has them too stressed to eat anyway. Once again, it is vital that this be ruled out before attempting to adjust behaviour. A snake suffering with a respiratory problem will quickly deteriorate if the underlying cause is not addressed and, like snake mites, this can be passed from one reptile to another, so they must always be quarantined.

By not taking the time to assess whether medical factors are impacting the behaviour of your animal, you will, firstly, put the snake and other nearby animals at an increased risk, and secondly, you will not find any improvement by trying to change behaviour alone.

Conclusion

Using learning theory, environmental management, veterinary care and enrichment, behaviour can be adjusted or changed. Although food aggression

and vivarium defensiveness are usually normal behaviours, in a busy environment, such as a zoo or rescue centre, these need to be managed as much as the abnormal behaviours. A method called tap training is ideal for classical conditioning and complies with the Least Intrusive, Minimally Aversive (LIMA) principle which requires trainers and consultants to “increase the use of positive reinforcement and eliminate the use of punishment”.

Tap training is a method often utilised when working with captive snakes and uses snake hooks. Gently tapping or stroking the snake with the hook prior to handling can desensitise them to human interaction and make them far more manageable.

I believe that Reticulated Pythons are one of the most fascinating snakes kept in captivity, as well as being the most trainable, however, these animals are not for the faint of heart and require a great deal of dedication and respect. That being said, if you are lucky enough to keep one of these amazing animals, you are sure to find it a rewarding experience.

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Title

KEEPER BASICS:

MARINE AQUARIA

NOVEMBER 2023

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Marine Aquaria

M

arine aquariums can offer an exciting yet intimidating project for new hobbyists. They demand greater environmental control and require a myriad of equipment to maintain good-quality, temperature-stable, moving water. This, combined with the additional challenge of growing delicate corals and live rocks, means that marine aquaria are often presented as the crème-de-la-crème of fishkeeping. Aquarists devote their lives and careers to understanding the delicate nuances of marine life and only uncover a drop in the ocean. However, understanding the following basic principles will give beginner hobbyists the strongest start.

Salts and salinity

There are two ways of sourcing saltwater for your marine tank. Firstly, many aquatic shops will sell premixed salt water for around 25-30p a litre. This might be a straightforward immediate solution, but it is also the costliest. Another option is to buy a bucket of salt, of which there are many different brands and add this to R/O (reverse osmosis) water. R/O water has essentially been treated to turn tap water into 95-99% pure water. There are several ways to do this but a R/O filter can be an excellent investment. Even the

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average keeper, with just one fish tank, will consistently have to replenish their tank with both R/O and saltwater. For a keeper who has multiple fish tanks, a limitless supply of R/O water will be especially beneficial.

Another benefit of mixing your own saltwater is that the keeper has complete control of the salinity of the water.

Across the world, the ocean’s salinity varies (sometimes quite drastically). In open seas with a high water exchange, NOVEMBER 2023

the salinity is likely to be much lower than in enclosed seas, such as the famous dead sea. In tropical areas with lots of rainfall, such as the Philippines, the salinity is likely to be even lower.

Although most fish will be acclimatised to an average ambient salinity once they reach the shop, some species are extremely susceptible to salinity shock. Shrimps, for example, may die if they are introduced to a tank with different salinity. The more control that the keeper can have over the environmental parameters of the water, the more successful they are likely to be.

Some salts such as ‘Reef Crystals’ will also dissolve in less than 6 minutes. A kilogram of this salt should be enough for 30 litres of water. For most keepers, it is quicker to mix, test and add saltwater themselves than to visit their local shop and transport the water home.

NOVEMBER 2023

Heat and movement

Marine tanks require heating. This heat, much like the filtration system, is a life-support machine for all the aquarium's inhabitants. Although some species are hardier than others, slight fluctuations in this temperature can cause fish and corals to die relatively quickly. It is, therefore, a good idea to invest in two heaters. Having two 200watt heaters rather than one 400watt heater will provide backup should anything go wrong.

The best quality heaters are generally made of quartz instead of glass. They are much hardier and usually have better guarantees. If the keeper only has one heater and it goes wrong during the winter, or while the keeper is on holiday, it can spell doom for the entire tank. It is therefore advisable that regardless of the experience level of the keeper or the value of the fish, the keeper buys a good quality heater.

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Algae blenny (Salarias fasciatus)

Water clarity, filtration and skimmers

Most tanks have a ‘top tank’ and a sump - a hidden body of water containing fitration. This area might also have a skimmer, heater and reactor but it is essentially the mechanical aspect of the tank. If the sump is too small, it may run dry, and the tank will stop circulating.

Some open-top tanks can lose 10-20 litres of water a day through evaporation. Obviously the warmer it is, the more water will evaporate and even the movement of the water can speed up the evaporation process. In this scenario, if the keeper has a 50litre sump, they only have five days before the sump runs dry. This can be combatted by using an ‘Auto Top-Up’. These are external tanks, filled with R/O water, that will continue to top up the tank over time. Not only does this provide a bigger body of water to support the tank and the sump, but it also balances the salinity level.

As an aquarium loses water, it does not lose salt content, thus the salinity increases. So, the automatic addition of more freshwater ensures that the levels are kept constant.

Most experienced aquarists would say that an auto top-up is an essential aid in maintaining a successful marine tank.

should stabilise over time. Every aquarium will be slightly different so frequent testing is required to fully understand the process.

Detritus and algae build-up

Any living ecosystem will produce some amount of waste.

While the nitrogen cycle should break down the most harmful aspects, unsightly detritus and algae build-up is going to occur no matter how well-kept the aquarium is.

There are a few helpful tips to reduce this visible waste, beyond having an excellent high-capacity filter.

Firstly, be considerate when feeding frozen foods. Some keepers with multiple tanks will defrost several blocks of brineshrimp or mysis and leave the bag to get warm throughout the day. This process will naturally break down the food and lose the nutritional benefits of the food and add unnecessary detritus to the tank. A more efficient way would be to just drop the block straight into the water and allow the fish to pick at the freshly defrosted whole larvae/ shrimps/worms.

Even with an auto top-up, keepers should be doing regular saltwater changes. This is to replace the minor trace elements that can be found in all water. It would be impossible to add 0.00001ppm of most trace elements.

They exist in such small quantities that unless more water is added to the tank, they will be lost over time, especially if there are corals in the tank. These include strontium, iodine, molybdenum, etc. There are 82 trace elements in seawater.

Some do not exist in commercial bottles and will not show on a normal testing kit – such as boron, arsenic and even gold. Therefore, the addition of new salt water is the only way to replenish these naturally occurring trace elements.

Secondly, there are various fish which are excellent at cleaning up unwanted algae. Species such as the algae blenny (Salarias fasciatus) will feed ravenously on any algae build-up, even on the surface of the glass. They have a docile temperament and are readily available in most aquatic shops. Bicolor blennies (Ecsenius bicolor), Kole tangs (Ctenochaetus strigosus) and Chevron tangs (Ctenochaetus hawaiiensis) are also great at cleaning glass and rocks. Orange-spot gobies (Valenciennea puellaris) and blue-cheeked gobies (Valenciennea strigata) will also clean algae build-up from the substrate. They take sand in through their mouth and filter it through their gills.

Calcium, Magnesium and Alkalinity are also important aspects of maintaining a healthy tank and will support the growth of living rocks and corals. They are absorbed by the rocks (often very quickly at first) which will deplete the natural elements in the water. These should be replaced using Reef Evolution products or other quality buffers and

Thirdly, try to install a second wavemaker closer to the substrate, or position the wavemaker towards the substrate. Algae will build up and detritus will often fall to the floor of the aquarium and without any water movement to re-position it, both will settle (and it’s not always easy to rectify once the tank is established).

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NOVEMBER 2023

NOVEMBER 2023

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Nitrates and phosphates

Algae need nitrates and phosphates to grow. The Zooxanthellae and corals need these algae to feed on, so the keeper should aim to maintain a low level of nitrates and phosphates. Without some nitrates and phosphates in the tank, the coral will lose its colour. Most keepers would suggest nitrate levels of around 15-10ppm (parts per million), though anything up to 20ppm is still safe. Phosphate levels vary between keepers but less than 0.02ppm is the most common standard. Certain corals will demand slightly higher levels of nitrate and phosphate and each keeper is likely to run their aquarium slightly differently. For the beginner aquarist, keeping levels as low as possible (but not 0) will help prevent algae build-up and make it easier to achieve an allaround healthy tank. Keepers can also provide specific coral foods to ensure their corals are receiving plenty of nutrients, without the risk of increasing nitrate and phosphate levels.

There are products which help to reduce the amount of nitrate or phosphate in the water. A good-quality protein skimmer can do an excellent job of keeping these levels down. A protein skimmer works by bringing bubbles up towards the surface through a cone, collecting detritus along the way. The bubbles then break, and waste is collected in a basin that surrounds the cone. It is paramount that these are kept clean to allow the bubbles to break at exactly the right level to spit detritus out into the cup.

A good water change will also help to

temporarily fix high levels of nitrate and phosphate. The most important thing is that the keeper diagnoses the root of the problem as quickly as possible. Too higher nitrate levels are often due to overfeeding, overstocking, dirty filters, or decaying plant matter.

It is extremely important to test your water often. If, when establishing a tank, the keeper is doing weekly water changes and feeding the fish twice a day, testing should be happening every other day.

Nitrogen cycle

The nitrogen cycle was previously considered a complex aspect of marine fish keeping. It requires the keeper to prompt the growth of beneficial bacteria by gradually adding a small amount of detritus, or by adding (and feeding) a single fish to produce waste.

The small number of bacteria then turn this toxic ammonia into less toxic nitrite and then again into even less toxic nitrate which can be easily removed with a skimmer or water change. Of course, if an aquarium is fully stocked without enough bacteria to break down the ammonia, the fish will quickly succumb to illness. In the past, this was a delicate process and could take over a month before a suitable number of bacteria had built up to maintain the ammonia levels effectively. Nowadays, Dr Tim’s ‘One and Only’ provides all the necessary bacteria in a single bottle. Whilst new hobbyists should familiarise themselves with the nitrogen cycle, most aquarists will use the bottle formula for ease. Some living rock or

substrate should be added to help the bacteria multiply over time, but the quicker the bacteria is introduced to the water, the sooner the hobbyist can begin adding fish. These should be added gradually (perhaps a new addition each week).

Stocking the aquarium

There is a whole spectrum of options available when it comes to stocking the aquarium. It is the responsibility of the keeper to do thorough investigative research into every species that enters the tank – including rocks and corals.

Like all fishkeeping, not all marine animals will get along, nor thrive under the same conditions as the next.

One tip that may assist new marine keepers, is to avoid anemones. They are very susceptible to changing water quality, will often hide during the early days and if they do die and dissolve, can produce an awful smell that affects the entire tank. Furthermore, anemones produce stinging spores which are released into the water and can be extremely stressful to most fish species.

The same is true for some species of long-tentacled corals (LPS – meaning large-polyp stony).

New keepers should ascertain whether they hope to enter the hobby at an entry-level, by stocking hardier fish and softer corals or at an advanced level with hard corals such as acropora, millepora or macropora. Although things can change over time, the SPS (short-polyp stony) corals are much more expensive and will require better lighting.

Testing procedures: Nitrate and phosphate: Twice weekly (until they are stable), weekly thereafter.

Calcium, magnesium and alkalinity: Twice weekly (until stable), monthly thereafter.

Top tip: Feeding marine fish garlic is a great way to boost their immune system. It can be found in some existing products as well as live foods such as brine shrimp, but raw garlic is an excellent way to support fish health.

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Bioactive Enclosures

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Fascinating Fact

FASCINATING FACT Communal Nesting

S

ome species of geckos will actively engage in communal nesting and parenting behaviours. A great example of this is exhibited by Oudri's Fan-Footed Gecko (Ptyodactylus oudrii), a common North African desert lizard that lives in dense colonies.

In 2012, researchers Jose Matteo and Mariano Cuadrado studied these behaviours in a serious of experiments observing both wild and laboratory-raised lizards. Their results found that “in 32% of colonies, individuals of both sexes and all ages remained in close vicinity to clutches.

Females preferred oviposition sites where freshly laid eggs were present. Hatching rate significantly decreased when adult lizards were experimentally excluded from the oviposition site, and hatching success of solitary clutches was significantly lower than that of communal ones under laboratory conditions.”

This adaptation to harsh, dry, climates provides yet another interesting insight into the social dynamics of reptiles.

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