Snippets from around the world of science

T(riple) – rex?

What if Tyrannosaurus rex is actually 3 distinct “sibling species”? A recent, if controversial study lead by Gregory Paul hypothesised that the variations we see in T. rex skeletons discovered across the landmass of North America constitute T. rex , T. regina, and T. imperator species that look alike but do not interbreed.

Tyrannosaurus skeletons have been discovered from Mexico to Canada over a variety of climates, which makes it possible that specialised sub-species evolved into niches over time. The interpretation of the skeletal differences has been previously thought to be due to the age and lifestyle of these distinct dinosaurs. Critics highlight that the study uses public and private fossil collections as part of its conclusions, which makes the data harder to verify. The authors of this study nevertheless hold up their work as signifying the start of a re-examination of the Tyrannosaurus family tree.

Christian Donohue

Coffee climate trouble ahead

Climate change will significantly affect where in the world crops such as coffee can be grown, according to a recent study. Not only is coffee something we’ve learnt to depend on in the west, it also forms the livelihoods of many smallholder farmers around the globe. Scientists in Zurich, led by Dr Roman Grüter, have used computational models to predict future climate impacts on coffee, avocado, and cashew production. They found that coffee would be the worst affected by climate change with the best coffee growing areas decreasing 50% by 2050. Cashew and avocado production, meanwhile, might actually see some improvement. However, this will rely on farmers globally adapting with the information provided by computational models. The work being done by scientists such as Grüter allows the selection of crops and farming approaches to improve resilience to climate change. In the meantime, remember not to take your coffee for granted! Ellie Dempsey

De-extinction unlikely prospect, rat study shows

An investigation of the extinct Christmas Island rat has shown that de-extinction may be more difficult than previously thought. In a collaboration between the Universities of Shantou and Copenhagen, Jianqing Lin and colleagues resequenced the rat’s DNA over 60 times and mapped it to a known “reference genome”, but found that approximately 5% of the rat’s genome was missing. Many of the missing genes are thought to play vital roles in the rat’s immune system and sense of smell, and it is often these small changes that are important for differentiating between closely-related species such as the (non-extinct) Norway brown rat that was used as a reference. The Christmas Island rat is a recent extinction with easily obtained genetic material. If de-extinction is potentially impossible for the rat, then this casts doubt onto more ambitious de-extinction projects that are currently in progress, such as the woolly mammoth or sabretooth tiger.

Jacob Smith

Can we be taught to be happy?

Scientists at the University of Bristol have shown that their Science of Happiness course was effective at protecting students’ wellbeing when taught remotely during the Covid-19 pandemic. The course included two hours of online sessions weekly for 11 weeks and fulfillment of a journal with prompts relating to gratitude and optimism. The wellbeing of the students’ levels of happiness and anxiety were self-reported before, during, and after the study. This course had already been shown to increase student wellbeing when taught in person. However, this study shows that this positive effect occurs even when the courses are taught completely online. This study was especially interesting because it took place during the pandemic when the control group reported decreased wellbeing. The students who took part in these lessons appear to be protected from these negative effects of the pandemic to their wellbeing.

Louisa Drake

Image credit: NASA

Hubble sets record for most distant star

The Hubble Space Telescope has broken its own record of observing the most distant star ever seen. Named Earendel or “morning star”, its light took 12.9 billion years to reach us – about 94% of the age of the Universe. In a study led by Brian Welch of Johns Hopkins University and published in Nature, the distant star was imaged by employing gravitational lensing. This phenomenon arises when an object is so massive it bends space and thus the path of light, magnifying objects that lie behind it. The alignment was just right for Earendel, which was strongly magnified by a galaxy cluster. Studying the details of Earendel’s evolution and composition is sure to provide astronomers with valuable insights into the beginnings of the Universe. Mr Welch’s team has already secured observation time on the newly launched James Webb Space Telescope, due to start operating in summer 2022.

Tanja Holc

Escaping Magpies

A group of Australian scientists developed a new wireless bird tracker and tracking harness, specifically designed to be difficult to take off. But when they tried their new trackers on some magpies, things did not go as planned. Immediately, one magpie began helping another to get rid of their tracker, and within hours, the magpies had removed most of the trackers off each other. While the researchers could not tell whether one particularly intelligent magpie was breaking everyone free or whether they shared duties, their willingness to help each other and accept help shows once again how smart magpies are!

Sentient Octopuses

A Spanish seafood company announced plans to open the first commercial octopus farm in 2023 – only three months after researchers concluded that octopuses were sentient. Their review defined that a sentient being should be capable of experiencing both happiness and distress. Another criterion is that the animals are able to learn and associate different things together, for example seeking out relief when in pain. But many animal protection laws don’t currently include octopuses, so the Spanish octopus farm is set to go ahead.

Self-conscious rats

Do you remember that feeling in an exam when you know you’re way behind time? Rats might do too. Researchers recently tested whether rats could be aware of their own mistakes in a simple task. First, the rats were trained to press a lever for exactly 3.2 seconds. In a second stage, they were fed from one of two feeders, depending on whether they pressed a lever for the correct time or not. After a while, the rats were able to predict whether they would get fed from the 3.2-secondsfeeder or from the feeder of mistakes. The researchers were stunned – their rats were able to tell if they had made a mistake in their task. Knowledge like this can help us address our own mistakes, for example figuring out how our own self-reflection and time-keeping skills developed.

“Escaping Magpies”, “Sentient Octopuses”, and “Self-conscious Rats” written and illustrated by Marie-Louise Wohrle

There is time to save the seas from our thoughtless extractivism

Lara Watson investigates how our continual reliance on mining for mineral resources could have a devastating impact on the environment and what we can and should do to help prevent further deep-sea mining.

Your smartphone, as well as renewable energy from wind turbines and solar panels, relies on minerals like cobalt, nickel, and lithium. As the world gobbles up these resources ever faster, mining companies are looking to the deep sea for a quick solution to depleting terrestrial resources. In September 2021, the European Commission announced plans to step up deep-sea mining extraction, despite an overwhelming vote by governments in favour of a moratorium on the operations. This destructive operation is unnecessary and must be stopped before it spells yet another environmental disaster. Sediment plumes are one the biggest risks to marine life: these plumes would be created by the dredging of the sea floor in mining, and their resettling can cause dramatic changes in local ecosystems. “The severity and spatial scales of plumes remains a controversial issue, with environmentalists fearing plumes could travel hundreds of kilometres and mining companies anticipating the impact to extend no further than 10 km from the mining site,” states a document written by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. No extensive studies on the potential ecological damage have been conducted yet. That means that there could be completely unprecedented damage to deep-sea ecosystems, potentially ridding the planet of rare species. One such species – the scaly foot snail, found on vent sites along the Indian Ocean ridges – was recently classified as endangered because of the threat of seabed mining in the area. As someone hoping to go into a career in marine biology, I cannot face the idea of species being lost before I get a chance to study them or even know of their existence, but I have full faith that there is still time to save them. So, what can be done to prevent deep-sea mining from becoming a greater reality? One thing is to invest in battery innovation. “Battery technology has advanced rapidly. Investment in innovation means that the next generation of longer-lived batteries that reuse metals – or do not use deep-sea minerals at all – are already entering the market,” writes a member of the Deep Sea Conservation Coalition. With newer, less environmentally invasive technologies already on the market, why do we need to resort to older, more environmentally destructive methods? The high costs of deep sea mining should also be diverted towards recycling. Reclaiming one tonne of lithium from recycled lithium sources costs approximately $28,000. According to estimates from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, just setting up a deep-sea mine can cost over $1bn. Think about how much recycled lithium could be recovered with that! We also need more wide-scale electronic recycling programs in communities. Being able to retrieve these minerals before they go to waste sites or landfills will reduce the need to mine. With websites such as recycleyourelectricals.org.uk you can find your local drop-off point. The facilities are already here and accessible – all it needs is a little promotion. Repurposing and reusing your old electronics is without a doubt the easiest way to make a personal difference. Every house has that drawer filled with old phones, expired currency, and old takeaway menus. If everyone contributed to the recycling system by sending in their old electronic waste, there would be greater amounts in circulation to recycle. The European Union has created regulations to reduce the amounts of minerals in new batteries from 2030. Lawmakers need to do their part to stop deep-sea mining from being undertaken on large, ecologically destructive scales. A moratorium on deep-sea mining needs to be in place, at least until there are clearer environmental impacts. The European Commission plans announced in September are a roadblock to this. With most governments overwhelmingly in favour of delaying or stopping deepsea mining on all scales, the enthusiasm is clearly present. The biggest challenge will be convincing world leaders of the financial positives to investing in, instead of ruining, undiscovered and unique ecosystems.

Lara Watson (she/her) is a fourth-year history student. (On all social media: @lara_bethan)