1.2 International Exhibitions

inscriptions.78

The notion that the museum was primarily for the general visitor’s benefit remained an alien concept for quite some time as few collections were accessible to the wider public. The rare and exceptional objects in the cabinet of curiosities of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries validated the collector and reinforced his dominion over nature and his fellow man. As Bennett has identified, their design and content reflected their role as a storehouse of a knowledge that was rare and exclusive, intelligible only to those with the time, inclination and cultural training to be able to decipher the relationship in which each object stands to the whole.79

Most modern public museums contain a nucleus of objects from the cabinets of curiosities. In 1584 the collection of Francesco I de’ Medici was transferred into the new and more public context of the newly opened Uffizi Gallery in Florence. Rare and precious objects once destined for the private contemplation of the prince alone were now on view to all. The dispersal of these collections and their reconstitution in public museums placed objects in less enclosed spaces and enabled wider access. From being museums of everything and for the limited few, museums were becoming accessible to a larger section of the public.

1.2 International Exhibitions

The design museum also derived its impetus from a series of exhibitions of culture and industry that became popular in the nineteenth century. The public display of objects deemed to be examples of ‘good taste’ has its origins in nineteenth century commercial trade fairs. Between 1880 and 1920 expositions became a regular feature of the European and American social landscape. Like museums, they professed an explicitly educational function; their exhibits followed a similar hierarchy of classification, their

78

Karsten Schubert, The Curator’s Egg: The Evolution of the Museum Concept from the French Revolution to the Present Day, London: One-Off Press, 2000: 17.

79

Tony Bennett, The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics, London: Routledge, 1995: 40.

buildings reflected the neoclassical styles of museum architecture and the objects they displayed represented the best in quality. Unlike museums, the expositions made no effort to mask their entertainment function, the sheer novelty and technical wizardry of their exhibits boldly mixed pleasure with serious instruction and visitors flocked to them.

A series of international exhibitions, or world’s fairs, were devoted largely to the display of industrial objects, machinery and processes. Each country celebrated its industrial strength by displaying alongside other industrial nations products and scientific and technological achievements that were seen to be material signifiers of progress. The exhibitions also demonstrated an ability to attract and entertain a mass urban public on a large scale. Fifteen million visitors attended the Paris exposition of 1887. The Eiffel Tower was built for the exposition of 1889 and represented an astonishing achievement of modern design and engineering.

Scholarship on international exhibitions and world’s fairs comprises a rich and varied field of research which has focused on their social and cultural significance.80 Exhibitions stimulated the development of public museums, often supplying them with their buildings and initial collections. The Great Exhibition of 1851 provided the impetus for the development of London’s South Kensington Museum complex and set an example that was repeated elsewhere. Chicago’s great public museums emerged from the World’s Columbian Exposition in 1893. The exhibitions encouraged new ways of looking at the world and also created new forms of consumption.

In this respect the design museum connects to the new spaces of modernity that developed during the nineteenth century. They are many and varied and include shopping arcades, railway stations, conservatories, market halls and department stores. As Tim Barringer has noted:-

80

Scholarship includes; David Raizman and Ethan Robey (eds.), Expanding Nationalisms at World's Fairs: Identity, Diversity, and Exchange, 1851-1915, London: Routledge, 2017; Robert W. Rydell, World of Fairs: The Century-of-Progress Expositions, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1993; Robert W. Rydell, All the World's a Fair: Visions of Empire at American International Expositions, 1876-1916, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1987.

“The museum was redolent of the modernity of international exhibitions, the department store, liberal economics, technical design education and utilitarian reform ideology [as well as] the more traditional curatorial and aesthetic motivations.”81

A number of characteristics set the international exhibition and modern fair apart as a distinctive grouping. Paul Greenhalgh, Director of the Sainsbury Centre for Visual Arts and Professor of Art and Museum Studies at the University of East Anglia, Norwich, has described them as part of a “serial exhibition phenomenon” which were to have an impact on the future structure and policies of museums including the design museum. The exclusive emphasis on commercial and industrial subjects marked a decisive step away from the notion of the exhibition as a mass entertainment event and towards that of specialist educator and informant. They established an educational pattern; objects were displayed, people explained and worked them and the masses thronged to listen.82

Greenhalgh has shown how the activities of the contemporary museum can be compared to policies formulated by the creators of the international exhibitions who needed to win sponsorship and fill the site with people, which they did through policies such as introducing different days for different classes of visitors regulated by varying prices of admission.83 Each of the exhibitions was involved in the practice of ‘showing and telling’, exhibiting industrial processes and goods to the public and promoting the themes of modernity and progress. They were also institutions that were open to all sections of the population and which pioneered ways to regulate the conduct of their visitors.

The Great Exhibition of 1851 brought together a range of disciplines and techniques of display that had been developed within earlier exhibiting

81

Tim Barringer, ‘Victorian Culture and the Museum: Before and After the White Cube’, Journal of Victorian Culture, Volume 11, 2006: 133-145.

82

Paul Greenhalgh, ‘Education, Entertainment and Politics: Lessons from the Great International Exhibitions’, in Peter Vergo (ed.), The New Museology, London: Reaktion Books, 1989: 76.

Ibid.: 86.

83

platforms. In his study of the development of the Mechanics’ Institute Movement in Britain, Martyn Walker explains that The Great Exhibition of 1851 had its antecedents in the modest provincial exhibitions organised by the Mechanics’ Institutes some twenty years earlier.84 An important way of publicising technical developments was through exhibitions held at Mechanics' Institutes from the late 1830s throughout the UK. The exhibitions were devoted largely to the display of industrial objects and processes and were intended to educate the public about new technical developments. The first large exhibition was held at the Lancashire and Cheshire Union Manchester Mechanics’ Institute in 1837. Exhibits included model steam engines, models of useful machines and ingenious mechanical contrivances, models of public buildings, scientific instruments, coloured designs and drawings, specimens of painted and stained glass and insects. The regional exhibitions attracted tens of thousand of visitors and in 1849 the Birmingham Mechanics’ Institute opened its exhibition to foreign competitors.

On 1 May 1851 The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations was opened by Queen Victoria. Housed in a temporary glass and steel structure constructed for the occasion in Hyde Park, the exhibition ran until 15 October 1851 and attracted over six million visitors. Contemporary accounts reveal that the event was considered to be an historic national achievement, not least for the sheer scale of the enterprise, the inclusion of every type and process of manufacture then known, the successful appeal to all classes of the population, the stimulation of trade and the educational benefit to the country and when the show was over, a solid profit of £186,000. Henry Cole later wrote:-

84

Martyn Walker, The Development of the Mechanics’ Institute Movement in Britain and Beyond: Supporting further education for the adult working classes, London: Routledge, 2017.

“The history of the world I venture to say records no event comparable in its promotion of human industry, with that of the Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of all Nations in 1851. A great people invited all civilised nations to a festival to bring into comparison the works of human skill.”85

Fig. 8: Interior view of The Great Exhibition, Crystal Palace, London 1851.

A principal characteristic of The Great Exhibition, and one which has resonance for the development of the design museum, consisted of its arrangement of displays of manufacturing processes and products which were intended to raise the profile of new inventions and patents. It was an attempt to display the fruits of Britain’s industrial revolution, its empire and its wealth, while also showcasing the manufactured goods produced by the rest of the world. The eastern half of the Crystal Palace was allocated to foreign countries and the western to Britain and the Empire. The space was divided into national sub-divisions and exhibits within them were divided according to the classifications of Raw Materials; Machinery; Manufactures: Textiles, Fabrics; Manufactures: Metallic, Vitreous and

85

Henry Cole as quoted in Victoria & Albert Museum, The Great Exhibition of 1851: A Commemorative Album, London: His Majesty’s Stationary Office, 1950: 5.

Ceramic; Miscellaneous and Fine Arts.

Following the success of The Great Exhibition, Britain used its exhibition tradition to explore new ways to develop its economy. This is most visibly demonstrated when in 1887 the organisers of the new Earls Court complex took the decision to stage a series of international exhibitions focused on promoting the products of specific countries. The Indian and Colonial (1886), American (1887), Italian (1888), French (1890) and German (1891) exhibitions were unique in this regard. Each had the same categories including agriculture, mining and metallurgy, machinery, education and science and fine arts. They also had extensive committee structures, juries, prizes, thousands of private and public exhibitors and commanded audiences of at least two million.86

The exhibitions shared a number of commonalities; temporary facilities built on a sprawling site, products organised into national courts or display areas which subsequently developed into separate pavilions for each participating country, at least a third of the space given up to foreign products, a wide range of categories of product and a very vocal government participation all designed to promote a rhetoric of progress.

The European and American exhibition tradition unfolded alongside the British in the second half of the nineteenth century. The Exposition or ‘Expo’87 and the Worlds Fair were concerned with national identity but also

86

Paul Greenhalgh, ‘Education, Entertainment and Politics: Lessons from the Great International Exhibitions’ in Peter Vergo (ed.), The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics, London: Routledge, 1995: 77.

87

In 1931 the Bureau International des Expositions (BIE) was set up to provide a common organisational framework for the many Expos that had emerged as early as 1867. The BIE defines an Expo as a global event that aims at educating the public, sharing innovation, promoting progress and fostering co-operation. It is organised by a host country that invites other countries, companies, international organisations, the private sector, the civil society and the general public to participate. They are characterised by a diversity of participants, from top decision makers to children and provide the setting for exhibitions, diplomatic and business meetings, public debates and live shows. Available at: https://www.bie-paris.org/site/en/about-the-bie/our-history (Accessed 20.10.17).

with mass entertainment and spectacle. Impressive buildings, gardens, towers, every type of modern technological wonder, large fine and decorative art shows, machine halls and pavilions, restaurants and cafes. The success of these events can be expressed in the numbers of visitors which were substantial. The Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889 was even larger than The Great Exhibition of 1851, attracting twenty-eight million visitors. Over twenty-seven million people attended the World’s Columbian Exposition, Chicago in 1893; Chicago’s Century of Progress Exposition in 1933 attracted almost 49 million people. In Britain, over twenty-seven million people attended the Empire Exhibition in Wembley in 1924 and twelve million people visited the Glasgow Empire Exhibition of 1938.88

Fig. 9: The Paris Exposition Universelle of 1889.

The underlying rhetoric of the international exhibition form was one of industrial and political progress. The earlier exhibitions from 1851 through

88

John MacKenzie, ’Propaganda and Empire - The Manipulation of British Public Opinion, 1880-1960’, Manchester University Press, 1984: 101.

to the middle of the twentieth century were strongly influenced by the industrial revolution and the colonial ambitions of the time. At the Great Exhibition of 1851 the value of an object, whether as raw material, instrument of production or finished product, whether from Britain, India, France or America, were displayed as representative of a stage within an evolutionary process. Pavilions were constructed in which countries could showcase their material progress and trade pre-eminence based on technological innovation. The exhibitions were seen to represent progress and provided an opportunity for cultural and commercial exchange. Philosopher and cultural critic, Walter Benjamin has described world exhibitions as “places of pilgrimage to the commodity fetish”.89 In his view, a defining characteristic was a glorification of the exchange value of the commodity. They constructed a universe of a new and exclusive category of goods which he described as the “spécialité”. The exhibitions directly pointed towards the future, unlike the content of the eighteenth century cabinet of curiosities which was very firmly rooted in the past.

The policies behind the first design museums can be seen to share similarities with the key characteristics of the international exhibition. They served a role in educating the public, sharing innovation, promoted progress and enabled dialogue and shared experience. They were a unique way to reach out to a broad audience and a place where influencers, experts, politicians and the general public came together. For the organisers, the international exhibition was an important promotional tool for nation branding with its ability to attract world leaders and decision makers as well as millions of visitors. For the visiting public, the exhibition was an experience that combined education and entertainment and offered a wide variety of exhibitions showcasing innovative products and groundbreaking technologies, activities and shows. Participants are given an exhibition space or the opportunity to build a pavilion (exhibition space). In these designed spaces they are able

89

Walter Benjamin, The Arcades Project, Translated by Howard Eiland and Kevin McLaughlin, Cambridge Massachusetts and London, England: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1999: 17. The full text of Benjamin's unfinished work, written between 1927 and 1940, was first published by Harvard University Press in 1999.

to showcase their achievements, experience, products, innovations and ideas in relation to a specific theme and present to an international audience (displaying industrial objects). During the exhibition conferences, workshops, debates as well as diplomatic and professional meetings are organised and take place providing a platform for the exchange of ideas (education) and the establishment of new partnerships (sponsorship). The exhibitions were also popular for their exuberance and their entertainment value. Greenhalgh has observed that as an exemplar, the international exhibition “did show that it was possible to have high and popular culture in close proximity, and even that the one was capable of becoming the other.”90 The exhibitions fused elements of high cultural standing such as the fine and decorative arts, displays of science and technology, anthropology and geography with trade fair stands and an amusement park. The exhibitions introduced entertainment zones. Rides such as the ‘Wiggle-woggle', ‘Flip-flap’ and ‘Witching-waves’ were apparently popular amusement attractions.91 The exhibition hall quickly became an essential part of the modern city, as a form that was put to work in a range of different contexts, from the convention centre to the department store. As Deyan Sudjic, Director of the Design Museum, London, has noted, “the expo itself evolved into a curious mixture of nationalism, utopian futures and fairground entertainment.”92

In later years the international exhibition did much to open up the discussion of design to an expanded international audience and helped to map, label and define the unfamiliar territories of design, style and taste during a period of intense interest in such topics. In 1923 the first International Exhibition of Decorative Arts was held in Monza, Italy. It moved to Milan in 1933 and became the Triennale di Milano, an exhibition held every three years, to promote an international dialogue about design.

90

Paul Greenhalgh, ‘Education, Entertainment and Politics: Lessons from the Great International Exhibitions’ in Peter Vergo (ed.), The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics, London: Routledge, 1995: 98.

91 Ibid.: 85.

92 Deyan Sudjic, B is for Bauhaus, London: Penguin Books, 2014: 173.

Staged at the Palazzo dell’Arte, it hosted exhibitions and events showcasing the very latest examples of contemporary design. The first three editions were primarily dedicated to graphic arts, ceramics and to decorative arts in general, while the fourth edition, the “International Exhibition of Modern Decorative and Industrial Arts” focused on architecture.93 In his autobiography Terence Conran, founder of London’s Design Museum, cites the Triennale exhibitions in Milan during the 1950s as a crucially important platform where he was able to see at first hand the best of contemporary Italian and international design, at a time when Italian designers were dominant.94

The establishment of the V&A, London marked a significant turning point in the development of British museum policy and a shift in the state’s attitude towards museums. The V&A emerged from the profits generated by The Great Exhibition of 1851. Initially known as the Museum of Manufactures, it opened in May 1852 at Marlborough House with a nucleus of objects covering applied arts and science purchased from The Great Exhibition. In September 1852 the collection transferred to Somerset House. By February 1854 discussions were underway to transfer the museum to its current site and in 1857, it opened as the South Kensington Museum.95 It clearly enunciated the principles of the modern museum conceived as an instrument of public education and an exhibition of good taste, from which both taste and technique could be learnt. Henry Cole, the first director of the museum and an ardent advocate of the role museums should play in the formation of a rational public culture, wrote:-

93

La Triennale de Milano website. Available at: http://www.triennale.org/en/chi-siamo/ storia-e-mission/ (Accessed 25.04.17).

94 Terence Conran, My Life in Design, Conran Octopus, 2016.

95

Anthony Burton, Anthony, Vision & Accident: The Story of the Victoria and Albert Museum: London, V&A Publications, 1999.